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Home , Anamudi, Biligiriranga Hills, Doddabetta, Goa Gap, Kalsubai, Kottamala

Notion Press

Old No. 38, New No. 6 McNichols Road, Chetpet - 600 031

First Published by Notion Press 2016 Copyright © D. Raveendranathan 2016 All Rights Reserved.

ISBN 978-1-945621-72-7

This book has been published with all efforts taken to make the material error-free after the consent of the author. However, the author and the publisher do not assume and hereby disclaim any liability to any party for any loss, damage, or disruption caused by errors or omissions, whether such errors or omissions result from negligence, accident, or any other cause.

No part of this book may be used, reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written permission from the author, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews. Contents

Foreword ix Preface xi Acknowledgements xiii

1. Formation of 1 2. Sahyadhris, Nilgiris, Anamalai Hills 7 3. Highest Peaks in the Western Ghats 13 4. Large Hydroelectric Projects and Major 19 5. Well Known Water Falls 21 6. Hottest Biodiversity Hotspots 23 7. Flora and Fauna 25 8. Unesco’s World Heritage Sites 29 9. An Area under Constant Threat 37 10. Wildlife Sanctuaries and National Parks in the Western Ghats 43 11. Birding Tour - Western Ghats Endemics 47 12. Waterbodies 55 13. Rivers of Western Ghats 57 14. Mineral Deposits 71 15. Water Resources Project 75 Contents

16. Conflicts in the Krishna Basin over River Waters 87 17. Western Ghats Rivers in 109 18. Dams in Cauvery 113 19. Western Ghats Rivers in 127 20. Western Ghats Rivers in 139 21. Dams in Tamil Nadu 145 22. Dams in Kerala 155 23. Hydro Electric Projects in Kerala 165 24. Dams in Karnataka 169 25. Hydro Electric Projects in Karnataka 189 26. Hydro Electric Projects in 193 27. Dams in Maharashtra by Specifications 199 28. Dams in 217 29. Dams in 271 30. Controversial Issue of Mullperiyar 273 31. Dams and Hydroelectric Projects Construced in the Western Ghat Watershed Basins 281 32. Impact of Power Projects on Western Ghats 285 33. Hydroelectric Projects and Reservoirs; Global Warming and Scarcity of Water 287 34. Western Ghats Development Programme 295 35. Western Ghats Hot Spots and Its Importance 299 36. Western Ghats High Level Working Group Madhav Gadgil and Kasturirengan Reports 305 37. Green and Organic Missions 323 38. Ecosystems Conservation and Wildlife Protection in the Western Ghats 329 39. Medicinal Plants of Western Ghats 337 40. Coffee, Tea, Rubber etc in the Western Ghats 355

vi Contents

41. Carbon Sequestration 363 42. Consolidation of Forests 365 43. Types of Forests Found in India – Explained! 367 44. Biosphere Reserves in the Western Ghats 381 45. Effect of Ultraviolet Rays during 2016 Summer 403 46. Interstate Water Disputes 411 47. Tree Honorarium 421

References 425

vii

Chapter-1 Formation of Western Ghats

he Western Ghats (WG) or the Sahyadri is the majestic mountain range Ton the fringes of the west coast of India extending spellbound and bounteous services not only to India, but also for the whole world. It is a mega carbon sink and the whole world is bound to protect the Western Ghats by all means for controlling the climatic conditions even including the rainfall pattern. It is one among the seven great mountain ranges in the country and is next to the . Its landscape is unique in terms of geology, biology, ecology, hydrology and silviculture. The mountain range extends from in the north to Kanyakumari in the south and traverses through Six States viz. Maharashtra, Gujarat, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Its geology and geomorphology coupled with high rainfall make the Western Ghats as one of the most ecologically diversified landscapes. Earth was formed around 4.54 billion years ago by accretion from the solar nebula. Volcanic outgassing probably created the primordial atmosphere then the ocean, but the atmosphere contained almost no oxygen so would have been toxic to most modern life including humans. Much of the Earth was molten because of frequent collisions with other bodies which led to extreme volcanism. One very large collision is thought to have been responsible for forming the Moon. Over time, the Earth cooled, causing the formation of a solid crust, and allowing liquid water to exist on the surface. The first life forms appeared between 3.8 and 3.5 billion years ago. The earliest evidences for life on Earth are graphite found to be biogenic Western Ghats and the Bounteous Services Showered on the Planet in 3.7-billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks discovered in Western Greenland and microbial mat fossils found in 3.48-billion-year-old sandstone discovered in Western Australia. Photosynthetic life appeared around 2 billion years ago, enriching the atmosphere with oxygen. Life remained mostly small and microscopic until about 580 million years ago, when complex multicellular life arose. During the Cambrian period it experienced a rapid diversification into most major phyla. More than 99 percent of all species, amounting to over five billion species, which ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct. Estimates on the number of Earth’s current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which about 1.2 million have been documented and over 86 percent have not yet been described. The continuity of mountain chains provide further evidence for Pangaea. One example of this is the Appalachian Mountains chain which extends from the southeastern United States to the Caledonides of Ireland, Britain, Greenland, and Scandinavia. There were three major phases in the break-up of Pangaea. The first phase began in the Early-Middle Jurassic (about 175 million years), when Pangaea began to rift from the Tethys Ocean in the east to the Pacific in the west. The rifting that took place between North America and Africa produced multiple failed rifts. One rift resulted in a new ocean, the North Atlantic Ocean. The Atlantic Ocean did not open uniformly; rifting began in the north- central Atlantic. The South Atlantic did not open until the Cretaceous when Laurasia started to rotate clockwise and moved northward with North America to the north, and Eurasia to the south. The clockwise motion of Laurasia led much later to the closing of the Tethys Ocean. Meanwhile, on the other side of Africa and along the adjacent margins of east Africa, Antarctica and Madagascar, new rifts were forming that would lead to the formation of the southwestern that would open up in the Cretaceous. The second major phase in the break-up of Pangaea began in the Early Cretaceous (150–140 million years), when the minor supercontinent of Gondwana separated into multiple continents (Africa, South America, India, Antarctica, and Australia). The subduction at Tethyan Trench

2 D. Raveendranathan probably caused Africa, India and Australia to move northward, causing the opening of a “South Indian Ocean.” In the Early Cretaceous, Atlantica, today’s South America and Africa, finally separated from eastern Gondwana (Antarctica, India and Australia). Then in the Middle Cretaceous, Gondwana fragmented to open up the South Atlantic Ocean as South America started to move westward away from Africa. The South Atlantic did not develop uniformly; rather, it rifted from south to north. Also, at the same time, Madagascar and India began to separate from Antarctica and moved northward, opening up the Indian Ocean. Madagascar and India separated from each other 100–90 million years in the Late Cretaceous. India continued to move northward toward Eurasia at 15 centimeters (6 in) a year (a plate tectonic record), closing the eastern Tethys Ocean, while Madagascar stopped and became locked to the African Plate. New Zealand, New Caledonia and the rest of Zealandia began to separate from Australia, moving eastward toward the Pacific and opening the Coral Sea and Tasman Sea. The third major and final phase of the break-up of Pangaea occurred in the early Cenozoic (Paleocene to Oligocene). Laurasia split when North America/Greenland (also called Laurentia) broke free from Eurasia, opening the Norwegian Sea about 60–55 million years. The Atlantic and Indian Oceans continued to expand, closing the Tethys Ocean. Meanwhile, Australia split from Antarctica and moved rapidly northward, just as India had done more than 40 million years before. Australia is currently on a collision course with eastern Asia. Both Australia and India are currently moving northeast at 5–6 centimeters (2–3 in) a year. Antarctica has been near or at the South Pole since the formation of Pangaea about 280 million years. India started to collide with Asia beginning about 35 million years, forming the Himalayan orogeny, and also finally closing the Tethys Sea way; this collision continues today. The African Plate started to change directions, from west to northwest toward Europe, and South America began to move in a northward direction, separating it from Antarctica and allowing complete oceanic circulation around Antarctica for the first time. This motion, together with decreasing atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations, caused a rapid cooling of Antarctica and allowed glaciers to form. This glaciation eventually coalesced into the kilometers-thick

3 Western Ghats and the Bounteous Services Showered on the Planet ice sheets seen today. Other major events took place during the Cenozoic, including the opening of the Gulf of California, the uplift of the Alps, and the opening of the Sea of Japan. The break-up of Pangaea continues today in the Red Sea Rift and East African Rift. The Western Ghats was the oldest formation of earth moved northward from Antarctica when compared to Himalayas with diversity of fauna and flora having many rivers with permanent and perennial water sources and valleys. The river banks are rigid than the river banks of Himalayan region; the chances of changing the river courses and flood havocs are very minimum within the Western Ghats.

Nilgiris- The Western Ghats or Sahyadri is a mountain range that runs parallel to the western coast of the Indian peninsula, located entirely in India. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and is one of the “hottest hotspots” of biological diversity in the world. It is sometimes called the Great Escarpment of India. The range runs north to south along the western edge of the , and separates the plateau from a narrow

4 D. Raveendranathan coastal plain, called , along the . A total of thirty nine properties including national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and reserve forests were designated as world heritage sites - eighteen in Kerala, ten in Karnataka, seven in Tamil Nadu and four in Maharashtra. The range starts near the border of Gujarat and Maharashtra, south of the Tapti river, and runs approximately 1,600 km (990 mi) through the states of Maharashtra, Goa, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu ending at Kanyakumari, at the southern tip of India. These hills cover 160,000 km2 (62,000 sq mi) and form the catchment area for complex riverine drainage systems that drain almost 40% of India. The Western Ghats block southwest winds from reaching the Deccan Plateau. The average elevation is around 1,200 m (3,900 ft).

5

Chapter-2 Sahyadhris, Nilgiris, Anamalai Hills

Sahyadhris The major hill range starting from the north is the Sahyadhri (the benevolent mountains) range. This range is home to many hill stations, including , -, , , , and Kodagu. The range is known as Sahyadri in Maharashtra and Karnataka and as Sahya Parvatham in Kerala.

Bhiman Gudda near Sirsi, Karnataka Western Ghats and the Bounteous Services Showered on the Planet

Nilgiris The are in Northwestern Tamil Nadu and are home to the town of . The southeast of in Karnataka, meet the Shevaroys and Tirumala range farther east, linking the Western Ghats to the .

Anamalai Hills South of the Palghat Gap are the Anamalai Hills, located in western Tamil Nadu and Kerala. There are smaller ranges further south, including the Hills, then Aryankavu pass, Aralvaimozhi pass near Kanyakumari. In the southern part of the range is peak 2,695 metres (8,842 ft) in Kerala the highest peak in Western Ghats. 2,100 metres (6,890 ft), Banasura Peak 2,073 metres (6,801 ft), 2,200 metres (7,218 ft) and Agasthya mala 1,868 metres (6,129 ft) are also in Kerala. in the Nilgiri Hills is 2,637 metres (8,652 ft). Mullayanagiri is the highest peak in Karnataka 1,950 metres (6,398 ft). The Western Ghats in Kerala and Tamil Nadu is home to many tea and coffee plantations.

Shola and forests in the Kudremukh National Park, Western Ghats, Karnataka

8 D. Raveendranathan

Annual rainfall along the Western Ghat region

9 Western Ghats and the Bounteous Services Showered on the Planet

Poomparai village in the foothills of Western Ghats, Tamil Nadu

Devimane Ghat near Sirsi, Karnataka

10 D. Raveendranathan

Sathodi Falls near Sirsi, Karnataka

11

Chapter-3 Highest Peaks in the Western Ghats

Following is a list of some of the highest peaks of the Western Ghats:

Rank Name Elevation (m) Location 01. Anaimudi 2695 , Kerala 02. Mannamalai 2659 Idukki, Kerala 03. Meesapulimala 2640 Idukki, Kerala 04. Doddabetta 2637 Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu 05. Kolaribetta 2629 National Park, Tamil Nadu 06. Mukurthi 2554 , Tamil Nadu 07. 2553 Hills, , Tamil Nadu

08. Kattumala 2552 Eravikulam National Park, Kerala 09. Anginda peak 2383 Silent Valley National Park, Kerala (Contd.) Western Ghats and the Bounteous Services Showered on the Planet

Rank Name Elevation (m) Location 10. Vavulmala 2339 Vellarimala, Kerala 11. Kodaikanal 2133 Kodaikanal, Tamil Nadu

12. Chembra Peak 2100 Wayanad, Kerala 13. Elivai Mala 2088 , Kerala 14. Banasura Peak 2073 Wayanad, Kerala 15. 2019 National Park, Kerala

16. Mullayanagiri 1930 Chikmagalur, Karnataka

17. Devarmala 1923 Achenkovil, Kerala 18. Baba Budangiri 1895 Chikmagalur, Karnataka

19. Kudremukh 1894 Chikmagalur, Karnataka

20. Agasthyamala 1868 , Kerala

21. Biligiriranga Hills 1800 , Karnataka

22. Velliangiri 1778 , Tamil Mountains Nadu 23. 1748 Kodagu, Karnataka 24. Kumara Parvata 1712 Dakshina , Karnataka

25. 1712 Pushpagiri Wildlife Sanctuary, Karnataka 26. Merthi Gudda 1676 Hornadu, Karnataka

14 D. Raveendranathan

Rank Name Elevation (m) Location 27. 1648 , Maharashtra

28. 1608 Kodagu, Karnataka 29. Kote Betta 1620 Kodagu, Karnataka 30. 1567 , Maharashtra 31. 1525 Kodagu, Karnataka 32. 1472 Nashik, Maharashtra 33. Himavad 1450 Chamarajanagar, Gopalaswamy Betta Karnataka 34. Taramati 1431 Ahmednagar, Maharashtra

35. 1405 , Maharashtra

36. Purandar fort 1387 Pune, Maharashtra

37. 1346 Raigad, Maharashtra

38. 1343 Shimoga, Karnataka

39. Paitalmala 1343 Kudiyanmala, Kerala

15 Western Ghats and the Bounteous Services Showered on the Planet

View from Varandha Pass showing the numerous waterfalls in Kongan

Nilgiris, a part of Western Ghats From Masinangudi

16 D. Raveendranathan

Western Ghats as seen from Poovankurichi, Tirunelveli

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