Anatol Rapoport (May 22, 1911-January

Systems Research and Behavioral Science Syst. Res. 24,655^658(2007) Published online inWiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com) DOI:10.1002/sres.833

& Obituary

Anatol Rapoport (May 22, 1911–January 20, 2007): Pioneer of Systems Theory and Peace Research, Mathematician, Philosopher and Pianist

Anatol Rapoport was one of the great universal Thereafter he had an international career as a thinkers of the 20th century. concert pianist, both performing and lecturing on the semantics of music in Europe and the Americas. In 1941, Rapoport received a Ph.D. degree in mathematics at the University of Chicago. During World War II he served in the U.S. Air Force in Alaska and India. Shortly after the War he became a member of the Committee on Mathematical Biology at the University of Chicago (1947–1954) and of the Center for Advanced Studies in the Behavioral Sciences (Stanford, California) during the initial years of As the author of approximately 500 publi- its existence. In this phase, he concentrated on cations of which about 25 are books available in mathematical biophysics, founded by his teacher 10 languages, he spearheaded many scientific Nicolas Rashevsky. In his first publication, innovations, among them the use of mathemat- Rapoport developed a mathematical method ical research methods first in biology and later in for modelling parasitism and symbiosis. This the social sciences. Beyond that, Rapoport was pioneer study dealt with phenomena analogous one of the rare thinkers who contributed to what, in the context of human and social significantly to ‘marrying’ philosophy and systems, would occupy him for most of his science. The originality and rigour of his thinking professional life: Conflict and cooperation. make his theoretical oeuvre not only fecund but Early on his interest was very much a also unique in its ethical and aesthetic stature. meta-theoretical, epistemological one. This led Rapoport was a pioneer and leading figure of to his books Science and the Goals of Man (1950) the systems sciences, studies in conflict and and Operational Philosophy (1953), which cooperation and peace research. He operated addressed the question of whether human or from a multidimensional background of experi- social values can have a common basis, inde- ence and study, embodied a deeply humanistic pendently of modes of thoughts or feelings commitment and practiced a profoundly originating from different cultures. A lifelong systemic way of thinking. inquiry into this question (see also: The Origins of Born in Lozovaya, in today’s Ukraine, on 22 Violence, 1989) led Rapoport to postulate that a May, 1911, Anatol Rapoport came to the U.S.A. in universally shared view of what is ‘good’ and 1922, where he attended public schools. Later he ‘true’ is possible, thereby refuting the arguments studied music in both Chicago and Vienna of cultural relativism. (1929–1934), concluding his studies of compo- In his search for invariants Rapoport exten- sition, piano and conducting at the State sively cultivated the dialogue across disciplines. Academy of Music and Performing Arts (Staat- In 1954, together with the biologist Ludwig von sakademie fu¨ r Musik und darstellende Kunst). Bertalanffy, the physiologist Ralph Waldo Ger-

Copyright # 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. OBITUARY Syst. Res. ard, and the economist Kenneth Boulding, he that this result corroborates Jesus’s prophecy in founded the Society for General Systems Research, the Sermon on the Mount that ‘the meek... shall later renamed International Society for the Systems inherit the earth’ (Matthew 5.5; cf.: Anatol Sciences. Essentially this society has aimed at Rapoport, Gewissheiten und Zweifel, 1994: 255). overcoming the growing isolation of specialized From 1970 onwards, the University of Toronto disciplines. The discourse that grew out of this was Rapoport’s academic base, where he served transdisciplinary effort eventually led to remark- as both Professor of Psychology and Mathematics able achievements by Rapoport’s associates and and as Professor for Peace and Conflict Studies. colleagues, typically based on the connection of On the one hand, much of his earlier work was illuminating metaphors with rigorous scientific deepened during his Canadian tenure, for analysis (e.g., James Grier Miller, Living Systems; example, work in Karl Deutsch, The Nerves of Government). the application of mathematical methods to the From 1955 to 1970, Rapoport was Professor of humanities (Mathematische Methoden in den Mathematical Biology and Senior Research Sozialwissenschaften, 1983; Mathematical Mathematician at the University of Michigan, Methods in the Social and Behavioral Sciences, Ann Arbor. That phase bred seminal contri- 1984;) butions to game theory, condensed into six books general semantics, treated from an evolutionist which included Fights, Games, and Debates (1960), perspective (Semantics, 1975) probably his most widely read opus. game theory (The 2 Â 2 Game, with M. Geyer From his first publications Rapoport derived and D. Gordon, 1976) two principles, (a) that cooperation among systems theory (General System Theory, 1984) individuals can be stable or unstable, and (b) decision theory (Decision Theory and Decision that cooperation can breed a ‘dividend’. Based on Behavior, 1989 and 1998) these principles, he carried out extensive theoretical and empirical studies (in part together with Albert M. Chammah), with special emphasis on On the other hand, his game theoretical studies non-zero-sum-games, which are typical for the in a systemic framework almost naturally led economic domain. One of the theoretical ‘har- Rapoport’s research endeavour into issues vests’ of this work is a general strategy of related to ecology (Conflict in Man-made Environ- interaction for iterated Prisoner’s Dilemma ment, 1974), and, most prominently, into peace games. This strategy, denominated Tit-for-Tat, research (The Origins of Violence, 1989; Peace, is based on the combined principles of coopera- an Idea Whose Time has Come, 1993). He went on tiveness (‘goodwill’), retaliation and forgiveness. publishing and teaching widely on theories and Although classified as ‘semi-weak’, it won two techniques of conflict resolution, in particular on tournaments against multiple other strategies, the international and ideological levels, as well as outperforming all the other aggressive (‘strong’) building up the initiative ‘Science for Peace’. For as well as ‘weak’ counterparts. Although the many years he worked on what he considered to Tit-for-Tat strategy cannot possibly win the be the crucial global problem: Aggression in iterated Prisoners’ Dilemma in an encounter general and the confrontations of superpowers in with another single strategy, none the less it particular. Rapoport also served in a wide variety has—following the principle that ‘weakness is of capacities as speaker and consultant to strength’—the best chance to come out as overall scientific institutions and conferences all over victor in a tournament of all against all (for the world. He was a guest professor at univer- details, see Robert Axelrod. The Evolution of sities in Austria, Denmark, Germany, Japan and Cooperation, 1984; Anatol Rapoport, Paradoxe der Switzerland, and also served as the Director of Entscheidungstheorie, 19951). Rapoport points out the Institute of Advanced Studies in Vienna (1980–1984).

1Published in: Martinsen R., ed. 1995. Das Auge der Wissenschaft. Zur Anatol Rapoport was the editor of General Emergenz von Realita¨t, Baden-Baden: Nomos. Systems, an associate editor of the journals

Behavioral Science, Journal of Conflict Resolution, and thorough empirical testing throughout. ETC.: A Review of General Semantics, and member Besides their substantiality and innovativeness, of the editorial boards of at least 10 journals. He one of the extraordinary qualities conveyed by was also active in numerous scientific associ- Anatol Rapoport’s publications is their jargon- ations and initiatives.2 free style. In his later works the sensitive reader Finally, Rapoport has been awarded the will ‘hear’ a scientist, a philosopher and an artist following high honours: the Lenz International speaking with one and the same voice. This is the Peace Research Prize, the Harold D. Lasswell case, for example, in his last book (Conversations Award for Distinguished Scientific Contributions with Three Russians, 2005), ‘a fascinating sum of to Political Psychology, and a wide array of insights’3 and synthesis of his thinking. honorary doctorates: of Humane Letters (Uni- Anatol Rapoport died in Toronto, on January versity of Western Michigan), of Laws (Univer- 20, 2007, in his 96th year. sity of Toronto), of Science (Royal Military College) and of Sociology (University of Bern). Anatol Rapoport’s titanic work is an exceed- ingly rich testimony to his sustained and infatiguable commitment to the highest of ethical Publications by Anatol Rapoport standards. Throughout that work he implicitly advocated for the underprivileged and fought all Books kinds of, violence, exploitation, corruption and Science and the Goals of Man, 1950 the manipulation of persons—never in the naive Operational Philosophy, 1953 (also in German) modes of reductionism, but always on system- Fights, Games, and Debates, 1960 (in several ic-holistic grounds and in terms of cogent languages) theoretical argumentation. Strategy and Conscience, 1964 In his theoretical models he creatively explored Prisoner’s Dilemma (with A.M. Chammah), new dimensions of rationality and therewith 1965 opened hitherto unknown paths towards higher Two-Person Game Theory, 1966 quality of life, peace and the survival of N-Person Game Theory, 1970 humanity, for example, by The Big Two. Soviet American Perceptions of reframing ‘absolute’ and ‘relative’ as comp- Foreign Policy, 1971 lementary, not antagonistic concepts; Conflict in Man-made Environment, 1974 cogent differentiation between the logics of Semantics, 1975 (also German) individual and collective rationality; The 2 Â 2 Game (with M. Geyer and d. Gordon), developing a theoretical framework for unify- 1976 ing philosophy/ethics and science; Mathematische Methoden in den Sozialwis- elaborating innovative systemic strategies for senschaften, 1983 conflict and cooperation. Mathematical Methods in the Social and Behavioral Sciences, 1984 General System Theory, 1986 (also in German) Rapoport’s theory building was achieved by an The Origins of Violence, 1989 (also in German) intriguing combination of unorthodox yet rigor- Decision Theory and Decision Behavior, 1989 ous (although never rigid) conceptual thinking (second revised edition 1998) Canada and the World (with Anthony Rapoport), 2American Academy of Arts and Sciences; Council Study Committee 1992 on Ethics and Responsibilities of Scientists (chairman 1966–1968), American Association for the Advancement of Science, American Peace, an Idea Whose Time Has Come, 1993 (also Mathematical Society, Mathematical Association of America, the Bio- in German and Russian) metric Society, Society for General Systems Research (president 1966), International Society for General Semantics (president 1953–1955), Canadian Peace Research and Education Association (president 3Felix Philipp Ingold, Professor of Russian Language and Culture, in 1972–1975), Science for Peace (president 1984–1986). his endorsement to the book.

Gewissheiten und Zweifel, 1994 (also in Russian Game Theory as a Theory of Conﬂict Resolution, and English,—see below) ed. by Anatol Rapoport, 1974 Certainties and Doubts, 2000 The Structure of Awareness, translation of Skating on Thin Ice, 2002 Koﬂiktuyushchie Struktury by V.A. Lefebvre, 1977 Conversations with Three Russians—Tolstoy, Non-antagonistic Games, translation of Igry s Dostoevsky, Lenin. A Systemic View on Two Nieprotivopolozhnymi Interesami by Yu.B. Germe- Centuries of Societal Evolution, 2005 ier, 1986 Books by Anatol Rapoport have been trans- Journal articles: about 400 lated into Chinese, Dutch, French, German, Entries in encyclopedias: about 10 Italian, Japanese, Portuguese, Russian and Chapters contributed to books: about 40. Spanish.

Edited Volumes and Translations Markus Schwaninger Clausewitz, C. von, On War, 1968 University of St. Gallen, Switzerland