Biodiversity Inventory of Omo Biosphere Reserve

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GEBR PROJECT REPORT

BIODIVERSITY INVENTORY OF OMO BIOSPHERE RESERVE

SUBMITTED

NIGERIA NATIONAL MAB COMMITTEE

EDITED BY B.A. OLA-ADAMS

APRIL 2014

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

1.0 Description of the Omo Biosphere Reserve 2

1.1 Location, Geology and Climate 2

1.2 The Biological Resources of the Reserve 2

2.0 Limitation of the Study 11

3.0 Plants Biodiversity Inventory 15

3.1 Methodology for Flora Data Collection 15

3.2 Structure of the Forest 15

3.3 Floristic Characteristics of Omo Biosphere Reserve 16

3.3.1 Species Richness 16

3.3.2 Family Composition 18

3.3.3 Diversity Indices 19

3.3.4 Similarity Indices 19

3.3 .5 Size Class Distribution among Trees and Shrubs 19

4.0 Mammalian Fauna and Avifauna Diversity 28

4.1 Introduction 29

4.2 Methodology 29

4.2.1 Bird Survey 29

4.2.2 Mammalian Survey 29

4.3 Results 29

4.3.1 Hunting Evidences 30

4.4 Limitations and Recommendations 30

5.0 Insect Fauna of Omo Biosphere 47

5.1 Introduction 48 2

5.2 Methodology 48

5.3 Results and Discussion: 48

5.4 References 57

FIGURES

Figure 1: Map of Nigeria showing location of Omo Biosphere 9

Figure 2: Map of Omo Biosphere Reserve 10

Figure 3: No of Plant Spices 17

Figure 4: No of Spices in families of Tree spices in Omo Biosphere 17

Figure 5: No of Spicies in families of 18

Figure 6: Tree Omo Biosphere size plants (cm) Distribution 20

Figure 7: Diversity indices 21

TABLES

Table 1: Summary of Species Richness in Omo Biosphere Reserve

Table 2: Flora Characteristics

Table 3: Similarity Indices

Table 4: Current Bird List and Their Status in Omo Biosphere Reserve

Table 5: Current Mammal List and Their Status in Omo Forest Reserve

Table 6: Matrix of Observational Means for Mammal Species in Omo Forest Reserve

Table 7: Insect Species from light trap in Omo Biosphere

Table 8: Checklist of Miicroarthropods in the Study Area

PLATES

PLATES A Make-Shift Bridges 12

PLATES B Make-Shift Bridges 13

PLATES C Slippery Road 14

PLATES D Slippery Road 14

PLATES E Use of motorcycle 14

PLATES F An empty gun catridge 31

PLATES G An illegal hunter with a murdered Mona monkey (Cercopithecus mona) 31

PLATES H Illegal hunters camp at sojukorodo axis of J1 31

PLATES I Dwarf mongoose (Herpestes pulverulenta) been trapped with wire mesh at J4 31

PLATES J Fresh antelope dung 32

PLATES K Forest elephant (Loxodonta Africana cyclotis) play ground observed in J1 33

PLATES L Observing elephant dung in J1 33

PLATES M Timber lorry hauling out illegal forest wood in J3 34

PLATES N Field officer Clifford penning sample record 34

PLATES O Clifford and hunter Francis from J4 identifying animals using West Africa Large

Mammal guard 35

PLATES P Termite Mound in Etemi SNR 49

PLATES Q Termite Mound in Etemi SNR 49

PLATES R Termite Mound in Etemi SNR 50

PLATES S Termite Mound in Etemi SNR 50

PLATES T Mounds of macro Termite Molding in Etemi SNR 50

PLATES U Log Attacked by Ambrosia bettle 51

PLATES V Gruds extracted from wood at Temitami 51

PLATES W Gruds extracted from wood at Erin Camp 51

PLATES X Woody Aphids on Sterculia spp 51

PLATES Y Woody Aphids on a plant 51

PLATES Z Eriophid gall mite attack 52

PLATES Za Attack by leaf minners 52

PLATES Zb Woody Rhids on streculia spp

PLATES Zc Woody Rhids on streculia spp

PLATES Zd Epidphid call mite attack

PLATES Ze Attack by Leave Mines

APPENDIX

Appendix 1: Plants species in Omo Biosphere Reserve

Appendix 2: Distribution of Families in Omo Biosphere Reserve

INTRODUCTION 1.0 DESCRIPTION OF THE OMO BIOSPHERE RESERVE 1.1 LOCATION, GEOLOGY AND CLIMATE Omo Biosphere Reserve, which derives its name from River Omo that traverses it, is located north of Sunmoge, between latitudes 6o 35’ to 7o 05’ N and 4o 19’ to 4o 40’ E in the Ijebu area of Ogun State in southwestern Nigeria. The Reserve was constituted in 1925 as part of a bigger Shasha Forest Reserve. Shasha was later split into Omo, Oluwa and Shasha Forest Reserves, the last two lying to the east and north- east of the present Omo. To the north and north-west of the Reserve are Ife and Ago-Owu, and Oshun Forest Reserves, respectively. Omo covers about 130 500 hectares, which includes a 460 ha Strict Nature Reserve (Okali and Ola-Adams 1987), plus about 6 500 ha of enclaves and cut out areas with a total of about 20,000 inhabitants (Dike 1992); is roughly triangular in shape, and tapers southwards with its southernmost tip about 20 km from the Atlantic coast. River Oni forms its eastern boundary while the western boundary at the southern tip is, for about the first 50 km, formed by River Omo (formerly River Shasha) before the Reserve broadens out such that River Omo is centrally located for the rest of the length of the Reserve (Fig. 1).

Geologically the Reserve lies on crystalline rocks of the undifferentiated basement complex which in the southern parts is overlain by Eocene deposits of sand, clay and gravel. The terrain is undulating and the maximum elevation of 150 m above sea level is towards the west while the lowest parts of the Reserve are in the south where the River Omo joins River Oni before flowing into the Lekki Peninsular on the Atlantic coast. The Lagos-Ore-Benin Highway passes through the southern tip of the Reserve. The mean annual rainfall ranges from about 1600 to 2000 mm with two annual peaks in June and September, with November and February being the driest months.

1.2 THE BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES OF THE RESERVE The Reserve is in the mixed moist, semi-evergreen rainforest zone, in the Congolian sub-unit of the Guinea- Congolian Centre of Endemism or Phytochorion (White 1983, Mackinnon and Mackinnon 1986). The Guinea-Congolian zone is extremely rich in species and has very high levels of endemism. The area is the richest in Africa for butterflies, a high proportion of which species are endemic, highest in richness of bird species and richest in mammal diversity (Mackinnon and Mackinnon 1986). Sanford (1969) observed 24 orchid species 12 of which are characteristic of wet forest sites while 3 are exclusive to Omo in his study of orchid species in 31 sites in Nigeria.

The northern part of Omo Biosphere Reserve is, considering the north-south length, relatively dry forest. Hall (1977) has concluded that much of the variation in forest species composition was associated with soil differences and that a primary division of the Nigerian high forest should be made according to the underlying soil type-Ferrallitic or Ferruginous Tropical Soil. Forests on Ferruginous Tropical soil could, according to him, be usefully divided based on rainfall, but allowance for other factors was needed. Forests on Ferrallitic soil, on the other hand could be divided on a geographical basis which mainly reflect factors other than rainfall. Hall’s ordination of Nigerian high forests based on pre-exploitation species composition put Omo sample plots in the wet sub-group of the ferruginous tropical soil group.

Five hundred and four plant species were encountered during the biodiversity inventory (BRAAF 1999). Of the 504 species, 245 species were trees, 71 shrubs, 118 herbs, 50 climbers and 20 climbing shrubs and Iianas. 29 species of orchids, 28 species of Pteridophytes, 27 species of Bryophytes, 17 species of fungi (mushroom) and 3 species of lichens were inventoried during the biodiversity survey.

Forty-four trees and shrubs are restricted to the core zone and eleven trees and shrubs are restricted to the buffer zone of the biosphere reserve. Out of the 279 species of ground flora recorded at all sampling sites, 84 and 25 species are restricted to the core and buffer zones respectively. The families with abundant individuals within the reserve include Compositae, Poaceae, Violaceae, Rubiaceae, Lilliaceae Araceae, Ebeneceae and Papilionoideae. The most common tree species include Diospyros spp., Strombosia pustulata, Rinorea dentata Voacanga africana and Drypetes spp.

The estimated basal area and standing wood volume at Omo Forest Reserve were 28.97 m2 and 16.8 m2 per hectare, respectively. The estimated mean annual increment in the reserve is 5.113 ± 0.4551 m3/ha/yr.

Timber exploitation, establishment of monoculture stands of tree crops, clearance for cultivation and gap formation, created by wind throw (36.7%), snapping (35.3%), branch fall (21.4%) and standing dead trees (6.6%), within the reserve have seriously altered the forest structure, species composition and the habitat. No less than 35,775 logs of sixty five tree species are removed annually from Omo Forest Reserve (NFEWSG, 1994). Some of the trees harvested include Khaya ivorensis, Cordia millenii, Sterculia sp., Nauclea diderrichii, Mansonia altissima, Terminalia sp., Celtis sp., Brachystegia sp., Alstonia congensis and Milicia excelsa.

As at 1995, over 26,000 hectares had been cleared and planted up with mainly Gmelina arborea (22,562 ha), Pines (31.5 ha) and indigenous species (1310.5 ha). Plantations of cola and cacao species are also 8 established around the enclaves. Small patches of forest are also cleared annually for the cultivation of cash crops and arables. Results of enrichment line plantings have shown that only certain light demanding species are capable of satisfactory growth as line plants. Such plants include Triplochiton scleroxylon, Terminalia ivorensis and perhaps Tectona grandis. Although, Khaya ivorensis has shown a consistent growth, the Meliaceae (except Cedrela) are unsuitable for line planting owing to their slow growth and susceptibility to shoot-borer attack.

The core of the biosphere reserve has remained inviolate since tts establishment. The buffer has also remained relatively undisturbed. However, there has been large-scale disturbance within the transition zone.

Forty-two mammals, 15 reptiles and 3 other species can be found in the reserve. There are 110 Avian species in 38 families. The Accipitidae, Columbidae and Esterildidae contained more than 20% of all the species in the reserve. The Blue Headed Wood Dove is most abundant in the core while the Green Frutt Pigeon is most abundant in the taungya farms. Some of the wildlife species in the reserve include Loxodonta cyclotis (Forest Elephant), Carcopithecus albogularis (White throated monkey), Potamochoerus porcus (Red-river hog), Cephlopus spp. (Duicker), Genetta genetta (Small spotted genet cat), Viverra civetta (Civet cat), Atherurus africanus (Brush-tailed porcupine), Manis spp. (Pangolin), Vananus niloticus (Monitor lizard), Python regius (Rock python) and Sus scrofa (Boar).

Some of the avian species include Macheirhampus alcinus (Bat Hawk), Haceyon senegalensis (Senegal King- fisher), Apus apus (or Micropus apus) (European Swift), Adea cinera (Grey Heron), Tripicranus albocristatus cassini (whtte-crested Hornbill), Smithomis capensis (Black-capped Broadbill), Actophilomis africana (Lily- trotter), Pitta angolensis (Angola Pitta) , Psittacus erithacus (Grey Parrot), Pterocles exustus (Chestnut- bellied Sandgroose) and Lamprotamis spendidus (Pendid Glossy Starling).

Sixty-four fish species have been recorded in the water bodies in the reserve including Alestes macrolepidotus, Labea eoubie, Tilapia melanopleura, T.zillii, Sarotherodon galilaeus and Heterotis niloticus.

The results of day surveys (BRAAF 1999) show that of the 43 insect species listed, the largest number was observed in two main orders, the Hepidoptera and Hemiptera, wtth each recording 14 species. The list of 42 nocturnal insect species from the mercury light trap catches showed a preponderance of lepidopterans, hemipterans, homopterans, heteropterans and celeopterans.

Inventory of soil micro-organism diversity has revealed the presence and relative distribution of a wide array of aerobic/facultative bacteria and fungi. The bacterial densities of all the soil samples were in the 3 order of 10 cfu/8. The compositional diversity of the bacteria and fungi in the soils of the reserve vary appreciably. In all, twenty bacteria species were isolated ranging from Gram positive bacteria such as Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus spp. to Gram variable such as Corynabacterium xerosis. The core (SNR) yielded the highest number of bacteria (17) and fungi (13) species and this is probably because it is the least disturbed area of the reserve. The highly dominant genera of soil microarthropods are Pilizetes, Oppia and Haplozetes. The number of nematodes per sample and the total number of genera found in the reserve were surprisingly few. Meloidogyne larvae, Helicotylenchus dihystera, Hoplolaimus galeatus, Autylenchus sp., Macroposthonea sp., Rotylenchus sp. and Xiphienma setarkae were found in the biosphere reserve.

Some lower plants are also found only in the core of biosphere reserve. These include mushrooms (fungi) such as Boletus edulis, Clitocybe infundibuliformis, Cookenia sp., Cortinarius violaceus and Stereophyllum radiculosum and Pteridophytes such as Cyclosorus quadrangularis, Platycerum alcicome, Pteridium aquilinum and Tectaria angelicifolia. The Bryophytes restricted to the core of the biosphere reserve and buffer zone include Fissidens calabariae, F. glauculus, Calymperes rabenhorstii, Legeunea sp and Mastigolejeunea sp.

The orchid species found in the reserve include Ancistorhynchus sp, Angraecum sp., Bulbophyllum sp., Calyptrochilum sp., Polystachya sp., Rangaeris sp., Bolusiella iridifolia, Diaphananthe rutila, Graphorkis lurida, Solenangis scandens and Tridactyle anthomaniaca.

Timber Resources Forests are primarily exploited, especially since colonial times, for export timber. Redhead (1971) has grouped timber yielding forests into four and Omo is placed, along with Akure-Ofosu, Idanre, Ijebu-Ife, Onishere, Oluwa and Otu,all in southwestern Nigeria, in Group 2-forests in the 1524-2032 mm annual rainfall zone (see also Hall 1977). The following species were considered as ‘economic’ in 1952 when various silvicultural treatments were commenced at Omo to maximise the timber resources of the Reserve (Okali and Ola-Adams 1987, Lowe 1993): Afzelia bipindensis, Antiaris africana, Brachystegia nigerica, Chlorophora excelsa, Cordia platyhyrsa, Entandrophragma angolense, Eribroma oblonga, Erythrophleum spp., Guarea cedrata, G. thompsonii, Khaya ivorensis, Lophira alata, Lovoa trichilioides, Mansonia altissima, Mitragyna ledermannii, Nauclea

10 diderrichii, Nesogordonia papaverifera, Piptadeniastrum africanum, Sterculia rhinopetala, Terminalia ivorensis, T. superba and Triplochiton scleroxylon. It was observed in the report by Ola-Adams and Iyamabo (1977) that whereas in 1950 only 17 species were thought to be of economic importance as commercially acceptable timber trees, by 1975 the number so regarded had increased to 47. Omo is divided into five timber working areas-l, 47,49,53 and 58 and later into Jl, J3, J4 and J6 (fig. 2). Exploitation of area J6 began as early as 1914. Selected tree species: Khaya ivorensis, for export, Lophira alata, Nauclea diderrichii, Sacoglottis gabonensis and Uapaca spp. used locally, mainly for railway sleepers, were logged. Logging was initially near rivers to enable the logs float down to the base camp. Later, tractors were used for logging. Richards (1939) reported seeing primary forests mainly in swampy areas and in areas far away from rivers during the Cambridge Expedition of 1935 (but see Okali and Ola-Adams 1987). At present most of the Reserve (except the Strict Natural Reserve) has been selectively logged at one time or the other. The fact that tropical forests are exhaustible was realised very early in the exploitation history and to ensure continuous timber supply, many African forestry departments tried to take up the challenge of silviculture in moist forests, beginning in the 1950’s. Some of the methods relied on natural regeneration, others utilized techniques for improving the dynamics of the stands, and others used artificial regeneration (Schmidt 1991). The forest management technique based on natural regeneration used in Nigeria was the Tropical Shelterwood System, TSS (Okali and Ola-Adams 1987, Schmidt 1991). The objective of TSS was to enhance the natural regeneration of valuable species before harvesting by gradually opening up the canopy by poisoning of undesirable trees and freeing of regeneration by climber-cutting, to obtain at least 100 one- metre high seedlings per ha over 5 years (Schmidt 1991). Okali and Ola-Adams (1987) list 13 forest sites so treated in Nigeria between 1952 and 1972. The Omo site, Investigation No. 208, was instituted in 1952 and covered 192 ha. Kio (1978) concluded that TSS was effective in influencing regeneration and growth of natural forest stands. Selective poisoning or exploitation accelerated development of poles and trees and climber-cutting improved stocking of saplings. TSS had, however, to be dropped because it led to exuberant growth and spread of climbers following canopy opening and thereby the failure of valuable species to grow adequately. Poisoning also eliminated trees which later turned out to be commercially valuable. In many parts of Africa positive management of natural forests have more or less disappeared due to lack of funds or the in viability of the management techniques. Exploitation has, however, continued at a faster pace in response to increasing local demand. The difficulties associated with the management of natural tropical forests led most forest managers to conclude that silvicultural methods of enhancing natural regeneration following logging are ineffective, and

11 are therefore not cost effective (Nnachi 1993). In view of the diminishing extent of accessible land available for forestry, rate of logging well beyond the maximum sustainable yield in virtually all regions of Nigerian forests, and the variable and slow response of natural forests to silvicultural treatment, forest plantations are widely regarded as an economically attractive alternative form of forestry management. There has been a shift towards industrial plantations based on fast growing soft wood and light hard wood species. The emphasis on fast growing species reflects a desire on the part of forest managers for plantations that have (i) short rotation, providing a rapid return on investment; (ii) have simple stand structures, facilitating silvicultural treatment; (iii) provides a uniform product and can be harvested in a single felling. Plantations were started in southwestern Nigeria at the beginning of this century. Species used were mainly Tectona grandis (teak) and Nauclea diderrichii. Several other species such as Anogeissus leiocarpus, Milicia excelsa, Cedrella odorata, and Triplochiton scleroxylon were also included in early trials. Gmelina arborea was introduced into Nigeria in 1932 to provide pit props at the Enugu (Eastern Nigeria) coal mines and following an expansion of interest in the species as a pulp wood, it has become the dominant industrial plantation species in the southern states of Nigeria. First plantings of the species began in Omo in 1966. There were 216,026 ha of industrial forest plantations in Nigeria as at 1990 (FORMECU 1991). Ogun State, where Omo is located has 29 740 ha of plantations, 21994 of which are in Omo. The Taungya system of farming is used for plantation establishment. Taungya, or agri-silviculture is defined as a method of raising forest crops in combination with agricultural crops. Usually, agricultural crops are planted before the tree crops which number up to 79 species worldwide (King 1968). In the early years of Omo, tree crops planted included Nauclea diderrichii, Lovoa trichilioides, Khaya ivorensis, and Entandrophragma spp. But since it was decided to massively plant Gmelina it has been the major, if not the exclusive species. Dawkins (1961) had indicated that when optimum utilization is needed, intensive replacement of natural forest ecosystems takes precedence over extensive improvement. This was the situation in Nigeria at the time agri-silviculture was introduced. There were also intense demands on forest reserves for food production. The introduction of agri-silviculture was the only method of ensuring the survival of the forest estate in these areas. It now appears that with the prevailing scarcity of land for agriculture and forestry under single land use, Taungya has come to stay and ways have to be found to accommodate other roles that forestry plays in the environment. Taungya may prove to be one of the cheapest means of establishing forests of all kinds and at the same time supplying food for the general population (Roche 1993). Tree-crop plantations, such as cocoa, could also be established along with the trees.

Jaiyesimi (1966) advocated the establishment of forest villages to ensure the success of agri-silviculture. When Omo Forest Reserve was first proposed in 1916, there were 37 camps and small villages along the banks of the Omo and Oni Rivers of which only four- Ajebandele, Molofe, Oke Ode and Sunmoge, plus the forestry camp at Akilla then contained more than ten houses (Lowe 1993). According to Lowe, these settlements were said not to exist before the 1880’s and were occupied by hunters, fishermen and rubber collectors. There are several settlements inside the Reserve today, the most prominent of which are “J4” where the Omo Sawmill is located, and Oshoku and Etemi, both of which are close to the Strict Natural Reserve. Several trades have developed in the settlements and these include carpentry, tailoring, firewood collection, petty trading, food vending, palm (especially Raphia) wine tapping and traditional medical practice. Lowe (1993) observes that plantations of the exotic tree, Gmelina arborea were begun at Ajebandele with a view to forming pulpwood plantations to supply a pulp/paper mill at Iwopin on the Lekki Lagoon on the Atlantic coast. By 1980 two thousand hectare had been planted and a World Bank Project was started with the intention of planting, ultimately, about 40% of the area of the Reserve to produce both sawlogs and pulpwood. At present, a total area of about 21 994 ha has been planted. The Iwopin Paper Mill was commissioned in 1994 and the Gmelina plantation has been supplying the Omo Saw Mill with timber.

A forestry station was opened at Akilla and compensatory plantations of Nauclea were initiated there from 1918 to 1939 when the plantation area totalled 456 ha. Meanwhile, a timber company was formed which established two sawmills at Sunmoge and Eba. The sawmill machinery were eventually transferred to Aponmu near Ondo. In 1935 a timber concession was granted for the exploitation of Blocks J4 and 56. These concessions changed hands several times and there were company re-groupings. The Omo Sawmill was erected in 1951 and commenced production in 1953. The Sawmill was sold to private operators in the early 1970’s but was taken over by Ogun State Government as Gateway Sawmills Ltd. The Sawmill, plantations and the unplanted, natural forest blocks are today managed by the Ogun State Plantation Project. A Chinese company was awarded a concession to exploit 100 km2 of Block Jl, an area largely unexploited for several decades and also part of the area marked out as a buffer zone around the SNR for the conservation of forest elephants

Figure 1: Map of Nigeria showing location of Omo Biosphere.

Figure 2: Map of Omo Biosphere Reserve.

2.0 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY The most difficult challenge facing the research team was the very poor network of roads as showns in the photographs below. Someyimes make-shift bridges have to be put to cross over streams (plates A&B) and bailey bridges over some rivers. The roads especially during the rainy season could be very slippery and impefe movement of vehicles. In such cases only vehicles with auxillary gear could move through such areas (Plate C&D). In a few cases, the teams had to cross a stream with cut-out canoe ot take a motorcycle to reach this settlement (Plate E). The period of study was far too short and fronts limiting to permit detailed studies and labouratory analysis.

PLATE E

4.0 PLANTS BIODIVERSITY INVENTORY

3.1 METHODOLOGY FOR FLORA DATA COLLECTION

Sampling technique employed in this study was systematic cluster sampling as employed by

Akindele et al (2001) in the Forest Resources Study (FRS) of Nigeria. It involved establishment of a cluster in the Biosphere Reserve and environs (SNR (Biosphere core), J4 and J1-J3). The cluster consisted of a half-kilometer (500 m) base line with a 200 meters square tract at either end. A distance of 100 meters therefore separated the two tracts in the cluster. Each tract contained within its corners four sample plots of

50 m x 50 m to cover as much as possible the variations observed within the reserve. The cluster therefore comprised of 16 sample plots with a total area of four hectares in each study site (SNR, J4 & J1-J3). All living trees within the range of specified dbh ( ≥ 10 cm) were identified by their botanical names with the help of a taxonomist. In few cases where trees botanical names were not known, sample of such trees were collected for further identification at Forest Herbarium Ibadan (FHI). At the centre of each plot, a quadrant of 5m x 5m was laid to enumerate trees (dbh < 10cm) and other ground flora (shrubs, ferns, herbs and climbers).

3.2 STRUCTURE OF THE FOREST

Omo Biosphere Reserve has two distinct undisturbed vegetation types – a dry evergreen mixed deciduous in the northern parts and a wet evergreen forest in the greater southern parts of the reserve. Along the two river courses – Omo and Oni Rivers, riparian vegetation occurs. The characteristic species in such areas include Nauclea diderrichii and Mitragyna ciliata. In areas of high water table with uneven or highly dissected landscape, water is retained in the troughs. The common plant species in the troughs are mainly aquatic species including Pistia stratiotes, Eicchhornea grassipes etc. With increasing exploitation of timber, the forest has become so fragmented to include vegetation types at various successional and developmental stages including broken forest, shrub thickets, secondary regrowth forest, fallows of various

20 ages, plantations of various ages mainly Gmelina arborea, Tectona grandis, Nauclea diderrichii, Pinus carribea, Terminalia superba, Theobroma cacao, Cola nitida and Cola acuminata. Farmlands are widely dispersed around the villages and hunting camps. The major crop species grown in the area include Zea mays, Manihot esculenta, Musa sapientum, Musa paradisiacal and Cucumis melo. The list of plant species recorded is shown in Appendix 1.

3.3 FLORISTIC CHARACTERISTICS OF OMO BIOSPHERE RESERVE

3.3.1 SPECIES RICHNESS Over 350 plant species were encountered in all the study sites (excluding the monocultural plantation). About 137 tree species, 52 climbers and 63 shrubs were enumerated in the study area (Table 1).

The observation in each study site is as shown in fig 1. The number of tree and shrub species in SNR, J4 and

J1-J3 were 80, 54 and 66 species respectively. The ground flora species were 15, 20 and 77 for SNR, J4 and

J1-J3 respectively (Table 2). This trend shows that more plant species are enumerated in the relatively undisturbed forests (SNR) than in other areas which have been subjected to varying levels of exploitation.

Table 1: Summary of Species Richness In Omo Biosphere Reserve

S/N Habitat No of Species 1 Trees 137 2 Climbers 52 3 Shrubs 63 4 Herbs 111 5 Ferns 28 6 Palm 1 7 Ground flora 112

Table 2: Flora Characteristics

Trees and shrubs Ground flora No of No of Diversity No of No of Diversity spp Families Index spp Families Index J1J3 66 49 3.135 77 21 8.320 J4 54 43 2.608 20 13 4.035 SNR 80 51 3.46 15 9 2.106 All sites 200 52 4.189 112 43 10.871

3.3.2 FAMILY COMPOSITION

About 43 families of ground flora and 52 species of trees and shrubs were recorded in all the sites

(Table 2). Families with ten or more per family in the trees and shrub category include: Apocylaceae (12),

Ebenaceae (15), Euphorbiaceae (17) and Rubiaceae (18). The number of families of all tree species and ground flora in each study site and the number of tree species is as shown in fig 2 and 3 respectively.

250 60

50 200 No of tree spp No of Families 350 312 40

150 300

Noof species Noof families 100 250 20

50 200 10

157

150 0 0

J1J3 J4 SNR All sites No of plant species plant of No Fig 3: No of plant species 100 81 74

50 Fig 4: Number of species and families of tree species in OBR

0 J4 J1J3 SNR All sites

120 50

No of ground flora spp 100 No of Families 40

35 80

60 25 Noof families

20 Noof ground spp flora 40 15

10 20

0 0 J1J3 J4 SNR All sites

Fig 5: Number of species and families of ground flora in OBR

3.3.3 DIVERSITY INDICES

Simpson’s diversity indices of trees were presented in Table 2. The diversity index for all sites is 4.1.

However, there is variation between sites ranging from 2.608 in J4 to 3.46 in SNR. The diversity was higher in SNR (3.46), followed by J1J3 (3.135) and J4 (2.608). The difference in SNR compared to other sites could be attributed to total protection of the area.

The diversity indices of ground floral was high in J4 (8.320) compared with SNR (2.106) and JIJ3

(4.035) (Fig 5). The diversity index in SNR was not pronounced due to the close canopy restricting the light intensity from reaching the forest floor which could have promoted growth of light demanding species.

3.3.4 SIMILARITY INDICES

The highest value of 0.9542 was recorded between SNR and J1J3, followed by J4 and J1J3, SNR and

J4 with 0.6481 and 0.6087 respectively (Table 3). Therefore, SNR and J1J4 are more similar compared to other sites.

Table 3: Similarity Indices

J1J3 J4 SNR J1J3 1 J4 0.6481 1 SNR 0.9542 0.6087 1

3.3 .5 SIZE CLASS DISTRIBUTION AMONG TREES AND SHRUBS

The size class distribution shows a preponderance of small sized trees in each of the sites (Fig 4).

Most of the smaller diameter trees and shrubs are found in J1-J3 (56%) while the larger diameter trees are predominantly found in SNR (8.5%). The diameter distribution curve follows an inverted J-shape. This is typical of tropical natural forest (Husch et al; 2003).

JI&J3 50 J4 SNR

30 Frequency (%) Frequency

0 10 -19 20 - 29 30 - 40 41 - 50 51 - 60 61 & Above dbh size classes (cm)

Fig 6: Tree dbh size class (cm) distribution

10.871 Trees & Shrubs Ground flora 10

8.32 8

6 Diversity indices Diversity 4.035 4.189 4 3.46 3.135 2.608 2.106 2

0 J4 J1J3 SNR All sites

Fig 7: Diversity indices

Appendix 1: Plants species in Omo Biosphere Reserve

SPECIES FAMILY HABITAT Adhatoda robusta Acanthaceae Ferns Afzelia Africana Caesalpiniodae Tree Afzelia bipindensis Caesalpiniodae Tree Allablackia florinbuda Guttiferae Tree Alstonia boonei Apocynaceae Tree Alstonia congensis Apocynaceae Tree Anchomanes difformis Araceae Herbs Angylocalyx olygophyllus Papilionoideae Shrub Aningeria robusta Sapotaceae Tree Annona senegalensis Annonaceae Tree Anthocleista vogeli Loganiaceae Tree Anthonotha macrophylla Caesalpinioideae Tree Baphia nitida Papillionoideae Tree Baphia pubescens Papillionoideae Tree Bateria fistulosa Papilionoideae Herbs Berlinia heudeloti Caesapinioidae Tree Boerhavia diffusa Nyctaginaceae Herbs Bridelia micrantha Euphorbiaceae Tree Brillantanisia nitens Acanthaceae Herbs Buchholizia coriaceae Capparaceae Tree Cactus sp Cactaceae Tree Canthium glabriflorum Rubiaceae Tree Canthium hispidium Rubiaceae Tree Carapa proccera Meliaceae Tree Carpolobia lutea Polygalaceae Shrub Casearia barteri Samydaceae Tree Cathium hyspidum Rubiaceae Tree Ceiba pentandra Bombacaceae Tree Celosia argentea Amaranthaceae Herbs Celtis mibreadii Ulmaceae Tree Celtis whiltii Ulmaceae Tree Celtis zenkeri Ulmaceae Tree Chazaliella insidens Rubiaceae Herbs Chyranthus macrobotrys Amaryllidaceae Tree Cleistoholis patens Annonaceae Tree Coffea canphora Rubiaceae Tree Cola gigantean Sterculiaceae Tree Conopharyngia pachysiphon Apocylaceae Tree Conopharynga pemduliflora Apocylaceae Tree Cordia millenii Boraginaceae Tree Corynanthe pachyceras Rubiaceae Tree

Costus angolensis Costaceae Herbs Craterispermum ceriannthum Rubiaceae Shrub Crateva adansonii Capparaceae Tree Cryptoleptis sanguinolena Periplocaceae Tree Cryptosperma senegalense Araceae Tree Deinbollia pinnata Sapindaceae Tree Dicranosis grandiflora Thymeliaceae Shrub Diospyros atropurpurea Ebenaceae Tree Diospyros barteri Ebenaceae Tree Diospyros canaliculata Ebenaceae Tree Diospyros chronchs Ebenaceae Tree Diospyros chrysantha Ebenaceae Tree Diospyros cofertiflora Ebenaceae Tree Diospyros dendo Ebenaceae Tree Diospyros gilgiana Ebenaceae Tree Diospyros guavanlensis Ebenaceae Tree Diospyros insculpta Ebenaceae Tree Diospyros mesiphyormis Ebenaceae Tree Diospyros monbutteris Ebenaceae Tree Diospyros nigerica Ebenaceae Tree Diospyros piscatorial Ebenaceae Tree Diospyros principum Ebenaceae Tree Discoglypermna calonuera Euphorbiaceae Tree Dorstenia prorepens Moraceae Ferns Dracaena arborea Liliaceae Herbs Dracaena mannii Liliaceae Tree Dracaena miculosa Liliaceae Shrub Drypetes gilgiana Euphorbiaceae Tree Drypetes floribunda Euphorbiaceae Tree Drypertes chevallieri Euphorbiaceae Tree Drypetes aframensis Euphorbiaceae Tree Drypetes floribunda Euphorbiaceae Tree Drypetes gigeana Euphorbiaceae Tree Drypetes gossweileri Euphorbiaceae Tree drypetes guaveolens Euphorbiaceae Tree Drypetes nigerica Euphorbiaceae Tree Drypetes principum Euphorbiaceae Tree Enatia chroronatha Annonaceae Tree Entandrophragma angolense Meliaceae Tree Entandrophragma macrophylum Meliaceae Tree Entandrophragma utili Meliaceae Tree Ericoelum macrocarpum Asteraceae Tree Erythrophleum micranthium Caesalpiniodae Tree Ficus mucoso Moraceae Tree

Ficus sp Moraceae Shrub Funtumia elastic Apocynaceae Tree Garcinia gnetoides Guttiferae Tree Gaertlera evalifolia Rubiaceae Tree Geophila repens Rubiaceae Herbs Grewia coriaceae Tiliaceae Tree Guarea cedrata Meliaceae Tree Guarea thomsonii Meliaceae Tree Hallarhena floribundus Rubiaceae Tree Homalium africanum Samydaceae Tree Heisteria parvifolia Olacaceae Shrub Heliotropium indicum Boraginaceae Herbs Hexalobus cripticiformis Annonaceae Tree Hollarrhena floribunda Apocynaceae Tree Holoptelia grandis Ulmaceae Tree Homallium longistylum Samydaceae Tree Hunteria umbellata Apocynaceae Tree Hylodendron gabonenese Fabaceae Tree Icacinia trichantha Icancinaceae Shrub Irvingia gabonensis Irvinginaceae Tree Isolona campanulata Annonaceae Tree Khaya ivorensis Miliaceae Tree Klainedoxa gabonensis Irvinginaceae Tree Landophia dulcis Apocynaceae Ferns Lankesteria spp Acanthaceae Herbs Leptaspsis cochleata Gramineae Herbs Lomariospsis palustris Lomariopsidaceae Ferns Lophira alata Ochnaceae Tree Macaranga barteri Euphorbiaceae Tree Memecylon membrannifolium Melastomataeae Shrub Memecylon afzelii Melastomataeae Tree Microberlinia bisculcata Caesalpinioidae Ferns Milicia excels Moraceae Tree Mitragyna stipulosa Rubiaceae Tree Musanga cecrepioides Moraceae Tree Musanga smithii Moraceae Tree Nauclea diderichii Rubiaceae Tree Neoboutonia glabrescens Euphorbiaceae Tree Nephrolepis biserreta Davalliaceae Ferns Nesogordoonia papaverifera Steculiaceae Tree Octolobus angustatus Steculiaceae Tree Oxyanthus unicularis Rubiaceae Shrub Ozoroa insignis Rubiaceae Shrub Pachystela brevipes Sapotaceae Tree

Palisota mannii Commelinaceae Herbs Picralima nitida Apocynaceae Tree Picralima umbrellata Apocynaceae Tree Pollia condensate Commelinaceae Herbs Polyspatha paniculata Commelinaceae Herbs Pseudospondias microcarpa Anacardiaceae Herbs Psychotria brassi Rubiaceae Shrub Pteris mildbraedii Adiantaceae Ferns Pteris similis Adiantaceae Ferns Pteris togoensis Adiantaceae Ferns Pterocarpus santalinoides Papillionoideae Tree Pycnanthus angolensis Myristicaceae Tree Raphia spp Palmae Shrub Rauvolfia vomitoria Apocynaceae Tree Ricinodendron heudelothii Euphorbiaceae Tree Rinorea sp Violaceae Shrub Sapium ellipticum Euphorbiaceae Tree Sarcocephalus diderrichii Rubiaceae Tree Sarcocephalus nervosus Rubiaceae Tree Scottelia coriacea Flacourtaceae Tree Scottelia kamerunesis Flacourtaceae Tree Spathodea campanulata Bignoniaceae Tree Sphenocentrum jollyanum Menispermaceae Shrub Spondianthus preussii Euphorbiaceae Tree Staudtia stipitata Myristicaceae Tree sterculia rhinopetala Sterculiaceae Tree Stemonocoleus micranthus Ceaesalpilioideae Tree Stombosia grandifolia Olacaceae Tree Stombosia pustulata Olacaceae Tree Terminalia ivorensis Combretaceae Tree Terminalia superb Combretaceae Tree Triplochiton scleroxylon Steculiaceae Tree Triumfetta rhomboidea Tiliaceae Herbs Vitex doniana Verbenaceae Tree Voacanga Africana Apocynaceae Tree Xylopia aethiopica Annonaceae Tree Xylopia quintassi Annonaceae Tree Zanthoxylum zanthozyloides Rutaceae Tree

Appendix 2: Distribution of Families in Omo Bisphere Reserve

Family Frequency Acanthaceae 3 Adiantaceae 3 Amaranthaceae 1 Amaryllidaceae 1 Anacardiaceae 1 Annonaceae 7 Apocylaceae 12 Araceae 2 Asteraceae 1 Bignoniaceae 1 Bombacaceae 1 Boraginaceae 2 Cactaceae 1 Caesalpiniodae 6 Capparaceae 2 Ceaesalpilioideae 1 Combretaceae 2 Commelinaceae 3 Costaceae 1 Davalliaceae 1 Ebenaceae 15 Euphorbiaceae 17 Fabaceae 1 Flacourtaceae 2 Gramineae 1 Guttiferae 2 Icancinaceae 1 Irvinginaceae 2 Liliaceae 3 Loganiaceae 1 Lomariopsidaceae 1 Melastomataeae 2 Meliaceae 7 Menispermaceae 1 Moraceae 6 Myristicaceae 3 Nyctaginaceae 1 31

Ochnaceae 1 Olacaceae 3 Palmae 1 Papilionoideae 5 Periplocaceae 1 Polygalaceae 1 Rubiaceae 18 Samydaceae 3 Sapindaceae 3 Steculiaceae 5 Thymeliaceae 1 Tiliaceae 2 Ulmaceae 4 Verbenaceae 1 Violaceae 1

4.0 MAMMALIAN FAUNA AND AVIFAUNA DIVERSITY

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Omo Biosphere Reserve is an important area as it holds a complex matrix of natural rain forest, buffer zones and plantations of Teak, Gmelina and Pine. Within this matrix also lie pockets of human settlements which are growing by the day.

Omo Biosphere Reserve is also rich in animal diversity with about 46 species of mammals, 35 species are frequently sighted. Large mammals like the threatened African Forest Elephant (Loxodonta africana cyclotis), African Buffalo (Syncerus caffer nanus) and some species of primates like the Red-capped

Mangabee (Cercocebus torquatus) and Mona Monkey (Cercopithecus mona). It is also one of the numerous sites across Nigeria designated as Important Bird Areas (IBA) because of its high bird species richness, with documented reports of about 203 bird species (NCF REPORT, 2011) of which some species are migratory while others are residents; about 166 bird species have been recorded presently (Stella and Manu, 2014) .

Omo Forest Reserve also holds a population of the endangered African Grey Parrot (Psittacus erithacus), the Grey Throated Rail (Canirallus oculeus), the near threatened Yellow - Casqued Hornbill (Ceratogymna elata) and the other birds species recorded are of least concern (Ezealor et al. 2001). Therefore, a consistent monitoring of the status of birds within this area is necessary for effective conservation plans.

4.2 METHODOLOGY

4.2.1 BIRD SURVEY

Line transects of 2000m were taken from systematically selected sites ( Eseke, Tamitami, Osoko and Etemi-

Oke which covers the Strict Nature Reserve, Biosphere extension areas and buffer zones. Survey was conducted for 9 days (8th -17th April 2014). Transects were taken from pre-existing transect routes and observer walked very slowly in order to maximise the probability of recording the bird species present.

Surveys started at 06:30- 11:00 hours daily in order to control for the effect of time of day as most birds become less active as the hours progress (Manu and Cresswell 2007). Bird species seen and heard were recorded. McKinnon’s list was also generated in order to generate a list of most common species in the reserve.

4.2.2 MAMMALIAN SURVEY

Line transect was also used for the wildlife survey. Animals seen and heard (vocalization) were recorded.

Footprints, feathers and scats of animals were also used for identification. Also, information was obtained from local hunters and some researchers on the common mammals still resident in the forest.

4.3 RESULTS

A total of ninety seven (97) bird species were recorded comprising of forest specialist (or forest interior bird species found only in the forest) and generalist (birds species found in the forest and other habitats like degraded areas, farmlands, plantations etc.), of which 68 bird species where observed to be common in the four survey sites while 29 bird species were not common (Table 1).

A total of fourteen (14) mammalian species were recorded (Table 2 and 3). Three species of mammals were commonly sighted in Omo, they include the Red Capped Mangabey (Cercocebus torquatus), the Mona

Monkey (Cercopithecus mona) and species of squirrel. Most information on mammals resident in Omo forest were obtained from hunters around the reserve due to the length of time allocated for this survey.

4.3.1 HUNTING EVIDENCES

Aside the threat of Biosphere fragmentation and conversion, one other factor that is threatening the wildlife in Omo Forest Reserve is the hunting pressure. During the survey, sights of gun cartridges were evident and on one occasion, a freshly killed Mona Monkey (Cercopithecus mona), Plate F and G.

4.4 LIMITATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The challenges of working in the study area include the rough terrain that forces researchers to adopt more expensive and risky means of transport. An effective survey needs to be conducted both mornings and evenings. Hence, more funds should be allocated to cover transport.

Also, it is important to consider the vegetation complexity that limits easy sightings. Hence, extensive survey should put in more time. The length of time for this present survey was too short. Subsequently, more time should be allocated to give room for detailed results that could extend to areas of abundance, distribution, composition etc. More time is also necessary for detailed results that includes migratory bird species.

In addition, there are silent understorey birds and bats that can only be gotten by setting up mist nets. Hence, it is recommended that some equipments needs to be purchased in further studies that could aid this survey.

Most importantly, a ground study of the reserve outside the Strict Nature Reserve shows a lot of forest loss due to fragmentation and conversion, it is therefore advisable that the conservation of this area is taken seriously as this affects the movement of wildlife and exposes them to threats (hunting).

Plate F: An empty gun catridge Plate G: An illegal hunter with a murdered Mona monkey (Cercopithecus mona)

Plate H: Illegal hunters camp at sojukorodo axis of J1

Plate I: Dwarf mongoose (Herpestes pulverulenta) been trapped with wire mesh at J4

Plate J : Fresh antelope dung

Plate K: Forest elephant (Loxodonta Africana cyclotis) play ground observed in J1

Plate L: Observing elephant dung in J1

Plate M : Timber lorry hauling out illegal forest wood in J3

Plate N : Field officer Clifford penning sample record

Plate O: Clifford and hunter Francis from J4 identifying animals using West Africa Large Mammal guard .

TABLE 4: CURRENT BIRD LIST AND THEIR STATUS IN OMO BIOSPHERE RESERVE ORDER FAMILY COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC PRESENCE/ HABITAT ABUNDANCE NAME ABSENCE STATUS STATUS PASSERIFORMES THRESKIORNITHIDAE Hadada Ibis Bostrychia X FG NC hagedesh ARDEIDAE Black kite Milvus migrans X FG C ACCIPITRIDAE Palm-nut Vulture Gypophierax - FG NC angolensis African Harrier Hawk Polyboroides - FG NC typus Lizard buzzard Kaupifalco - FG NC monogrammicus Black Sparrowhawk Accipiter - FG NC melanoleucus African Fish Eagle Haliaeetus vocifer - FG NC NUMIDIDAE Crested Guineafowl Guttera pucherani - FS NC PHASIANIDAE Double -Spurred Francolinus - FG NC Francolin bicalcaratus Latham’s Forest Francolinus - FS NC Francolin lathami RALLIDAE White-Spotted Sarothrura - FS NC Flufftail pulchra Grey-Throated Rail Canirallus oculeus - FS NC Nkulegu Rail Himantornis - FS NC haematopus Black Crake Amaurornis - FG NC flavirostra COLUMBIDAE African Green Pigeon Treron calvus X FS C Tambourine Dove Turtur X FG C tympanistria Blue- headed Wood Turtur brehmeri X FG C Dove Blue- Spotted Wood Turtur afer X FG C Dove Red-Eyed Dove Streptopelia - FG NC semitorquata PSITTATIDAE Grey Parrot Psittacus erithacus - FS NC MUSOPHAGIDAE Yellow-Billed Turaco Tauraco X FS C macrorhynchus Green Turaco Tauraco persa X FS C CUCULIDAE Klass’s Cuckoo Chrysococcyx X FG NC klaas

African Emerald Chrysococcyx X FG C Cuckoo cupreus Olive Long-Tailed Cercococcyx X FS NC Cuckoo olivinus Yellowbill Ceuthmochares X FS C aereus Senegal Coucal Centropus X FG C senegalensis Black-Throated Centropus X FS C Coucal leucogaster Didric Cuckoo Chrysococcyx X FG C caprius Dusky Long-tailed Cercococcyx X FS NC Cuckoo mechowi Red-Chested Cuckoo Cuculus solitarius X FS C TROGONIDAE Narina’s Trogon Apoloderma - FS NC narina ALCEDINIDAE African Dwarf Ceyx lecontei X FS NC Kingfisher African Pygmy Ceyx pictus - FS NC Kingfisher Woodland Kingfisher Halcyon - FG NC senegalensis Blue breasted Halcyon - FG NC Kingfisher malimbica Shining-blue Alcedo X FG NC Kingfisher quadribrachys Chocolate-backed Halcyon badia - FG NC Kingfisher BUCEROTIDAE Red-Billed Dwarf Tockus camurus X FS NC Hornbill African Pied Hornbill Tockus fasciatus X FG C Piping Hornbill Bycanistes X FS NC fistulator White- thighed Bycanistes X FS C Hornbill albotibialis Black- and-White- Bycanistes X FS NC Casqued Hornbill subcylindricus Black-Casqued Ceratogymna - FS NC Hornbill atrata CAPITONIDAE Speckled Tinkerbird Pogoniulus X FG C scolopaceus Yellow-rumped Pogoniulus X FG C Tinkerbird bilineatus

Yellow- throated Pogoniulus X FS C Tinkerbird subsulphureus Yellow-spotted Barbet Buccanodon X FG C duchaillui Hairy-breasted Barbet Tricholaema X FG C hirsuta Red-rumped Pogoniulus X FG C Tinkerbird atroflavus Naked-faced Barbet Gymnobucco X FS C calvus Bristle-nosed Barbet Gymnobucco peli X FS C Yellow-billed Barbet Trachylaemus X FG C purpuratus Vieillot’s Barbet Lybius vieilloti - FG NC PICIDAE Grey Woodpecker Dendropicos - FG NC goertae Buff-spotted Campethera - FS NC Woodpecker nivosa Brown-eared Campethera - FG NC Woodpecker carrolli Fire-bellied Dendropicos X FS C Woodpecker pyrrhogaster PASSERIFORMES EURILYMIDAE Rufous-sided Smithornis X FS NC Broadbill rufolateralis PITTIDAE African Pitta Pitta angolensis - FS NC HIRUNDINIDAE European Swallow Hirundo X FG C aethiopica Barn Swallow Hirundo rustica X FG C APODIDAE Sabine’s Spinetail Rhaphidura sabini - FG NC MOTACILLIDAE African Pied Wagtail Motacilla aguimp X FG C Yellow Wagtail Motacilla flava X FG NC Yellow-throated Macronyx croceus - FS NC Longclaw COLIIDAE Narina’s Trogon Apaloderma - FS NC narina PYCNONOTIDAE Common Bulbul Pycnonotus X FG C barbatus Simple Leaflove Chlorocichla - FG NC simplex Swamp palm bulbul Thescelocichla - FG NC leucopleura Leaflove Pyrrhurus - FS NC scandens Slender-billed Andropadus X FS C

Greenbul gracilirostris Little Grey Greenbul Andropadus X FS C gracilis Little Greenbul Andropadus virens X FS C Yellow-whiskered Andropadus X FG C Greenbul latirostris HoneyguideGreenbul Baeopogon X FS C indicator Red-tailed Greenbul Criniger calurus X FS C Grey-headed Bleda canicapillus X FS NC Bristlebill Red- tailed Bristlebill Bleda syndactylus X FS NC Western Bearded Criniger barbatus - FS NC Greenbul IcterineGreenbul Phyllastrephus X FS C icterinus White-throated Phyllastrephus - FS NC Greenbul albigularis Western Nicator Nicator chloris X FS C TURDIDAE Forest Robin Striphrornis X FS C erythrotorax Fire-crested Alethe Alethe X FS C (diademata) castanea Brown-chested Alethe Alethe X FS NC poliocephala African Thrush Turdus pelios X FG C Finsch’s Flycatcher Stinzorhina finschi - FS NC Thrush SYLVIIDAE Northern Crombec Sylvietta X FG C brachyuran Green Crombec Sylvietta virens X FG C Willow Warbler Phylloscopus - FS NC trochilus Olive-green Camaroptera X FS NC Camaroptera chloronata Grey-backed Camaroptera X FS C Camaroptera brachyuran Rufous-Crowned Eremomela X FS NC Eremomela badiceps Kemp’s longbill Macrosphenus X FS C kempi Grey longbill Macrosphenus X FS C concolor

Tawny-flanked Prinia Prinia subflava X FG C Buff-throated Apalis Apalis rufogularis X FS C Blackcap Sylvia atricapilla X FS C Green Hylia Hylia prasina X FS C Violet-backed Hyliota Hyliota violacea - FS NC Yellow-browed Camaroptera X FG C Camaroptera superciliaris MUSCICAPIDAE Lead-coloured Myioparus - FS NC Flycatcher plumbeus Fraser’s Forest Fraseria ocreata - FS NC Flycatcher MONARCHIDAE African Paradise Tersiphone viridis X FS NC Flycatcher Red-bellied Paradise Tersiphone X FG C Flycatcher rufiventer Dusky Crested Elminia X FS NC Flycatcher nigromitrata Blue-headed Crested Trochocercus X FS NC Flycatcher nitens Dusky-blue Flycatcher Muscicapa - FS NC comitata White-browed Forest Fraseria - FS NC Flycatcher cinrascens Chestnut-Capped Erythrocercus X FS C Flycatcher mccalli PLATYSTEIRIDAE Chestnut Wattle Eye Dyaphorophyia X FS C castanea Common Wattle Eye Platysteira cyanea X FG C TIMALIIDAE Brown Illadopsis Illadopsis X FS C fulvescens Puvel’sIlladopsis Illadopsis puveli X FS C Pale-breasted Illadopsis X FS C Illadopsis rufipennis PARIDAE Yellow White Eye Zosterops - FS NC senegalensis MEROPIDAE Black Bee-Eater Merops gularis - FG NC Little Bee-Eater Merops pusillus - FG NC White-throated Bee- Merops albicollis - FG NC Eater NECTARINIDAE Fraser’s Sunbird Deleornis fraseri X FS NC Collared Sunbird Hedydipna X FG C collaris Olive Sunbird Cyanomitra X FG C olivacea

Superb Sunbird Cynnyris superbus X FG NC Splendid Sunbird Cynnyris X FG NC coccinigastrus Green-headed Sunbird Cyanomitra - FG NC verticalis Blue-throated Brown Cyanomitra X FG C Sunbird cyanolaema Tiny Sunbird Cinnyris minullus - FG NC Olive-bellied sunbird Cinnyris X FG C chloropygius Buff-throated Sunbird Chalcomitra - FG NC adelberti MALACONOTIDAE Sabine’s puffback Dryscopus sabini - FS NC Tropical boubou Laniarius X FG NC aethiopicus Brown-Crowned Tchagra australis - FG NC Tchagra LANIIDAE Red-Billed Helmet- Prionops caniceps - FS NC Shrike ORIOLIDAE Western Black Headed Oriolus X FS C Oriole bracchyrhynus Black-winged Oriole Oriolus X FS C nigripennis UPUPIDAE Forest Wood-Hoopoe Phoeniculus - FS NC castaneiceps CORACIIDAE Broad-billed Roller Eurystomus - FG NC glaucurus Blue-throated Roller Eurystomus - FG C gularis DICRUDIDAE Fork- tailed Drongo Dicrurus adsimilis X FS C Velvet-mantled Dicrurus modestus X FS NC Drongo Square-tailed Drongo Dicrucus ludwigii - FS NC Pied Crow Corvus albus X FG NC STURNIDAE Narrow-tailed Starling Poeoptera - FG NC lugubris Violet-backed Starling Cinnyricinclus - FG NC leucogaster Splendid Glossy Lamprotornis - FG NC Starling splendidus Forest Chestnut- Onychognathus - FS NC Winged Starling fulgidus INDICATORIDAE Greater Honeyguide Indicator indicator - FG NC Least Honeyguide Indicator exilis - FS NC

PLOCEIDAE Viellot’s Black Ploceus X FG C Weaver nigerrimus Village Weaver Ploceus cucullatus - FG C Blue-billed Malimbe Malimbus nitens X FG NC Crested Malimbe Malimbus - FG NC malimbicus Red-vented Malimbe Malimbus scutatus X FG NC Black-necked weaver Ploceus nigricollis - FG NC Red-headed Quelea Quelea erythrops - FG NC VIDUIDAE Pin-tailed Whydah Vidua macroura - FG C ESTRILDIDAE Grey-headed Nigrita X FS NC (Crowned) Negrofinch canicapillus Chestnut-breasted Nigrita bicolor X FS C Negrofinch Pale-fronted Nigrita luteifrons X FS NC Negrofinch White-breasted Nigrita fusconotus - FS NC Negrofinch Green Twinspot Mandingoa - FS NC nitidula Western Bluebill Spermophaga - FS NC haematina Orange-cheeked Estrilda melpoda - FG C Waxbill Bronze Mannikin Spermestes X FG C cucullatus Black-and-white Spermestes bicolor X FG C Mannikin

This bird list is compiled by Collina (2014) UNESCO/KOICA project; Stella and Manu (2014) X Recorded - Not recorded during the survey but is present in Omo forest (Stella and Manu; 2014). C Common NC Not common FS Forest specialist FG Forest generalist

TABLE 5: CURRENT MAMMAL LIST AND THEIR STATUS IN OMO FOREST RESERVE IUCN PRESENCE/ ORDER FAMILY SUB-ORDER COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME STATUS ABSENCE Hammer-headed Fruit- Hypsignathus CHIROPTERA Pteropodidae MEGACHIROPTERA Bat monstrosus LC - Gambian Epauletted fruit-Bat Epomophorus gambianus LC - Franquet’s Fruit Bat Epomops franqueti LC - Zenker’s Fruit-Bat Scotonycteris zenkeri LC - Commerson’s Leaf- Hipposideros Hipposideridae MICROCHIROPTERA nosed Bat commersoni NT - Cyclops Bat Hipposideros Cyclops LC - PRIMATE Lorisidae Potto Perodicticus potto LC - Galagidae Demidoff’s Galago Galagoides demidovii LC X Mona Monkey Cercopithecus mona LC X Red-crowned Mangabey Cercocebus torquatus LC X

Phataginus (Manis) PHOLIDOTA Manidae Tree Pangolin tricuspis LC - Beecroft’s Flying- RODENTIA Anomaluridae. Squirrel Anomalurus beecrofti LC - Derby’s Flying-Squirrel Anomalurus derbianus LC - Heliosciurus Sciuridae. Red-legged Sun-Squirrel rufobrachium isabellinus LC - Thomas’ Rope Squirrel Funisciurus anerythrus LC - African Giant Squirrel Protoxerus stangeri LC - Striped Ground-Squirrel Euxerus erythropus LC - Emin’s Giant-Rat Cricetomys emini LC X Gambian Giant-Rat Cricetomys gambianus LC - Muridea. Pygmy Mouse Mus minutoides DD - Black Rat Rattus rattus LC X Hystricidae. Brush-tailed Porcupine Atherurus africanus LC X Civettictis (Viverra) CARNIVORA Viverridae African Civet civetta LC X Forest Genet Genetta tigrina poensis LC - African Palm-Civet Nandinia binotata LC - Herpestidae. Cusimanse Mongoose Crossarchus obscurus LC X Loxodonta africana Elephantidae African Forest Elephant cyclotis VU X Procaviidae Western Tree-Hyrax Dendrohyrax dorsalis LC X Suidae. Red River-Hog Potamochoerus porcus LC X Tragulidae Water Chevrotain Hyemoschus aquaticus LC X Bovidae. African Forest Buffalo Syncerus caffer nanus LC - Bushbuck Tragelaphus scriptus LC X

Maxwell’s Duiker Cephalophus maxwelli LC - Black Duiker Cephalophus niger LC X Yellow-backed Duiker Cephalophus sylvicultor LC -

X Recorded - Not recorded during the survey but is frequently sighted by hunters in Omo forest. LC Least concern VU Vulnerable NT Not threatenend DD Data deficient

TABLE 6: MATRIX OF OBSERVATIONAL MEANS FOR MAMMAL SPECIES IN OMO FOREST RESERVE

COMMON SCIENTIFIC FOOT SIGHT INFORM FAMILY NAME NAME VOCALIZATION PRINT SCATS INGS ATION Hammer-headed Fruit- Hypsignathus Pteropodidae Bat monstrosus - - - - X Gambian Epauletted Epomophorus fruit-Bat gambianus - - - - X

Franquet’s Fruit Bat Epomops franqueti - - - - X

Zenker’s Fruit-Bat Scotonycteris zenkeri - - - - X Commerson’s Leaf-nosed Hipposideros Hipposideridae Bat commersoni - - - - X

Cyclops Bat Hipposideros cyclops - - - X

Lorisidae Potto Perodicticus potto - - - - X

Galagidae Demidoff’s Galago Galagoides demidovii X - - - -

Mona Monkey Cercopithecus mona X - - X -

Red-crowned Mangabey Cercocebus torquatus - - - X -

Phataginus (Manis) Manidae Tree Pangolin tricuspis - - - - X Beecroft’s Flying- Anomaluridae. Squirrel Anomalurus beecrofti - - - - X

Derby’s Flying-Squirrel Anomalurus derbianus - - - - X

Heliosciurus rufobrachium Sciuridae. Red-legged Sun-Squirrel isabellinus - - - - X

Thomas’ Rope Squirrel Funisciurus anerythrus - - - - X

African Giant Squirrel Protoxerus stangeri - - - - X

Striped Ground-Squirrel Euxerus erythropus - - - - X

Emin’s Giant-Rat Cricetomys emini - - - X -

Gambian Giant-Rat Cricetomys gambianus - - - - X

Muridea. Pygmy Mouse Mus minutoides - - - - X

Black Rat Rattus rattus - - - X -

Hystricidae. Brush-tailed Porcupine Atherurus africanus - X - X -

Viverridae African Civet Civettictis (Viverra) - X - - - 50

civetta

Forest Genet Genetta tigrina poensis - - - - X

African Palm-Civet Nandinia binotata - - - - X

Herpestidae. Cusimanse Mongoose Crossarchus obscurus - X - - - Loxodonta africana Elephantidae African Forest Elephant cyclotis - X - - -

Procaviidae Western Tree-Hyrax Dendrohyrax dorsalis X - - - -

Suidae. Red River-Hog Potamochoerus porcus - X - - -

Tragulidae Water Chevrotain Hyemoschus aquaticus X - - - -

Bovidae. African Forest Buffalo Syncerus caffer nanus - - - X

Bushbuck Tragelaphus scriptus - - X - -

Maxwell’s Duiker Cephalophus maxwelli - - - - -

Black Duiker Cephalophus niger X - X - -

Yellow-backed Duiker Cephalophus sylvicultor - - - - -

5.0 INSECT FAUNA OF OMO BIOSPHERE

5.1 INTRODUCTION The forest is the natural home of different organism and animal’s insects inclusive. Insects belong to the group of hard-bodied invertebrate animals in the phylum Arthropoda which is the largest in the animal kingdom as it constitute about 90 percent (Borror et al.1985) Insects are characterized by their body covered with a hard covered with a hard cutide and divided into three distinct regions, the head thorax and abdomen; Insects have three pairs of legs carried in the thoracic region and commonly one or two pairs of wings on the dorsal side of the thorax. There are however wingless types (Apterous). The head bears the mouth parts and a numbers of sensory organs: antennae, palps and eyes. The abdomen is the posterior body region, segmented and bears the organ of reproduction and intestine. Insects are the most successful component of the animal kingdom. They are found virtually everywhere-on trees, crops, under stones, fallen trees, in the soil, in water, on animals including man. Insects have developed several highly useful adaptations that make them adapted to life in almost every type of habitat. They are tiny thus they can conceal themselves readily. Their size also allows huge populations to be supported on a limited food source. They can fly during reproductive period and their tremendous reproductive potential allows an efficient exploitation of the food source. Ability to fly also gives them the advantage to move over extensive areas often across borders. Some are very light such that they can be carried in air currents (Borror et al.1985; Coulson and Witter, 1985) How ever, insect as well as other arthropods are integral components of forest ecosystems that are normally involved in basic ecological processes such as food chain, nutrient cycling and succession. These processes greatly affect site quality and stand characteristics. A great many insect are extremely valuable to man and human society could not exist in its present form without them. They provide us with honey, beeswax, silk and other products of commercial value. They help to keep harmful animals in check and have been useful in medicine and scientific research. However, a few insects are harmful and cause enormous losses each year in agricultural crops, forest trees, stored products and the health of man and animals. Fortunately, those that destroy trees are usually held in check in the natural forest by their natural enemies or an unfavourable environmental condition. The population of a destructive insect is said to be in an endemic stage if it is present in normal numbers and is doing little or no damage to trees. When the population of a species reaches the point where annual losses in the forest or field exceed annual growth, the insect reaches epidemic proportions.

In this study, the insect fauna of Omo Biosphere was investigated. The areas covered are: (a) Strict Natures Reserve at Etemi (Core of Biosphere Reserve). (b) Managed Nature Reserve (or unrestricted Forest Zone) from Omo River to Tamitami. (c) Strict Natures Reserve Erin Camp. Materials: Sweep net, killing jars, vials of preservatives, 2 percent formalin solution, 70 percent ethanol, forceps, and hand lens, aspirator, beating umbrella, white sheet, sieve, rechargeable lamp and cutlass.

5.2 METHODOLOGY: Insect specimens were searched and collected as described by Borror,et al, (1985). We walked and collected insect specimens along transect lines of 1 kilometer in 4 replicates. At intervals of 100 hundred meters,a quadrat was made on the floor of the forest. Leaf litter within were carefully removed to detect ground insects. The following places were examined: Leaves, barks of dead woods, floor of the forest, termite mounds, catching insects on flight with sweep net, sweeping forest under growth with sweep net, from water, light traps. Insects can be found practically every where and usually in considerable numbers. The more the different places in which one searches for them, the greater the variety one will be able to collect. Under our climatic condition, we can collect insects at all seasons. However, there are some that are abundant during the rains, while some are dry season insects hence one should collect throughout the year. Since insects are active at different times of the day, specimens were made both during the day (for diurnal insects) and in the night (for nocturnal insects). Specimens were pinned after each day’s collection especially the lepidopteron. Other hard bodied insects were preserved in formalin solution till the expiration of the 10 days survey. All the specimens were pinned onto mounting boards, oven- dried, latter identified and kept in the museum of the Forestry Research Institute of Nigeria, Ibadan. They were arranged in insect boxes according to their orders. Some soft bodied larvae of wood boring insects were kept in 3 percent formalin solution.

5.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: The results of the survey showed that 21 out of the 71 species (22%) listed are lepidopteron, followed by Hymenoptera 9 species (13 %), then Hemiptera 8 species (11 %), Isoptera 7 species (9 %),Orthoptera 6species (8 %), Diptera 5 species (7 %), Homoptera 4 (6%), Coleoptera 4 (6 %), Odonata 3 (4 %) in that order. This shows that the major insect orders are well represented in the forest reserve. Lepidopterans constitute the largest insect species ,and this observation supports the report of earlier survey by Ewete (1999). Lepidopterans are plant eaters (phytophagous) and the abundance of different tree species tends to

53 support population. Under the dense forest cover ware observed infestations of leaf miners hence the large population of micro lepidopterans. The highest population of lepidopterans was observed in the Managed Nature Reserve (or unrestricted Forest Zone) at Tamitami where plantations of Gmelina arborea are interspersed with farmlands. Different species of Hymenopterans were recorded during the survey. This group consists of pollinators, parasite andpredators that play significant role in pollination keeping dangerous insects and animals in check in the ecosystem (Coulson and Witter, 1984). Hemipterans are sap suckers; therefore some species are serious pests of fruits and seeds. A large population of the nymphs and adults of cotton stainer (Dysdercus spp.) was observed at Etemi SNR at the time of the survey as a result of the release of cotton and seeds of Ceiba petandra that provide food for the cotton strainers. This agrees with the report of Ewetes survey (1999). On the floor of the forest, was observed propenderance of termite mounds especially the small mounds that come in different architectural designs Plates 1-4. Among them is the humus feeding species. All are involved in nutrient cycling. The survey revealed different species of insects some of which are yet to properly clarified. This shows clearly that Omo Biosphere supports a large number of biodiversity of insects animals and plant species. It is very important that the Biosphere be maintained, adequately policed for future research and education development Constraint: We would like to appeal to the State government to assist to make the road plyable. There are very many difficult terrains which make movement to and from the forest very difficult. Only motor bikes could get to those areas which make them to charge exorbitant prices. Plate 1-5 Termite mounds in Etemi SNR.

Plate P: Termite mowns in Etemi SNR Plate Q: Termite mowns in Etemi SNR

Plate R: Termite mowns in Etemi SNR Plate S: Termite mowns in Etemi SNR

Plate T: Mound of Macrotermes.

Plate U: Log attacked by Ambrosia beetles at Tamitami

Plate V: Grubs extracted from wood at Tamitami Plate W: Grub extracted from wood at Erin Camp

Plate X: wooly aphids on Sterculia spp Plate Y : wooly aphids on a plant

Plate Z: Eriophid gall mite attack Plate Za: Attack by leaf minners

Table 6: Insect Species and their distribution in Omo Biosphere S/ ORDER FAMILY NAME OF SPECIES DISTRIBUTION N 1 Lepidoptera Nymphalidae Cymothoe theobene c 2 Lepidoptera Papilionidae Papilio zoroastres c 3 Lepidoptera Papilionidae Papilio pireua c 4 Lepidoptera Acraeidae Acraea rogersi c 5 Lepidoptera Nymphalidae Cymothoe haimodia c 6 Lepidoptera Danaidae Danus chrisipus- c 7 Lepidoptera Pieridae Mylothris rembina-Plozt c 8 Lepidoptera Acraeidae Acreae pharsalis Ward c 9 Lepidoptera Euryphe goniogramma c 10 Lepidoptera Lasiocampidae Precisi sophi c 11 Homoptera Ricanidae Pochazia fasciata c 12 Hemiptera Coreidae Aspavia testator F. c 13 Hemiptera Coreidae Leptocorisa sp. c 14 Hemiptera Coreidae Callibaphus loninostus D. c 15 Hymenoptera Coreidae Coleocentrus rufus c

16 Orthoptera Tettigonidae Homorocoryphus c 17 Orthoptera Mantidae Homorocoryphus c 18 Odonata Libellidae Libella spp c 19 Odonata Libellidae Erythemis simplicicolis say c 20 Hymenoptera Formicidae Oecophyla longinoda Latr c 21 Homoptera Coccidae Xerya nigroarealata Newt c 22 Orthoptera Acrididae Catantops spissus c 23 Orthoptera Acrididae Catantops melanostictus c schamm 24 Hymenoptera Formicidae Componotus abdominalis c 25 Hymenoptera Formicidae Componotus spp a,b,c 26 Lepidoptera Acraeidae Acraea eponia Cr a,b,c 27 Tricoptera Limnephilidae Platycentropus radiates Say c 28 Hymenoptera Formicidae Megaponera sp a,b,c 29 Hymenoptera Formicidae Crematogaster sp a,b,c 30 Hymenoptera Vespidae Balanogaster junues F a,b,c 31 Orthoptera Pygoomorphidae Zonocerus variegates F a 32 Hemiptera Coreidae Anoplocnemis curvipes F a,b,c 33 Hemiptera Coreidae Dysdercus superstitiosus a,b,c 34 Hymenoptera Doctylurina Staudinger Grib a 35 Hymenoptera Apidae Apis millefera adasoni a,b,c 36 Diptera Muscidae Musca domestica a,b,c 37 Diptera Sarcophagidae Sarcophaga tibilis a,b,c 38 Diptera Calliphoridae Crysomyia chloropyga a,b,c 39 Hemiptera Coreidae Leptoglosus cleapealis a 40 Hemiptera Coreidae Riptotus dentipes F a,b,c 41 Hemiptera Coreidae Nezara viridula a,b,c 42 Lepidoptera Phyralidea Margaronia elialis a,b,c 43 Neuroptera Chrysopidae Chrysopa oculat say a 44 Odonata Coengrionidae Argia sp a,b,c 45 Isoptera Termitidae Pseudacanthotermes miltaris a hagan 46 Isoptera Termitidae Amitermes evuncifer silvetri a 47 Isoptera Termitidae Neotermes aburiensis a 48 Isoptera Termitidae Macrotermes-subhyalinus- a Ramb 49 Isoptera Termitidae Microcerotermes fuscotibialis a (Sjostedt) 50 Isoptera Termitidae Nasutitermes arborum a 51 Isoptera Termitidae Cubitermes fungifaber a (Sjostedt) 52 Coleoptera Elateridae Ctenicera noxia Hyslop a 53 Coleoptera Bostrychidae Heterobostrychus brunneus a Marr 54 Orthoptera Gryllidae Gymnogryllus lucens Walker a 55 Coleoptera Buprestidae Melanophila spp a,b,c 56 Coleoptera Buprestidae Dicerca sp b,c 57 Homoptera Psyllidae Psylla sp b,c

58 Homoptera Coccidae Lecanium sp b,c 59 Acaridei Eriophydae Acaria spp b,c 60 Lepidoptera Nymphalidae Argynnisselene b 61 Lepidoptera Acraeidae Colias eurytheme boisduval b 62 Lepidoptera Pieridae Leptosia medusa medusa b 63 Lepidoptera Pyralidae Margaronia baldersolis Wk b 64 Lepidoptera Pieridae Belenois calypso b 65 Lepidoptera Pieridae Anopheis creona b 66 Lepidoptera Nymphalidae Cymotheo hyarbita b 67 Lepidoptera Nymphalidae Cymotheo preussi b 68 Lepidoptera Papilionidae Papilio cypraeofila b 69 Lepidoptera Nymphalidae Hypolimnas dubius De b Beauvais 70 Diptera Culicidae Anopheles a,b,c 71 Diptera Culicidae Aedes sp a,b,c

Other Arthropods (Spiders) 1 Araneida Theridiidae Latrodectus sp a,b,c 2 Araneida Thomisidae Misumenops sp a,b,c 3 Araneida Araneidae Nephila Clavipes a,b,c 4 Spirobolida Narceus Narceus spp (Millipede) a,b,c 5 Scolopendromorpha scolopendridae Scolopendra spp (Centipede) a,b,c

Table 2: Insect Species from light trap in Omo Biosphere S/ ORDER FAMILY NAME OF SPECIES DISTRIBUT N ION 1 Lepidoptera Noctuidae Mallocampa schlzei Auriv a 2 Lepidoptera Phyralidae Margaronia baldersolis Wk a 3 Lepidoptera Phyralidae Hypsipyla robusta a 59

4 Trichoptera Limnephilidae Platycontropus radiates a 5 Trichoptera Hydroptilidae Hydroptila sp a 6 Homoptera Cicadidae Cicada sp a 7 Lepidoptera Noctuidae Crypyoblabes a 8 Diptera Culicidae Anophele a 9 Diptera Aedes Aede sp a 10 Hymenoptera Formicidae Camponotus spp a 11 Lepidoptera Noctuidae Sthenopsis argenteomaculatus a

Table 8: Checklist Of Miicroarthropods In The Study Area Mites Pilizeterz Oppia Ifaploterz Tecncedheus Eremulus Scheloribates Annectararcus Nothrus Rhodacarus Machdobelbata 60

Prosricimata Arithounon grouns Japy ( bristle tail) Ants Chilorods Thysanoptera Spring tails Crytopygus Cyphoderus Dicranocontrus Isonmndes Lepidocyrus Paraella Bacteri Staphylococcus aures Bacillus soecies Cloynebactarium Xenosis Fungi Aspenicillum spector Rhizinins Neurosspora Cladosporium Nematode Melodogyne larva Helicotylenchus dishysteria Monolaimus caleatus Eutylenchus sp Rotylenchus sp Xidhinema Setaride

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