.\I Kenneth Burke .veil illustrates some of the 1897-1993 fts of meaning. An im- 1ong its aims an improved ~ perhaps a list of some of Much of Kenneth Burke's voluminous work over more than fifty years has been y help us in avoiding mis- an attempt to redefine and expand the scope of rhetorical analysis and to apply it to all forms of language use. His chief contributions have been in developing rhetori­ cal literary criticism and in analyzing the ways in which language systems-philo­ :ive sense is "the entire sophical, political, literary, and religious-describe and influence human motives. vers which the word can His early works, Counter-Statement (I 931) and The Philosophy of Litera1y Fann B~.-tC.c..l ... h.r Jment of communication (1941), develop the theory that literature is a form of symbolic action. In A Gram­ and in co-operation with 11 mar of Motives (1945), Burke presents the dramatistic pentad (act, scene, agent, o..ou,lJ "a H-1hul.. " (In this sense "Usage, undoubtedly controls lan- agency, and purpose) as a method of analyzing ways of talking about motives. In A tw.\(_L~ 1+- ~ Rhetoric of Motives (1950), he defines rhetoric as the use of language to form atti­ ~\(.\.-. I(.. :.,wer which, in a limited tudes and influence action. In later work, such as The Rhetoric of Religion (1961), s and with a limited type he presents elements of a proposed "symbolic" of motives, in which he examines the word normally ex­ the psychological effects produced by systems of rhetorical motivation. en caJled a use or sense Burke was born in Pittsburgh in 1897, attended Ohio State and Columbia Uni­ Dictionary attempts to versities very briefly, and joined the Bohemian group of writers in Greenwich Vil­ nitions, by giving other lage that included Hart Crane, e. e. cummings, Allen Tate, Edna St. Vincent Millay, md sentences with the and his childhood friend Malcolm Cowley. In the twenties, Burke worked for the er.) avant-garde magazine The Dial as music critic, book reviewer, and editor while , at a certain place in publishing poetry, short stories, essays, and reviews in a number of journals. During which may be appealed he word can have that the Great Depression, he became attached to but did not join the Communist party, delivering papers at the Writers' Congresses of 1935, 1937, and r939. He taught "proper" meaning that briefly at the New School for Social Research in the thirties and longer (from 1943 kept to (has in its own until 1961) at Bennington College and was visiting professor at a great many col­ Jtion is derived from 1 leges. In his long career, Burke was studied and lionized by scholars in many fields. mplification and a mis~ As one writer, Gregory S. Jay, put it, "He has lived to see his work repeatedly cele­ working of language brated, forgotten, and revived as each new generation and movement in criticism tlV\ .a.l .. 00l-'-J akes the meaning of a belatedly stumbles upon the traces of Burke in territories it thought were undiscov­ 4-.. .., t-kv'\-t. ~,;., l, mething built up from ered."' of its words-instead In Counter-Statement, Burke announced that "effective literature could be noth­ tt it is the other way ing else but rhetoric." In so saying, he opposed the aesthetic view of literature as po­ meanings of words are eanings of sentences in etic and contemplative, divorced from the world of action. Burke's critical theory­ fhis misconception as­ which anticipates elements of reader-response criticism, American Formalism, and s by which words have deconstruction-is that literary forms are best understood by their effects on read­ ermined with that by ers and that the study of rhetoric, much maligned by literary critics of the day, is !ir speJling determined precisely what is needed to understand the effects not only of literature but of all t large part of misinter- forms of discourse. The last section of Counter-Statement, the "Lexicon Rhetori­ cae," is an annotated list of literary-rhetorical terms intended as tools for applying Burke's method. In rehabilitating rhetoric for use in literary criticism, Burke classifies literature as a kind of persuasive discourse, and though he tinkers with definitions that

•Gregory S. Jay, "Burke Re-Marx," Pre/I'ext 6 (fall/winter 1985), p. 169.

KENNETH BURKE 1295 ¾i~l'IA~l-l~ b1 ~oot).. ~+Mk VV1o4-t,n¥1

( ont;n,e to d;st;ngu;,h "art" and "use" (that ;,, poet;, and ,hetorie), he eoneludes rhetoric. Burke's rhetm that rhetorical analysis is appropriately applied to every kind of writing and speak ­ \l\lh,t..~ i~ tions, religion, magic, a ing and may even be applied directly to the study of human relations. munication, seems to er '1Jho.l-"fI>'<. Burke was vigorously attacked by both literary critics and rhetoricians for mud­ to read Burke, his theor th, dling literature and nonliterature, poetic and rhetoric, language and life. He re­ able insights. The select sponded by propounding the theory that literature is a form or symbolic action, with offer. purposei. and effects in the field of human relations. In The Philosophy of Literal) ' Form: Studies in Symbolic Action, Burke argues that poetics is a subset of rhetoric. Literature and art, he says, have a hortatory or forensic function, especially in a cap­ Selected Bibliography italistic society, in which they often serve as propaganda. Our texts of A Grammar In A Grammar of Motives (excerpted here), Burke presents the dramatistic sys­ York, 1950) are the 1969 tem, which unifies rhetoric and poetic in a single analytical framework. In this sys­ language as Symbolic Act tem, one can study and compare statements about motives by examining how they versity of California Press. treat the dramatic elements of human relations: act, scene, agent, agency, and pur­ Other works by Burke pose. Burke asserts that this pentad of terms is intended as a way of analyzing not Change: An Anatomy of Pi actual human behavior but only descriptions of behavior. His concern is "primarily ies in Symbolic Action (Ba with the analysis of language rather than with the analysis of reality." The terms of (Boston, 1961), and Dram the pentad are not "forms of experience" but "forms of talk about experience." edited The Selected Corre (New York, 1988). Nonetheless, he often applies the dramatistic method as a form of sociological William H. Rueckert pr analysi~ and, in later works, such as language as Symbolic Action ( I 966, excerpted lent annotated bibliograph here), treats experience and language as completely interdependent. The bulk of A Human Relations, 2nd ed Grammar of Motives is taken up with analyses of common terms that arc typically Burke, 1924-1966 (Minnea used to attribute motives, analyses of philosophical systems that describe motives, Among the books that I and a long study of the meanings of dialectic. general review of his work Burke's own method is dialectical, although deconstructive may be a better term and Critiques (Seattle, 195 today for characterizing his practice of revealing contrary meanings in supposedly 1962); Merle Brown, Kenn positive terms and his emphasis on the way language "defeats" reality. For Burke, (New York, 1969). every epistemology has a key term, a "God-term," that names the fundamental More specifically focus< Burke's Theory," in Roots J ground of human action, as the name God does for religious epistemologies. These te,point: Kenneth Burke an terms and the language systems that surround them are the resources for rhetorical Hochmuth Nichols's "Kenn action. 38 !April 1952]: 133-44, r In A Rhetoric of Motives (excerpted here), Burke looks at how these resources R. Johannesen, Contempon are used to create "identification" with a group and its worldview. lde111ijicatio11 see Ross Winterowd's "Ke1 means to suggest more powerfully than persuasion the workings of rhetorical dis­ (Rhetoric Society Quarter course in everyday language. Burke examines the ways in which the terms used to "Kenneth Burke's Discove1 create identification work to include the members of a group in a common ideology, 1I). An ambitious study tra while at the same time excluding alternate terms, other groups, and competing ide­ his career and touching on a ologies. (His general observations on the nature of inclusion and exclusion are in­ Subjectivity, Postmodemisn cluded in our excerpt.) He then reviews the definitions of rhetoric given or implied works relating to rhetoric i and Philosophy of Langua by a number of philosophers, including Jeremy Bentham's critique of metaphoric (Tuscaloosa, Ala., 1995), a, deception, Blaise Pascal's analysis of Jesuit casuistry, and Karl Marx's demystifica­ ing Burke to Jiirgen Haberm tion of Hegelian idealism. Stanley Edgar Hyman's The whole enterprise of making a grammar, a rhetoric, and a symbolic of mo­ Study in the Methods of Mc tives is a way of analyzing systems of knowledge-primarily philosophy and poe­ confusion and dismay cause try but also science, psychology, and popular culture-from the point of view of focuses on Burke's Marxisrr

MODERN AND POSTMODERN RHETORIC 1d rhetoric), he concludes rhetoric. Burke's rhetoric, bound up in communities, communal ideas, social rela­ ind of writing and speak­ tions, religion, magic, and psychological effects, in both verbal and nonverbal com­ , relations. munication, seems to encompass almost everything. Although it i~ often frustrating ind rhetoricians for mud­ to read Burke, his theories are undeniably powerful and his analyses full of remark­ (: 0 '-" I c{ JoL c.Lu.r i.,_ mguage and life. He re- able insights. The selections reprinted here provide only a hint of what Burke has to o.s -1,. rosr;bt...... 1 of symbolic action, with offer. .56'-'r"Ll-l of ~ "J 1,1# 1 u.a 'e ~hilosophy of Literal) ' cs 1~ a subset of rhetoric. ;tion, especially in a cap- Selected Bibliography Our texts of A Gm111111arof Motil •e.1· (New York, 1945) and A Rhetoric of Motive ,\ (New ents the dramatistic sys- York, 1950) arc the 1969 edition~ hy the University of California Press. The excerpt from I framework. In this sys­ Language as Symbolic Action ( 1966) comes from the first edition, also published by the Uni­ by examining how they versity of California Pre,s. agent, agency, and pur­ Other work~ by Burke include Coull/er-Statement (New York, 1931), Pernumence and a way of analyzing not C/umge: An Anmomy of Purp11.1e (New York, 1935), The Philosophy of Literary Form: Stud ­ !is concern is "primarily ies in Symbolil" Action (Baton Rouge, 1941), The Rhetoric of Religion: St11die.1in Logology Jf reality." The terms of (Boston, 1961), and Dra111ati.1·111and Developmelll (Worcester, Mass., 1972). Paul Jay has talk about experience." edited The Selected Corre.\JHJ11denceof Kenneth Burke and Malrnlm Cowley, 1915- 1981 a form of sociological (New York, 1988). William H. Rueckert provide~ an exten~ive bibliography of Burke'~ work und an excel ­ Action ( 1966, excerpted lent annotated bibliography of works about Burke in Kenneth Burke and the Drama of pendent. The bulk of A H111m111Relatiom, 2nd ed. (Berkeley, 1982). Rueckert's Critical Responses to Ke111wth terms that are typically Burke, 1924- 1966 (Minneapolis, I 969) also contains valuable bibliographic note~. , that describe motives, Among the books that have been written about Burke, several combine biography and a general review of his works: George Knox, Critical Moments: Kenneth B11rke's Categories ve may be a better term and Critiq11es (Seattle, 1957); Hugh Duncan, Communication and Social Order (New York, neanings in supposedly 1962); Merle Brown, Kenneth Burke (Minneapolis, 1969); and Armin Frank, Kenneth Burke ats" reality. For Burke (New York, 1969). ' mmes the fundamental More specifically focused on rhetoric are Daniel Fogarty's introductory essay, "Kenneth epistemologies. These Burke's Theory," in Roots for a New Rhetoric (New York, 1959); Virginia Holland's Cow1- ·esources for rhetorical te17Joint: Kenneth B11rke and Aristotle's Theories of Rhetoric (New York, 1959); and Marie Hochmuth Nichols's "Kenneth Burke and the 'New Rhetoric"' (Quarterly Journal of Speech 38 [April 1952]: 133- 44, rpt. in Schwartz and Rycenga, The Province of Rhetoric, and in lt how these resources R. Johannesen, Conte111pora1)•Theories of Rhetoric). Among the many more recent articles, rldview. Identification see Ross Winterowd's "Kenneth Burke: An Annotated Glossary of His Tenninistic Screen" .:ings of rhetorical dis­ (Rhetoric Society Quarterly 15 [summer/fall 1985]: 145-77); and Michael Feehan's hich the terms used to "Kenneth Burke's Discovery of Dramatism" (Quarterly Journal of Speech 65 [1979): 405- n a common ideology, 11). An ambitious study tracking the development of Burke's rhetorical theories throughout is, and competing ide- his career and touching on a vast number of works is Robert Wess, Kenneth Burke: Rhetoric, and exclusion are in­ Subjectivity, Postmodemism (New York, 1996). An excellent summary of Burke's major toric given or implied works relating to rhetoric is Bernard L. Brock, "Evolution of Kenneth Burke's Criticism :ritique of metaphoric and Philosophy of Language," in Kenneth Burke and Co11tempormy European Thought ·I Marx's demystifica- (Tuscaloosa, Ala., 1995), a volume edited by Brock that contains five other chapters compar­ ing Burke to Jtirgen Habermas, Ernesto Grassi, Michel Foucault, and Jacques Derrida. Stanley Edgar Hyman's discussion of Burke's critical method in The Armed Vision: A 1d a symbolic of mo- Swdy in the Methods of Modem Litera1)' Criticism (New York, 1948) gives a sense of the philosophy and poe­ confusion and dismay caused by Burke's theories at their first appearance. Frank Lentricchia the point of view of focuses on Burke's Marxism in Criticism and Social Change (Chicago, 1983).

KENNETH BURKE 1297 Burke engaged in a three-way debate in the journal Critical Inquiry: Wayne Booth, finityoflines. Yetdesp r._c,... lcl b (, "Kenneth Burke's Way of Knowing," and Burke, "In Response to Booth; Dancing with tracery, the picture gai .,...,,..-H,,wl,,,t,., Tears in My Eyes" (both September 1974); Fredric Jameson, "The Symbolic Inference : or, simplicity, because on "·,'--\,. 'rt,,o< i I_. Kenneth Burke and Ideological Analysis" (spring 1978); Burke, "l'ylethodological Repression the generating principlt and/or Strategies of Containment" (winter 1978); and Jameson , "Critical Response : Ideology ally , is the case with ou and Symbolic Action" (winter 1978). -.:•,: I. g~nerating principle. It The quote from Gregory Jay is in a special edition of Pre/Text (fall/winter 1985) devoted kind of simplicity that c to Burke. siderable complexity, a beneath its elaborations. We want to inquire relationships which the From A Grammar of Motives another, considering thi formation, their range 0 binations-and then to sources figure in actual INTRODUCTION:THE FIVE answers to these five questions : what was done motives . Strictly speaki, KEY TERMS OF DRAMATISM (act), when or where it was done (scene), who mar of motives a conce did it (agent), how he did it (agency), and why without reference to the What is involved, when we say what people are (purpose). tentialities have been or doing and why they are doing it? An answer to If you ask why, with a whole world of terms statements about motive that question is the subject of this book. The to choose from, we select these rather than some could designate as "phik book is concerned with the basic forms of others as basic, our book itself is offered as the in which these grammati , thought which, in accordance with the nature of answer. For, to explain our position, we shall cally utilized. Random the world as all men necessarily experience it, show how it can be applied . ments about motives cou are exemplified in the attributing of motives. Act, Scene, Agent, Agency, Purpose. Al­ ments of a philosophy. These forms of thought can be embodied pro­ though, over the centuries, men have shown great One could think of thf foundly or trivially, truthfully or falsely . They enterprise and inventiveness in pondering matters as principles, and of the are equally present in systematically elaborated of human motivation, one can simplify the sub­ which apply t,J~ .... casuistries 1 metaphysical structures, in legal judgments, in ject by this pentad of key terms, which are under­ poral situations . For inst ~l;,.apoetry and fiction, in political and scientific standable almost at a glance. They need never to 11.S:;11'~ the term Scene simply ai it works, in news and in bits of gossip offered at be abandoned, since all statements that assign concept of background c random. motives can be shown to arise out of them and to name for any situation in We shall use five terms as generating prin­ terminate in them . By examining them quizzi­ placed. In our usage t ciples of our investigation. They are: Act, Scene, cally, we can range far; yet the terms are always "grammatical." And we' Agent, Agency, Purpose. In a rounded statement there for us to reclaim, in their everyday simplic­ "philosophy" when we no about motives, you must have some word that ity, their almost miraculous easiness, thus en­ "God" as his term for t names the act (names what took place, in thought abling us constantly to begin afresh. When they scene of human action a or deed), and another that names the scene (the might become difficult, when we can hardly see third uses "environmen~ " background of the act, the situation in which it them, through having stared at them too in­ of production," etc. A~d occurred); also, you must indicate what person or tensely, we can of a sudden relax, to look at them a~out the grammatical pr ~~ kind of person (agent) performed the act, what as we always have, lightly, glancingly. And hav­ might lay claim to a univ means or instruments he used (agency), and the ing reassured ourselves, we can start out again, r/1'-~C.., plete certainty, the choice \NM, \j pwpo se. Men may violently disagree about the once more daring to let them look strange and idiom embodying these pr J~- purposes behind a given act, or about the charac­ difficult for a time. open to question. Even be, ter of the person who did it, or how he did it, or In an exhibit of photographic murals (Road to ,r.tcw-lt. is to be discussed, we ca in what kind of situation he acted; or they may Victory) at the Museum of Modern Art, there was that a rounded discussior even insist upon totally different words to name an aerial photograph of two launches, proceeding contain a reference to som ~ the act itself. But be that as it may, any complete side by side on a tranquil sea. Their wakes ~ut s(nce each philosophic statement about motives will offer some kind of crossed and recrossed each other in almost an in- tze this background differe

MODERN AND POSTMODERN RHETORIC al Inquiry: Wayne Booth, finity of lines. Yet despite the intricateness of this the question as to which characterization is ,e to Booth; Dancing with tracery, the picture gave an impression of great "right" or "more nearly right." I' he Symbolic Inference: or, simplicity, because one could quickly perceive It is even likely that, whereas one philosophic Methodological Repression the generating principle of its design. Such, ide­ idiom offers the best calculus for one case, an­ ::=ritical Response: Ideology ally, is the case with our pentad of terms, used as other case answers best to a totally different cal­ generating principle. It should provide us with a culus. However, we should not think of "cases" (fall/winter 1985) devoted kind of simplicity that can be developed into con­ in too restricted a sense. Although, from the siderable complexity, and yet can be discovered standpoint of the grammatical principles inherent beneath its elaborations. in the internal relationships prevailing among our We want to inquire into the purely internal five terms, any given philosophy is to be consid­ relationships which the five terms bear to one ered as a casuistry, even a cultural situation ex­ another, considering their possibilities of trans­ tending over centuries is a "case," and would formation, their range of permutations and com­ probably require a much different philosophic binations - and then to see how these various re­ idiom as its temporizing calculus of motives than sources figure in actual statements about human would be required in the case of other cultural estions: what was done motives. Strictly speaking, we mean by a Gram­ situations. was done (scene), who mar of motives a concern with the terms alone, In our original plans for this project, we had rd it (agency), and why without reference to the ways in which their po­ no notion of writing a "Grammar" at all. We tentialities have been or can be utilized in actual began with a theory of comedy, applied to a trea­ a whole world of terms statements about motives. Speaking broadly we tise on human relations. Feeling that competitive t these rather than some could designate as "philosophies" any statements ambition is a drastically overdeveloped motive in : itself is offered as the in which these grammatical resources are specifi­ the modern world, we thought this motive might our position, we shall cally utilized. Random or unsystematic state­ be transcended if men devoted themselves not so :d. ments about motives could be considered as frag­ much to "excoriating" it as to "appreciating" it. Agency, Purpose. Al­ ments of a philosophy. Accordingly, we began taking notes on the ' men have shown great One could think of the Grammatical resources foibles and antics of what we tended to think of :ss in pondering matters as principles, and of the various philosophies as as "the Human Barnyard." ,. e can simplify the sub­ casuistries which apply these principles to tem­ We sought to formulate the basic stratagems terms, which are under­ poral situations. For instance, we may examine which people employ, in endless variations, and tce. They need never to the term Scene simply as a blanket term for the consciously or unconsciously, for the outwitting statements that assign concept of background or setting in general, a or cajoling of one another. Since all these devices :uise out of them and to name for any situation in which acts or agents are had a "you and me" quality about them, being irnmining them quizzi­ placed. In our usage, this concern would be "addressed" to some person or to some advan­ et the terms are always "grammatical." And we move into matters of tage, we classed them broadly under the heading their everyday simplic­ "philosophy" when we note that one thinker uses of a Rhetoric. There were other notes, concerned ous easiness, thus en­ "God" as his term for the ultimate ground or with modes of expression and appeal in the fine :gin afresh. When they scene of human action, another uses "nature," a arts, and with purely psychological or psychoan­ •hen we can hardly see third uses "environment," or "history," or "means alytic matters. These we classed under the head­ ared at them too in­ of production," etc. And whereas a statement ing of Symbolic. n relax, to look at them about the grammatical principles of motivation We had made still further observations, which ', glancingly. And hav- might lay claim to a universal validity, or com­ we at first strove uneasily to class under one or 1/e can start out again, plete certainty, the choice of any one philosophic the other of these heads, but which we were :hem look strange and idiom embodying these principles is much more eventually able to distinguish as the makings of a open to question. Even before we know what act Grammar. For we found in the course of writing raphic murals (Road to is to be discussed, we can say with confidence that our project needed a grounding in formal Modem Art, there was that a rounded discussion of its motives must considerations logically prior to both the rhetori­ o launches, proceeding contain a reference to some kind of background. cal and the psychological. And as we proceeded uil sea. Their wakes But since each philosophic idiom will character­ with this introductory groundwork, it kept ex­ t other in almost an in- ize this background differently, there will remain tending its claims until it had spun itself from an ~--· BURKE I A GRAMMAR OF MOTIVES 1299 ~ tv.t,lh---- ... --n-1 ~ 1 l~ <\."""~ h--~ .!:,,-,·u.~.... t· •

\ (I.('_ 'V'- -~ .,,~""'"'

intended few hundred words into nearly 200,000, cannot apply the same term to both of them with­ Our tenn, "Agent. of which the present book is revision and abridg­ out thereby introducing a certain margin of ambi­ heading that might, i ment. guity, an ambiguity as great as the difference be­ ther subdivision, as ~ Theological, metaphysical, and juridical doc­ tween the two subjects that are given the modified (hence par trines offer the best illustration of the concerns identical title. And all the more may you expect (co-agents) or enerni we place under the heading of Grammar; the to find ambiguity in terms so "titular" as to be­ under "Agent" one forms and methods of art best illustrate the con­ come the marks of a philosophic school, or even properties that are ass cerns of Symbolic; and the ideal material to re­ several philosophic schools. Hence, instead of such as "ideas," "the , veal the nature of Rhetoric comprises observa­ considering it our task to "dispose of" any ambi­ tuition," "the creativ1 tions on parliamentary and diplomatic devices, guity by merely disclosing the fact that it is an painter may treat the editorial bias, sales methods, and incidents of so­ ambiguity, we rather consider it our task to study agent (an expression cial sparring. However, the three fields overlap and clarify the resources of ambiguity. For in the materialistic medicine considerably. And we shall note, in passing, how course of this work, we shall deal with many a purely "objective m the Rhetoric and the Symbolic hover about the kinds of tran~formation-and it is in the areas point of view it could edges of our central theme, the Grammar. of ambiguity that transformations take place; in means by which one ! A perfectionist might seek to evolve terms fact, without such areas, transformation would be large. Machines are 0 free of ambiguity and inconsistency (as with the impossible. Distinctions, we might say, arise out is, Agencies); yet in th terministic ideals of symbolic logic and logical of a great central moltenness, where all is constitute the industria positivism). But we have a different purpose in merged. They have been thrown from a liquid liar set of motivatiom view, one that probably retains traces of its center lo the surface, where they have congealed. treated as an Agency, "comic" origin. We take it for granted that, inso­ Let one of these crusted distinctions return to its an end; as a collecti far as men cannot themselves create the universe, source, and in this alchemic center it may be re­ many individual acts· there must remain something essentially enig­ made, again becoming molten liquid, and may proclaiming a cult of', matic about the problem of motives, and that this enter into new combinations, whereat it may be into the army, war is a underlying enigma will manifest itself in in­ again thrown forth as a new crust, a different dis­ tivates the nature of hi~ evitable ambiguities and inconsistencies among tinction. So that A may become non-A. But not gies war is an Agent, , the terms for motives. Accordingly, what we merely by a leap from one state to the other. agent, in the figure of ti want is not terms that avoid ambiguity, but terms Rather, we must take A back into the ground of of voting as an act, anc !::'/) that clearly reveal the strategic spots at which its existence, the logical substance that is its yet votes and voters bo ""rk'­ ambiguities necessarily arise. causal ancestor, and on to a point where it is con­ politician's medium or g,m..-.11 Occasionally, you will encounter a writer who substantial with non-A; then we may return, this point of view, they are seems to get great exaltation out of proving, with time emerging with non-A instead. LP·IZ't4) msofar as a vote is cast an air of much relentlessness, that some philo­ And so with our five terms: certain formal in­ ~dge of its consequenc , sophic term or other has been used to cover a va­ terrelationships prevail among these terms, by l \ 1 tron whether it should b riety of meanings, and who would smash and reason of their role as attributes of a common all; one might rather c, abolish this idol. As a general rule, when a term ground or substance. Their participation in a sheer motion (what the is singled out for such harsh treatment, if you common ground makes for transformability. Al Response to a Stimulus) look closer you will find that it happens to be as­ every point where the field covered by any one of Or imagine that one sociated with some cultural or political trend these terms overlaps upon the field covered by term~, for the imputing < from which the writer would dissociate himself; any other, there is an alchemic opportunity, as this: The hero (agent) hence there is a certain notable ambiguity in this whereby we can put one philosophy or doctrine (coagent) outwits the , very charge of ambiguity, since he presumably of motivation into the alembic, make the appro­ using a file (agency) thar feels purged and strengthened by bringing to bear priate passes, and take out another. From the cen­ bonds (act) in order toe upon this particular term a kind of attack that tral moltenness, where all the elements are fused room where he has beet could, with as much justice, be brought to bear into one togetherness, there are thrown forth, in l~cti?g a casuistry here, upon any other term (or "title") in philosophy, in­ separate crusts, such distinctions as those be­ live m the agent, as wen cluding of course the alternative term, or "title," tween freedom and necessity, activity and pas­ to some trait integral to that the writer would swear by. Since no two siveness, cooperation and competition, cause and "love of freedom." Or,... things or acts or situations are exactly alike, you effect, mechanism and teleology. vational force of the seer

1300 MODERN AND POSTMODERN RHETORIC .....4--tr"'1~ ') .S,-.'\l ..: ... t '· erm to both of them with­ Our term, "Agent," for instance, is a general to awaken throughts of escape in a man than a a certain margin of ambi­ heading that might, in a given case, require fur­ condition of imprisonment. Or we might note the great as the difference be­ ther subdivision, as an agent might have his act essential part played by the coagent, in assisting ets that are given the modified (hence partly motivated) by friends our hero to escape-and, with such thoughts as the more may you expect (co-agents) or enemies (counteragents). Again, our point of departure, we might conclude that rms so "titular" as to be- under "Agent" one could place any personal the motivations of this act should be reduced to 1ilosophic school, or even properties that are assigned a motivational value, social origins. hools. Hence, instead of such as "ideas," "the will," "fear," "malice," "in­ Or if one were given to the brand of specula­ to "dispose of" any ambi­ tuition," "the creative imagination." A portrait tive enterprise exemplified by certain Christian sing the fact that it is an painter may treat the body as a property of the heretics (for instance, those who worshipped msider it our task to study agent (an expression of personality), whereas Judas as a saint, on the grounds that his betrayal ?S of ambiguity . For in the materialistic medicine would treat it as "scenic," of Christ, in leading to the Crucifixion, so Ne shall deal with many a purely "objective material"; and from another brought about the opportunity for mankind's re­ n- and it is in the areas point of view it could be classed as an agency, a demption) one might locate the necessary moti­ ;formations take place; in means by which one gets reports of the world at vational origin of the act in the counteragent. For ;, transformation would be large. Machines are obviously instruments (that the hero would not have been prodded to escape s, we might say, arise out is, Agencies); yet in their vast accumulation they if there had been no villain to imprison him. Inas­ 10ltenness, where all is constitute the industrial scene, with its own pecu­ much as the escape could be called a "good" act, :en thrown from a liquid liar set of motivational properties. War may be we might find in such motivational reduction to here they have congealed. treated as an Agency, insofar as it is a means to the counteragent a compensatory transformation d distinctions return to its an end; as a collective Act, subdivisible into whereby a bitter fountain may give forth sweet 1emic center it may be re­ many individual acts; as a Purpose, in schemes waters. In his Anti-Diihring Engels gives us a \ molten liquid, and may proclaiming a cult of war. For the man inducted secular variant which no one could reasonably ations, whereat it may be into the army, war is a Scene, a situation that mo­ call outlandish or excessive: new crust, a different dis­ tivates the nature of his training; and in mytholo­ y become non-A. But not gies war is an Agent, or perhaps better a super­ It was slavery that first made possible the divi­ sion of labour between agriculture and industry on n one state to the other. agent, in the figure of the war god. We may think a considerable scale, and along with this, the flower 4 back into the ground of of voting as an act, and of the voter as an agent; of the ancient world, Hellenism. Without slavery, ical substance that is its yet votes and voters both are hardly other than a no Greek state, no Greek art and science; without 1 to a point where it is con­ politician's medium or agency; or from another slavery , no Roman Empire. But without Hellenism u...-; ; then we may return, this point of view, they are a part of his scene. And and the Roman Empire as a basis, also no modem CIL n-A instead . insofar as a vote is cast without adequate knowl­ Europe . 'k,,F.c...,,...... e terms : certain formal in­ edge of its consequences, one might even ques­ We should never forget that our whole eco­ 'oc..k­ I among these terms, by tion whether it should be classed as an activity at nomic, political, and intellectual development has ""'-..J s attributes of a common ·' all; one might rather call it passive, or perhaps as its presupposition a state of things in which slav­ Their participation in a sheer motion (what the behaviorists would call a ery was as necessary as it was universally recog­ nized. In this sense we are entitled to say: Without :s for transformability . At Response to a Stimulus). the slavery of antiquity, no modem socialism. ield covered by any one of Or imagine that one were to manipulate the 1pon the field covered by terms, for the imputing of motives, in such a case Pragmatists would probably have referred the m alchemic opportunity, as this: The hero (agent) with the help of a friend motivation back to a source in agency. They one philosophy or doctrine (coagent) outwits the villain (counteragent) by would have noted that our hero escaped by using alembic, make the appro­ using a file (agency) that enables him to break his an instrument, the file by which he severed his out another. From the cen­ bonds (act) in order to escape (purpose) from the bonds; then in this same line of thought, they all the elements are fused room where he has been confined (scene). In se­ would have observed that the hand holding the there are thrown forth, in lecting a casuistry here, we might locate the mo­ file was also an instrument; and by the same distinctions as those be­ tive in the agent, as were we to credit his escape token the brain that guided the hand would be an !Cessity, activity and pas­ to some trait integral to his personality, such as instrument, and so likewise the educational sys­ md competition, cause and "love of freedom." Or we might stress the moti­ tem that taught the methods and shaped the val­ teleology . vational force of the scene, since nothing is surer ues involved in the incident.

BURKE I A GRAMMAR OF MOTIVES 13~1 True, if you reduce lhe terms to any one of applying materialistic terms to immaterial sub­ odds with one anot them, you will find them branching out again; for jects (the pattern here being, "Xis nothing but Y," lowances for such lit no one of them is enough. Thus, Mead called his where X designates a higher value and Ya lower same principle of con pragmatism a philosophy of the act. And though one, the higher value being thereby reduced to tion. Dewey stresses the value of "intelligence" as an the lower one). The nature of the sc instrument (agency, embodied in "scientific The titular word for our own method is marily by suggestions method"), the other key terms in his casuistry, "dramatism," since it invites one to consider the verbal action itself, as "experience" and "nature," would be the equiva­ matter of motives in a perspective that, being de­ alogue of Elizabethan lents of act and scene respectively. We must add, veloped from the analysis of drama, treats lan­ scriptive passages of 1 however, that Dewey is given to stressing the guage and thought primarily as modes of action. veyed by non-linguist overlap of these two terms, rather than the re­ The method is synoptic, though not in the histori­ materials of naturalisti spects in which they are distinct, as he proposes cal sense. A purely historical survey would re­ examining first the re to "replace the traditional separation of nature quire no less than a universal history of human act, all we need no and experience with the idea of continuity." (The culture; for every judgment, exhortation, or ad­ whereby the scene is a quotation is from Intelligence and the Modem monition, every view of natural or supernatural expressing in fixed pr World.) reality, every intention or expectation involves that the action expres As we shall see later, it is by reason of the pli­ assumptions about motive, or cause. Our work ment. ancy among our terms that philosophic systems must be synoptic in a different sense: in the sense Ibsen's An Enemy can pull one way and another. The margins of that it offers a system of placement, and should instance of the scene­ overlap provide opportunities whereby a thinker enable us, by the systematic manipulation of the lations between scene can go without a leap from any one of the terms terms, to "generate," or "anticipate" lhe various servable, beginning wi to any of its fellows. (We have also likened the classes of motivational theory. And a treatment sentative middle-class , terms to the fingers, which in their extremities in these terms, we hope to show, reduces the sub­ typical middle -class se are distinct from one another, but merge in the ject synoptically while still permitting us to ap­ written at the very hei1 palm of the hand. If you would go from one fin­ preciate its scope and complexity. riod, we can see how ger to another without a leap, you need but trace It is not our purpose to import dialectical and symbolism. For the sue the tendon down into the palm of the hand, and metaphysical concerns into a subject that might alistically reflects the then trace a new course along another tendon.) otherwise be free of them. On the contrary, we symbolizes it. Hence, no great dialectical enterprise is neces­ hope to make clear the ways in which dialectical The first act (we are sary if you would merge the terms, reducing and metaphysical issues necessarily figure in the in the purely technica them even to as few as one; and then, treating subject of motivation. Our speculations, as we in­ major division of a pl this as the "essential" term, the "causal ancestor" terpret them, should show that the subject of mo­ could even reverse our of the lot, you can proceed in the reverse direc­ tivation is a philosophic one, not ultimately to be JJJ acl contains ils scene tion across the margins of overlap, "deducing" solved in terms of empirical science. place in Dr. Stockman the other terms from it as its logical descendants. L~ ...c.A-..c,vJ o.( ...... ,\.- .... , ) ground perfectly suitec This is the method, explicitly and in the grand geois story that is to , style, of metaphysics which brings its doctrines CONTAINER AND THING CONTAINED nings. In the course o to a head in some overall title, a word for being The Scene-Act Ratio scene, or situation, pri in general, or action in general, or motion in gen­ play, but central to its n eral, or development in general, or experience in Using "scene" in the sense of setting, or back­ refers to an earlier pe, general, etc., with all its other terms distributed ground, and "act" in the sense of action, one alone in the far North. about this titular term in positions leading up to it could say that "the scene contains the act." And had conceived of his ~ and away from it. There is also an implicit kind using "agents" in the sense of actors, or acters, This plan may be com of metaphysics, that often goes by the name of one could say that "the scene contains the or symbolically; it is t No Metaphysics, and aims at reduction not to an agents." materializing, or objec1 , overall title but to some presumably underlying It is a principle of drama that the nature of acts process, since the plot ~Vlt~ atomic constituent. Its vulgar variant is to be and agents should be consistent with the nature and purification on a n ~S- found in techniques of "unmasking," which of the scene. And whereas comic and grotesque scenic counterpart in th, 1,,..., , . ,, would make for progress and emancipation by works may deliberately set these elements al Act II. Still in Dr. S ff t"I Cf.t:t•,._

1302 MODERN AND POSTMODERN RHETORIC ~ .....\ 's"""' ·~ s'1-~.i,,..:: : ,.,. ~ ~·~~ \ -\-h1.1.5

:!rms to immaterial sub­ odds with one another, audiences make al­ Dr. Stockmann has learned that the Baths , the ing, "Xis nothing but Y," lowances for such liberty, which reaffirms the vessels of purification, are themselves polluted, gher value and Ya lower same principle of consistency in its very viola­ and that prominent business and professional ,eing thereby reduced to tion. men would suppress this fact for financial rea­ The nature of the scene may be conveyed pri­ sons. This opposition is epitomized in the figure )r our own method is marily by suggestions built into the lines of the of Peter Stockmann, the Doctor's brother. The vites one to consider the verbal action itself, as with the imagery in the di­ intimate, familial quality of the setting thus has erspective that, being de­ alogue of Elizabethan drama and with the de­ its counterpart in the quality of the action, which sis of drama, treats lan­ scriptive passages of novels; or it may be con­ involves the struggle of two social principles, arily as modes of action. veyed by non-linguistic properties, as with the the conservative and the progressive, as objecti­ though not in the histori­ materials of naturalistic stage sets. In any case, fied and personalized in the struggle of the two torical survey would re­ examining first the relation between scene and brothers. iversal history of human act, all we need note here is the principle Act III takes place in the editorial office of the nent, exhortation, or ad­ whereby the scene is a fit "container" for the act, People's Messenger, a local newspaper in which f natural or supernatural expressing in fixed properties the same quality Dr. Stockmann had hoped to publish his evidence or expectation involves that the action expresses in terms of develop­ that the water supply was contaminated. The ac­ ive, or cause. Our work ment. tion takes on a more forensic reference, in keep­ Jerent sense : in the sense Ibsen's An Enemy of the People is a good ing with the nature of the place. In this Act we >f placement, and should instance of the scene-act ratio, since the corre­ have the peripety of the drama, as Dr. Stock­ rmtic manipulation of the lations between scene and act are readily ob­ mann' s expectations are reversed. For he learns · "anticipate" the various servable, beginning with the fact that this repre­ that the personal and financial influence of his theory. And a treatment sentative middle-class drama is enacted against a enemies prevents the publication of the article. to show, reduces the sub­ typical middle-class selling. Indeed, in this work This turn of the plot has its scenic replica in still permitting us to ap­ written at the very height of Ibsen's realistic pe­ mimicry involving Peter Stockmann's hat and •mplexity. riod, we can see how readily realism leads into stick, properties that symbolize his identity as to import dialectical and symbolism. For the succession of scenes both re­ mayor. In false hope of victory, Dr. Stockmann into a subject that might alistically reflects the course of the action and had taken them up, and strutted about bur­ !m. On the contrary, we symbolizes it. lesquing his brother. But when Dr. Stockmann .vays in which dialectical The first act (we are now using the word "act" learns that the editor, in response to the pressure necessarily figure in the in the purely technical sense, to designate the of the conservatives, will not publish the article, ur speculations, as we in- major division of a play, a sense in which we it is Peter Stockmann's turn to exult. This rever­ w that the subject of mo- could even reverse our formula and say that "the sal of the action is materialized (made scenic) .one, n.ot ultimately to be JJJ act contains its scenes")-the first act takes thus: 1cal science . place in Dr. Stockmann's sitting room, a back­ _..,\..-...,...) ground perfectly suited to the thoroughly bour­ PETERSTOCKMANN: My hat and stick, if you geois story that is to unfold from these begin­ please. (Dr. Stockmann takes off the hat and lays it UNG CONTAINED on the table with the stick. Peter Stockmann takes nings. In the course of this act, we learn of a them up.) Your authority as mayor has come to an scene, or situation, prior to the opening of the untimely end. play, but central to its motivation. Dr. Stockmann mse of setting, or back - refers to an earlier period of withdrawal, spent In the next Act Dr. Stockmann does contrive 1e sense of action, one alone in the far North. During his isolation, he to lay his case before a public tribunal of a sort: a e contains the act." And had conceived of his plan for the public Baths . gathering of fellow townsmen, assembled in "a mse of actors, or acters, This plan may be considered either realistically big old-fashioned room," in the house of a friend. the scene contains the or symbolically; it is the dramatist's device for His appeal is unsuccessful; his neighbors vote materializing, or objectifying, a purely spiritual overwhelmingly against him, and the scene ends ma that the nature of acts process, since the plot has to do with pollution in turbulence. As regards the scene-act ratio, note msistent with the nature and purification on a moral level, which has its that the semi-public, semi-intimate setting re­ !as comic and grotesque scenic counterpart in the topic of the Baths. flects perfectly the quality of Dr. Stockmann's • set these elements at Act II. Still in Dr. Stockmann's sitting room . appeal.

BURKE I A GRAMMAR OF MOTIVES 1303 In Act V, the stage directions tell us that the We end here on the motif of the shut-in per­ tion ambiguously (, hero's clothes are tom, and the room is in disor­ sonality, quite literally objectified. And the clos­ tion)-and in the C· der, with broken windows. You may consider ing, novelistic stage directions are beautifully ment this ambiguit) these details either as properties of the scene or suited to our purpose; for note how, once the sponding articulacy as a reflection of the hero's condition after his re­ shutters have been closed, thereby placing before scene is to act as imr cent struggle with the forces of reaction. The our eyes the scenic replica of Lavinia's mental not deduce the detai scene is laid in Dr. Stockmann's study, a setting state, this scene in turn becomes the motivation tails of the setting, so symbolic of the direction taken by the plot that of her next act. For we are told that she walks quality of the action the play ends with Dr. Stockmann announcing like an automaton in response to the closing of ting. An extreme illu his plan to enroll twelve young disciples and with the shutter, "as if this were a word of command." sionistic drama, havi them to found a school in which he will work for Hamlet contains a direct reference to the moti­ abstract properties the education of society. vational aspect of the scene-act ratio. In an early lighting, sinister colo The whole plot is that of an intemality di­ scene, when Hamlet is about to follow the Ghost, We have, of cours rected outwards. We progress by stages from a Horatio warns: larly suited to reveal scene (reported) wherein the plan of social purifi­ and scene as well as cation was conceived in loneliness, to the scene What if it tempt you toward the flood, my lord, matter is obscured · in his study where the hero announces in the ex­ Or to the dreadful summit of the cliff scene in the sense of That beetles o'er his base into the sea. altation of a dramatic finale: "The strongest man among the various c in the world is he who stands most alone." The And there assume some other horrible form, Which might deprive your sovereignty of reason characters, by beinf pronouncement is modified by the situation in And draw you into madness? Think of it; treated as scenic cone which it is uttered: as Dr. Stockmann speaks, he The very place puts toys of desperation, one another; and any is surrounded by a loyal and admiring family Without more motive, into every brain of the context that m circle, and his educational plan calls not for com­ That looks so many fathoms to the sea motivates) the subseq plete independence, but for cooperation. He is And hears it roar beneath. dramatic consistency not setting himself up as the strongest man in the such cases of over). world, but merely as one headed in the same di­ In the last four lines of this speech, Horatio is while being aware of rection. And, with the exception of his brother saying that the sheer natural surroundings might in our minds such cm Peter, we may consider his family circle as as­ be enough to provide a man with a motive for an entiation. Our terms I pects of his own identity, being under the aegis act as desperate and absolute as suicide. This no­ merger and division, , of "loneliness" since it began so and retains the tion (of the natural scene as sufficient motivation two of them while rec quality of its ancestry. for an act) was to reappear, in many transforma­ of merger. tions, during the subsequent centuries. We find a The end of the third play in O'Neill's trilogy, variant of it in the novels of Thomas Hardy, and Mourning Becomes Electra, presents a contrast­ in other regionalists who derive motivations for The Scene-Agent Rat, ing instance of the scene-act ratio: their characters from what Virgil would have The scene-agent ratio, LAVINIA:(turns to him sha,ply) You go now called the genius loci. There are unmistakable lation is between pers, and close the shutters and nail them tight. vestiges of it in scientific theories (of Darwinian emplified in this citati SETH:Ayeh. cast) according to which men's behavior and de­ and Hero-Worship: LAVINIA:And tell Hannah to throw out all the velopment are explained in terms of environ­ flowers. ment. Geopolitics is a contemporary variant. These Arabs Mohamr SETH:Ayeh. (He goes past her up the steps and From the motivational point of view, there is tainly a notable peopl into the house. She ascends to the portico-and implicit in the quality of a scene the quality of table; the fit habitation then turns and stands for a while, stiff and square­ the action that is to take place within it. This cessible rock-mount, shouldered, staring into the sunlight with frozen would be another way of saying that the act will allernating with beaut eyes. Seth leans out of the window at the right of the ever water is, there is door and pulls the shutters closed with a decisive be consistent with the scene. Thus, when the cur­ tain rises to disclose a given stage set, this stage ous balm-shrubs, da bang. As if this were a word of command. Lavinia Consider that wide w, pivots sharply on her heel and marches woodenly set contains, simultaneously, implicitly, all that silent, like a sand-se into the house, closing the door behind her.) the narrative is to draw out as a sequence, explic­ from habitable place. CURTAIN itly. Or, if you will, the stage set contains the ac- alone with the universe

1304 MODERN AND POSTMODERN RHETORIC e motif of the shut-in per­ lion ambiguously (as regards the norms of ac­ down on it with intolerable radiance; by night the , objectified. And the clos­ tion)- and in the course of the play's develop­ great deep heaven with its stars. Such a country is directions are beautifully ment this ambiguity is converted into a corre­ fit for a swift-handed, deep-hearted race of men. :; for note how, once the sponding articulacy. The proportion would be: The correlation between the quality of the sed, thereby placing before scene is to act as implicit is to explicit. One could country and the quality of its inhabitants is here !plica of Lavinia's mental not deduce the details of the action from the de­ presented in quite secular terms. There is a son­ ·n becomes the motivation tails of the setting, but one could deduce the net by Wordsworth that is a perfect instance of quality of the action from the quality of the set­ ve are told that she walks the scene-agent ratio treated theologically: response to the closing of ting. An extreme illustration would be an Expres­ were a word of command." sionistic drama, having for its scenic reflex such It is a beauteous evening, calm and free, lirect reference to the moti­ abstract properties as lines askew, grotesque The holy time is quiet as a Nun scene-act ratio. In an early lighting, sinister color, and odd objects. Breathless with adoration; the broad sun : about to follow the Ghost, We have, of course, chosen examples particu­ ls sinking down in its tranquility; larly suited to reveal the distinction between act The gentleness of heaven broods o'er the Sea; and scene as well as their interdependence. The Listen! the mighty Being is awake, oward the flood, my lord, matter is obscured when we are dealing with And doth with his eternal motion make A sound like thunder-everlastingly. nmit of the cliff scene in the sense of the relationships prevailing Jase into the sea. among the various dramatis personae. For the Dear Child! Dear Girl! that walkest with me here, ne other horrible form, characters, by being in interaction, could be If thou appear untouched by solemn thought, your sovereignty of reason treated as scenic conditions or "environment," of Thy nature is not therefore less divine: adness? Think of it; Thou liest in Abraham's bosom all the year; Jys of desperation, one another; and any act could be treated as part And worship'st at the Temple's inner shrine, :, into every brain of the context that modifies (hence, to a degree God being with thee when we know it not. athoms to the sea motivates) the subsequent acts. The principles of eath. dramatic consistency would lead one to expect By selecting a religious image in which to such cases of overlap among the terms; but convey the purely naturalistic sense of hush, the of this speech, Horatio is while being aware of them we should firmly fix octave infuses the natural scene with hints of a natural surroundings might in our minds such cases as afford a clear differ­ wider circumference, supernatural in scope. The a man with a motive for an entiation. Our terms leaning themselves to both sestet turns from scene to agent; indeed, the oc­ bsolute as suicide. This no­ merger and division, we are here trying to divide tave is all scene, the sestet all agent. But by the me as sufficient motivation two of them while recognizing their possibilities logic of the scene-agent ratio, if the scene is su­ opear, in many transforma­ of merger. pernatural in quality, the agent contained by this !quent centuries. We find a scene will partake of the same supernatural qual­ vels of Thomas Hardy, and ity. And so, spontaneously, purely by being the vho derive motivations for The Sce11e-Age11tRatio kind of agent that is at one with this kind of what Virgil would have The scene-agent ratio, where the synecdochic re­ scene, the child is "divine." The contents of a di­ i. There are unmistakable lation is between person and place, is partly ex­ vine container will synecdochically share in its ific theories (of Darwinian emplified in this citation from Carlyle's Heroes divinity. ch men's behavior and de­ and Hero-Worship: Swift's satire on philosophers and mathemati­ ned in terms of environ­ cians, the Laputans in the third book of Gul­ contemporary variant. These Arabs Mohammed was born among are cer­ liver's Travels, offers a good instance of the way mal point of view, there is tainly a notable people. Their country itself is no­ in which the scene-agent ratio can be used for the , of a scene the quality of table; the fit habitation for such a race. Savage inac­ depiction of character. To suggest that the La­ take place within it. This cessible rock-mountains, great grim deserts, putans are, we might say, "up in the air," he por­ · of saying that the act will alternating with beautiful strips of verdure; wher­ trays them as living on an island that floats in ever water is, there is greenness, beauty; odorifer­ space. Here the nature of the inhabitants is trans­ scene. Thus, when the cur- ous balm-shrubs, date-trees, frankincense-trees. 1 given stage set, this stage Consider that wide waste horizon of sand, empty, lated into terms of their habitation. eously, implicitly, all that silent, like a sand-sea, dividing habitable place Variants of the scene-agent ratio abound in v out as a sequence, explic­ from habitable place. You are a11alone there, left typical nineteenth-century thought, so strongly e stage set contains the ac- alone with the universe; by day a fierce sun blazing given to the study of motives by the dialectic

BURKE I A GRAMMAR OF MOTIVES 1305 pairing of people and things (man and nature, the motivating principle of her subsequent con­ serve the same ratio ii agent and scene). The ratio figures characteristi­ duct. For the complete embodiment of her pur­ putans when, to sug cally in the idealist's concern with the Einklang poses functions as a "command" to her; and she they could be transce zwischen !,men- und Aussenwelt.' The paintings obeys it as a response to a stimulus, like a pure tremely biased, but of the pointillist Seurat carry the sense of consis­ automaton moved by the sheer disposition of ma­ writes: "Their heads tency between scene and agent to such lengths terial factors. the right or to the left· that his human figures seem on the point of dis­ In behavioristic metaphysics (behaviorists ward, and the other d1, solving into their background. However, we here would call it No Metaphysics) you radically trun­ lest our speculations move beyond strictly scene-agent matters into cate the possibilities of drama by eliminating ac­ cite one more anecdc the area better covered by our term, agency, since tion, reducing action to sheer motion. The close of drama enacted in real I the extreme impression of consistency between the O'Neill play follows this same development lustrate how, when as scene and agent is here conveyed by stressing the from action to motion, a kind of inverted transcen­ in quality, the agent m distinctive terms of the method, or medium (that dence. Because of this change, Lavinia's last mo­ corresponding pattern is, agency), which serves as an element common ments must be relegated to stage directions alone. the scene. to both scene and agents. She does not act, she is automatically moved. The The occasion: a co1 The logic of the scene-agent ratio has often trilogy did not end a moment too soon; for its close ting: a group of com served as an embarrassment to the naturalistic represented not only the end of Lavinia, but the about a desk in an oJ novelist. He may choose to "indict" some scene end of the motivating principle of drama itself. from the desk was a (such as bad working conditions under capital­ The playwright had here obviously come to the crowding, all the me1r ism) by showing that it has a "brutalizing" effect end of a line. In his next plays he would have to the chairman at the des upon the people who are indigenous to this "turn back." For he could have "gone on" only by ever, they had piled the scene. But the scene-agent ratio, if strictly ob­ abandoning drama for some more "scientific" ~nd tables outside the J served here, would require that the "brutalizing" form. (He might have transcended drama scientif­ m the discussion. But situation contain "brutalized" characters as its di­ ically, for instance, by a collating of sociological ued, one member quie alectical counterpart. And thereby, in his human­ observations designed to classify different types gate in the railing. As itarian zeal to save mankind, the novelist portrays of motorist and to correlate them with different she stepped outside a characters which, in being as brutal as their types of response to traffic signals.) picked up her coat, Jai scene, are not worth saving. We could phrase this We noted how, in Ibsen's drama, the hero's stood waiting. A few n dilemma in another way: our novelist points up state of mind after his conflict with the towns­ was a pause in the disc his thesis by too narrow a conception of scene as people was objectified in such scenic properties floor. After being reco the motive-force behind his characters; and this as his tom clothing, and the broken windows and she very haltingly, in er restricting of the scene calls in tum for a corre­ general disorder of his study. It is obvious that with regret that she we sponding restriction upon personality, or role. one might have carried this consistency further in the committee. either direction (for instance, spreading it more Consider with what environmentally, as were we to enlist turbulent Further l11slallces of These Ratios scene for this pattern of weather as an aspect of the scene, or more per­ beyond the railing to r The principles of consistency binding scene, act, sonally, as were we to enlist facial expressions Design: chairman and fe and agent also lead to reverse applications. That and postures of the body, which of course the pale, sitting, without h is, the scene-act ratio either calls for acts in keep­ actor does, in interpreting his role, regardless of outside the pale, standin ing with scenes or scenes in keeping with acts­ the playwright's omissions). If you took the preparatory to departur· and similarly with the scene-agent ratio. When hero's state of mind as your point of departure modified the arrangemei Lavinia instructs Seth to nail fast the shutters and here, you could say that the whole scene be­ way that it implicitly ( throw out the flowers, by her command (an act) comes a mere aspect of the role, or person the quality of her act. she brings it about that the scene corresponds to ("agent")-or that the physical body of the agent her state of mind. But as soon as these scenic is itself but "scenic," to be listed among the per­ changes have taken place, they in tum become son's "properties," as with a dwelling that a man Ubiquity of the Ratios had ordered built in strict accordance with his If we but look about us, •"Harmony between the inner life and the external own private specifications, or as theologians see two ratios everywhere; 1 world." [Ed.] in "body" the dwelling place of "soul." We ob- centre of motivational a

1306 MODERN AND POSTMODERN RHETORIC of her subsequent con­ serve the same ratio in Swift's account of his La­ cern them in their ubiquity, we must remain mbodiment of her pur­ putans when, to suggest that in their thinking aware of the many guises which the five terms nmand" to her; and she they could be transcendental, or introvert, or ex­ may assume in the various casuistries. In the in­ a stimulus, like a pure tremely biased, but never well balanced, he troduction to his Discourses, for instance, Machi­ ,heer disposition of ma- writes: "Their heads were all inclined, either to avelli complains that people read history without the right or to the left; one of their eyes turned in­ applying its lessons, "as though heaven, the sun, aphysics (behaviorists ward, and the other directly up to the zenith." But the elements, and men had changed the order of sics) you radically trun­ lest our speculations seem too arbitrary, let us their motions and power, and were different from ·ama by eliminating ac­ cite one more anecdote, this time from a tiny what they were in ancient times." For our pur­ ~er motion. The close of drama enacted in real life, and here reported to il­ poses, the quotation could be translated, "as this same development lu~trate how, when a state of mind is pronounced though human agents and both the supernatural nd of inverted transcen­ in quality, the agent may be observed arranging a and the natural scenes had changed, with a corre­ mge, Lavinia's last mo­ corresponding pattern in the very properties of sponding change in the nature of motives." ) stage directions alone. the scene. Besides general synonyms for scene that are tomatically moved. The The occasion: a committee meeting. The set­ obviously of a background character, such as :nt too soon; for its close ting: a group of committee members bunched "society," or "environment," we often encounter ~nd of Lavinia, but the about a desk in an office, after hours. Not far quite specific localizations, words for particular inciple of drama itself. from the desk wa a railing; but despite the places, situations, or eras. "It is I 2:20 P.M." is a obviously come to the crowding, all the members were bunched about "scenic" statement. Milton's L'Allegro and IL plays he would have to the chairman at the desk, inside the railing. How­ Penseroso are formed about a scenic contrast be­ have "gone on" only by ever, they had piled their hats and coats on chairs tween morning and night, with a corresponding ome more "scientific" and tables outside the pale. General engrossment contrast of actions. Terms for historical epochs, scended drama scientif­ in the discussion. But a~ the discussion contin ­ cultural movements, social institutions (such as ollating of sociological ued, one member quietly arose, and opened the "Elizabethan period," "romanticism," "capital­ classify different types gate in the railing. As unnoticeably as possible, ism") are scenic, though often with an admixture 1te them with different she stepped outside and clo~ed the gate. She of properties overlapping upon the areas covered signals.) picked up her coat, laid it acros~ her arm, and by the term, agent. If we recall that "ideas" are a en's drama, the hero's stood waiting. A few moments later, when there property of agents, we can detect this strategic mflict with the towns­ was a pause in the discus~ion, she asked for the overlap in Locke's expression, "the scene of such scenic properties floor. After being recognized by the chairman, ideas," the form of which Carl Becker exactly re­ 1e broken windows and she very haltingly, in embarrassment, announced produces when referring to "climates of opinion," udy. It is obvious that with regret that she would have to resign from in The Heavenly City of the Eightee11th-Ce11tU1)' s consistency further in the committee. Philosophers. nee, spreading it more Consider with what fidelity she had set the The word "ground," much used in both formal we to enlist turbulent scene for this pattern of severance as she stepped philosophy and everyday speech when discussing 1e scene, or more per- beyond the railing to make her announcement. motives, is likewise scenic, though readily en­ 1list facial expressions Design: chairman and fellow members within the croaching upon the areas more directly covered , which of course the pale, sitting, without hats and overcoats - she by "agent" and "purpose." We can discern the his role, regardless of outside the pale, standing, with coat over her arm scenic reference if the question, "On what ns). If you took the preparatory to departure. She had strategically grounds did he do this?" is translated: "What our point of departure modified the arrangement of the scene in such a kind of scene did he say it was, that called for the whole scene be­ way that it implicitly (ambiguously) contained such an act?" Hegelian idealism exploits the f the role, or person the quality of her act. double usage (ground as "background" and ·sical body of the agent ground as "reason") by positing "Reason" as the : listed among the per - ultimate ground, the Gmndprinzip, of all history. Ubiquity of the Ratios a dwelling that a man Thus, whereas historicism regularly treats histori­ t accordance with his If we but look about us, we find examples of the cal scenes as the background, or motive, of indi­ , or as theologians see two ratios everywhere; for they are at the very vidual developments, Hegel would treat Reason as ace of "soul." We ob- centre of motivational assumptions. But to dis- the background, or motive, of historical sequence

BURKE I A GRAMMAR OF MOTIVES 1307 in general. Let us not worry, at this point, what it to protect must be commensurate with the threat­ when they have only m may "mean" to say that "Reason" is at once the ened danger. erence to the action of mover of history and the substance of which his­ of forces. Terms like " tory is made. It is sufficient here to note that such Among the most succinct instances of the tion" are ambiguously f terministic resources were utilized, and to detect scene-act ratio in dialectical materialism is and sheer motion, so th the logic of the pentad behind them. Marx's assertion (cited also by Lenin in The decide in just which The maxim, "terrain determines tactics," is a State and Revolution), that "Justice can never rise the_rn, when he applies strict localization of the scene-act ratio, with "ter­ superior to the economic conditions of society This ambiguity may pu rain" as the casuistic equivalent for "scene" in a and the cultural development conditioned by those who would deal v military calculus of motives, and "tactics" as the them." That is, in contrast with those who would calculus patterned afte1 corresponding "act." place justice as a property of personality (an at­ physical sciences, and Political commentators now generally use the tribute purely of the agent), the dialectical mate­ abandon vestiges of "a word "situation" as their synonym for scene, rialist would place it as a property of the material cat!on, policy, strategy, though often without any clear concept of its situation ("economic conditions"), the scene in action, as are any wore function as a statement about motives. Many so­ which justice is to be enacted. He would say that Our words "position " "1 cial psychologists consciously use the term for its no higher quality of justice can be enacted than indicate the scenic' 0 , motivational bearing (it has a range extending the nature of the scenic properties permits. Trot­ words for particular ·~, from the broadest concepts of historical setting sky gave the same form an ironic turn when he dustrialism refer to acts down to the simplified, controlled conditions treated Stalinist policies as the inevitable result action is reduced to a ~ which the animal experimenter imposes upon his of the attempt to establish socialism under the of sheer motion raised t rats in a maze). The Marxist reference lo "the ob­ given conditions. Thal is, you can't get a fully so­ have in mind not onl) jective situation" is explicitly motivational, and cialist act unless you have a fully socialist scene, tasks performed to the the theorists who use this formula discuss "poli­ and for the dialectical material isl such a scene re­ ~elt, but also many of ti cies" as political acts enacted in conformity with quires a high stage of industrial development. tions, filing, bookkeepin, the nature of scenes. However, the scene-act ratio And there is a variant of the usage in Cole­ and the like, necessary' can be applied in two ways. It can be applied de­ ridge (in his early libertarian and "necessitarian" technology.) terministically in statements that a certain policy period, when he was exalted with thoughts of When Christ said, "I ~ had to be adopted in a certain situation, or it may "aspheterism"). Concerning "Pantisocracy" (the could translate, "I am th be applied in hortatory statements to the effect plan of Coleridge, Southey, and their associates represent a system, or that a certain policy should be adopted in confor­ to found a communistic colony on the banks of acts." Tao and yoga arf mity with the situation . The deterministic usage the Susquehanna), he wrote that it would "make And we see how readil (in scene-agent form) was exemplified in the virtue inevitable." That is, the colonists were to overlap upon agency wh, statement of a traveller who, on arriving from arrange a social situation of such a sort that virtu­ nary attitude towards s France under German domination, characterized ous acts would be the logical and spontaneous re­ hodos), which we think 0 the politicians as "prisoners of the situation." sult of conditions . way of life, or act of bt And the hortatory usage was exemplified when a As for "act," any verb, no matter how specific doing. speaker said that President Roosevelt should be or how general, that has connotations of con­ The Greek word for j granted "unusual powers" because our country sciousness or purpose falls under this category. If beginnings as thorough!) was in an "unusual international situation." In a one happened to stumble over an obstruction, yoga, and hodos. Origir judgment written by Justice Hugo L. Black, the that would be not an acl, but a mere motion. usage, manner, fashion . I Supreme Court ruled that it was not "beyond the However, one could convert even this sheer acci­ connection between these war powers of Congress and the Executive to ex­ dent into something of an act if, in the course of !sre~ealed in our express clude those of Japanese ancestry from the West falling, one suddenly willed his fall (as a rebuke, Just ISn't done," and in Coast area at the time they did." And by implica­ for instance, to the negligence of the person who "morality" comes from r tion, the scene-act ratio was invoked to substanti­ had left the obstruction in the way). "Dramatisti­ tom," Liddell and Scott': ate this judgment: cally," the basic unit of action would be defined t~e Odyssey the word is as "the human body in conscious or purposive kmgs, and suitors, referrir When under conditions of modern warfare our motion ." Hence we arc admonished that people of_acting, law of being. J shores are threatened by hostile forces, the power often speak of action in a purely figurative sense tribal pattern of Greek life

1308 MODERN AND POSTMODERN RHETORIC 1mensurate with the threat - when they have only motion in mind, as with ref­ "justice" shared by all) had dissolved into a polit­ erence to the action of a motor, or the interaction ical state, with its typical conflicts of property in­ of forces. Terms like "adjustment" and "adapta­ terests, dike became a word of the law courts. 1ccincl instances of the tion" are ambiguously suited to cover both action Hence, in post-Homeric usage, it refers to legal 1lectical materialism is and sheer motion, so that it is usually difficult to justice, the right which is presumed to be the ob­ also by Lenin in The decide in just which sense a thinker is using ject of law. In this form, it could represent a Pla­ mt "Justice can never rise them, when he applies them to social motives. tonic ideal, that might prevail over and above the 1ic conditions of society This ambiguity may put them in good favor with real ways of the different social classes. This is opment conditioned by those who would deal with the human realm in a the kind of justice that Marx was refuting by a tst with those who would calculus patterned after the vocabularies of the sophisticated reversion to a more "Homeric" rty of personality (an at­ physical sciences, and yet would not wholly usage. •111),the dialectical mate- abandon vestiges of "animism." Profession, vo­ cation, policy, strategy, tactics are all concepts of 1 property of the material Range of All the Ratios Jnditions"), the scene in action, as are any words for specific vocations. 1acted. He would say that Our words "position," "occupation," and "office" Though we have inspected two ratios, the five ,tice can be enacted than indicate the scenic overtones in action . Our terms would allow for ten (scene-act, scene­ properties permits. Trot- words for particular "jobs" under capitalist in­ agent, scene-agency, scene-purpose, act-pur­ 1 an ironic tum when he dustrialism refer to acts, but often the element of pose, act-agent, act-agency, agent-purpose, agent­ ;; as the inevitable result action is reduced to a minimum and the element agency, and agency-purpose). The ratios are ,lish socialism under the of sheer motion raised to a maximum. (We here principles of determination. Elsewhere in the ;, you can't get a fully so­ have in mind not only certain near-automatic Grammar we shall examine two of these (scene­ ve a fully socialist scene, tasks performed to the timing of the conveyor purpose and agency-purpose) in other connec­ ,aterialist such a scene re­ belt, but also many of the purely clerical opera­ tions; and the rest will figure in passing . But the dustrial development. tions, filing, bookkeeping, recording, accounting, consideration of words for "ways" calls for spe­ nt of the usage in Cole­ and the like, necessary to the present state of cial attention to the act-agent ratio. .arian and "necessitarian" technology.) Both act and agent require scenes that "con­ !xalted with thoughts of When Christ said, "I am the way" (lwdos), we tain" them. Hence the scene-act and scene-agent ning "Pantisocracy" (the could translate, "I am the act," or more fully, "I ratios are in the fullest sense positive (or "posi­ .hey, and their associates represent a system, or synthesis, of the right tional"). But the relation between act and agent is ; colony on the banks of acts." Tao and yoga are similar words for act. not quite the same. The agent does not "contain" 1rote that it would "make And we see how readily act in this sense can the act, though its results might be said to "pre­ is, the colonists were to overlap upon agency when we consider our ordi­ exist virtually" within him. And the act does not n of such a sort that virtu­ nary attitude towards scientific method (met­ "synecdochically share" in the agent, though cer­ ,gical and spontaneous re- hodos), which we think of pragmatically, not as a tain ways of acting may be said to induce corre­ way of life, or act of being, but as a means of sponding moods or traits of character. To this ·b, no matter how specific doing. writer, at least, the act-agent ratio more strongly ias connotations of con­ The Greek word for justice (dike) was in its suggests a temporal or sequential relationship lils under this category. If beginnings as thoroughly an "act" word as tao, than a purely positional or geometric one. The ble over an obstruction, yoga, and hodos. Originally it meant custom, agent is an author of his acts, which are de­ act, but a mere motion. usage, manner, fashion. It also meant right. The scended from him, being good progeny if he is wert even this sheer acci­ connection between these two orders of meaning good, or bad progeny if he is bad, wise progeny an act if, in the course of is revealed in our expression, "That sort of thing if he is wise, silly progeny if he is silly. And, illed his fall (as a rebuke, just isn't done," and in the fact that our word conversely, his acts can make him or remake him tigence of the person who "morality" comes from a Latin word for "cus­ in accordance with their nature. They would be in the way). "Dramatisti­ tom," Liddell and Scott's lexicon notes that in his product and/or he would be theirs. Similarly, f action would be defined the Odyssey the word is used of mortals, gods, when we use the scene-act and scene-agent ratios 1 conscious or purposive kings, and suitors, referring to their custom, way in reverse (as with the sequence from act or agent : admonished that people of acting, law of being. After the homogeneous to corresponding scene) the image of derivation 1 a purely figurative sense tribal pattern of Greek life (with its one "way" or is stronger than the image of position.

BURKE I A GRAMMAR OF MOTIVES 1309 how c.,o...,l (i "\ G... V"", 5 .. ""-<.,,\1-~

.\l.L \Lb;o} 1~ -4-k .pw,. \-- o..,,,l, l ---. ? l $ C-t,IM. ? ) One discerns the workings of the act-agent mcnt of scene, with no mention of the political tion from an addrei ratio in the statement of a former cabinet member and economic factors that form a major aspect of was Attorney Gene1 to the effect that "you can safely lodge respon5i­ national scenes. Indeed, though our concern here bility with the President of the United States," is with the Grammar of Motives, we may note a The change of the owing to "the tremendously sobering influence of related resource of Rhetoric: one may deflect at­ in the past hund the Presidency on any man, especially in foreign tention from scenic matters by situating the mo­ telephone, automc affairs." Here, the sheer nature of an office, or tives of an act in the agent (as were one to ac­ had hardly found except in the nece position, is said to produce important modifica­ count for wars purely on the basis of a "warlike which have made tions in a man's character. Even a purely sym­ instinct" in people): or conversely, one may de­ without making it , bolic act, such as the donning of priestly vest­ flect attention from the criticism of personal mo­ ments, is often credited with such a result. And I tives by deriving an act or attitude not from traits Note first that all th have elsewhere quoted a remark by a political of the agent but from the nature of the situation. agencies of commu commentator: "There seems to be something The difference between the use of the scene­ phasis). Then, havi1 about the judicial robes that not only hypnotizes act and act-agent ratios can also be seen in the come scenic, they ai the beholder but transforms the wearer." motivations of "democracy." Many people in ing effect upon our Ordinarily, the scene-act and scene-agent ra­ Great Britain and the United States think of these though the comple} tios can be extended to cover such cases. Thus, nations as "vessels" of democracy. And democ­ forth "the necessar) the office of the Presidency may be treated as a racy is felt to reside in us, intrinsically, because (another expression "situation" affecting the agent who occupies it. we are "a democratic people." Democratic acts there are still unsati And the donning of vestments brings about a are, in this mode of thought, derived from demo­ are a property of age symbolic situation that can likewise be treated in cratic agents, agents who would remain democra­ produce a situatior terms of the scene-agent ratio. But there are cases tic in character even though conditions required needs" would have i where a finer discrimination is needed. For in­ the temporary curtailment or abrogation of basic vation under the hea stance, the resistance of the Russian armies to the democratic rights. But if one employed, instead, these were said to b Nazi invasion could be explained "scenically" in the scene-act ratio, one might hold that there are "new needs," since terms of the Soviet political and economic stmc­ certain "democratic situations" and certain "situ­ treated as "a functio ture; or one could use the act-agent ratio, attribut­ ations favorable to dictatorship, or requiring dic­ the expression from ing the power and tenacity to "Russian" traits of tatorship." The technological scene itself, which uard C. Lindeman, \', character. However, in deriving the act from the requires the planning of a world order, might be attack at Pearl Harbc scene, one would have to credit socialism as a thought such as to favor a large measure of "dic­ "to believe that mor. major scenic factor, whereas a derivation of the tatorship" in our political way~ (al least as con­ tion of the situation act from the agents would allow for a much more trasted with the past norms of democracy). By portant to plan for ed felicitous explanation from the standpoint of cap­ the act-agent ratio, a "democratic people" would The ratios may o italist apologetics. continue to perform "democratic acts"; and to do ciples of selectivity Thus, one of our leading newspapers asked it­ so they would even, if necessary, go to the extent causal relationships. self whether Hitler failed "to evaluate a force of restoring former conditioni. most favorable to cal situation, there , older than communism, more instinctive than the democracy. By the scene-act ratio, if the "situa­ with a corresponding mumbling cult of Stalin - the attachment of the tion" itself is no longer a "democratic" one, even that would be most re peasant masses to 'Mother Russia,' the incoher­ an "essentially democratic" people will abandon a given political sit ent but cohesive force of Russian patriotism." democratic ways. change people in th And it concluded that "the Russian soldier has A picturesque effect can be got in imaginative rather to favor, or l proved the depth of his devotion to the Russian writings by the conflicting use of the scene­ for"), certain kinds of soil." Patriotism, attachment to the "mother," de­ act and act-agent ratios. One may place "fools" ate actions) rather tha votion to the soil - these are essentially motives in "wise ~ituations," so that in their acts they are Iitical exigencies do located in the agent, hence requiring no acknowl- "wiser than they know." Children arc often men "fundamentally'' edgment of socialist motives. "wise'' in this sense. It is a principle of incon­ mentally" cautious, ir There is, or course, scenic reference in the off­ gruity that Chaplin has built upon. Empson the scene; but rather, ing; but the stress upon the term, agent, encour­ would call it an aspect of "pastoral." tious men as its appr, ages one to be content with a very vague treat- Here is an interesting ~hift of ratio~ in a cita- daring men, one for tr

1310 MODERN AND POSTMODERN RHETORIC nention of the political tion from an address by Francis Biddle when he novators. And the inappropriate acts and tem­ form a major aspect of was Attorney General: peraments simply do not "count for" 1.,0 much as hough our concern here they would in situations for which they are a bet­ 11otives, we may note a The change of the world in terms of time and space ter fit. One set of scenic conditions will "imple­ ric: one may deflect at­ in the past hundred years-railroad, telegraph, mt!nt" and "amplify" given ways and tempera­ telephone, automobile, movie, airplane, radio ­ ments which, in other situations would remain :rs by situating the mo­ had hardly found an echo in our political growth, mere potentialities, unplanted seeds, "mute inglo­ !nt (as were one to ac­ except in the necessary patches and arrangements the basis of a "warlike which have made it so extraordinarily complex rious Miltons." Indeed, there are times when out­ Jnversely, one may de- without making it more responsive to our needs. and-out materialistic philosophies, which are ·iticism of personal mo­ usually thought of as "tough," can be of great so­ r attitude not from traits Note first that all the changes listed here refer to lace to us precisely because they encourage us to nature of the situation. agencies of communication (the pragmatist em­ believe in the ratios as a selective principle. For ·n the use of the scene­ phasis). Then, having in their accumulation be­ we may tell ourselves that the very nature of the :an also be seen in the come scenic, they are said to have had a motivat­ materials with which men deal will not permit acy." Many people in ing effect upon our political acts ("growth"). But men to fall below a certain level of sloth, error, ted States think of these though the complexity of the scene has called greed, and dishonesty in their relations with one emocracy. And democ­ forth "the necessary patches and arrangements" another, as the cooperative necessities of the situ­ s, intrinsically, because (another expression for "acts"), we are told that ation implement and amplify only those traits of ·ople." Democratic acts there are still unsatisfied "needs." Now, "needs" character and action that serve the ends of ~ht, derived from demo­ are a property of agents; hence an act designed to progress. would remain democra­ produce a situation "more responsive to our There is, of course, a circular possibility in the L1ghconditions required needs" would have its most direct locus of moti­ terms. If an agent acts in keeping with his nature t or abrogation of basic vation under the heading of agent, particularly if as an agent (act-agent ratio), he may change the one employed, instead, these were said to be "primal needs" rather than nature of the scene accordingly (scene-act ratio), night hold that there are "new needs," since "new needs" might best be and thereby establish a state of unity between tions" and certain "situ­ treated as "a function of the situation." I borrow himself and his world (scene-agent ratio). Or the orship, or requiring dic­ the expression from a prominent educator, Ed­ scene may call for a certain kind of act, which ~ical scene itself, which uard C. Lindeman, who shortly after the Japanese makes for a corresponding kind of agent, thereby a world order, might be attack at Pearl Harbor complained of a tendency likening agent to scene. Or our act may change a large measure of "dic- "to believe that morale will now become a func­ us and our scene, producing a mutual conformity. 1 ways (at least as con­ tion of the situation and that hence it is less im­ Such would be the Edenic paradigm, applicable rms of democracy). By portant to plan for education." if we were capable of total acts that produce total mocratic people" would The ratios may often be interpreted as prin­ transformations. In reality, we are capable of but nocratic acts"; and to do ciples of selectivity rather than as thoroughly partial acts, acts that but partially represent us 11·:rr cessary, go to the extent causal relationships. That is, in any given histori­ and that produce but partial transformations. In­ itions most favorable to cal situation, there are persons of many sorts, deed, if all the ratios were adjusted to one another "bk~~"' with a corresponding variety in the kinds of acts with perfect Edenic symmetry, they would be im­ !-act ratio, if the "si tua- VIM, "democratic" one, even that would be most representative of them. Thus, mutable in one unending "moment." ic" people will abandon a given political situation may be said not to Theological notions of creation and recreation change people in their essential character, but bring us nearest to the concept of total acts. an be got in imaginative rather to favor, or bring to the fore (to "vote Among the controversies that centered around ting use of the scene­ for"), certain kinds of agents (with their appropri­ Lutheranism, for instance, there was a doctrine, One may place "fools" ate actions) rather than others. Quick shifts in po­ put forward by the theologian Striegel, who held hat in their acts they are litical exigencies do not of a sudden make all that Christ's work on the Cross had the effect of 1." Children are often men "fundamentally" daring, or all men "funda­ changing God's attitude towards mankind, and is a principle of incon­ mentally" cautious, in keeping with the nature of that men born after the historical Christ can take s built upon . Empson the scene; but rather, one situation calls for cau­ advantage of this change. Here we have some­ "pastoral." tious men as its appropriate "voice," another for thing like the conversion of God himself, brought shift of ratios in a cita- daring men, one for traditionalists, another for in- about by Christ's sacrifice (a total action, a total

BURKE I A GRAMMAR OF MOTIVES 1311 passion). From the godlike nature came a godlike also have collective words for agent, such as na­ First we should r tion, group, the Freudian "super ego," Rousseau' s act that acted upon God himself. And as regards cally, a pun lurking mankind, it amounts to a radical change in the "volonte generate, "3 the Fichtean "generalized I." word is often used ti very structure of the Universe, since it changed or agent intrinsically God's attitude towards men, and in God's atti­ ANTINOMIES OF DEFINITION Webster's: "the mm tude towards men resides the ultimate ground of existence; the charae human action. Paradox of Substance nents of anything; t A similar pattern is implicated in the close of There is a set of words compnsmg what we port; purport." yet et Aeschylus's trilogy, the Oresteia, where the suf­ might call the Stance family, for they all derive a scenic word. Liter. ferings of Orestes terminate in the changed iden­ from a concept of place, or placement. In the substance would be tity of the Furies, signalized by their change of Indo-Germanic languages the root for this family neath or supports the name from Erinyes to Eumenides. Under the in­ is sta, to stand (Sanscrit, sthii). And out of it there Let .us cite a rek fluence of the "new gods," their nature as mo­ has developed this essential family, comprising Concerning Human tives takes on a totally different accent; for such members as: consist, constancy, constitu­ XXIII, "Of Our Comr whereas it was their previous concern to avenge tion, contrast, destiny, ecstasy, existence, hypo­ evil, it will henceforth be their concern to reward statize, obstacle, stage, state, status, statute, the good. An inner goad has thus been cast forth, I. Ideas of parti stead, subsist, and system. In German, an impor­ externalized; whereby, as Athena says, men may The mind being, as r tant member of the Stance family is stellen, to be at peace within, their "dread passion for a great number of th1 place, a root that figures in Vorstellung, a the senses, as they m renown" thereafter being motivated solely by philosopher's and psychologist's word for repre­ by reflection on its , "war from without." sentation, conception, idea, image. also, that a certain nu Only the scene-act and scene-agent ratios fit Surely, one could build a whole philosophic /{ constantly together; , with complete comfort in this chapter on the rela­ universe by tracking down the ramifications of long lo one thing, an tion between container and contained. The act­ mon apprehensions, this one root. It would be "implemented" too, for agent ratio tugs at its edges; and we shall close despatch, are called, it would have stables, staffs, staves, stalls, sta­ noting concerns that move us still farther afield. one name; which, by i mens, stamina, stanchions, stanzas, steeds, stools, In the last example, we referred to God's atti­ ward lo talk of and 1 and studs. It would be a quite regional world, in ~"'r\c.(.. tude. Where would attitude fall within our pat­ which indeed is a co, which our Southern Agrarians might take their gether; because, as r i W,,11\.lcl tern? Often it is the preparation for an act, which stand. 4 these simple ideas ca lo.-n.,.. would make it a kind of symbolic act, or incipi­ Unquestionably, the most prominent philo­ accustom ourselves ll wnkt ent act. But in its character as a state of mind that sophic member of this family is "substance ." Or wherein they do subs ot¼.t. may or may not lead to an act, it is quite clearly at least it used to be, before John Locke greatly result; which therefore ~ .. ,L to be classed under the head of agent. We also impaired its prestige, so that many thinkers today spoke of Christ's sacrifice as "a total action, a 2. Our obscure ide i,.,,~!"'-. explicitly banish the term fr?m their ~ocabu_lar­ total passion." This suggests other "grammatical" So that if anyone will AA\,1"~'4 ies. But there is cause to believe that, m banish­ possibilities that involve a dialectic pairing of his notion of pure subs ,.,..,iju, ing the term, far from banishing its ft111ctions0!1e "active" and "passive." And in the reference to a he has no other idea of merely conceals them. Hence, from the dramat1s­ b~ state of mind, we casually invite a dialectic pair­ tion of he knows not w tic point of view, we are admonished to dwell which are capable of p ing of "actus" and "status." z ~ upon the word, considering its embarrassments which qualities are co1 This group of concerns will be examined in due and its potentialities of transformation, so that we anyone should be as course. Meanwhile, we should be reminded that may detect its covert influence even in cases wherein color or weig the term agent embraces not only all words general where it is overtly absent. Its relation to our five nothing lo say but, the or specific for person, actor, character, individual, terms wit[ become apparent as we proceed. he were demanded, wh hero, villain, father, doctor, engineer, but also any tension inhere in, he we words, moral or functional, for patient, and words case than the Tndian bef for the motivational properties or agents, such '"General will" (i.e., the will or society). [Ed.] that the world was sup

1312 MODERN AND POSTMODERN RHETORIC ~' . .. (lM\tlt\o~ CaV\ ~e,\-()., lt.l-- of. ,, ' ,\"'\ -· .. VJl>nt. d«'>f\l- \Ni~ o. "~u,

ls for agent, such as na­ First we should note that there is, etymologi­ what. And thus here, as in all other cases where we ·'super ego," Rousseau's cally, a pun lurking behind the Latin roots. The use words without having clear and distinct ideas, .:;ichtean "generalized I." word i1.often used to designate what some thing we talk like children: who, being questioned what or agent intrinsically is, as per these meanings in such a thing is which they know not, readily give Webster's: "the most important element in any this satisfactory answer, that it is something; which :;'INITION in truth signifies 110 more, when so used, either by existence; the characteristic and essential compo­ children or men, but that they know not what; and nents of anything; the main part; essential im­ that the thing they pretend to know and talk of, is Is compnsmg what we port; purport." Yet etymologically "substance" is what they have no distinct idea of at all, and so are , • .,,cl·\ mily, for they all derive a scenic word. Literally, a person's or a thing's perfectly ignorant of it, and in the dark. The idea, ' ,. r.,,. e, or placement. In the substance would be something that stands be­ then, we have, to which we give the general name .,. , ,,1 s the root for this family neath or supports the person or thing. substance, being nothing but the supposed, but un­ lo ..... J\. sthii). And out of it there Let us cite a relevant passage in An Essay known support of those qualities we find existing, which we imagine cannot subsist ~ine re substa11te, 11tialfamily, comprising Concerning Human Understanding (Chapter XXIII,"Of Our Complex Ideas of Substances"): "without something to support them," we call that ist, constancy, constitu­ support .rnbstalllia; which according to the true im­ cstasy, existence, hypo­ port of the word, is, in plain English, standing ' state, status, statute, I. Ideas of particular .rnbstances, how made. under, or upholding. n. In Gennan, an impor­ The mind being, as I have declared, furnished with nce family is stellen, to a great number of the simple ideas conveyed in by The same structure is present in the corre­ ures in Vorstellung, a the senses, as they are found in exterior things, or sponding Greek word, hypostasis, literally, a ologist's word for repre­ by reflection on its own operations, takes notice, standing under: hence anything set under, such as also, that a certain number of these simple ideas go ea, image. stand, base, bottom, prop, support, stay; hence constantly together; which being presumed to be­ metaphorically, that which lies at the bottom of a 1ild a whole philosophic /( long to one thing, and words being suited to com­ ,wn the ramifications of thing, as the groundwork, subject matter, argu­ mon apprehensions, and made use of for quick ment of a narrative, speech, poem; a starting e "implemented" too, for despatch, are called, so united in one subject, by ,taffs, staves, stalls, sta- one name; which, by inadvertency, we are apt after­ point, a beginning. And then come the metaphys­ 1s, stanzas, steeds, stools, ward to talk of and consider as one simple idea, ical meanings (we are consulting Liddell and Scott): subsistence, reality, real being (as applied l quite regional world, in which indeed is a complication of many ideas to­ ;rarians might take their gether; because, as I have said, not imagining how to mere appearance), nature, essence. In ecclesi­ these simple ideas can subsist by themselves, we astical Greek, the word corresponds to the Latin most prominent philo­ accustom ourselves to suppose some substratllm, Persona, a Person of the Trinity (which leads us wherein they do subsist, and from which they do ·amily is "substance." Or back into the old argument between the homoou­ result; which therefore we call substance. !fore John Locke greatly sians and the homoiousians, as to whether the three persons were of the same or similar sub­ that many thinkers today 2. Our obscure idea of substance in general. ­ stance). Medically, the word can designate a sup­ ·m from their vocabular ­ So that if anyone will examine himself concerning o believe that, in banish­ his notion of pure substance in general, he will find pression, as of humours that ought to come to the rnishing its functions one he has no other idea of it at all, but only a supposi­ surface; also matter deposited in the urine; and of fence, from the dramatis­ tion of he knows not what support of such qualities liquids generally, the sediment, lees, dregs, Lre admonished to dwell which are capable of producing simple ideas in us; grounds. When we are examining, from the !ring its embarrassments which qualities are commonly called accidents. If standpoint of the Symbolic, metaphysical tracts ransformation, so that we anyone should be asked, what is the subject that would deal with "fundamentals" and get to wherein color or weight inheres, he would have influence even in cases the "bottom" of things, this last set of meanings nothing to say but, the solid extended parts. And if nt. Its relation to our five can admonish us to be on the lookout for what he were demanded, what is it that solidity and ex­ Freud might call "cloaca)" motives, furtively in­ rent as we proceed. tension inhere in, he would not be in a much better terwoven with speculations that may on the sur­ case than the Indian before mentioned, who, saying that the world was supported by a great elephant, face seem wholly abstract. An "acceptance" of 1ill of society). [Ed. I the universe on this plane may also be a round­ So111/zand the Agrarian Tradi­ was asked, what the elephant rested on; to which ,f the Southern Agrarian move­ his answer was, a great tortoise; but being again about way of "making peace with the faeces ." ·s, John Crowe Ransom, Robert pressed to know what gave support to the broad­ But returning to the pun as it figures in the ci­ [Ed.) backed tortoise, replied-something, he knew not tation from Locke, we might point up the pattern

BURKE I A GRAMMAR OF MOTIVES 1313 4\M.. ,,....,..,,._ol.c,l(_ oP .swi.1'.t,..i,,...... _ 5

~V\> s_s ~ ;-"'-~•:.t.._Lo~.~ d IS"CMSs10~ o­

ol...s~..:.,.., Sl-iV1111,4.l411\\-5\I ~ t"""'-~~(, as sharply as possible by observing that the word the actual lead into the peculiarly Hegelian the­ transformation of thi "substance," used to designate what a thing is, ory of the State as the vessel of freedom. For the "extrinsic" motive, si derives from a word designating something that a Spirit is free, we are told, and the State is "the channel or vessel tt thing is not. That is, though used to designate perfect embodiment of Spirit." But by the time ma!erials ("scenic," something within the thing, intrinsic to it, the we arrive at this point, the intrinsic and the ex­ out") would affect th, Whc,.\­ word etymologically refers to something outside trinsic have begun subtly to change places. One d_eed, since the body j Vva"\A"'­ the thing, extrinsic to it. Or otherwise put: the can discern the ambiguity by experimentally side the body is but c v--b,.....,. word in its etymological origins would refer to an shifting the accent in Hegel's formula for the na­ thought that forms a , \/lt'MIA,0 f attribute of the thing's context, since that which ture of the State. We may say either "embodi­ these terms must also \t..,st-t..: supports or underlies a thing would be a part of ment of Spirit" or "embodiment of Spirit." Or, it. Everything being , the thing's context. And a thing's context, being since "embodiment" is here a synonym for "ma­ center of "intrinsic n outside or beyond the thing, would be something terialization," we could make the ambiguity still of the chemical seem that the thing is not . ... more apparent by rephrasing it as a choice be­ cal stimulants of the tween "materialization of Spirit" and "material­ dependence upon the ization of Spirit." For the expression itself is got upon purely externa l11tri11sicand Extrinsic by the merging of antithetical terms. Hence, "stimulating" intrinsic The treatment of material properties as a "state" when you have put them together, by shifting the should be expected to brings the actus-status pair in line with the dis­ stress you can proclaim one or the other as the the extent that the ecc tinction between intrinsic and extrinsic sub­ essence of the pair. Accepting Hegel's definition require these chemica · stance, or between motivations within the agent of Matter, only a State that is the "materialization intrinsic motive, as a and motivations derived from scenic sources that of Spirit" would be "essentially" free. But a State tion, could be said to t "support" (or "substand") the agent. In the intro­ that is the "materialization of Spirit" would be cology is on the occas duction to his Philosophy of History, where the very antithesis of freedom (and this was pre­ upon illnesses in whic Hegel places Matter in dialectical opposition to cisely the interpretation given by the Marxi st re­ are_felt to depend upoi Spirit, he clearly begins by equating Matter with versal of the Hegelian dialectic). patient (whether he ' the extrinsic aspect of substance and Spirit with Indeed, we can take it as a reliable rule of one has an intrinsic m its intrinsic aspect: thumb that, whenever we find a distinction be­ in contrast with such tween the internal and the external, the intrinsic the administering of c As the essence of Matter is Gravity, so, on the and the extrinsic, the within and the without, (as motion). other hand, we may affirm that the substance, the with Korzybski's distinction between happening One of the most cc essence of Spirit is Freedom.... Matter possesses "inside the skin" and happenings "outside the tempt to determine the gravity in virtue of its tendency toward a central skin") we can expect to encounter the paradoxe~ the intrinsic with the point. It is essentially composite; consisting of parts of substance. that exclude each other. It seeks its Unity; and there­ stance of this nominali Recently, for instance, a "gerontologist," fore exhibits itself as self-destructive, as verging to­ literary critic who exhc ward its opposite (an indivisible point). If it could at­ whose specialty is the study of "aging as a physi­ the quality of a given tain this, it would be Matter no longer, it would have ological process," is reported to have said in an exactly what way the perished. It strives after the realization of its Idea; for address to a body of chemists: lines of every other po, in Unity it exists ideally. Spirit, on the contrary, may ments recommending Aging, like life in general, is a chemical process. be defined as that which has its centre in itself. It has product play up some , and just as chemistry has been able to improve on not a unity outside itself, but has already found it; it said to distinguish thi~ exists i11and with itself. Matter has its essence out of nature in many respects, virtually creating a new petitors). Yet the intrin itself; Spirit is self-contained existence (Bei-sich­ world by reshuffling nature's molecules, so it may selbst-sein). Now this is freedom, exactly. For if I am be expected that eventually chemistry will learn to must also reside, to a v, dependent, my being is referred to something else stimulate artificially those powers of "intrinsic re­ utes that his work shan which I am not; I cannot exist independently of sistance" to disease with which man is born. W~ cannot define by di something external. I am free, on the contrary, when entiated also has signi my existence depends upon myself. "Intrinsic resistance," you will note, is a concept bers of its class. The that situates a motivational source within the human nature solely in However, before he has proceeded very far, body as agent. But the use of chemical means to elusive category, such remarks on the relation between the potential and stimulate this internal motive would involve the plasm, or colloids, has

1314 MODERN AND POSTMODERN RHETORIC ~ d11CMSs1t1~ of ~ ..<-.-.l

Sl-iM1,4.l4."'-l-$ \I\. 0. chSGA,1.S', L~ t:.f .-\.\..--h..-,c.. : vi I pr~,:;t...... t- peculiarly Hegelian the­ transformation of this "intrinsic" motive into an counterpart the heresy that would define solely in essel of freedom. For the "extrinsic" motive, since it would become but the terms of distinctive traits, actual or imputed. >Id, and the State is "the channel or vessel through which the chemical Thus, an article in one of our best magazines is Spirit." But by the time materials ("scenic," administered "from with­ recommended on the grounds that it "applies an­ the intrinsic and the ex­ out") would affect the chemistry of the body. In­ thropological method to the diagnosis of our dis­ ly to change places. One deed, since the body is but chemistry, and all out­ tinctive cultural traits." This is, to be sure, a legit­ guity by experimentally side the body is but chemistry, the very mode of imate limitation of subject matter for treatment egel's formula for the na­ thought that forms a concept of the "intrinsic" in within the scope of one article; but we should be may say either "embodi- these terms must also by the same terms dissolve admonished against the assumption that even a 1bodiment of Spirit." Or, it. Everything being chemical, the physiological wholly accurate description of our culture in here a synonym for "ma- center of "intrinsic resistance" is but a function terms of its distinctive traits alone could possibly make the ambiguity still of the chemical scene. In fact, insofar as chemi­ give us a just interpretation of its motives. In­ rasing it as a choice be­ cal stimulants of the required sort were found, a deed, we can discern a variant of the same error of Spirit" and "material­ dependence upon them would be a dependence in nationalist and regionalist concepts of motiva­ he expression itself is got upon purely external agencies. And far from tion as we get in the oversimplifications of litera­ ntithetical terms. Hence, "stimulating" intrinsic resistance, the chemicals ture: the treatment of motivational parts as n together, by shifting the should be expected to cause a weakening of it, to though they were the motivational whole. n one or the other as the the extent that the economy of the body grew to The search for the intrinsic frequently leads to cepting Hegel's definition require these chemicals. The only place where an the selection of calculi postulating various assort­ :hat is the "materialization intrinsic motive, as a genuinely internal activa­ ments of "instincts," "drives," "urges," etc. as the sentially" free. But a State tion, could be said to figure in materialistic medi­ motivational springs of biologic organisms in ·aion of Spirit" would be cology is on the occasions when physicians come general and of human organisms in particular. reedom (and this was pre- upon illnesses in which the chances of recovery Materialistic science prefers this style of vocabu­ 1 given by the Marxist re­ are felt to depend upon the mental attitude of the lary because it assigns scenic terms to motives lialectic). patient (whether he "wants" to recover). Here situated in the agent; and scenic words generally e it as a reliable rule of one has an intrinsic motive (involving an action) seem so much more "real" than other words, we find a distinction be­ in contrast with such a motive as is supplied by even though such lists can be expanded or con­ the external, the intrinsic the administering of chemicals (involving sheer tracted ad Lib., quite as suits one's dialectical 1ithin and the without, (as motion) . preferences. Though the treatment of intrinsic .ction between happenings One of the most common fallacies in the at­ motivation in such terms is usually made in good happenings "outside the tempt to determine the intrinsic is the equating of faith, it can also well serve as a rhetorical deflec­ ) encounter the paradoxes the intrinsic with the unique. We recall an in­ tion of social criticism. For instance, if a re­ stance of this nominalist extreme in an essay by a former would advocate important political or so­ ance, a "gerontologist," literary critic who exhorted his fellows to discern cial changes on the ground that the present state :tudy of "aging as a physi­ the quality of a given poet's lines by finding in of affairs stimulates wars, he can be "scientifi­ :ported to have said in an exactly what way they were distinct from the cally refuted" by a calculus which postulates a emists: lines of every other poet (somewhat as advertise­ "combative instinct," or "drive towards aggres­ ments recommending rival brands of the same sion," or "natural urge to kill" in all people or eneral, is a chemical process, product play up some one "talking point" that is certain types of people. For if such motives are has been able to improve on said to distinguish this brand from all its com­ intrinsic to human agents, they may be expected :ts, virtually creating a new petitors). Yet the intrinsic value of a poet's lines to demand expression whatever the social and 1ature's molecules, so it may .ually chemistry will learn to must also reside, to a very great degree, in attrib­ political structure may be. 1ose powers of "intrinsic re­ utes that his work shares with many other poets. When a person has his mind set upon the in­ th which man is born. We cannot define by differentia alone; the differ­ terpreting of human motivation in a calculus that entiated also has significant attributes as mem­ features an innate "combative instinct" or "nat­ ,ou will note, is a concept bers of its class. The heresy that would define ural urge to kill," one may as well accept his de­ ttional source within the human nature solely in terms of some more in­ cision as a stubborn fact of nature; instead of try­ use of chemical means to clusive category, such as chemistry, or proto­ ing to dispel it, one should try to get around it. motive would involve the plasm, or colloids, has as its over-compensatory Recalling the paradox of substance, for instance,

BURKE I A GRAMMAR OF MOTIVES 1315 we are reminded that such "drives" or "urges" ism could be characterized more fully as "natu­ are like "tendencies" or "trends," which we dis­ ralistic humanism," or simply "naturalism," as in the cult of the intrin : cussed when on the subject of "directional" sub­ the following citation from an essay by John emplifies the parado . stance. And the man who would postulate an "in­ Dewey, assigning an intrinsic motive to human who said that only t stinct to kill" can be asked to round out his nature: the true admirer of , dialectic by postulating a contrary "instinct not to admiration to such Naturalism finds the values in question, the kill." For there is certainly as much empirical ev­ himself with them, h worth and dignity of men and women, founded in view, and thus falls i idence that men let one another live as there is human nature itself, in the connections, actual and evidence that they kill one another. Hence, when­ trinsic" observation potential, of human beings with one another in t~e!r towards women, but ever such words designate motives that may or natural social relationships. Not only that, but 1t 1s may not prevail, we can at least insist that they be ready at any time to maintain the thesis that a foun­ balanced with their dialectical counterpart. And dation within man and nature is a much sounder The Rhetoric of Sub.­ once the pattern is thus completed, we are able to one than is one alleged to exist outside the constitu­ see beyond these peculiarly "intrinsic" motives tion of man and nature. The ambiguity of sut to "extrinsic" or "scenic" motives, in the sense of expect, a major resm By placing man and nature together, in dialecti­ preciate this by refr situations which stimulate one rather than the cal opposition to the supernatural, Dr. Dewey's other of the paired motives, as some situations from Locke, when t remarks here somewhat conceal from us the fact substance "we talk call forth a greater amount of combativeness and that we are shifting between a scenic location for destructiveness, whereas other situations call questioned what such motives and a location within the agent. Only the not, readily gives thi: forth a greater amount of cooperation and con­ second kind would be "intrinsic" to people; the struction. (There are, of course, complications is something; which other kind would be "derivative" from nature as when so used, either here that require much more discriminatory cal­ scene instead of from super-nature as scene. culation than could be got by confinement to they know not what; (Both "foundation" and "constitution" are "stance" tend to know and tal such pairings. A certain kind of cooperation is words, hence capable of merging intrinsic and ex­ stimulated by war, for instance, both at the time distinct idea of at all trinsic reference.) rant of it, and in the d and as the result of new methods which, origi­ It is possible that the reverse perspective. s.o nally designed for military aggression, can later substance" is "nothin characteristic of Russian ikons may have ong1- known, support of th be adapted for peaceful commercial exchange.). nated in a theory of the intrinsic, as is indicated Spinoza defines substance as "the caus~ of it­ ing." The most clear­ in this citation from The Burlington Magazine for be used for the vagm self' (causa sui). And we can see how this for­ October I 929 ("Greco: the Epilogue to Byzan­ mulation applies to the search for the intrinsic speak of "a certain tt tine Culture," by Robert Byron): ticular thing in mind. when we contrast supernaturalist and humanist strategies of motivation. Supernaturalist strate­ It has been suggested that the habit of inverted as a treatise on the gies derive the attributes ofohuman substance and perspective which the Greeks perpe.tu~te~in .D~c­ from this point of vi titled, "A Treatise on motive from God as their ancestral source, cio and Giotto derived from the artist s 1magmmg himself withi; the object portrayed; so that as it whereas humanistic strategies situate the moti­ what." One might tht progressed in the direction of the beholder it nec~s­ vational principles within human agents them­ erable vagueness in sarily diminished. Such indeed was the Byzantine juridic solidity. selves. In brief, humanists assign to man an vision of form as expressed in terms of light and inherent or intrinsic dignity, whereas super­ We may even go dark. The head, the arm, was conceived primarily one may say "it is su/ naturalists assign to man a derived dignity. Any as a dark mass, instead of as a given space to be in­ a time when on the motive humanistically postulated in the agent vested with form by the application of shadow. would be a causa sui insofar as it is not deduced This principle is explicitly stated in Denys of would be much mon true." And even a hu from any cause outside itself. Fourna's "Guide to Painting" in relation lo flesh Since agents require placement in scenes, hu­ depiction; and the interest of this instruction lies in in Christian doctrine reason of qualities w manism gets its scenic counterpart in naturalism. the fact that it exhibits the exact converse of the rules for the same process prescribed in mcdireval stantially" from his c1 There is also, of course, a "supernaturalist hu­ western manuals such as that of Cennino Ccnnini. the nature of the case manism," but it would be exactly the same as the grammatically, it can kind of doctrine we here call simply supernatu­ The notion of "the artist's imagining himself rhetorical purposes. 1 ralism. And similarly what we here call human- within the object portrayed" would seem to carry source could a rhetor ,

1316 MODERN AND POSTMODERN RHETORIC -c \ . ~ d, a .....r- ~(_-Q-.,1. \7 j"'"~"--...... ,c..°""'- c:,"""'"'~ fl..-'o""' , ...."""'- n.s-.....~

~ ••«-., "'°''"'..1••~·o"'"·~ o..f- s .. 1,o,~~~." d more fully as "natu- the cult of the intrinsic to the point where it ex­ ity whereby he can say "The state of affairs is 1ply "naturalism," as in emplifies the paradox of purity, as with the wag substantially such-and-such," instead of having Jm an essay by John who said that only the homosexual man can be to say "The state of affairs is and/or is not such­ insic motive to human the true admirer of women, since he carries his and-such"? admiration to such an extent that, identifying There is a similar usage in the expression, "in values in question, the himself with them, he adopts their very point of principle" (a word furthermore that is literally a 1 and women, founded in view, and thus falls in love with men. For an "in­ "first," as we realize when we recall its etymo­ e connections, actual and trinsic" observation of women would look, not logical descent from a word meaning: beginning, , with one another in their towards women, but towards men. commencement, origin). So diplomats can skirt ,s. Not only that, but it is some commendable but embarrassing proposal tain the thesis that a foun­ by accepting it "in principle," a stylistic nicety ature is a much sounder Tile Rhetoric of Substance that was once very popular with the League of exist outside the constitu- The ambiguity of substance affords, as one might Nations. Positivists who would discard the cate­ expect, a major resource of rhetoric. We can ap­ gory of substance assert that the only meaningful ·e together, in dialecti­ preciate this by referring again to the citation propositions are those which are capable of sci­ !matural, Dr. Dewey's from Locke, when he says that in speaking of entific proof; and having thus outlawed the con­ Jnceal from us the fact substance "we talk like children: who, being veniences of a substantive rhetoric, they next ::n a scenic location for questioned what such a thing is which they know blandly concede that the scientific proof is not al­ hin the agent. Only the not, readily gives this satisfactory answer, that it ways possible actually, but must be possible "in 1trinsic" to people; the is somethinK; which in truth signifies no more, principle" -which would leave them pretty vative" from nature as when so used, either by children or men, but that much where they began, except that their doc­ ,uper-nature as scene. they know not what; and that the thing they pre­ trine won't allow them to admit it. By this de­ mstitution" are "stance" tend to know and talk of, is what they have no vice, we can even characterize as "universally erging intrinsic and ex- distinct idea of at all, and so are perfectly igno­ valid" a proposition that may in fact be denied by rant of it, and in the dark." For "the general name whole classes of people . As one controversialist reverse perspective so substance" is "nothing but the supposed, but un­ has phrased it: "To say that a proposition is valid i-_\ ikons may have origi- known, support of those qualities we find exist­ is to say that in principle it can secure the univer­ 1trinsic, as is indicated ing." The most clear-sounding of words can thus sal agreement of all who abide by scientific ctrlingto11Magazine for be used for the vaguest of reference, quite as we method ." 1e Epilogue to Byzan­ ~peak of "a certain thing" when we have no par­ Often, of course, this function of language is yron): ticular thing in mind. And so rock-bottom a study preserved when there are no such telltale expres­ sions (such as "substantially," "essentially," "in that the habit of inverted as a treatise on the nature of substance might, eeks perpetuated in Due­ from this point of view, more accurately be en­ principle," or "in the long run") to make it om the artist's imagining titled, "A Treatise on the Nature of I-don't-know­ quickly apparent. For instance, a list of citizens' . portrayed; so that as it what." One might thus express a state of consid­ signatures had been collected for a petition ask­ 1 of the beholder it neces­ erable vagueness in the imposing accents of a ing that a certain politician's name be placed on rideed was the Byzantine juridic solidity. the ballot. In court it was shown that some of ;ed in terms of light and We may even go a step further and note that these signatures were genuine, but that a great was conceived primarily one may say "it is substantially true" precisely at many others were false. Thereupon the judge in­ as a given space to be in­ a time when on the basis of the evidence, it validated the lot on the grounds that, the whole ' application of shadow. would be much more accurate to say, "it is not list being a mixture of the false and the genuine, itly stated in Denys of true." And even a human slave could be defined it was "saturated" with fraud. He here ruled in ef­ ting" in relation to flesh of this instruction lies in in Christian doctrine as "substantially" free, by fect that the list was substantially or essentially he exact converse of the reason of qualities which he had inherited "sub ­ fraudulent. The judgment was reversed by a s prescribed in medireval stantially" from his creator. Even in cases where higher court which ruled that, since the required hat of Cennino Cennini. the nature of the case does not justify the usage number of genuine signatures had been obtained, ' grammatically, it can be used without strain for the false signatures should be simply ignored. L,... c.-,...., st's imagining himself rhetorical purposes. What handier linguistic re­ That is, the genuine signatures should be consid- l" would seem to carry Z source could a rhetorician want than an ambigu- ered in themselves, not contextually.

BURKE I A GRAMMAR OF MOTIVES 1317 "~ol,J St°tl"',_~ ~+-t<. >r;- .~~~ '1t- l'IIS ~S-:Y ysr­ ~ -'"~"""-·~ ...... \M.~"1. ~ ~V-v\.. 11 o.Ll t\l.v-W<1.tM.i14, ~( {we>~ ..· ~,{,, 1)1,\t...b...d<- / I .-~ ...... "'-V~u."~.Arl. we.-,-. Two Kinds of Departure tion of traits that were formerly considered char­ ones. As "naturalisr acteristically human, or as religious doctrines of ogy, away from nat l Since the five key terms can be considered as "personalism" may be formulated, not becau se ism" might be a w, "principles," and since the margins of overlap the individual person really is in a position of \l'\Vf.11',\..;,A, of technological op among them permit a thinker to consider the ge­ paramount importance, but precisely because he ogy. 1\ 0111.lvi 1 nius of one term as "substantially" participant in is not). { It has been said t pv<;~,b~ the genius of another, the ambiguity of the sub­ Such tactics of entitling are as legitimate as { \ \ John Veitch, that w Vt..U.w.v'stantial makes it possible to use terms as points any other, once the irony has been made explicit. JJ old dogma, rather t of departure in two senses. Thus we may speak in Indeed, philosophies are never quite "consistent" aimed at "sapping i l'°'vM,~.)l.. '* the name of God because this expression is the in this sense. All thought tends to name things rid of traditional pri summation of our thinking. Or precisely because not because they are precisely as named, but be­ rect attack as by sub J we speak in the name of God, we may be freed to cause they are not quite as named, and the name and grounds of reas k>.,"1\~sdevelop modes of thought that lead away from is designated as a somewhat hortatory device, to defender of Descart 5... c! IJ supernaturalism, since absolute conviction about take up the slack. As others have pointed out, for his enemies called h yiwulo~,.(;religion might serve as ground for a study of na­ instance, if the philosophy of "utilitarianism" cause he had given n ture. And whereas "naturalism" in its beginnings were wholly correct, there would be no need for God." But these ne,

was a consistent title, referring to man in nature, the philosophy. For men would spontaneously qualifications of Go1 it gradually became transformed into a surrepti­ and inevitably follow the dictates of utility; subtly changed the n tiously compensatory title, referring to techno­ whereas in actuality the doctrine proclaiming the motives, so that thos logical methods and ideals that are almost the an­ ubiquity of the utilitarian motive was formulated only the character po tithesis of nature, with nature itself seen in terms to serve as a plea for the deliberate consulting of old proofs were just of technology and the monetary. Thus, ironically, the utilitarian motive. "atheist." Here, subt though much of the resonance in the term "na­ From such ambiguity is derived that irony of J in the point of depart ture" derives from the supernaturalist attitude, historical development whereby the very strength ~ As regards the p which thought of natural law as derivative from in the affirming of a given term may the better may. note that a sur the divine, in time the disti11ctio11between the enable men to make a world that departs from it. j mamsm is "consiste1 natural and the divine become transformed into a For the affirming of the term as their god-term 1 sonal principle is asc contrast between the natural and the divine. Or, enables men to go far afield without sensing a of human action. Arn if we think of "God" as the whole and "nature" loss of orientation. And by the time the extent of is there for the philos as a part, we could say that the supernaturalist their departure is enough to become generally ~ riving the principles 1 treated nature as a part synecdochically related to obvious, the stability of the new order they have 11 by deduction from t the whole, whereas in time naturalism treated this built in the name of the old order gives them the J ground. A naturalisti as a divisive relation. Or, to adopt a very sugges­ strength to abandon their old god-term and adopt ] on the other hand, is '

tive usage in Charles M. Perry's Toward a Di­ another. Hence, noting that something so highly sonal agents are plac 1 mensional Realism, the notion of nature as a part unnatural as technology developed under the 4 The first strategy rea of God could be converted into the notion of na­ name of naturalism, we might ironically expect 11!second by a "howevei ture as apart from God. that, were "technologism" to become the name But insofar as this divisive emphasis devel­ for "naturalism," the philosophy would be the oped, and the secular appeal of "nature" relied first step towards a development away from tech­ The Centrality of Suh less and less upon connotations of the supernat­ nology. And as indication that this is no mere im­ Contemporary scienti ural, "nature" gained resonance from a new provising, the philosophy of "operationalism," ~bandon the categoric source, the romantic reaction against the "unnat­ modeled after technological procedures, embod- tty, has done speculat ural" world progressively created by the techno­ ies a totally different concept of meaning than the made clear wherein th logical "conquest" of nature. In this way the se­ one which, we know as a historical fact, figured sophic and scientific t, lection of "naturalism" as the name for a as an incentive in the invention of technological re~ides. Philosophy, philosophy of applied science may be compen­ devices and their corresponding mathematical thmk of human mot satory rather than consistent (somewhat as formulae. Hence, if carried out rigorously. it terms of actions and though one were to call a philosophy "humanis­ would lead to the stabilization of technological freed of philosophic tl: tic" because it aimed at the systematic elimina- operations rather than to the development of new fines itself to terms 0 1

1318 MODERN AND POSTMODERN RHETORIC ~ l)l, his """'1>s.}V">t-­ lw"'-~ ~ViA

~~· ~Al ~L-1(.,b,tl,k...... ,tty~l. LJ'<\.o~ Lu>t>c-\1,&: : formerly considered char- ones. As "naturalism" would lead us, via technol­ tion (figure, structure). This convention, almost )r as religious doctrines of ogy, away from nature, so perhaps "operational­ Puritanical in its severity (surely we should not e formulated, not because ism" might be a way of leading us, in the name be far wrong in calling it a secularized variant of really is in a position of of technological operations, away from technol­ Puritanism) has brought about such magnifica­ :, but precisely because he ogy. tion of human powers that any "objection" to it It has been said by one of Descartes's editors, would have about as much force as an attempt to itling are as legitimate as { ) \ John Veitch, that when Descartes questioned an "refute" Niagara Falls. But such results, however ny has been made explicit. j old dogma, rather than attacking it head on, he spectacular, do not justify an attempt to abide by re never quite "consistent" aimed at "sapping its foundations." And he got the same terminological conventions when treat­ 1ght tends to name things rid of traditional principles "not so much by di­ ing of human motives. For one could confine the recisely as named, but be- rect attack as by substituting for them new proofs study of action within the terms of motion only e as named, and the name and grounds of reasoning." Veitch also quotes a by resigning oneself to gross misrepresentations ewhat hortatory device, to defender of Descartes who says ironically that of life as we normally experience it. thers have pointed out, for his enemies called him an atheist "apparently be­ Though we here lay great stress upon the puns sophy of "utilitarianism" cause he had given new proofs of the existence of and other word play in men's ideas of motiva- - ~ 1ere would be no need for God." But these new proofs were in effect new tion, we do not thereby conclude that such Jin- \} h• -1- nen would spontaneously qualifications of God. And in this capacity they guistic tactics are "nothing but" puns and word ''n..-.-..' ' the dictates of utility; subtly changed the nature of "God" as a term for play. Rather, we take it that men's linguistic be- t-1..do,:--i, e doctrine proclaiming the motives, so that those who understood by a God havior here reflects real paradoxes in the nature ~ an motive was formulated only the character possessing the attributes of the of the world itself-antinomies that could be re­ ~~ 1e deliberate consulting of old proofs were justified in calling Descartes an solved only if men were able, not in thought, as 6~~1.f. "atheist." Here, subtly, the ambiguous resources with the program of Hegelian idealism, but in ac­ .y is derived that irony of l in the point of departure were being utilized. tual concrete operations, to create an entire uni­ ~ whereby the very strength As regards the principles of humanism, we verse. ~~ :iven term may the better may note that a supernatural grounding of hu­ However, strictly for the purposes of our ~nc Norld that departs from it. j manism is "consistent" in the sense that a per­ Grammar, we need not defend as much. One 1e term as their god-term sonal principle is ascribed to the ultimate ground might hypothetically grant that the treatment of afield without sensing a 1 of human action. And having thus been put in, it motives in terms of "action" and "substance" is I by the time the extent of is there for the philosopher to take out, when de­ wholly fallacious, yet defend it as central to the 1gh to become generally ..) riving the principles of specifically human action placement of statements about motives. Relin- f the new order they have -r by deduction from the nature of the universal quishing all claims for it as a "philosopher's · old order gives them the J ground. A naturalistic grounding of humanism, stone," we might then make claims for it secon- ir old god-term and adopt 1 on the other hand, is "compensatory," in that per­ darily, as "a philosopher's stone for the synopsis that something so highly :i_ sonal agents are placed in a non-personal scene. of writings that have sought the philosopher's ~y developed under the =f The first strategy reasons by a "therefore," the stone." Men have talked about things in many ! might ironically expect second by a "however." 1 ways, but the pentad offers a synoptic way to talk m" to become the name II/ £><-human history. And even the most >n that this is no mere im- Contemporary scientific theory, in proposing to modem of scientific tracts can be adequately 1hy of "operationalism," abandon the categories of substance and causal­ placed only as a development in this long line. ~ical procedures, embod- ity, has done speculation a good turn. For it has From this point of view, terminologies of motion 1cept of meaning than the made clear wherein the difference between philo­ and "conditioning" are to be treated as dialectical a historical fact, figured sophic and scientific terminologies of motivation enterprises designed to transcend terminologies zvention of technological resides. Philosophy, like common sense, must of action and substance. esponding mathematical think of human motivation dramatistically, in At the very best, we admit, each time you \I trried out rigorously, it terms of actions and its ends. But a science is scrutinize a concept of substance, it dissolves lization of technological freed of philosophic taints only insofar as it con­ into thin air. But conversely, the moment you the development of new fines itself to terms of motion and arrested mo- relax your gaze a bit, it reforms again. For things

BURKE I A GRAMMAR OF MOTIVES 1319 do have intrinsic natures, whatever may be the tain that every bit of this is nonsense. Yet these sic to the individual i1 quandaries that crowd upon us as soon as we at­ words of nonsense would themselves be real or generic fact about tempt to decide definitively what these intrinsic words, involving real tactics, having real demon­ within him Gust as me natures are. And only by systematically dwelling strable relationships, and demonstrably affecting species each possess 1 upon the paradoxes of substance could we possi­ relationships. And as such, a study of their op­ substance or motives 1 bly equip ourselves to guard against the conceal­ portunities, necessities, and embarrassments ally). And as regards t ment of "substantialist" thought in schemes would be central to the study of human motives. thing's intrinsic natun overtly designed to avoid it. Yet these schemes The design on a piece of primitive pottery versa! whole, the refe are usually constructed by men who contemn di­ would be wholly symbolic or allegorical. But a hence extrinsic. Forn alectical operations so thoroughly that, in their drawing that accurately reproduces this design in metaphysical speculat aversion, they cannot adequately observe them, a scientific treatise would be not symbolic or al­ are internal or exter and are accordingly prompt to persuade them­ legorical, but realistic. And similarly, even when from the dramatist pc selves that their terminology is not dialectical, statements about the nature of the world are ab­ the fact that one can whereas every terminology is dialectical by sheer stractly metaphysical, statements about the na­ geometric definition, reason of the fact that it is a terminology. If you ture of these statements can be as empirical as the (agent) or ground (see, will, call the category of substance sheer error. statement, "This is Mr. Smith," made when intro­ In pantheistic sche1 Yet it is so fertile a source of error, that only by ducing Mr. Smith in the accepted manner. ... sonal (intrinsic) freed learning to recognize its nature from within could determination must co we hope to detect its many disguises from with­ responds to the onto!( Grammatical Steps to Naturalism out. Such thoughts apply particularly to Alfred and Creation. That is Korzybski's admonitions against Aristotelian There are two primary generalizations that char­ become identical, with "elementalism"; for his aversion leads to so eva­ acterize the quality of motives: freedom and ne­ the other. Spinoza's sive a treatment of the subject that in a very long cessity. And whenever they appear, we may quirement in defining book he contrives to convey little more than a know that we are in the presence of "God-term~," whereby the concepts negative attitude towards it. or names for the ultimates of motivation. Doc­ are merged grammatic So, in sum: The transformations which we here trines wherein Creator and Creation are not onto­ reflexive form satisfie: study as a Grammar are not "illusions," but logically collapsed into a unity give us a kind of active and passive toge citable realities. The structural relations involved double genesis for motives. Consideration in multaneously free anc are observable realities. Nothing is more imperi­ terms of the Creation leads to "necessity" when, straints are those of om ously there for observation and study than the in accordance with the logic of geometric sub­ tification of scene and tactics people employ when they would injure or stance, all the parts of nature are treated as neces­ possible inasmuch as b gratify one another - and one can readily dem­ sarily related to one another in their necesl>aryre ­ ophy are rational. onstrate the role of substantiation in such tactics. lationship to the whole. For "necessity" names Spinoza likewise To call a man a friend or brother is to proclaim the extrinsic conditions that determine a motion natura naturans and ne him consubstantial with one,;elf, one's values or and must be taken into account when one is plan­ ing nature" and "natl purposes. To call a man a bastard is to attack him ning an action. And consideration in tenm of the cally, we could thus tr by attacking his whole line, his "authorship," his Creator leads to "freedom" when, in accordance ture," (which equals "( "principle" or "motive" (as expressed in terms of with the logic of tribal substance, men ''!,ubstan­ (though one usually re: the familial). An epithet assigns substance doubly, tially" derive freedom (or self-movement) from verbs) having active a for in stating the character of the object it at the God as its ancestral source. This double genesis the -ata) as its dual attri same time contains an implicit program of action allows for free will and determinism simultane­ responding grammar i with regard to the object, thus serving as motive. ously, rather than requiring a flat choice between sions, res cogitans [ So, one could, if he wished, maintain that all them. Also, owing to the ambiguity of substance, "thing" (res) would be theology, metaphysics, philosophy, criticism, po­ it permits men to be "substantially" free even "thinking" ( cogitans) ai etry, drama, fiction, political exhortation, histori­ when, as regards their natural condition!., they tended" ( extensa) as i cal interpretation, and personal statements about are actually enslaved or imprisoned. could speak of nature the lovable and the hateful-one could if he An ancestral source of freedom is in one sense thinking - and of natur, wanted to be as drastically thorough as some of extrinsic to the individual, inasmuch as progeni­ our positivists now seem to want to be-main- tor is distinct from offspring. Y ct origin is intrin- '"Self-caused.'" !Ed.I

1320 MODERN AND POSTMODERN RHETORIC is nonsense . Yet these sic to the individual in the sense that this genetic tended. One can discern here the beginnings of d themselves be real or generic fact about his nature is also possessed the alignment that was to prevail in modern ide­ cs, having real demon­ within him Uust as members of a given biological alism, as the active participle becomes the "sub­ .::.• fomonstrably affecting species each possess within them, genitively, the jective" and the passive participle the "objective" b..~ 1, a study of their op- substance or motives proper to the species gener­ (a grammar that is precisely reversed in material­ ~(I.~-­ and embarrassments ally). And as regards the geometric logic, when a ism, where nature in extension is treated as the ~ dyof human motives . thing's intrinsic nature is defined as part of a uni­ motivational source, while subjective motives are ~,~ ! of primitive pottery versal whole, the reference here is to a context, treated as either illusions or reflections). c or allegorical. But a hence extrinsic. Formally, the issue figures in Or, consider the passages in Aristotle's Jroduces this design in metaphysical speculations as to whether relations Physics where he is seeking to establish the num­ be not symbolic or al­ are internal or external, an ambiguity which, ber of principles required to account for the :i similarly, even when from the dramatist point of view, is implicit in changes that take place in the natural world . Here -e of the world are ab­ the fact that one can shift between familial and we find a paradigm of grammar in his concern .ements about the na­ geometric definition, stressing either person with the reduction of such principles to a pair of ri be as empirical as the (agent) or ground (scene) as a locus of motives. opposites, with a possible third term that would 1ith," made when intro ­ In pantheistic schemes, the principles of per­ be their common ground. Grammatically, these cepted manner .... sonal (intrinsic) freedom and scenic (extrinsic) principles are reducible to active, passive, and determination must collapse into a unity that cor­ middle, the concept of self-movement containing responds to the ontological merging of Creator active and passive ambiguously in one. Nature , uralism and Creation. That is, "freedom" and "necessity" Aristotle says at one point, is like a doctor doc­ 1eralizations that char ­ become identical, with each definable in terms of toring himself (a figure that could, if we wanted ti ves: freedom and ne­ the other. Spinoza's pantheism meets this re­ to translate the universal into medical terms, then hey appear, we may quirement in defining substance as causa sui, 5 give us: doctor doctoring and doctor doctored). :sence of "God -terms, " whereby the concepts of freedom and necessity The pantheistic moment in philosophy , by ·s of motivation. Doc - are merged grammatically in the reflexive. The producing a merger of personal and impersonal Creation are not onto ­ reflexive form satisfies the requirement, putting principles (a merger of personal agent and imper­ unity give us a kind of active and passive together, since one can be si­ sonal scene), can serve well as a bridge leading ves. Consideration in multaneously free and constrained if the con­ from theology to naturalism. For theologies are Is to "necessity" when, straints are those of one's own choosing, an iden­ "dramatistic" in their stress upon the personalis ­ ,gic of geometric sub­ tification of scene and philosopher-agent that is tic, whereas the terminologies typical of natural re are treated as neces ­ possible inasmuch as both nature and the philos­ science would eliminate the concept of the per­ :r in their necessary re­ ophy are rational. son, in reducing it to purely scenic terms. Hence, ::.or "necessity" names Spinoza likewise adopts the expressions, a pantheistic merging of person and scene can at determine a motion natura 11at11ra11sand natura naturata (or "natur­ add up to the dissolution of the personal into the ount when one is plan­ ing nature" and "natured nature"). Grammati­ impersonal along naturalistic lines. leration in terms of the cally, we could thus treat the ground term, "na­ We might sum up the matter thus: Theologi ­ i" when, in accordance ture," (which equals "God") as reflexive in form cally, nature has attributes derived from its origin JStance, men "substan ­ (though one usually reserves the designation for in an act of God (the Creation), but God is more . self-movement) from verbs) having active and passive (the -ans and than nature. Dramatistically, motion involves ac­ e. This double genesis the -ata) as its dual attributes. And we note a cor­ tion, but action is more than motion . Hence, theo­ leterminism simultane­ responding grammar in his Cartesian expres­ logically and/or dramatistically, nature (in the g a flat choice between sions, res cogitans and res extensa, where sense of God's Creation) is to nature (in the sense mbiguity of substance, "thing" (res) would be the reflexive ground, with of naturalistic science) as action is to motion, since 1bstantially" free even "thinking" ( cogitans) as its active voice and "ex­ God's Creation is an enactment, whereas nature as 1tural conditions, they tended" (extensa) as its passive voice. So we conceived in terms of naturalistic science is a ,prisoned. could speak of nature, or thing, naturing, or sheer concatenation of motions. But inasmuch as ·reedom is in one sense thinking-and of nature, or thing, natured or ex- the theological ratio between God (Creator) and , inasmuch as progeni- Nature (Creation) is the same as the dramatistic 1g. Yet origin is intrin- \"Self-caused." [Ed.] ratio between action and motion, the pantheistic

BURKE / A GRAMMAR OF MOTIVES 1321 equating of God and Nature would be paralleled terms, in developing a vocabulary designed to ing the entire field at , by the equating of action and motion. And since allow this one term full expression (as regards as propositions: action is a personal principle while motion is an its resources and its temptations) with the other impersonal principle, the pantheistic equation terms being comparatively slighted or being For the featuring c leads into the naturalistic position which reduces placed in the perspective of the featured term. philosophic tern personalistic concepts to depersonalized terms. Think, for instance, of a philosophy that had For the featuring c If these steps seem to have been too quickly been established "in the sign of the agent." It terminology is i arrived at, let us try approaching the matter from must develop coordinates particularly suited to For the featuring o another angle. Indeed, we need not even hang on, treat of substance and motive in "subjective," or terminology isl but can almost begin anew .... "psychological" terms (since such terms deal •For the featuring c most directly with the attributes of agents). ing terminology Then think of that stage where the philosopher, For the featuring o SCENE proud in the full possession of his coordinates minology is rea for featuring the realm of the agent, turned to Tlze Featuring of the Terms consider the areas that fall most directly under Nominalism and Our program in this section is to consider seven the heading of scene. Instead of beginning over kinds of terminology primary philosophic languages in terms of the again, and seeking to analyze the realm of scene used up all our terms. pentad, used as a generating principle that should in terms that had no relation to the terms he had indirectly. enable us to "anticipate" these different idioms. developed when considering the realm of agent, Historically, nomi In treating the various schools as languages, we he might proceed to derive the nature of his to medireval realism. may define their substantial relationship to one terms for the discussion of scene from the na­ counterpart of realism another by deriving them from a common termi­ ture of his terms for agent. This might well, in phasis. We would her> . ' nological ancestor. This ancestor would be a kind fact, be the procedure of a thinker who, instead include a correspond of lingua Adamica, an Edenic "prelanguage," in of using a terminology that was merely slung in any of the other ph• which the seeds of all philosophic languages together, felt the logical and aesthetic (and Rationalism is, in would be implicit, as in the panspermia (or con­ moral!) desire for an internal consistency losophy as a medium fusion of all future possibilities) that, according among his terms. And it would amount to an tempts to propound to some mystics, prevailed at the beginnings of "agentification" of scene even though the terms even if it is a philos the world. for scene were placed in dialectical opposition more restrictedly, the In our introduction we noted that the areas to the terms for agent. For a scene conceived philosophies that trea covered by our five terms overlap upon one an­ antithetically to agent would differ from a scene and substance of reali other. And because of this overlap, it is possible conceived, let us say, antithetically to act or stead of saying, "a ph for a thinker to make his way continuously from purpose, the genius of the ancestral term surviv­ were to say, "the uni any one of them to any of the others. Or he may ing even in its negation. fact that rationalism use terms in which several of the areas are A rival philosophic terminology might pro­ strain, converts a 111, merged. For any of the terms may be seen in pose to abandon this particular system of term~ substance might wel terms of any of the others. And we may even derived from agent, and to feature instead the son" why our pragm treat all five in terms of one, by "reducing" them area of motives covered by our term, scene. lts who treated reason , all to the one or (what amounts to the same thing) propounder would maintain that the terms im­ thoroughly identical t "deducing" them all from the one as their com­ ported from the area of agent were irrelevant or all history "in princip mon terminal ancestor. This relation we could unwieldy as scenic references. However, prin­ his philosophic methc express in temporal terms by saying that the term ciples of internal consistency might lead him to The addition of no selected as ancestor "came first"; and in timeless undertake imperialist expansions of his own, as our list spoils the sy or logical terms we could say that the term se­ were he to treat in scenic terms the areas directly first (as we extend its lected is the "essential," "basic," "logically prior" covered by our terms agent or purpose. other six schools im or "ultimate" term, or the "term of terms," etc. These general examples should be enough, for have either a collect Dramatistically, the different philosophic the time being, to indicate what we mean by the ("nominalist") emphE schools are to be distinguished by the fact that featuring of a term. In this section we shall deal to all in the sense that each school features a different one of the five with the subject in some detail. But first survey- cal conclusion, or re

1322 MODERN AND POSTMODERN RHETORIC vocabulary designed to ing the entire field at a glance, let us state simply philosophic metier. One should also note that a I expression (as regards as propositions: philosophy may be "nominalist" or "rationalist" 1ptations) with the other in one realm without necessarily being so in an­ vely slighted or being For the featuring of scene, the corresponding other-as materialism is usually atomistic in the le of the featured term. philosophic terminology is materialism. physical realm, but may be quite collectivistic in a philosophy that had For the featuring of agent, the corresponding the ethical or political realm. Similarly the mys­ e sign of the agent." It terminology is idealism. tic's merging of the One with the All would often es particularly suited to For the featuring of agency, the corresponding make it difficult to say whether we should call otive in "subjective," or terminology is pragmatism. his doctrine collectivistic or atomistic, if we (since such terms deal ,For the featuring of purpose, the correspond­ stopped at this point; but there is clearly a great · attributes of agents). ing terminology is mysticism. distinction between mystics whose doctrines lead where the philosopher, For the featuring of act, the corresponding ter­ to permanent isolation from other men, and those ;sion of his coordinates minology is realism. whose doctrines lead to the founding of religious of the agent, turned to orders. fall most directly under Nominalism and rationalism increase the The symmetry is also impaired by the fact that stead of beginning over kinds of terminology to seven. But since we have there has been much borrowing of terms among alyze the realm of scene used up all our terms, we must account for them the various philosophic schools, so that one can­ tion to the terms he had indirectly. not always take even key terms at their face ring the realm of agent, Historically, nominalism stood in opposition value. For instance, we have previously observed !rive the nature of his to medireval realism. It was the individualistic that "situation" is a synonym for "scene." Hence 1 of scene from the na­ counterpart ofrealism's "tribal" or "generic" em­ one might take it as a rule that philosophies :nt. This might well, in phasis. We would here widen the concept so as to which account for motivations in terms of "the : a thinker who, instead include a corresponding "atomistic" movement situation" are "materialistic." But the current that was merely slung in any of the other philosophies. prestige of the "situational" approach has led to ·al and aesthetic (and Rationalism is, in one sense, intrinsic to phi­ the term's adoption by other schools. A literary internal consistency losophy as a medium, since every philosophy at­ critic who spoke of "the literary situation," for it would amount to an tempts to propound a rationale of its position, instance, meant not the "objective conditions" : even though the terms even if it is a philosophy of the irrational. But under which a writer writes, but the motives pe­ 1 dialectical opposition more restrictedly, the term can be applied only to culiar to a writer's medium. What looked For a scene conceived philosophies that treat reason as the very ground "scenic" was here actually "pragmatic," since the mid differ from a scene and substance of reality, somewhat as though, in­ writer's medium is an agency. And similarly, es­ mtithetically to act or stead of saying, "a philosophy is a universe," one sayists now often speak of "the human situation" e ancestral term surviv - were to say, "the universe is a philosophy." The when they seem to have in mind the motives pe­ fact that rationalism, as a special philosophic culiar to men as men, a usage that would call for erminology might pro­ strain, converts a method (i.e., agency) into a the classifying of the expression under the head­ ticular system of terms substance might well be the "grammatical rea­ ing of agent, hence giving the apparently materi­ to feature instead the son" why our pragmatists descend from Hegel, alistic usage an essentially idealistic application by our term, scene. Its who treated reason and world substance as so (since, as we have said, idealism features the ain that the terms im- thoroughly identical that he proposed to recreate term agent). 1gent were irrelevant or all history "in principle" by the sheer exercise of Besides the concealments of misnomer and ·ences. However, prin­ his philosophic method. those due to mutual borrowings among the philo­ mcy might lead him to The addition of nominalism and rationalism to sophic schools, there is an internal development ,ansions of his own, as our list spoils the symmetry somewhat, for the that causes the nature of philosophy as an asser­ terms the areas directly first (as we extend its meaning) applies to all the tion to be lost in the problems of demonstration. 1t or purpose. other six schools insofar as each of them can That is, as soon as a philosopher has begun to in­ s should be enough, for have either a collectivistic or an individualistic vestigate the possibilities in whatever term he has 6 ! what we mean by the ("nominalist") emphasis; and the second applies selected as his Ausgangspunkt, he finds that the s section we shall deal to all in the sense that it is the perfection, or logi­ :letail. But first survey- cal conclusion, or reductio ad absurdwn of the 6 "Starting point." [Ed.]

BURKE I A GRAMMAR OF MOTIVES 1323 term does not merely create other terms in its resources of any one term will lead to the discov ­ ate, yet not wholly un image. Also, it generates a particular set of prob ­ ery of many problems the answers to which will between aimless utter lems- and the attempt to solve these problems transcend the genius of this term. And if a reader purposive. For instanct may lead the philosopher far from his begin­ comes upon a philosophy after it has been thus private ambitions with nings. It is somewhat, alas! as with the design for sophisticated, he may find himself so caught nity may be partly justi a perpetual motion machine. Such a design may up in its problems-atop-problems-atop-problems may be using a mere have been quite simple in its original conception, and problems-within-problems-within-problems advantage at the publi but it becomes fantastically complex as the in­ that he cannot sense the principle of generation quite sincere, or even ventor finds that each new wheel or trip or pin or behind them. For usually the thinker himself has fices in behalf of sucl cam which he added to solve his problem gave become similarly intricated. rhetorical area not ana rise to a new problem, and this in turn suggested But with the pentad as a generating principle, sign or as sheer simpl the need of some other contrivance, which re­ we may extricate ourselves from these intrica­ of it here. lieves his former embarrassments only by intro­ cies, by discovering the kinds of assertion which Traditionally, the k, ducing a new embarrassment of its own. the different schools would exemplify in a hypo­ "identification," but Indeed, since all the terms of the pentad con­ thetical state of purity. Once this approach is e - make sure that we do n tinually press for consideration, and since it is tablished, problems are much less likely to con­ necessarily into a wea not possible for us, without contradiction, to ceal the underlying design of assertion, or may era! classic texts whicl recreate in words a world which is itself not ver­ even serve to assist in the characterizing of a implications of that ter bal at all, we can safely accept it as an axiom that given philosophic work. of identification, is dee the mere attempt to contemplate persistently the stitute for the sound tr; as we try to show, it standard lore. And ow at home in both emphc Particularly when v FromA Rhetoric of Motives of persuasion as are courtship, and the "me the reader will see w INTRODUCTION until it is gradually extricated, might go lightly clear persuasive inten 1 through the opening pages, with the intention of describing the ways i1 The only difficult portion of this book happens, not taking hold in earnest until they come to the group promote social , unfortunately, to be at the start. There, selecting general topic of Identification. cally upon themselves texts that are usually treated as pure poetry, we Thereafter, with this term as instrument, we Blum has stated the ca try to show why rhetorical and dialectical consid­ seek to mark off the areas of rhetoric, by showing lies the source of ded erations are also called for. Since these texts in­ how a rhetorical motive is often present where it in fact of cooperation.' volve an imagery of killing (as a typical text for is not usually recognized, or thought to belong. All told, persuasio1 today should) we note how, behind the surface, ln part, we would but rediscover rhetorical ele­ quest of advantage, as lies a quite different realm that has little to do ments that had become obscured when rhetoric paganda, through cour with such motives. An imagery of killing is but as a term fell into disuse, and other specialized cation, and the sermor one of many terminologies by which writers can disciplines such as esthetics, anthropology, psy­ lights in the process represent the process of change. And while rec­ choanalysis, and sociology came to the fore (so without ulterior pur ognizing the sinister implications of a preference that esthetics sought to outlaw rhetoric, while the ranges from the politic for homicidal and suicidal terms, we indicate that other sciences we have mentioned took over, dience of farmers, SU) the principles of development or transformation each in its own terms, the rich rhetorical ele­ self," through the mysf ("rebirth") which they stand for are not strictly of ments that esthetics would ban). mystic's devout identi such a nature at all. But besides this job of reclamation, we also all being. We emerge from the analysis with the key seek to develop our subject beyond the tradi­ That the reader mi1 term, "Identification." Hence, readers who would tional bounds of rhetoric . There is an intermedi­ serve the many variati prefer to begin with it, rather than to worry a text ate area of expression that is not wholly deliber- themes, at every step

1324 MODERN AND POSTMODERN RHETORIC 1ill lead to the discov­ ate, yet not wholly unconscious. It lies midway by examples. Since we did not aim to write a mswers to which will between aimless utterance and spt:ech directly compendium, we have not tried to cover the field term. And if a reader purposive. For instance, a man who identifies his in the way that a comprehensive historical survey after it has been thus private ambitions with the good of the commu­ might do-and another volume will be needed to d himself so caught nity may be partly justified, partly unjustified. He deal adequately with the polemic kinds of )blems-atop-problems may be using a mere pretext to gain individual rhetoric (such as the verbal tactics now called !ems-within-problems advantage at the public expense; yet he may be "cold war"). rinciple of generation quite sincere, or even may willingly make sacri­ But we have tried to show what portions of 1e thinker himself has fices in behalf of such identification. Here is a other works should be selected as parts of a rhetorical area not analyzable either as sheer de­ "course in rhetoric," and how they should be L generating principle, sign or as sheer simplicity. And we would treat considered for our particular purposes. We have :s from these intrica- of it here. tried to show how rhetorical analysis throws light 1ds of assertion which Traditionally, the key term for rhetoric is not on literary texts and human relations generally . . exemplify in a hypo­ "identification," but "persuasion." Hence, to And while interested always in rhetorical de­ :e this approach is es­ make sure that we do not maneuver ourselves un­ vices, we have sought above all else to write a tch less likely to con- necessarily into a weak position, we review sev­ "philosophy of rhetoric." of assertion, or may eral classic texts which track down all the major We do not flatter ourselves that any one book e characterizing of a implications of that term. Our treatment, in terms can contribute much to counteract the torrents of of identification, is decidedly not meant as a sub­ ill will into which so many of our contemporaries stitute for the sound traditional approach. Rather, have so avidly and sanctimoniously plunged. But as we try to show, it is but an accessory to the the more strident our journalists, politicians, and standard lore. And our book aims to make itself alas! even many of our churchmen become, the at home in both emphases. more convinced we are that books should be Particularly when we come upon such aspects written for tolerance and contemplation .... of persuasion as are found in "mystification," courtship, and the "magic" of class relationships, the reader will see why the classical notion of PART I .1ted, might go lightly clear persuasive intent is not an accurate fit, for /de11tificatio11a11d "Co11substa11tiality" , with the intention of describing the ways in which the members of a until they come to the group promote social cohesion by acting rhetori­ A is not identical with his colleague, B. But inso­ on. cally upon themselves and one another. As W. C. far as their interests are joined, A is identified rm as instrument, we Blum has stated the case deftly, "In identification with B. Or he may identify himself with B even if rhetoric, by showing lies the source of dedications and enslavements, when their interests are not joined, if he assumes often present where it in fact of cooperation." that they are, or is persuaded to believe so. or thought to belong. All told, persuasion ranges from the bluntest Here are ambiguities of substance. In being iscover rhetorical ele­ quest of advantage, as in sales promotion or pro­ identified with B, A is "substantially one" with a Jscured when rhetoric paganda, through courtship, social etiquette, edu­ person other than himself. Yet at the same time and other specialized cation, and the sermon, to a "pure" form that de­ he remains unique, an individual locus of mo- :s, anthropology, psy­ lights in the process of appeal for itself alone, tives. Thus he is both joined and separate, at ,.....~t-c, , came to the fore (so without ulterior purpose. And identification once a distinct substance and consubstantial with ~~i1..~41 law rhetoric, while the ranges from the politician who, addressing an au­ another. 11entioned took over, dience of farmers, says, "I was a farm boy my­ While consubstantial with its parents, with 1e rich rhetorical ele­ self," through the mysteries of social status, to the the "firsts" from which it is derived, the offspring ban). mystic's devout identification with the source of is nonetheless apart from them. In this sense, reclamation, we also all being. there is nothing abstruse in the statement that the ect beyond the tradi­ That the reader might find it gratifying to ob­ offspring both is and is not one with its parent­ fhere is an intermedi­ serve the many variations on our two interrelated age. Similarly, two persons may be identified in is not wholly deliber- themes, at every step we have sought to proceed terms of some principle they share in common,

BURKE I A RHETOIUC OF MOTIVES 1325 l> I

an "identification" that does not deny their dis­ classification in its partisan aspects; it considers treated merely as a tinctness. the ways in which individuals arc at odds with ing its peculiar nat, To identify A with B is to make A "consub­ one another, or become identified with groups terms cooperate in stantial" with B. Accordingly, since our Gram­ more or less at odds with one another. insofar as the indi mar r!f Motives was constructed about "sub­ Why "at odds," you may ask, when the titular with other individu stance" as key term, the related rhetoric selects term i'i "identification"? Because, to begin with same individual w ..,. \ its nearest equivalent in the areas of persuasion "identification" is, by the same token, though .J. -.) Cl Rhetoric. Or consi1 and dissuasion, communication and polemic. roundabout, to confront the implications of divi­ \u I of a neurotic conf :, And our third volume, Symbolic r~f Motives, .1·ion. And so, in the end, men arc brought to that j ,0 wrangling; he is _j should be built about identity as titular or ances ­ most tragically ironic of all divisions, or con­ (Hitler is said to tral term, the "first" to which all other terms flicts, wherein millions of cooperative acts go ~rangle in his priv, could be reduced and from which they could then into the preparation for one single destructive act. imposed upon his 1 be derived or generated, as from a common We refer to that ultimate disease of cooperation : , conformity and silc .....,~+; spirit. The thing's identity would here be its war. (You will understand war much better if j rotic 's every attemp t.,u,•.,..t..{ uniqueness as an entity in itself and by itself, a you think of it, not simply as strife come to a ~ duct is disorganizec ~, demarcated unit having its own particular struc- head, but rather as a disease, or perversion of -:..,. own dissociated sel ~ ..,,s ...... ,ture. communion. Modern war characteristically re­ cally, the same vict ~Lot,~ However, "substance" is an abstruse philo - quires a myriad of constructive acts for each de­ in the sense that his ~: sophic term, beset by a long history of quan - i.tructive one; before each culminating blast there tually adjusted set ol w k,<- daries and puzzlements. It names so paradoxical must be a vast network of interlocking opera­ terms, confronting e, "'-"'w.ct a function in men's systematic terminologies, tions, directed communally.) can be said to "cooi oioo-? that thinkers finally tried to abolish it alto­ Identification is affirmed with earnestness pre- \I overall form. .;..,o\ gether-and in recent years they have often per­ cisely becau~c there i~ division. Identification is The Rhetoric mu~ suaded themselves that they really did abolish it compensatory to division. If men were not apart ble, the Wrangle of 1 from their terminologies of motives. They abol­ from one another, there would be no need for the and flare-ups of the ished the term, but it is doubtful whether they can rhetorician to proclaim their unity. If men were and Take, the wav , ever abolish the ji111ction of that term, or even wholly and truly ot· one ~ubstancc, abi.olute com­ counterpres:,ure, the whether they should want to. A doctrine of cm1- munication would be of man·i. very essence. It ownership, the Wars substa11tiality, either explicit or implicit, may be would not be an ideal, ai. it now is, partly embod- has its peaceful mo necessary to any way of life. For substance, in ied in material conditions and partly frustrated by competition can add the old philosophies, was an act; and a way of these same conditions: rather, it would be as nat­ self. In ways of its , life is an acting-together; and in acting together, ural, spontaneous, and total as with those ideal factional to the univt men have common sensations, concepts, images, prototypes of communication, the theologian'~ tions are more often ideas, attitudes that make them consubstantial. angels, or "mes~engers."' tion of their organiz The Grammar dealt with the universal para­ The Grammar was at peace insofar a~ it con­ embodiment. Their doxes of substance. It considered resources of templated the paradoxe:, common to all men, the transformed into a pm placement and definition common to all thought. universal resources of verbal placement. The not scrutinize the con, The Symbolic should deal with unique individu­ Symbolic should be at peace, in that the individ­ ~harply to see, impli als, each its own peculiarly constructed act, or ual substances, or entities , or constituted acts arc fl ironic counterpart: c form. These unique "constitutions" being capable there considered in their uniqueness. hence out­ ~ cerned with the state of treatment in isolation, the Symbolic should side the realm of conflict. For individual uni­ contribution to a "soc consider them primarily in their capacity as sin­ verses, as such, do not compete. Each merely is, often carry us far intc gulars, each a separate universe of discourse being its own self-sufficient realm of discourse. malice and the lie. (though there are also respects in which they are And the Symbolic thus considers each thing as a consubstantial with others of their kind, since set of interrelated terms all conspiring to round they can be classed with other unique individuals out their identity as participants in a common The Ide11tifyi11gNattu as joint participants in common principles, pos­ substance of meaning. An individual does in ac­ Metaphysically, a thin sessors of the same or similar properties). tuality compete with other individuals. But erties. In the realm ol The Rhetoric deals with the possibilities of within the rules of Symbolic, the individual i~ lion is frequently by p,

1326 MODERN AND POSTMODERN RHETORIC CJ1~-<,t.S01

an aspects; it considers treated merely as a self-subsistent unit proclaim­ alistic sense of the term, economic property, such duals are at odds with ing its peculiar nature. It is "at peace," in that its property as Coleridge, in his "Religious Mus­ identified with groups terms cooperate in modifying one another. But ings," calls a one another. insofar as the individual is involved in conflict ay ask, when the titular with other individuals or groups, the study of this twy-streaming fount, Whence Vice and Virtue flow, honey and gall. Because, to begin with same individual would fall under the head of 1e same token, though J. Rhetoric. Or considered rhetorically, the victim And later: he implications of divi- i of a neurotic conflict is torn by parliamentary men are brought to that ! wrangling; he is heckled like Hitler within. From Avarice thus, from Luxury and War Sprang heavenly Science; and from Science, · all divisions, or con- ~ (Hitler is said to have confronted a constant Freedom . of cooperative acts go wrangle in his private deliberations, after having 1e single destructive act. imposed upon his people a flat choice between Coleridge, typically the literary idealist, goes disease of cooperation: conformity and silence .) Rhetorically, the neu- one step further back, deriving "property" from nd war much better if t rotic's every attempt to legislate for his own con- the workings of "Imagination." But meditations ply as strife come to a duct is disorganized by rival factions within his upon the dual aspects of property as such are sease, or perversion of own dissociated self. Yet, considered Symboli- enough for our present purposes. In the surround­ 1r characteristically re­ cally, the same victim is technically "at peace," ing of himself with properties that name his nu m­ ·uctive acts for each de- in the sense that his identity is like a unified, mu- ber or establish his identity, man is ethical. 1 culminating blast there tually adjusted set of terms. For even antagonistic ("Avarice" is but the scenic word "property" of interlocking opera­ terms, confronting each other as parry and thrust, translated into terms of an agent's attitude, or in- ly .) can be said to "cooperate" in the building of a!l cipient act.) Man's moral growth is organized ed with earnestness pre­ overall form. c."'o\ -Hv.l---\.A.o""-A.1 ~~ ~ ..,..,,...... , through properties, properties in goods, in ser- ivision. Identification is The Rhetoric must lead us through the Scram- vices, in position or status, in citizenship, in rep­ 1. If men were not apart ble, the Wrangle of the Market Place, the flurries utation, in acquaintanceship and love. But how­ vould be no need for the and flare-ups of the Human Barnyard, the Give ever ethical such an array of identifications may heir unity. If men were and Take, the wavering line of pressure and be when considered in itself, its relation to other .ubstance, absolute com- counterpressure, the Logomachy, the onus of entities that are likewise forming their identity in man's very essence. It ownership, the Wars of Nerves, the War. It too terms of property can lead to turmoil and discord. it now is, partly embod­ has its peaceful moments: at times its endless Here is par excellence a topic to be considered in ; and partly frustrated by competition can add up to the transcending of it- a rhetoric having "identification" as its key term. 1ther, it would be as nat- self. In ways of its own, it can move from the And we see why one should expect to get much otal as with those ideal factional to the universal. But its ideal culmina- insight from Marxism, as a study of capitalistic cation, the theologian's tions are more often beset by strife as the condi- rhetoric. Veblen is also, from this point of view, tion of their organized expression, or material to be considered a theorist of rhetoric. (And we peace insofar as it con­ embodiment. Their very universality becomes know of no better way to quickly glimpse the common to all men, the transformed into a partisan weapon. For one need range of rhetoric than to read, in succession, the verbal placement. The not scrutinize the concept of "identification" very articles on "Property" and "Propaganda" in The !ace, in that the individ ­ sharply to see, implied in it at every turn, its Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences.) s, or constituted acts are ironic counterpart: division. Rhetoric is con- Bentham's utilitarian analysis of language, · uniqueness, hence out­ ll cerned with the state of Babel after the Fall. Its treating of the ways in which men find "eulogistic ict. For individual uni­ contribution to a "sociology of knowledge" must coverings" for their "material interests," is thus ompete. Each merely is, often carry us far into the lugubrious regions of seen to be essentially rhetorical, and to bear di­ ient realm of discourse. malice and the lie. rectly upon the motives of property as a rhetori- onsiders each thing as a \uv-<..L\I>~ '

BURKE I A RHETORIC OF MOTIVES 1327 motives, the inclination, like a house dog, to seek of the other begins? The wavering line between born. Doesn't he ge salvation in the Sign of the Scraped Plate. But the the two cannot be "scientifically" identified; rival explicitly ruled ou lessons of this "animal rhetoric" can mislead, as rhetoricians can draw it at different places, and ways of identificati we learn from the United States' attempts to use their persuasiveness varies with the resources with the nature of 1 food as an instrument of policy in Europe after each has at his command. (Where public issues and the moralist bee the war. These efforts met with enough ill will to are concerned, such resources are not confined to the attempt is made suggest that the careful "screening" of our repre­ the intrinsic powers of the speaker and the ence of such an ider sentatives, to eliminate reformist tendencies as speech, but depend also for their effectiveness States after the Sec far as possible and to identify American aid only upon the purely technical means of communica­ tions of such an io with conservative or even reactionary interests, tion, which can either aid the utterance or hamper larly strong becausf practically guaranteed us a dismal rhetoric in our it. For a "good" rhetoric neglected by the press had fallen under the dealings with other nations. And when Henry obviously cannot be so "communicative" as a speak merely in prai Wallace, during a trip abroad, began earning for poor rhetoric backed nation-wide by headlines. itly dissociating om our country the genuine good will of Europe's And often we must think of rhetoric not in terms plications, is to ide1 common people and intellectual classes, the Ge­ of some one particular address, but as a general tionary implicatiom nius of the Screening came into its own: our free body of idelltifications that owe their convincing­ educators could th1 press, as at one signal, began stoutly assuring the ness much more to trivial repetition and dull function as "conspi citizens of both the United States and Europe that daily reenforcement than to exceptional rhetori- federal subsidies fc Wallace did not truly represent us. What did rep­ cal skill.) ~bo "" ~ their college or un resent us, presumably, was the policy of the If you would praise God, and in terms that shape educational p Scraped Plate, which our officialdom now and happen also to sanction one system of material as guiding principle then bestirred themselves to present publicly in property rather than another, you have forced terms of a dispirited "idealism," as heavy as a Rhetorical considerations upon us. If you would dead elephant. You see, we were not to be identi­ praise science, however exaltedly, when that Identification and tJ fied with very resonant things; our press assured same science is at the service of imperialist-mili­ As regards "autonor our people that the outcome of the last election tarist expansion, here again you bring things of Rhetorical identi had been a "popular mandate" to this effect. (We within the orbit of Rhetoric. For just as God has thus: The fact that a leave this statement unrevised. For the conditions been identified with a certain worldly structure tion to intrinsic, aut of Truman's reelection, after a campaign in of ownership, so science may be identified with argue that it is free which he out-Wallaced Wallace, corroborated it the interests of certain groups or classes quite orders of motivatio "in principle.") unscientific in their purposes. Hence, however orders are extrinsic In pure identification there would be no strife. "pure" one's motives may be actually, the impu­ I standpoint of the sr Likewise, there would be no strife in absolute rities of identification lurking about the edges of they are not extrinsi separateness, since opponents can join battle only such situations introduce a typical Rhetorical as such, considered through a mediatory ground that makes this com­ wrangle of the sort that can never be settled once activity in general. ' munication possible, thus providing the first con­ and for all, but belongs in the field of moral con­ agent, is not motiva dition necessary for their interchange of blows. troversy where men properly seek to "prove op- f.k a specialized activit But put identification and division ambiguously posites." cialized power, in it together, so that you cannot know for certain just Thus, when his friend, Preen, wrote of a meet­ may affect his char:: where one ends and the other begins, and you ing where like-minded colleagues would be pres- participates in a lari have the characteristic invitation to rhetoric. Here ent and would all be proclaiming their praise of tion" is a word fc is a major reason why rhetoric, according to science, Prone answered: "You fail to mention place in this wider Aristotle, "proves opposites." When two men another colleague who is sure to be there too, un­ the agent may be collaborate in an enterprise to which they con­ less you take care to rule him out. I mean John qua shepherd, acts tribute different kinds of services and from which Q. Militarist-Imperialist." Whereat, Preen: "This protect them from d they derive different amounts and kinds of profit, John Q. Militarist-Imperialist must be quite ven­ may be "identified" who is to say, once and for all, just where "co­ erable by now. l seem to have heard of him back the sheep for marke operation" ends and one partner's "exploitation" in Biblical times, before Roger B. Science was Of course, the ~

1328 MODERN AND POSTMODERN RHETORIC wavering line between born. Doesn't he get in everywhere, unless he is act1v1ty can be considered irrespective of such ifically" identified; rival explicitly ruled out?" He does, thanks to the identifications. Indeed, two students, sitting side at different places, and ways of identification, which are in accordance by side in a classroom where the principles of a ies with the resources with the nature of property . And the rhetorician specialized subject are being taught, can be ex­ i (Where public issues and the moralist become one at that point where pected to "identify" the subject differently, so far 1rces are not confined to the attempt is made to reveal the undetected pres­ as its place in a total context is concerned. Many · the speaker and the ence of such an identification. Thus in the United of the most important identifications for the spe­ for their effectiveness States after the Second World War, the tempta­ cialty will not be established at all, until later in 1 means of communica- tions of such an identification became particu­ life, when the specialty has become integrally in­ the utterance or hamper larly strong because so much scientific research terwoven with the particulars of one's livelihood. neglected by the press had fallen under the direction of the military. To The specialized activity itself becomes a differ­ "communicative" as a speak merely in praise of science, without explic­ ent thing for one person, with whom it is a means tion-wide by headlines. itly dissociating oneself from its reactionary im­ of surrounding himself with family and ameni­ of rhetoric not in terms plications, is to identify oneself with these reac­ ties, than it would be for another who, unmarried, ddress, but as a general tionary implications by default. Many reputable childless, loveless, might find in the specialty not 1t owe their convincing- educators could thus, in this roundabout way, so much a means to gratification as a substitute 1ial repetition and dull Jimction as "conspirators." In their L.eal to get for lack of gratification. 1 to exceptional rhetori- federal subsidies for the science department of Carried into unique cases, such concern with their college or university, they could help to identifications leads to the sheer "identities" of God, and in terms that shape educational policies with the ideals of war Symbolic. That is, we are in pure Symbolic when one system of material as guiding principle. we concentrate upon one particular integrated other, you have forced structure of motives. But we are clearly in the re­ s upon us. If you would gion of rhetoric when considering the identifica­ r exaltedly, when that Identification and the "Autonomous" tions whereby a specialized activity makes one a ·vice of imperialist-mili­ As regards "autonomous" activities, the principle participant in some social or economic class. tgain you bring things of Rhetorical identification may be summed up "Belonging" in this sense is rhetorical. And, iron­ ,ric. For just as God has thus: The fact that an activity is capable of reduc­ ically, with much college education today in lit­ ertain worldly structure tion to intrinsic, autonomous principles does not erature and the fine arts, the very stress upon the : may be identified with argue that it is free from identification with other pure autonomy of such activities is a round-about groups or classes quite orders of motivation extrinsic to it. Such other way of identification with a privileged class, as poses. Hence, however \ orders are extrinsic to it, as considered from the the doctrine may enroll the student stylistically ,y be actually, the impu- standpoint of the specialized activity alone. But under the banner of a privileged class, serving as king about the edges of they are not extrinsic to the field of moral action a kind of social insignia promising preferment. ;e a typical Rhetorical as such, considered from the standpoint of human (We are here obviously thinking along Veblenian an never be settled once activity in general. The human agent, qua human lines.) n the field of moral con­ agent, is not motivated solely by the principles of The stress upon the importance of au­ )erly seek to "prove op- 1k, a specialized activity, however strongly this spe­ tonomous principles does have its good aspects. cialized power, in its suggestive role as imagery, In particular, as regards the teaching of literature, , Preen, wrote of a meet­ may affect his character. Any specialized activity the insistence upon "autonomy" reflects a vigor­ )lleagues would be pres­ participates in a larger unit of action. "Identifica­ ous concern with the all-importance of the text iclaiming their praise of tion" is a word for the autonomous activity's that happens to be under scrutiny. This cult of pa­ I: "You fail to mention place in this wider context, a place with which tient textual analysis (though it has excesses of sure to be there too, un­ the agent may be unconcerned. The shepherd, its own) is helpful as a reaction against the ex­ e him out. I mean John qua shepherd, acts for the good of the sheep, to cesses of extreme historicism (a leftover of the " Whereat, Preen: "This protect them from discomfiture and harm. But he nineteenth century) whereby a work became so ialist must be quite ven- may be "identified" with a project that is raising subordinated to its background that the student's have heard of him back the sheep for market. appreciation of first-rate texts was lost behind his ! Roger B. Science was Of course, the principles of the autonomous involvement with the collateral documents of

BURKE I A RHETORIC OF MOTIVES 1329 fifth-rate literary historians. Also, the stress upon was itself a rhetorical act designed to identify the possibilities because the autonomy of fields is valuable methodologi­ public with anti-Fascist attitudes and help sell not a mere set of insl cally; it has been justly praised because it gives anti-Fascist books (as it later contributed to the ~ver he may assert; ii clear insight into some particular set of prin­ forming of anti-Soviet attitudes and the sale of 1s thus circuitously ei ciples; and such a way of thinking is particularly anti-Soviet books). In the light of such develop­ function of God as ti needed now, when pseudoscientific thinking has ments, many critics have become only too ac­ thinking thus vacillal become "unprincipled" in its uncritical cult of commodating in their search for covert and overt his overt claims for : "facts." But along with these sound reasons for a identifications that link the "autonomous" field of sheer coefficient of p primary concern with the intrinsic, there are the arts with political and economic orders of for science as a subst, furtive temptations that can figure here too. For motivation. Head-on resistance to the question­ be an intrinsically gc so much progressive and radical criticism in re­ ing of "purity" in specialized activities usually purely secular power, cent years has been concerned with the social comes now from another quarter: the liberal technology, would n implications of art, that affirmations of art's au­ apologists of science. could become identifi, tonomy can often become, by antithesis, a round­ ?r indifferent, depend about way of identifying oneself with the inter- The "Autonomy" of Scie11ce 1t was put, and upon 1 ests of political conservatism. In accordance with part of the context su1 the rhetorical principle of identification, when­ Science, as mere instrument (agency), might be its meaning in the reali b~l-lever you find a doctrine of "nonpolitical" esthet­ expected to take on the nature of the scenes, acts, The unavowed ider t.t=t:S, ics affirmed with fervor, look for its politics. agents, and purposes with which it is identified. logical function is sm But the principle of autonomy does allow for tt...... And insofar as a faulty political structure perverts face wholly secular, 1 ~Plato's Thought, David Winspear even the apologists of the Church wiJI grant that, matist notion that prac gives relevant insight into the aristocratic and in corrupt times, there is a corresponding corrup­ sufficient grounding ol t~ i.i""-conservative political trends with which Plato's tion among churchmen; and it is relevant to re­ expert, as such, is assii 1., ._ "" ½ philosophy was identified at the time of its incep­ call those specialists whose technical training fit­ new powers of cher Q tion. The Sophists, on the other hand, are shown ted them to become identified with mass killings atomic destruction, his \JI.~ (P\ to have been more closely allied with the rising and experimentally induced sufferings in the pert requires only that h Pl 1-f, business class, then relatively "progressive" from concentration camps of National Socialist Ger­ as effectively as possit ' ,_ the Marxist point of view, though their position many. Hence, insofar as there are similar temp­ t~e new force might me ~Nt; 117f;v1 was fundamentally weakened by the fact that tations in our own society (as attested by the sin­ cial texture emotionally t"'oexperiments that cause suffering. ideal, the true liberal mt least such literature attributed to Hitlerite Ger­ The same people who, with reference to the sci­ front the Rhetorical con

mans and their collaborators the brutal and neu­ entific horrors of Hitlerism, admonish against the whereby the principles 1 rotic motives which in former years had been at­ ingredients of Hitlerite thinking in our own soci­ taken on their face, simp tributed to "Everyman." (Glenway Wescott's ety, will be outraged if you follow out the impli­ to that specialty. They a Apartment in Athens, for instance.) So the over­ cations of their own premises, and look for simi­ the specialty as such, bu generalized attempt to discredit Marxist Rhetoric lar temptations among our specialists. participant in a wider co, by discrediting all Rhetoric was abandoned, at One can sympathize with this anxiety. The In sum, as regards te least by representative reviewers whose criticism liberal is usually disinclined to consider such specialist need only con

1330 MODERN AND POSTMODERN RHETORIC :t designed to identify the possibilities because applied science is for him factor, the objective resistances supplied by the t attitudes and help selJ not a mere set of instruments and methods, what­ materials with which he works. The liberal crite­ t later contributed to the ever he may assert; it is a good and absolute, and rion was that propounded by Rousseau in Emile: attitudes and the sale of is thus circuitously endowed with the philosophic The principle of constraint was to come from the he light of such develop­ function of God as the grounding of values. His nature of things, not from authorities and their .Ve become only too ac­ thinking thus vacillates indeterminately between precepts. Yet, willy nilly, a science takes on the !arch for covert and overt his overt claims for science as sheer method, as moral qualities of the political or social move­ the "autonomous" field of sheer coefficient of power, and his covert claims ments with which it becomes identified. Hence, a and economic orders of for science as a substance which, like God, would new anguish, a crisis in the liberal theory of sci­ :sistance to the question­ be an intrinsically good power. Obviously, any ence. In his Genealogy of Morals, Nietzsche met ;ialized activities usually purely secular power, such as the applications of the same problem keenly, but perversely, by ,ther quarter: the liberal technology, would not be simply "good," but praising "autonomy" as the opposite of the could become identified with motives good, bad, moral. Modern political authoritarianism, like or indifferent, depending upon the uses to which the earlier theocratic kinds, would subordinate it was put, and upon the ethical attitudes that, as the autonomous specialty to overall doctrinal ·ience part of the context surrounding it, contributed to considerations. The rhetorical concept of "identi­ 1ment (agency), might be its meaning in the realm of motives and action. fication" does not justify the excesses to which nature of the scenes, acts, The unavowed identification, whereby a theo­ such doctrinaire tendencies can be carried. But it vith which it is identified. logical function is smuggled into a term on its does make clear the fact that one's morality as a political structure perverts face wholly secular, can secretly reenforce the specialist cannot be allowed to do duty for one's tight reasonably expect to characteristically liberal principle of occupational morality as a citizen. Insofar as the two roles are perverted science. Thus, autonomy, itself reenforced by the naively prag­ at odds, a specialty at the service of sinister inter­ lhe Church will grant that, matist notion that practical specialized work is a ests will itself become sinister. is a corresponding corrup- sufficient grounding of morality. If the technical expert, as such, is assigned the task of perfecting 1; and it is relevant to re­ "Redemption" in Post-Christian Science hose technical training fit­ new powers of chemical, bacteriological, or !ntified with mass killings atomic destruction, his morality as technical ex­ With a culture formed about the idea of redemp­ 1duced sufferings in the pert requires only that he apply himself to his task tion by the sacrifice of a Crucified Christ, just ,f National Socialist Ger­ as effectively as possible. The question of what what does happen in an era of post-Christian sci­ as there are similar temp­ the new force might mean, as released into a so­ ence, when the ways of socialization have been ety (as attested by the sin­ cial texture emotionally and intellectually unfit to secularized? Does the need for the vicarage of rt), might we not expect control it, or as surrendered to men whose spe­ this Sacrificial King merely dwindle away? Or k about the edges of our cialty is professional killing - well, that is simply must some other person or persons, individual or ,ered in proportion as the "none of his business," as specialist, however corporate, real or fictive, take over the redemp­ ves themselves are tern- great may be his misgivings as father of a family, tive role? Not all people, perhaps, seek out a Ves­ under our Jess exacting or as citizen of his nation and of the world. The sel to which will be ritualistically delegated a conditions)? But liberal extreme division of labor under late capitalist lib­ purgative function, in being symbolically laden y resists any suggestion eralism having made dispersion the norm and with the burdens of individual and collective nay lurk behind unneces­ having transformed the state of Babel into an guilt. But we know, as a lesson of recent history, nts that cause suffering. ideal, the true liberal must view almost as an af­ how anti-Semitism provided the secularized rep­ with reference to the sci- front the Rhetorical concern with identifications lica of the Divine Scapegoat in the post-Christian ism, admonish against the whereby the principles of a specialty cannot be rationale of Hitler's National Socialist militar­ thinking in our own soci­ taken on their face, simply as the motives proper ism; and we know how Jews and other minority . you follow out the impli­ to that specialty. They are the motives proper to groups are thus magically identified by many emises, and look for simi­ the specialty as such, but not to the specialty as members of our society. And since we also our specialists. participant in a wider context of motives. know that there are at large in the modem world :e with this anxiety. The In sum, as regards tests of "autonomy," the many militaristic and economic trends quite like nclined to consider such specialist need only consider, as a disciplinary those of Germany under the Hitlerite "science"

BURKE I A RHETORIC OF MOTIVES 1331 of genocide, we should at least be admonished to will result. We hear this justification in Congress. highly discriminat, expect , in some degree , similar cultural tempta­ We hear it even from lhe atomic mission. We assert protected in the na tions. For the history of the Nazis has clearly that national ~ecurity cannot result from military ~he Soviet delegate shown that there are cultural situations in which preparedness or the support of science for ils war potential. mg for measures th scientists, whatever may be their claims to pro­ possibility, which v fessional austerity, will contrive somehow to When men are of good will, we can always ex­ entists' statement a~ identify their specialty with modes of justifica­ pect many such efforts to break such sinister was a hint of "ma ; tion, or socialization, not discernible in the sheer identifications, which their knowledge of their maneuvering to put motions of the material operations themselves . In special field enables them to recognize as false . of seeming to dell its transcendence of natural living, its technical Unfortunately , good will as thus circum­ control over the ate scruples, its special tests of purity, a clinic or lab­ scribed is not enough . The same statement goes strong doubts whet! oratory can be a kind of secular temple, in which on to say: "Our Government has advocated a itself have agreed to ritualistic devotions are taking place, however sound policy in the United Nations concerning Lying outside th concealed by the terminology of the surface. Un­ atomic energy." Yet there seems much justice in cialty, there are I less properly scrutinized for traces of witchcraft, the complaint of the Soviet delegates that the which are nearly al these could furtively become devotions to a sa- measures we propose would guarantee the volve identificatirn . tanic order of motives . At least such was the case United States perpetual superiority in this field, atomic physics in it~ with the technological experts of Hitlerite Ger­ "btsa~pl~ unless other nations deliberately violated the pro­ arise particularly wi many. The very scientific ideals of an "imper­ .\-¾,J.. posed treaty by finding ways to continue their ex­ scientists' truly sple !;CUJ,\~ sonal'' terminology can contribute ironically to periments in secret. pert smashing of Ii ~tv., such disaster: for it is but a step from treating In a speech made before the United Nations man's fancy that he inanimate nature as mere "things" to treating ani- Atomic Energy Commission (September IO, I · o·,~. of human relations J (.M,"J"t4"'\~ mals, and then enemy peoples , as mere things. 1947), the Soviet representative, Gromyko, came from the purely pro 1lA"\~ {;. But they are not mere things, they are persons­ upon some paradoxes in this connection. He was ful insects to the pm 1 II Oil 'b,cl and in the systematic denial of what one knows attacking United States' proposals for giving "the poisoning of humar 11 . • in his heart to be the truth, there is a perverse right of ownership" to an international organ of larly "impersonal" t, -t'V'L principle that can generate much anguish. "d1 control. He contended that this arrangement are particularly ther would contradict the principle of state sover­ sion ( of class, racf eignty. Thus the socialist delegate was arguing make for the ironic Dual Possibilities of Science for the restriction of ownership to national dissociation that mai boundaries, while the world's greatest capitalist But one cannot be too careful here . Religion, pol­ goat. Indeed, the ve1 itics, and economics are notoriously touchy sub­ country argued for ownership by a universal call for the greater i jects, and with many persons today, the cult of body . On its face, the capitalist proposal seems one another have at applied science has the animus of all three rolled much nearer to the ideal socialist solution than range of human cor into one . We should take pains to make this the position of the Soviet Union is. sion. It would requi, clear: we are most decidedly not saying that sci­ However , the history of corporate manage­ backed by the imag ence must take on such malign identifications as ment in the United States, and of political parties spontaneous poetry, it presumably has, for some scientists, when fit­ everywhere, gives ample evidence of all the de­ with people in circ ted into the motives of a Fascist state . In the vices whereby actual control of a property dif­ from our own. Add United States, for instance, the Federation of fers from nominal ownership of it. And obvi­ ries that goad to the American Scientists has been urgently seeking to ously the interests in actual control of the agency that make it easy fl dissociate the idea of atomic war power from the that allocated the rights and resources of atomic their style "forceful' idea of national security. Thus, the Federation development could have all the advantages of divisive trends, and proclaimed, in a statement issued September I, real ownership, however international might be austere scientific ide the fictions of ownership . Where the control re­ 1947, on the second anniversary ofV-J Day: into a social texture 1 sides, there resides the function of ownership , The good will c whatever the fictions of ownership may be. It Many persons have justified the support of science however genuine it 1 for its war potential, implying that national security would certainly be no new thing to rhetoric if the father who put h

1332 MODERN AND POSTMODERN RHETORIC 1is ju stification in Congre ss. highly discrimi11at01y claims were here being holding out his arms protectively, said, "Jump." ...... i• 1e atom ic mission. We a~sert protected in the name of universal rights. And The trusting child jumped; but instead of catch­ cannot result from military the Soviet delegate was at least justified in call­ ing him, the father drew back, and let him fall to pport of science for its war ing for measures that unmistakably avoid such a the floor. The child was hurt, both physically and possibility, which was not considered in the sci­ in this violation of its confidence. Whereupon the will, we can always ex­ entists' statement as published in the press . There father drove home the moral: "Let that be a les­ I A, ' s to break such sinister was a hint of "maneuvering" in our proposals, son to you. Never trust anyone, not even your heir knowledge of their maneuvering to put the Russians in the position own father." Now, when the apologists of sci­ m to recognize as false . of seeming to delay an adequate international ence teach their subject thus, instead of merely I will as thus circum­ control over the atomic bomb, when there were exalting it, we can salute them for truly admon­ fhe same statement goes strong doubts whether our own Congress would ishing us, in being as "scientific" about the criti­ rnment has advocated a itself have agreed to any such control. cism of science as in the past they have been 1ited Nations concerning Lying outside the orbit of the scientists' spe­ about the criticism of religion. :re seems much justice in cialty, there are psychological considerations To sum up: ,oviet delegates that the which are nearly always slighted, since they in­ ( r) We know, as a matter of record, that science : would guarantee the volve identifications manifestly extrinsic to under Fascism became sinister. (2) We are repeat­ superiority in this field, atomic physics in itself. Possibilities of deception edly being admonished that there is a high percent­ berately violated the pro­ arise particularly with those ironies whereby the age of Fascist motivation in our own society. (3) Nays to continue their ex- scientists' truly splendid terminology for the ex­ Why, then, should there not be, in our society, a pert smashing of lifeless things can so catch a correspondingly high incentive to sinister science? !fore the United Nations man's fancy that he would transfer it to the realm Particularly inasmuch as sinister motives already nission (September Io, of human relations likewise. It is not a great step show in much of our art, both popular and recon­ entative, Gromyko, came from the purely professional poisoning of harm­ dite, while the conditions of secrecy imposed upon 1 this connection . He was ful insects to the purely professional blasting and many experimental scientists today add a "conspir­ proposals for giving "the poisoning of human beings, as viewed in simi­ atorial" motive to such "autonomous" activity. In m international organ of larly "impersonal" terms. And such inducements the past, the great frankness of science has been its that this arrangement are particularly there, so long as factional divi­ noblest attribute, as judged from the purely human­ ,rinciple of state sover­ sion (of class, race, nationality, and the like) istic point of view. But any tendency to place sci­ ist delegate was arguing make for the ironic mixture of identification and entific development primarily under the heading of ownership to national dissociation that marks the function of the scape­ "war potential" must endanger this essential moral­ •orld's greatest capitalist goat. Indeed, the very "global" conditions which istic element in science, replacing the norms of uni­ rnership by a universal call for the greater identification of all men with versal clarity with the divisive d~mands for con­ :apitalist proposal seems one another have at the same time increased the spiracy. Insofar as such conditions prevail, science 11 socialist solution than range of human conflict, the incentives to divi­ loses the one ingredient that can keep it whole­ t Union is. sion. It would require sustained rhetorical effort, some : its enrollment under the forces of light. To y of corporate manage­ backed by the imagery of a richly humane and this extent, the scientist must reject and resist in s, and of political parties spontaneous poetry, to make us fully sympathize ways that mean the end of"autonomy," or ifhe ac­ e evidence of all the de­ with people in circumstances greatly different cepts, he risks becoming the friend of fiends. Sci­ mtrol of a property dif­ from our own. Add now the international rival­ entific discoveries have always, of course, been ership of it. And obvi­ ries that goad to the opposite kind of effort, and used for the purposes of war. But the demand that ttal control of the agency that make it easy for some vocalizers to make scientific advance per se be guided by military con­ and resources of atomic their style "forceful" by simply playing up these siderations changes the proportions of such moti­ e all the advantages of divisive trends, and you see how perverted the vation tremendously . Scientists of good will must r international might be austere scientific ideal may become, as released then become uneasy, in that the morality of their J. Where the control re­ into a social texture unprepared for it. specialty is no longer enough . The liberal ideal of /unction of ownership, The good will of scientists is not enough, autonomy is denied them, except insofar as they f ownership may be. It however genuine it may be. There is the joke of can contrive to conceal from themselves the true new thing to rhetoric if the father who put his little son on the table and, implications of their role. ·' .,1,. ~-

BURKE I A RHETORIC OF MOTIVES 1333 ~\v(A...,\I.M., Ueo.. \-...,1; Jngemw11s and Cwming Identifications translation into a different medium of communi­ abandons his coi oi:-""'-;~ cation, a way of amplifying a statement so that hyp~crisy-to-outh) The thought of self-deception brings up another it carries better to a large or distant audience. Swl-.o~, regains a new sui, range of possibilities here. For there is a wide Hence, the persuasive identifications of Rhetoric, ity. "Jamais ;ette .\t....,~eftv range of ways whereby the rhetorical motive, in being so directly designed for use, involve us ,s qu 'au moment ot't 1: through the resources of identification, can oper­ in a special problem of consciousness, as exem­ I.\\A.IMIA~ structure of the be ate without conscious direction by any particular plified in the Rhetorician's particular purpose for account of a hero agent. Classical rhetoric stresses the element of a given statement. R?etoric, was jolt< explicit design in rhetorical enterprise. But one The thought gives a glimpse into rhetori­ etic. Within the te can systematically extend the range of rhetoric, if cal motives behind many characters in drama 1 was the word for "i one studies the persuasiveness of false or inade­ and fiction. Shakespeare's Iago and Moliere's ity of the rhetoric 1 quate terms which may not be directly imposed Tartuffe are demons of Rhetoric. Every word and France under the re upon us from without by some skillful speaker, act is addressed, being designed to build up false but which we impose upon ourselves, in varying identifications in the minds of their victims. Sim­ degrees of deliberateness and unawareness, ilarly, there is a notable ingredient of Rhetoric in Rhetoric of "Addre through motives indeterminately self-protective Stendhal's Julien Sorel, who combines "height­ By our arrangemen1 and/or suicidal. ened consciousness" with "freedom" by a per­ ness falls under th< We shall consider these matters more fully versely frank decision to perfect his own kind of should not thereby : later, when we study the rhetoric of hierarchy (or hypocrisy as a means of triumphing over the "individual psycho! as it is less revealingly named, bureaucracy). hypocrisy of others. All his actions thus become test. Particularly in 1 And our later pages on Marx and Veblen would rhetorical, framed for their effect; his life is a neuroses of individu apply here. But for the present we might merely spellbinding and spellbound address to an audi­ rhetorical ingredienr recall the psychologist's concept of "malinger­ ence. profoundly rhetoric ing," to designate the ways of neurotic persons Did you ever do a friend an injury by acci­ dream that attains who, though not actually ill, persuade themselves dent, in all poetic simplicity? Then conceive of terfuges designed t, that they are, and so can claim the attentions and this same injury as done by sly design, and you moralistic censor? \.l privileges of the ill (their feigned illness itself be­ are forthwith within the orbit of Rhetoric. If you, logue of the rhetoric coming, at one remove, genuine). Similarly, if a like the Stendhals and Gides, conceive a char­ political or theocrat , social or occupational class is not too exacting in acter by such sophistication, Rhetoric as the its id confronts the the scrutiny of identifications that flatter its inter­ speaker's attempt to identify himself favorably would confront a ests, its very philosophy of life is a profitable ma­ with his audience then becomes so transformed whose susceptibilitie lingering (profitable at least until its inaccuracies that the work may seem to have been written sary step towards pe catch up with it)-and as such, it is open to ei­ under an esthetic of pure "expression," without che is quite a parlia , ther attack or analysis, Rhetoric comprising both regard for communicative appeal. Or it may ap­ ests expressed in wa, the use of persuasive resources (rhetorica utens, peal perversely, to warped motives within the au­ the claims of rival fa; as with the philippics of Demosthenes) and the dience . Or it may be but an internalizing of the The best evidence study of them (rhetoric docens, as with Aris­ rhetorical motive, as the very actions of such a gredient in Freud's , totle's treatise on the "art" of Rhetoric). representative figure take on a rhetorical cast. analysis of Wit and This aspect of identification, whereby one can Hence, having woven a rhetorical motive so inte­ scious. In particular protect an interest merely by using tenns not in­ grally into the very essence of his conception, the w!th the role of an', cisive enough to criticize it properly, often brings writer can seem to have ignored rhetorical con­ wJt_h whom the spe, rhetoric to the edge of cunning. A misanthropic siderations; yet, in the sheer effrontery of his pro­ th eir common enterp 1 politician who dealt in mankind-loving imagery tagonist there is embedded, however disguised or of tendentious witti1 could still think of himself as rhetorically honest, transformed, an anguish of communication (com­ :hetorical pattern: spe if he meant to do well by his constituents yet munication being, as we have said, a generalized m partisan jokes mad thought that he could get-their votes only by such form of love). If you "internalize" st As regards the rhetorical ways of Stendhal's \,\o, ....ir display. Whatever the falsity in overplaying a role, there may be honesty in the assuming of hero, moving in the perverse freedom of duplic­ '!,u(~,k. '"Never was that head that role itself; and the overplaying may be but a ity: After the disclosure of his cunning, Julien 1 ""'"'"'~.r was about to fall." [Ed.J (,)(,011\,,pl.l. 1334 MODERN AND POSTMODERN RHETORIC 1t medium of communi­ abandons his complex rhetorical morality of that the same person can participate somewhat in 'ing a statement so that hypocrisy-to-outhypocritize-the-hypocrites, and all three positions, you get a complex individual ge or distant audience. regains a new, suicidally poetic level of simplic­ of many voices. And though these may be :ntifications of Rhetoric, ity. "Jamais cette tete n. avait ete aussi poetique treated, under the heading of Symbolic, as a con­ ined for use, involve us qu'au moment ot't elle allait tomber. " 1 The whole certo of principles mutually modifying one an­ ·onsciousness, as exem­ structure of the book could be explained as the other, they may likewise be seen, from the stand­ , s particular purpose for account of a hero who, by the disclosure of his point of Rhetoric, as a parliamentary wrangle Rhetoric, was jolted into a tragically direct po­ which the individual has put together somewhat , glimpse into rhetori- etic. Within the terms of the novel, "hypocrisy" as he puts together his fears and hopes, friend­ 1y characters in drama was the word for "rhetoric," such being the qual­ ships and enmities, health and disease, or those i's Iago and Moliere's ity of the rhetoric that marked the public life of tiny rebirths whereby, in being born to some new hetoric. Every word and France under the reign of Napoleon le Petit. condition, he may be dying to a past condition, lsigned to build up false his development being dialectical, a series of ds of their victims. Sim­ terms in perpetual transformation. ,J Rhetoric of "Address" (to the Individual Soul) ngredient of Rhetoric in Thus by a roundabout route we come upon an­ who combines "height ­ By our arrangement, the individual in his unique­ other aspect of Rhetoric: its nature as addressed, .h "freedom" by a per­ ness falls under the head of Symbolic. But one since persuasion implies an audience. A man can perfect his own kind of should not thereby assume that what is known as be his own audience, insofar as he, even in his se­ Jf triumphing over the "individual psychology" wholly meets the same cret thoughts, cultivates certain ideas or images for his actions thus become test. Particularly in the Freudian concern with the the effect he hopes they may have upon him; he is 1eir effect; his life is a neuroses of individual patients, there is a strongly here what Mead would call "an 'I' addressing its und address to an audi- rhetorical ingredient. Indeed, what could be more 'me"'; and in this respect he is being rhetorical profoundly rhetorical than Freud's notion of a quite as though he were using pleasant imagery to ·iend an injury by acci­ dream that attains expression by stylistic sub­ influence an outside audience rather than one icity? Then conceive of terfuges designed to evade the inhibitions of a within. In traditional Rhetoric, the relation to an by sly design, and you moralistic censor? What is this but the exact ana­ external audience is stressed. Aristotle's Art of Jrbit of Rhetoric. If you, logue of the rhetorical devices of literature under Rhetoric, for instance, deals with the appeal to au­ Jides, conceive a char­ political or theocratic censorship? The ego with diences in this primary sense: It lists typical be­ :ation, Rhetoric as the its id confronts the superego much as an orator liefs, so that the speaker may choose among them :ntify himself favorably would confront a somewhat alien audience, the ones with which he would favorably identify Jecomes so transformed whose susceptibilities he must flatter as a neces­ his cause or unfavorably identify the cause of an n to have been written sary step towards persuasion. The Freudian psy­ opponent; and it lists the traits of character with ·e "expression," without che is quite a parliament, with conflicting inter­ which the speaker should seek to identify himself, re appeal. Or it may ap­ ests expressed in ways variously designed to take as a way of disposing an audience favorably to­ :d motives within the au­ the claims of rival factions into account. wards him. But a modem "post-Christian" rhetoric t an internalizing of the The best evidence of a strongly rhetorical in­ must also concern itself with the thought that, : very actions of such a gredient in Freud's view of the psyche is in his under the heading of appeal to audiences, would ce on a rhetorical cast. analysis of Wit and Its Relation to the Uncon­ also be included any ideas or images privately ad­ hetorical motive so inte- scious. In particular, we think of Freud's concern dressed to the individual self for moralistic or in­ 1ce of his conception, the with the role of an audience, or "third person," cantatory purposes. For you become your own au­ ignored rhetorical con­ with whom the speaker establishes rapport, in dience, in some respects a very lax one, in some eer effrontery of his pro­ their common enterprise directed against the butt respects very exacting, when you become in­ !d, however disguised or of tendentious witticisms. Here is the purest volved in psychologically stylistic subterfuges for of communication (com­ rhetorical pattern: speaker and hearer as partners presenting your own case to yourself in sympa­ have said, a generalized in partisan jokes made at the expense of another. thetic terms (and even terms that seem harsh can If you "internalize" such a variety of motives, so often be found on closer scrutiny to be flattering, ·ical ways of Stendhal's as with neurotics who visit sufferings upon them­ terse freedom of duplic­ '"Never was that head so poetic as at the moment when it selves in the name of very high-powered motives ! of his cunning, Julien was about to fall." [Ed.] which, whatever their discomfiture, feed pride).

BURKE I A RHETORIC OF MOTIVES 1335 ~ b ...+ wh, .~ \,-ij"I.A--c,

t\,...L-~ Such considerations make us alert to the in­ witchcraft is imputed as a motive behind the indi­ We saw both th gredient of rhetoric in all socialization, consid­ vidual search for wealth, power, or vengeance, pologists' study oJ ered as a moralizing process. The individual per­ can we not view it as a primitive vocabulary of and the respects ii son, striving to form himself in accordance with individualism emerging in a culture where tribal we were working , the communicative norms that match the cooper­ thinking had been uppermost, so that the individ­ Myth of the State ative ways of his society, is by the same token ualist motive would be admitted and suspect? exercised us can b, concerned with the rhetoric of identification. To And any breach of identification with the tribal We must begir act upon himself persuasively, he must variously norms being sinister, do we not glimpse rhetori­ scientist view of tt resort to images and ideas that are formative. Ed­ cal motives behind the fact that Macbeth's pri­ magic. Since so rr 'Nwclt. ucation ("indoctrination") exerts such pressure vate ambitions were figured in terms of witches? ence, following a h-r.dtuv! upon him from without; he completes the process At first glance we may seem to be straining have looked upon ~"'1 from within. If he does not somehow act to tell the conception of rhetoric to the breaking point, of bad science, on tu ro,111(, himself (as his own audience) what the various when including even a treatise on primitive distinction betwee -t-.u.:~brands of rhetorician have told him, his persua­ witchcraft within its range. But look again. Pre­ tific knowledge is sion is not complete. Only those voices from cisely at a time when the term "rhetoric" had ogy that gives an without are effective which can speak in the lan­ fallen into greatest neglect and disrepute, writers description of real guage of a voice within. in the "social sciences" were, under many guises, antithetical to su Among the Tanala of Madagascar, it is said, making good contributions to the New Rhetoric. treated as an earl) most of those tribesmen susceptible to tromba As usual with modern thought, the insights science does, but ("neurotic seizure indicated by an extreme desire gained from comparative culture could throw ment and percer to dance") were found to be among the least fa­ light upon the classic approach to this subject; nai"vely anthropon vored members of the tribe. Such seizures are and again, as usual with modem thought, this sonal forces of n said to be a device that makes the possessed per­ light was interpreted in terms that concealed its sonal designs. On son "the center of all the attention." And after­ true relation to earlier work. And though the pre­ between a civilize wards, the richest and most powerful members of sent writer was strongly influenced by anthropo­ scription and a sa, the sufferer's family foot the bill, so that "the in­ logical inquiries into primitive magic, he did not cantation. dividual's ego is well satisfied and he can get clearly discern the exact relation between the an­ In this scheme along quite well until the next tromba seizure oc­ thropologist's concern with magic and the liter­ location. We reca l curs." In sum, "like most hysterical seizures, ary critic's concern with communication until he Cassirer' s Myth o.i tromba requires an audience." had systematically worked on this Rhetoric for only in a random The citations are from A. Kardiner, The Indi­ some years. Prior to this discovery, though he about nothing mo1 vidual and His Society (New York: Columbia persisted in anthropological hankerings, he did so f- teristic concern ol University Press). They would suggest that, with a bad conscience; and he was half willing to men's beliefs for r when asking what all would fall within the scope agree with literary opponents who considered Now, the basic of our topic, we could also include a "rhetoric of such concerns alien to the study of literature words by human a hysteria." For here too are expressions which are proper. duce actions in ot addressed-and we confront an ultimate irony, Now, in noting methodically how the anthro­ not "magical." If, in glimpsing how even a catatonic lapse into pologist's account of magic can belong in a help, you are no i sheer automatism, beyond the reach of all nor­ rhetoric, we are better equipped to see exactly You are using th mally linguistic communication, is in its origins wherein the two fields of inquiry diverge. An­ speech in a thorou communicative, addressed, though it be a para­ thropology is a gain to literary criticism only if other hand, is yo logical appeal-that-ends-all-appeals. one knows how to "discount" it from the stand­ strict meaning of : point of rhetoric. And, ironically, anthropology or "descriptive" can be a source of disturbance, not only to liter­ conditions of natu Rhetoric and Primitive Magic ary criticism in particular, but to the study of of view, regardle : The Kardiner citations are taken from a paper by human relations in general, if one does not so ences. A call for t C. Kluckhohn on "Navaho Witchcraft," contain­ discount it, but allows its terms to creep into the most arrant ki ing observations that would also bring witchcraft one's thinking at points where issues should be not merely descrit within the range of rhetoric. Indeed, where studied explicitly in terms of rhetoric. just trying to tel

MODERN AND POSTMODERN RHETORIC ~ b ...-'- w~ ...1-- ,i "V"\i:;~:'t""l.a.h..lA.-.,

,.__ \ ;t.:U--o{ ..\-k...,"{~"'4.A-6-... c>r .5-..b&-l-~'-t L l..ol~o £""- llo\'it-<---? Ai~ C.v\..(M'c) )

1otive behind the indi­ We saw both the respects in which the anthro- "scenic" terms; it is trying to move people. A call power, or vengeance, pologists' study of magic overlaps upon rhetoric for help might, of course, include purely scien­ imitive vocabulary of and the respects in which they are distinct when tific statements, or preparations for action, as a a culture where tribal we were working on a review of Ernst Cassirer's person in need might give information about par­ ,st, so that the individ­ Myth of the State. The general proposition that ticular dangers to guard against or advantages to dmitted and suspect? exercised us can be stated as follows: exploit in bringing help. But the call, in itself, as ,cation with the tribal We must begin by confronting the typically such, is not scientific; it is rhetorical. Whereas e not glimpse rhetori­ scientist view of the relation between science and poetic language is a kind of symbolic action, for :t that Macbeth's pri- magic. Since so many apologists of modem sci- itself and in itself, and whereas scientific action 1in terms of witches? ence, following a dialectic of simple antithesis, is a preparation for action, rhetorical language is seem to be straining have looked upon magic merely as an early form inducement to action (or to attitude, attitude to the breaking point, of bad science, one seems to be left only with a being an incipient act). treatise on primitive distinction between bad and good science. Scien- If you have only a choice between magic and . But look again. Pre­ tific knowledge is thus presented as a terminol- science, you simply have no bin in which to ac- : term "rhetoric" had ogy that gives an accurate and critically tested curately place such a form of expression. Hence, description of reality; and magic is presented as since "the future" is not the sort of thing one can and disrepute, writers , , . re, under many guises, antithetical to such science. Hence magic is put under a microscope, or even test by a knowl­ to the New Rhetoric. treated as an early uncritical attempt to do what edge of exactly equivalent conditions in the past, thought, the insights science does, but under conditions where judg- when you tum to political exhortation, you are culture could throw ment and perception were impaired by the involved in decisions that necessarily lie beyond ,roach to this subject; nai'vely anthropomorphic belief that the imper- the strictly scientific vocabularies of description. modern thought, this sonal forces of nature were motivated by per- And since the effective politician is a "spell- rms that concealed its sonal designs. One thus confronts a flat choice binder," it seems to follow by elimination that c. And though the pre­ between a civilized vocabulary of scientific de- the hortatory use of speech for political ends can fluenced by anthropo­ scription and a savage vocabulary of magical in- be called "magic," in the discredited sense of that tive magic, he did not cantation. term. lation between the an­ In this scheme, "rhetoric" has no systematic As a result, much analysis of political exhorta- h magic and the liter­ location. We recall noting the word but once in tion comes to look simply like a survival of prim­ Jmmunication until he Cassirer's Myth of the State, and then it is used itive magic, whereas it should be handled in its l on this Rhetoric for only in a random way; yet the book is really own terms, as an aspect of what it really is: discovery, though he about nothing more nor less than a most charac- rhetoric. The approach to rhetoric in terms of 1hankerings, he did so teristic concern of rhetoric: the manipulation of "word magic" gets the whole subject turned he was half willing to f- men's beliefs for political ends. backwards. Originally, the magical use of sym- 1ents who considered Now, the basic function of rhetoric, the use of bolism to affect natural processes by rituals and 1e study of literature words by human agents to form attitudes or to in- incantations was a mistaken transference of a duce actions in other human agents, is certainly proper linguistic function to an area for which it ically how the anthro- not "magical." If you are in trouble, and call for was not fit. The realistic use of addressed lan­ 1gic can belong in a help, you are no practitioner of primitive magic. guage to induce action in people became the uipped to see exactly You are using the primary resource of human magical use of addressed language to induce mo­ · inquiry diverge. An­ speech in a thoroughly realistic way. Nor, on the tion in things (things by nature alien to purely erary criticism only if other hand, is your utterance "science," in the linguistic orders of motivation). If we then begin mt" it from the stand­ strict meaning of science today, as a "semantic" by treating this erroneous and derived magical Jnically, anthropology or "descriptive" terminology for charting the use as primary, we are invited to treat a proper ance, not only to liter­ conditions of nature from an "impersonal" point use of language (for instance, political persua­ ·, but to the study of of view, regardless of one's wishes or prefer- sion) simply as a vestige of benightedly pre-sci­ 11, if one does not so ences. A call for help is quite "prejudiced"; it is entific magic. s terms to creep into the most arrant kind of "wishful thinking"; it is To be sure, the rhetorician has the tricks of his there issues should be not merely descriptive, it is hortatory. It is not trade. But they are not mere "bad science"; they of rhetoric. just trying to tell how things are, in strictly are an "art." And any overly scientist approach to

BURKE I A RHETORIC OF MOTIVES 1337 them (treating them in terms of flat dialectical And this persuasive use of language is not de­ special groups whos opposition to modem technology) must make our rived from "bad science," or "magic." On the the community, or world look much more "neoprimitive" than is re­ contrary, "magic" was a faulty derivation from it, groups whose rights ally the case. At the very least, we should note "word magic" being an attempt to produce lin­ nately both a benefit, that primitive magic prevailed most strongly guistic responses in kinds of beings not acces­ as with some busines under social conditions where the rationalization sible to the linguistic motive. However, once you The "pragmatic s, of social effort in terms of money was negligible; introduce this emendation, you can see beyond magic lies outside tt but the rhetoric of modem politics would estab­ the accidents of language. You can recognize how false propositions; it lish social identifications atop a way of life much of value has been contributed to the New lion that itself drm highly diversified by money, with the extreme di­ Rhetoric by these investigators, though their ob­ rhetoric; it is itself a vision of labor and status which money served to servations are made in terms that never explicitly an art that can "prove rationalize. confront the rhetorical ingredient in their field of To illustrate what study. We can place in terms of rhetoric all those sites" here: we read statements by anthropologists, ethnologists, indi­ Realistic Fu11ctio11sof Rhetoric ously designed to dh vidual and social psychologists, and the like, that vorably towards the ' Gaining courage as we proceed, we might even bear upon the persuasive aspects of language, the development of Ame contend that we are not so much proposing to im­ function of language as addressed, as direct or in Saudi Arabia. It port anthropology into rhetoric as proposing that roundabout appeal to real or ideal audiences, tremendous changes anthropologists recognize the factor of rhetoric in without or within. merce and investmer their own field. That is, if you look at recent stud­ Are we but haggling over a term? In one tigially feudal culture ies of primitive magic from the standpoint of this sense, yes. We are offering a rationale intended which the rationale discussion, you might rather want to distinguish to show how far one might systematically extend will accomplish thes between magic as "bad science" and magic as the term "rhetoric." In this respect, we are hag­ ing the obvious rheto "primitive rhetoric." You then discover that an­ gling over a term; for we must persist in tracking we suddenly, in a pe1 thropology does clearly recognize the rhetorical down the function of that term. But to note the in­ ber a passage in the function in magic; and far from dismissing the gredient of rhetoric lurking in such anthropolo­ what we would now rhetorical aspect of magic merely as bad science, gist's terms as "magic" and "witchcraft" is not lo of witchcraft": anthropology recognizes in it a pragmatic device ask that the anthropologist replace his words with that greatly assisted the survival of cultures by ours. We are certainly not haggling over terms in In a society like the promoting social cohesion. (Malinowski did that sense. The term "rhetoric" is no substitute and capitalistic, on ti much work along these lines, and the Kluckhohn for "magic," "witchcraft," "socialization," "com­ on the other, any id essay makes similar observations about witch­ munication," and so on. But the term rhetoric slowing down eco craft.) But now that we have confronted the term designates a function which is present in the adaptive. One of the "magic" with the term "rhetoric," we'd say that areas variously covered by those other terms. society arises out o the demands of fam one comes closer to the true state of affairs if one And we are asking only that this function be rec­ ropean patterns in th treats the socializing aspects of magic as a "prim­ ognized for what it is: a linguistic function by na­ itive rhetoric" than if one sees modem rhetoric ture as realistic as a proverb, though it may be And in conclusion w simply as a "survival of primitive magic." quite far from the kind of realism found in of the society" is ass \.I.~-··· For rhetoric as such is not rooted i11any past strictly "scientific realism." For it is essentially a as witchcraft, which t ( O,o(c( ,..:, condition of human society. It is rooted in an es­ realism of the act: moral, persuasive-and acts accumulation of wea 5 """4.. sential Junction of language itself, a function that are not "true" and "false" in the sense that the ology," contributing L.s.t...... -) is wholly realistic, and is continually born anew; propositions of "scientific realism" are. And new wealth with ma the use of language as a symbolic means of in­ however "false" the "propositions" of primitive you begin talking a ducing cooperation in beings that by nature re­ magic may be, considered from the standpoint of speed at which cul spond to symbols. Though rhetorical considera­ scientific realism, it is different with the pecu­ place, or the optimur tions may carry us far afield, leading us to violate liarly rhetorical ingredient in magic, involving and individualistic n the principle of autonomy separating the various ways of identification that contribute variously to under a particular sc disciplines, there is an intrinsically rhetorical mo­ social cohesion (either for the advantage of the you are talking abou tive, situated in the persuasive use of language. community as a whole, or for the advantage of indeed, but you will f

MODERN AND POSTMODERN RHETORIC . . F ,l '1.\-5 4Sl. o

>f language is not de­ special groups whose interests are a burden on of rhetoric: for nothing is more rhetorical in na­ , or "magic." On the the community, or the advantages of special ture than a deliberation as to what is too much or ulty derivation from it, groups whose rights and duties are indetermi­ too little, too early or too late; in such controver­ ttempt to produce Jin­ nately both a benefit and a tax on the community, sies, rhetoricians are forever "proving opposites ." ; of beings not acces­ as with some business enterprise in our society). Where are we now? We have considered two ve. However, once you The "pragmatic sanction" for this function of main aspects of rhetoric: its use of identification ,, you can see beyond magic lies outside the realm of strictly true-or­ and its nature as addressed. Since identification '{ou can recognize how false propositions; it falls in an area of delibera­ implies division, we found rhetoric involving us ·ontributed to the New tion that itself draws upon the resources of in matters of socialization and faction. Here was ators, though their ob­ rhetoric; it is itself a subject matter belonging to a wavering line between peace and conflict, since ns that never explicitly an art that can "prove opposites." identification is got by property, which is am­ redient in their field of To illustrate what we mean by "proving oppo­ bivalently a motive of both morality and strife. ms of rhetoric all those sites" here: we read an article, let us say, obvi­ And inasmuch as the ultimate of conflict is war ,ists, ethnologists, indi­ ously designed to dispose the reading public fa­ or murder, we considered how such imagery can igists, and the like, that vorably towards the "aggressive and expanding" figure as a terminology of reidentification 1spects of language, the development of American commercial interests ("transformation" or "rebirth"). For in consider­ iddressed, as direct or in Saudi Arabia. It speaks admiringly of the ing the wavering line between identification and al or ideal audiences, tremendous changes which our policies of com­ division, we shall always be coming upon mani- ..__...... , merce and investment will introduce into a ves­ festations of the logomachy, avowed as in invec- over a term? In one tigially feudal culture, and of the great speed at tive, unavowed as in stylistic subterfuges for pre- ng a rationale intended which the rationale of finance and technology senting real divisions in terms that deny division. 1tsystematically extend will accomplish these changes. When consider­ We found that this wavering line between is respect, we are hag· ing the obvious rhetorical intent of these "facts," identification and division was forever bringing must persist in tracking we suddenly, in a perverse non sequitur, remem­ rhetoric against the possibility of malice and the term. But to note the in­ ber a passage in the Kluckhohn essay, involving lie; for if an identification favorable to the ng in such anthropolo­ what we would now venture to call "the rhetoric speaker or his cause is made to seem favorable to td "witchcraft" is not to of witchcraft": the audience, there enters the possibility of such l replace his words with "heightened consciousness" as goes with deliber­ haggling over terms in In a society like the Navaho which is competitive ate cunning. Thus, roundabout, we confronted etoric" is no substitute and capitalistic, on the one hand, and still familistic the nature of rhetoric as addressed to audiences ' "socialization," "com - on the other, any ideology which has the effect of of the first, second, or third person. Socialization slowing down economic mobility is decidedly But the term rhetoric itself was, in the widest sense, found to be ad­ adaptive. One of the most basic strains in Navaho hich is present in the society arises out of the incompatibility between dressed. And by reason of such simultaneous by those other terms. the demands of familism and the emulation of Eu­ identification-with and division-from as mark the 1at this function be rec­ ropean patterns in the accumulating of capital. choice of a scapegoat, we found that rhetoric in­ nguistic function by na­ volves us in problems related to witchcraft, verb, though it may be And in conclusion we are told that the "survival magic, spellbinding, ethical promptings, and the , of realism found in of the society" is assisted by "any pattern, such like. And in the course of discussing these sub­ ." For it is essentially a as witchcraft, which tends to discourage the rapid jects, we found ourselves running into another , persuasive-and acts accumulation of wealth" (witchcraft, as an "ide­ tenn: persuasion. Rhetoric is the art of persua­ " in the sense that the ology," contributing to this end by identifying sion, or a study of the means of persuasion avail­ 'ic realism" are. And new wealth with malign witchery). Now, when able for any given situation. We have thus, devi­ positions" of primitive you begin talking about the optimum rate of ously, come to the point at which Aristotle I from the standpoint of speed at which cultural changes should take begins his treatise on rhetoric. ifferent with the pecu­ place, or the optimum proportion between tribal So we shall change our purpose somewhat. nt in magic, involving and individualistic motives that should prevail Up to now, we have been trying to indicate what contribute variously to under a particular set of economic conditions, kinds of subject matter not traditionally labeled ,r ilie advantage of the you are talking about something very important "rhetoric" should, in our opinion, also fall under ir for the advantage of indeed, but you will find yourself deep in matters this head. We would now consider varying views

BURKE I A RHETORIC OF MOTIVES 1339 ~ :r·~ W\W1 (7"\. ~,~ •• i

v\'\-0. l,~~

of rhetoric that have already prevailed; and we stances, one or another of these elements may tory and adverti would try to "generate" them from the same serve best for extending a line of analysis in and philosophie s , basic terms of our discussion. some particular direction. The dramati sti, As for the relation between "identification" And finally: The use of symbols, by one sym­ "symbolic action, and "persuasion": we might well keep it in mind bol-using entity to induce action in another (per­ sarily suasil'e nal that a speaker persuades an audience by the use suasion properly addressed) is in essence not tional scientific of stylistic identifications; his act of persuasion magical but realistic. However, the resources of proceed along tho may be for the purpose of causing the audience to identification whereby a sense of consubstantial ­ identify itself with the speaker's interests; and ity is symbolically established between beings of of ;:~i~/:;~1;\ the speaker draws on identification of interests to unequal status may extend far into the realm of ~ must be a selectioi establish rapport between himself and his audi­ the idealistic . And as we shall see later, when on must function also ence. So, there is no chance of our keeping apart the subject of order, out of this idealistic element l\ In his seventh the meanings of persuasion, identification ("con­ there may arise a kind of magic or mystery that rizes a device whi substantiality") and communication (the nature sets its mark upon all human relations. "directing the int, of rhetoric as "addressed"). But, in given in- trate satirically ho• tion," he used a b Dueling was forbic still a prevalent demonstrated how From Language as Symbolic Action one could both tak, the Church injunc of intentionally go Terministic Screens ation"). Such considerations are involved in what I duelists would me mean by the "dramatistic," stressing language as where the duel wa I an aspect of "action," that is, as "symbolic action." carry guns merely DIRECTING THE ATTENTION The two approaches, the "scientistic" and the self-protection in c "dramatistic" (language as definition, and lan- \\ armed enemy. By ~; '' ~ We might begin by stressing the distinction be­ guage as act) are by no means mutually exclu­ they could have th1 r~5·"" tween a "scientistic" and a "dramatistic" ap­ sive. Since both approaches have their proper gressed the Church t.,.,~;"'proach to the nature of language. A "scientistic" uses, the distinction is not being introduced in­ cling. For it was ~ approach begins with questions of naming, or de- vidiously . Definition itself is a symbolic act, just walk; and in case 01 e.'::-~ finition. Or the power of language to define and as my proposing of this very distinction is a sym­ on murder, it was p J.M•tt~~ describe may be viewed as derivative; and its es- bolic act. But though at this moment of begin­ self by shooting in 1 ~ sential function may be treated as attitudinal or ning, the overlap is considerable, later the two I bring up this s, hortatory: attitudinal as with expressions of com­ roads diverge considerably, and direct our atten­ directing the intent plaint, fear, gratitude, and such; hortatory as with tion to quite different kinds of observation. The thereby settle for le commands or requests, or, in general, an instru­ quickest way to indicate the differences of direc­ in which "terminis1 ment developed through its use in the social tion might be by this formula: The "scientistic" tion. Here the kind processes of cooperation and competition. I say approach builds the edifice of language with pri­ concerns simply the "developed"; I do not say "originating." The ulti­ mary stress upon a proposition such as "It is, or it necessarily directs t mate origins of language seem to me as mysteri­ is not." The "dramatistic" approach puts the pri­ nels rather than oth ous as the origins of the universe itself. One must mary stress upon such hortatory expressions as hood is painfully view it, I feel, simply as the "given." But once an "thou shalt, or thou shalt not." And at the other physics, for instanc, animal comes into being that does happen to extreme the distinction becomes quite obvious, ferent direction fron have this particular aptitude, the various tribal id­ since the scientistic approach culminates in the chology. But some j ioms are unquestionably developed by their use kinds of speculation we associate with symbolic tic incentive are not as instruments in the tribe's way of living (the logic, while the dramatistic culminates in the When I speak of practical role of symbolism in what the anthro­ kinds of speculation that find their handiest mate­ particularly in mine pologist, Malinowski, has called "context of situ- rial in stories, plays, poem ·, the rhetoric of ora- saw. They were di

1340 MODERN AND POSTMODERN RHETORIC ,f :J:'l!t\~W\CA-U.si,_5\'1 ~rll\ ~ {7o\. ~~\S · · }_O 1,\1\,Ht,I.\ -h L:4 1,1."'-A. qi\- o. l,..._..IJ",,'"1Uvt.1..c

of these elements may tory and advertising, mythologies, theologies, same objects, the difference being that they were 1g a line of analysis in and philosophies after the classic model. made with different color filters. Here something 1. The dramatistic view of language, in terms of so "factual" as a photograph revealed notable of symbols, by one sym­ "symbolic action," is exercised about the neces­ distinctions in texture, and even in form, depend­ :e action in another (per ­ sarily suasi ve nature of even the most unemo­ ing upon which color filter was used for the doc­ ssed) is in essence not tional scientific nomenclatures. And we shall umentary description of the event being owever, the resources of proceed along those lines; thus: recorded. sense of consubstantial ­ Even if any given terminology is a reflection Similarly, a man has a dream. He reports his lished between beings of of reality, by its very nature as a terminology it dream to a Freudian analyst, or a Jungian, or an nd far into the realm of ~ must be a selection of reality; and to this extent it Adlerian, or to a practitioner of some other : shall see later, when on must function also as a deflection of reality. school. In each case, we might say, the "same" \\ of this idealistic element 1 In his seventh Provincial Letter, Pascal sati­ dream will be subjected to a different color filter, >f magic or mystery that rizes a device which the Jesuits of his day called with corresponding differences in the nature of man relations. "directing the intention." For instance, to illus­ the event as perceived, recorded, and interpreted. trate satirically how one should "direct the inten­ (It is a commonplace that patients soon learn to tion," he used a burlesque example of this sort: have the kind of dreams best suited to the terms Dueling was forbidden by the Church. Yet it was favored by their analysts.) still a prevalent practice. Pascal satirically demonstrated how, by "directing the intention," one could both take part in a duel and not violate II OBSERVATIONS IMPLICIT IN TERMS ~ the Church injunctions against it. Thus, instead ~ of intentionally going to take part in a duel, the We have now moved things one step further ms are involved in what I duelists would merely go for a walk to a place along. Not only does the nature of our terms affect :," stressing language as where the duel was to be held. And they would the nature of our observations, in the sense that the . is, as "symbolic action." carry guns merely as a precautionary means of terms direct the attention to one field rather than to the "scientistic" and the self-protection in case they happened to meet an another. Also, many of the "observations" afe but as definition, and Ian- \\ armed enemy. By so "directing the intention," implications of the particular terminology in temzs means mutually exclu­ they could have their duel without having trans­ of which the observations are made. In brief, tches have their proper gressed the Church's thou-shall-not's against du­ much that we take as observations about "reality" 0 .,.. tot being introduced in- eling. For it was perfectly proper to go for a may be but the spinning out of possibilities im- bn...b "11,. If is a symbolic act, just walk; and in case one encountered an enemy bent plicit in our particular choice of terms. tt,p 1ery distinction is a sym- on murder, it was perfectly proper to protect one­ Perhaps the simplest illustration of this point L: this moment of begin- self by shooting in self-defense. is to be got by contrasting secular and theological 1siderable, later the two I bring up this satirically excessive account of terminologies of motives. If you want to operate, 1Iy, and direct our atten­ directing the intention, in the hopes that I can like a theologian, with a terminology that in­ nds of observation. The thereby settle for less when discussing the ways cludes "God" as its key term, the only sure way the differences of direc ­ in which "terministic screens" direct the atten­ to do so it to put in the term, and that's that. The rmula: The "scientistic" tion. Here the kind of deflection I have in mind Bible solves the problem by putting "God" into ce of language with pri- concerns simply the fact that any nomenclature the first sentence-and from this initial move, sition such as "It is, or it ,,, necessarily directs the attention into some chan­ many implications "necessarily" follow. A natu­ " approach puts the pri- nels rather than others. In one sense, this likeli­ ralistic, Darwinian terminology flatly omits the 1ortatory expressions as hood is painfully obvious. A textbook on term, with a corresponding set of implications­ t not." And at the other physics, for instance, turns the attention in a dif­ and that's that. I have called metaphysics "coy becomes quite obvious, ferent direction from the textbook on law or psy­ theology" because the metaphysician often in­ roach culminates in the chology. But some implications of this terminis­ troduces the term "God" not outright, as with associate with symbolic tic incentive are not so obvious. the Bible, but by beginning with a term that am­ istic culminates in the When I speak of "terministic screens," I have biguously contains such implications; then he find their handiest mate- particularly in mind some photographs I once gradually makes these implications explicit. If ms, the rhetoric of ora- saw. They were different photographs of the the term is not introduced thus ambiguously, it

BURKE J LANGUAGE AS SYMBOLIC ACTION 1341 can be introduced only by fiat, either outright at to define the relation between faith and reason. symbol systems? the beginning (like the Bible) or as a non sequitur That is, if one begins with "faith," which must be little do we kno~ (a break in the argument somewhere along the taken on authority, one can work out a rationale something so "do way). In Platonic dialogues, myth sometimes based on this faith. But the faith must "precede" lion of seas and < serves this purpose of a leap en route, a step pre­ the rationale . . . . for today (beyonc pared for by the fact that, in the Platonic dialec­ In my book, The Rhetoric of Religion, I have particular lives) b1 tic, the methodic progress towards higher levels proposed that the word "logology" might be ap­ the past, combine of ge11eralization was in itself thought of as plied in a special way to this issue. By "logol­ mainly through m the like about the progress towards the divine. ogy," as so conceived, I would mean the system­ from class to class But such a terministic situation is not by any atic study of theological tenns, not from the another . The varic means confined to matters of theology or meta­ standpoint of their truth or falsity as statement~ in effect but so m physics. As Jeremy Bentham aptly pointed out, all about the supernatural, but purely for the light however importan terms for mental states, sociopolitical relation­ they might throw upon the forms of language. each of us has e ships, and the like are necessarily "fictions," in the That is, the tactics involved in the theologian's overall "picture" i sense that we must express such concepts by the "words about God" might be studied as "words systems . To medit use of terms borrowed from the realm of the phys­ about words" (by using as a methodological full implications is ical. Thus, what Emerson said in the accents of bridge the opening sentence in the Gospel of of things into an that's one reason , transcendental enthusiasm, Bentham said in the John: "In the beginning was the Word, and the .s,; s •...... , symbol-using anin accents of "tough-mindedness." In Emerson's Word was with God, and the Word was God"). li'"'- verbal realism that "tender-minded" scheme, "nature" exists to pro­ "Logology" would be a purely empirical study 14\~ extent of the role I vide us with terms for the physical realm that are of symbolic action . Not being a theologian, I Ct-~ tions of reality. transferable to the moral realm, as the sight of a would have no grounds to discuss the truth or fal­ f{,i..1v,.,,1 straight line gives us our word for "right," and of a sity of theological doctrines as such. But I do feel I hope the passc crooked or twisted line our word for "wrong"; or entitled to discuss them with regard to their na­ what to suggest ho as we derived our word for "spirit" from a word ture merely as language. And it is my claim that "Reality" could not for "breath," or as "superciliousness" means liter­ the injunction, "Believe, that you may under­ our profound and in ally a raising of the eyebrow. But Bentham would stand," has a fundamental application to the bol systems. Our pr state the same relationship "tough-mindedly" by purely secular problem of "terministic screens." ate, but the room's noting that our words for "right," "wrong," The "logological," or "terministic" counter­ nation, and beyond 1 "spirit," etc. are "fictions" carried over from their part of "Believe" in the formula would be: Pick and cosmic relatior strictly literal use in the realm of physical sensa­ some particular 11ome11clature,some one termin­ ideas and images tt tion. Bentham does not hope that such "fictions" istic screen. And for "That you may understand," only insofar as the can be avoided. He but asks that we recognize the counterpart would be: "That you may pro­ on them are heard c their nature as fictions. So he worked out a tech­ ceed to track dow11the kinds of observation im­ tangle of ideas for ir nique for helping to disclose the imagery in such plicit in the terminology you have chosen, more fallacious than ideas, and to discount accordingly. (See C. K. whether your choice of terms was deliberate or mediate experience. Ogden's book, Bentham's T/zeo,y of Fictio11s.) spontaneous. " mediate experience, But though this situation is by no means con­ receive about toda fined to the terminologies of theology or meta­ world most decided! · physics, or even to such sciences as psychology III But let us considi (with terms for the out-going as vs. the in-turn­ EXAMPLES istic screens, in a mi ing, for dispositions, tendencies, drives, for the I can best state the case by giving some illustra­ psychologist, John I workings of the "it" in the Unconscious, and so tions. But first let me ask you to reconsider a pas­ perceptive paper on on), by its very thoroughness theology does have sage from Chapter One which presents the matter Ties to Its Mother." a fonnula that we can adapt, for purely secular in the most general sense : "five instinctual res~ purposes of analysis. I have in mind the injunc­ lists as: crying, smi tion, at once pious and methodological, "Believe, ... can we bring ourselves to realize just how over­ lowing. Surely no 01 that you may understand (crede, ut intelligas)." whelmingly much of what we mean by "reality" sponses are there to ~ In its theological application, this formula served has been built up for us through nothing but our might recall the obs1

1342 MODERN AND POSTMODERN RHETORIC een faith and reason. symbol systems? Take away our books, and what John B. Watson. He, too, found things that were faith," which must be little do we know about history, biography, even there to see. For instance, by careful scientific work out a rationale something so "down to earth" as the relative posi­ study, he discovered sure ways to make babies faith must "precede" tion of seas and continents? What is our "reality" cry in fright or shriek with rage. for today (beyond the paper-thin line of our own In contrast with Watson's terminology of ob­ particular lives) but all this clutter of symbols about 'ic of Religion, I have the past, combined with whatever things we know servation regarding the nature of infantile re­ gology" might be ap­ mainly through maps, magazines, newspapers, and flexes, note that Bowlby adopted a much more .his issue. By "logol­ the like about the present? In school, as they go social point of view. His terms were explicitly ,uld mean the system­ from class to class, students turn from one idiom to designed to study infantile responses that in­ terms, not from the another . The various courses in the curriculum are volved the mother in a reciprocal relationship to · falsity as statements in effect but so many different terminologies. And the child. t purely for the light however important to us is the tiny sliver of reality At the time I read Bowlby's paper, I happened e forms of language. each of us has experienced firsthand, the whole to be doing a monograph on "Verbal Action in !d in the theologian's overall "picture" is but a construct of our symbol St. Augustine's Confessions." I was struck by the be studied as "words systems. To meditate on this fact until one sees its fact that Augustine's terms for the behavior of in­ full implications is much like peering over the edge as a methodological of things into an ultimate abyss. And doubtless fants closely paralleled Bowlby's. Three were ice in the Gospel of that's one reason why, though man is typically the definitely the same: crying, smiling, sucking. Al­ as the Word, and the s..... symbol-using animal, he clings to a kind of nai"ve though he doesn't mention clinging as a particu­ 1eWord was God"). f H. verbal realism that refuses to let him realize the full larly notable term with regard to infancy, as the 1 purely empirical study i', I" extent of the role played by symbolicity in his no­ result ofBowlby's list I noticed, as I might other­ being a theologian, I Ci.J lions of reality. wise not have, that he frequently uses the corre­ 1 iiscuss the truth or fal­ rt,.'~ 1 sponding Latin term (inhaerere) regarding his at­ s as such. But I do feel I hope the passage can serve at least some- tachment to the Lord. "Following" was not ith regard to their na­ what to suggest how fantastically much of our explicitly worked out, as an infantile response, ,nd it is my claim that "Reality" could not exist for us, were it not for though Augustine does refer to God as his leader. that you may under­ our profound and inveterate involvement in sym­ And I began wondering what might be done with al application to the bol systems. Our presence in a room is immedi­ Spinoza's Ethics in this connection, whether his 'terministic screens." ate, but the room's relation to our country as a persistent concern with what necessarily "fol­ "terministic" counter­ nation, and beyond that, to international relations lows" what in Nature could have been in part a irmula would be: Pick and cosmic relations, dissolves into a web of metaphysician's transformation of a personal ture, some one termin- ideas and images that reach through our senses motive strong in childhood. Be that as it may, I you may understand," only insofar as the symbol systems that report was struck by the fact that Augustine made one : "That you may pro­ on them are heard or seen. To mistake this vast strategically important addition to Bowlby's list: rids of observation im­ tangle of ideas for immediate experience is much rest. Once you mention it, you realize that it is ·y you have chosen, more fallacious than to accept a dream as an im­ very definitely an instinctual response of the sort rms was deliberate or mediate experience. For a dream really is an im­ that Bowlby was concerned with, since it in­ mediate experience, but the information that we volves a social relation between mother and receive about today's events throughout the child. In Augustine's scheme, of course, it also world most decidedly is not. allowed for a transformation from resting as an But let us consider some examples of termin­ infant to hopes of ultimately "resting in God." istic screens, in a more specific sense. The child Our point is: All three terminologies (Wat­ y giving some illustra - psychologist, John Bowlby, writes a subtle and son's, Bowlby's, Augustine's) directed the atten­ 1ou to reconsider a pas- perceptive paper on "The Nature of the Child's tion differently, and thus led to a correspondingly 1ich presents the matter Ties to Its Mother." He observes what he calls different quality of observations. In brief, "be­ "five instinctual responses" of infants, which he havior" isn't something that you need but ob­ lists as: crying, smiling, sucking, clinging, fol­ serve; even something so "objectively there" as , to realize just how over­ lowing. Surely no one would deny that such re­ behavior must be observed through one or an­ at we mean by "reality" sponses are there to see. But at the same time, we other kind of terministic screen, that directs the thr,pugh nothing but our might recall the observations of the behaviorist, attention in keeping with its nature.

BURKE/ LANGUAGE AS SYMBOLIC ACTION 1343 Basically, there are two kinds of terms: terms stressed the principle of continuity here that he a collection of essa) that put things together, and terms that take could view the principle of discontinuity only as a ary and psycholog things apart. Otherwise put, A can feel himself case of human self-flattery. Yet, logology would concedes that the Fr identified with B, or he can think of himself as point out: We can distinguish man from other ani­ serviceable in callir disassociated from B. Carried into mathematics, mals without necessarily being over-haughty. For not given full consci \,J.ld.-111.: some systems stress the principle of continuity, what other animals have yellow journalism, cor­ are repressed. But some the principle of discontinuity, or particles. rupt politics, pornography, stock market manipu­ also be ideas that ar And since all laboratory instruments of measure­ lators, plans for waging thermonuclear, chemical, have not yet become ment and observation are devices invented by the and bacteriological war? I think we can consider ation to take them ac symbol-using animal, they too necessarily give ourselves different in kind from other animals, when we see an ob interpretations in terms of either continuity or dis­ without necessarily being overproud of our dis­ ordinarily "repress"· continuity. Hence, physicists forever keep finding tinction. We don't need theology, but merely the We don't recognize that some sub-sub-sub-subaspect of nature can be evidence of our characteristic sociopolitical dis­ come closer, or use again subdivided; whereupon it's only a question orders, to make it apparent that man, the typically see it clearly enough of time until they discover that some new cut symbol-using animal is alas! something special. Would not a terminc merges moments previously considered distinct­ scious repression 0 1 ~(AA,.~ .. t,(.«,~. \oi..t{. and so on. Knowing nothing much about physics our attention from S) IV except the terministic fact that any observation of but merely remote? FURTHEREXAMPLES a physicist must necessarily be stated within the Jungian terministic . resources and embarrassments of man-made ter- Where are we, then? moteness of many d Fi'II.\~ .\-w, minologies, I would still dare risk the proposition We must use terministic screens, since we survival from an ear uti. of that Socrates' basic point about dialectic will con- can't say anything without the use of terms; ment-a terrninistic 5 ~ tinue to prevail; namely, there is composition, and whatever terms we use, they necessarily consti­ "temporizing of esi l,'f't' there is division. tute a corresponding kind of screen; and any such conditions now is Often this shows up as a distinction between screen necessarily directs the attention to one terms of temporal p, terministic screens positing differences of degree field rather than another. Within that field there from "prehistory.") and those based on differences of kind. For in­ can be different screens, each with its ways of di­ One more point , stance, Darwin sees only a difference of degree recting the attention and shaping the range of ob­ cussion. Recently I r between man and other animals. But the theolo­ servations implicit in the given terminology. All ciologist accused ot gian sees a difference in kind. That is, where terminologies must implicitly embody choices cializing" their term~ Darwin views man as continuous with other ani­ between the principle of continuity and the prin­ motives. (The articlt mals, the theologian would stress the principle of ciple of discontinuity. ception of Man in M, discontinuity in this regard. But the theologian's Two other variants of this point about conti­ H. Wrong, appears i1 screen also posits a certain kind of continuity be­ nuity and discontinuity should be mentioned. American Sociologic tween man and God that is not ascribed to the re­ First, note how it operates in political affairs: This controversy lation between God and other animals. During a national election, the situation places terministic situation The logological screen finds itself in a pecu­ great stress upon a division between the citizens. between terms for Pc liar position here. It holds that, even on the But often such divisiveness (or discontinuity) can for Language in Gen purely secular level, Darwin overstated his case. be healed when the warring factions join in a really has a much And as a consequence, in his stress upon the common cause against an alien enemy (the divi­ claims for it. To the principle of continuity between man and the sion elsewhere thus serving to reestablish the minologies, by their other animals, he unduly slighted the evidence principle of continuity at home). It should be ap­ ciplines, are designec for discontinuity here. For he assumed that the parent how either situation sets up the conditions or another particular principle of discontinuity between man and other for its particular kind of scapegoat, as a device it not be technically i animals was necessarily identical with a theolog­ that unifies all those who share the same enemy. cialized terminology ical view of man. For a subtler variant (and here I am somewhat ition for the discussi, Such need not be the case at all. Darwin says anticipating the specific subject matter of the might serve to thro\\ astonishingly little about man's special aptitudes next chapter) we might cite an observation by aspect of human mo as a symbol user. His terministic screen so D. W. Harding, printed in Metaphor and Symbol, man in general woul

1344 MODERN AND POSTMODERN RHETORIC continuity here that he a collection of essays by various writers on liter­ to a philosophic terminology of motives (insofar f discontinuity only as a ary and psychological symbolism. The author as philosophy is the proper field for thoughts on y. Yet, logology would concedes that the Freudian terminology is highly man in general). Any definition of man in terms 1ish man from other ani­ serviceable in calling attention to ideas that are of specialized scientific nomenclatures would Jeing over-haughty. For not given full conscious recognition because they necessarily be "over-socialized," or "over-biolo­ yellow journalism, cor- are repressed. But he asks: Why can there not gized," or "over-psychologized," or "over-physi­ 1, stock market manipu- also be ideas that are unclear simply because we cized," or "over-poetized," and so on, depending 1ennonuclear, chemical, have not yet become familiar enough with a situ­ upon which specialized terministic screen was I think we can consider ation to take them adequately into account? Thus, being stretched to cover not just its own special 1d from other animals, when we see an object at a distance, we do not field but a more comprehensive area. Or, if we : overproud of our dis­ ordinarily "repress" the knowledge of its identity. try to correct the excesses of one temzinology, by heology, but merely the We don't recognize it simply because we must borrowing from several, what strictly scientific ristic sociopolitical dis- come closer, or use an instrument, before we can canon (in the modem sense of scientific special­ t that man, the typically see it clearly enough to know precisely what it is. ization) could we adduce as sanction? Would not 1s ! something special. Would not a terminology that features the uncon­ such an eclectic recipe itself involve a general­ scious repression of ideas automatically deflect ized philosophy of some sort? ~w.U:... ~ ,1--\u"I{ our attention from symbols that are not repressed but merely remote? (At this point, of course, a V Jungian terministic screen would ascribe the re­ moteness of many dream-symbols to their misty OUR ATTEMPT TO AVOID MERE RELATIVISM stic screens, since we survival from an earlier stage in man's develop­ out the use of terms; ment-a terministic device that I have called the And now where are we? Must we merely resign .hey necessarily consti­ "temporizing of essence," since the nature of ourselves to an endless catalogue of terministic of screen; and any such conditions now is stated quasi-narratively in screens, each of which can be valued for the light it s the attention to one terms of temporal priority, a vestigial derivation throws upon the human animal, yet none of which Within that field there from "prehistory.") can be considered central? In one sense, yes. For, :ach with its ways of di­ One more point will end this part of our dis­ strictly speaking, there will be as many different .haping the range of ob­ cussion. Recently I read a paper in which one so­ world views in human history as there are people . given terminology. All ciologist accused other sociologists of "overso­ (Tot homines, tot sententiae.) We can safely take it icitly embody choices cializing" their terms for the discussion of human for granted that no one's "personal equations" are ~ontinuity and the prin- motives. (The article, "The Oversocialized Con­ quite identical with anyone else's. In the unwritten ception of Man in Modem Sociology," by Dennis cosmic constitution that lies behind all man-made this point about conti­ H. Wrong, appears in the April 1961 issue of the Constitutions, it is decreed by the nature of things should be mentioned. American Sociological Review.) that each man is "necessarily free" to be his own tes in political affairs: This controversy brings us to a variant of the tyrant, inexorably imposing upon himself the pecu­ m, the situation places terministic situation I discussed in distinguishing liar combination of insights associated with his m between the citizens. between terms for Poetics in particular and terms peculiar combination of experiences. ;s (or discontinuity) can for Language in General. But the author's thesis At the other extreme, each of us shares with ring factions join in a really has a much wider application than he all other members of our kind (the often-inhuman 1 alien enemy (the divi- claims for it. To the extent that all scientific ter­ human species) the fatal fact that, however the 1ing to reestablish the minologies, by their very role in specialized dis­ situation came to be, all members of our species home). It should be ap­ ciplines, are designed to focus attention upon one conceive of reality somewhat roundabout, n sets up the conditions or another particular field of observation, would through various media of symbolism. Any such scapegoat, as a device it not be technically impossible for any such spe­ medium will be, as you prefer, either a way of ;hare the same enemy. cialized terminology to supply an adequate defin­ "dividing" us from the "immediate" (thereby set­ nd here I am somewhat ition for the discussion of man in general? Each ting up a kind of "alienation" at the very start of subject matter of the might serve to throw light upon one or another our emergence from infancy into that state of ar­ cite an observation by aspect of human motives. But the definition of ticulacy somewhat misleadingly called the "age Metaphor and Symbol, man in general would be formally possible only of reason"); or it can be viewed as a paradoxical

BURKE I LANGUAGE AS SYMBOLIC ACTION 1345 way of "uniting" us with things on a "higher I should make it clear: I am not pronouncing the players to terms oJ level of awareness," or some such. (Here again, on the metaphysics of this controversy. Maybe sure in advance that, if we encounter our principles of continuity and we are but things in motion. I don't have to haggle proper allowance for t discontinuity.) about that possibility. I need but point out that, conclusions when teste Whether such proneness to symbolic activity whether or not we are just things in motion, we But the thought shot be viewed as a privilege or a calamity (or as think of one another (and especially of those with true that people can be something of both), it is a distinguishing charac­ whom we are intimate) as persons. And the dif­ of sheer motion. About teristic of the human animal in general. Hence it ference between a thing and a person is that the denly startled into thir can properly serve as the basis of a general, or one merely moves whereas the other acts. For the experience purely "syr philosophic definition of this animal. From this sake of the argument, I'm even willing to grant news) I read of the first tenninistic beginning, this intuitive grounding of that the distinction between things moving and Belgian fortress in Wo a position, many observations "necessarily fol­ persons acting is but an illusion. All I would simply this: The appn low." But are we not here "necessarily" caught in claim is that, illusion or not, the human race can­ known to be mined. An our own net? Must we not concede that a screen not possibly get along with itself on the basis of ploded. So wave after , built on this basis is just one more screen; and any other intuition. The human animal, as we sent forward, as conditi that it can at best be pennitted to take its place know it, emerges into personality by first master­ up, until all the mines h: along with all the others? Can we claim for it ing whatever tribal speech happens to be its par­ the next wave, or the special favors? ticular symbolic environment. thereafter, could take thf If I, or any one person, or even one particular We could not here list even summarily the pretty close to sheer mo philosophic school, had invented it, such doubts main aspects of the Dramatistic screen without in the best war-game tra, would be quite justified. But if we pause to look launching into a whole new project. For present Basically, the Dram at it quizzically, I think we shall see that it is purposes, I must only say enough to indicate my methodic tracking dow grounded in a kind of "collective revelation," grounds for contending that a Dramatistic screen from away back. This "collective revelation" in­ does possess the philosophic character adapted to volves the pragmatic recognition of a distinction the discussion of man in general, as distinct from between persons and things. I say "pragmatic" the kinds of insight afforded by the application of recognition, because often the distinction has not special scientific terminologies. been formally recognized. And all the more so be­ In behalf of my claim that the "dramatistic cause, if an object is closely associated with some screen" is sanctioned by a "collective revelation" person whom we know intimately, it can readily of Jong standing, suffice it to recall such key become infused with the identity of that person. tenns as tao, karma, dike, energeia, hodos, Reverting now to our original term, "drama­ actus-all of them words for action (to which tistic," I would offer this basic proposition for we might well add Islam, as the name for a sub­ your consideration: Despite the evidences of missive attitude with its obviously active possi­ primitive animism (that endows many sheer bilities). The Bible starts with God's act, by cre­ things with "souls") and the opposite modes of ative fiat. Contemporary sociological theories of contemporary behaviorism (designed to study "role-taking" fit into the same general scheme. people as mere things), we do make a pragmatic Tenns like "transactions," "exchange," "compe­ distinction between the "actions" of "persons" tition," "cooperation," are but more specific and the sheer "motions" of "things." The slashing tenns for "action." And there are countless words of the waves against the beach, or the endless for specific acts: give, take, run, think, etc. The cycle of births and deaths in biologic organisms contemporary concern with "game theories" is would be examples of sheer motion. Yet we, the obviously a subdivision of the same tenn. Add typically symbol-using animal, cannot relate to the gloomy thought that such speculative playful­ one another sheerly as things in motion. Even the ness now is usually concerned with "war games." behaviorist, who studies man in tenns of his lab­ But in any case, the concept of such games must oratory experiments, must treat his colleagues as involve, in however fragmentary a fashion, the persons, rather than purely and simply as au­ picture of persons acting under stress. And even tomata responding to stimuli. when the "game" hypothetically reduces most of

MODERN AND POSTMODERN RHETORIC :ar: I am not pronouncing the players to terms of mere pawns, we can feel the idea of symbolic action, and of man as the · this controversy. Maybe sure in advance that, if the "game" does not make kind of being that is particularly distinguished by tion. I don't have to haggle proper allowance for the "human equation," the an aptitude for such action. To quote from Web­ I need but point out that, conclusions when tested will prove wrong. ster's Third New International Dictionary, which just things in motion, we But the thought should admonish us. Often it is has officially recognized "Dramatism" in my 1d especially of those with true that people can be feasibly reduced to terms sense of the term, as treated schematically in my I as persons. And the dif­ of sheer motion. About fifty years ago, I was sud­ Grammar of Motives, it is "A technique of analy­ g and a person is that the denly startled into thinking when (encountering sis of language and thought as basicaIJy modes of ·eas the other acts. For the experience purely "symbolwise," purely via the action rather than as means of conveying infor­ [' m even willing to grant news) I read of the first German attacks against a mation." I would but note that such an "Ism" can ween things moving and Belgian fortress in World War I. The point was also function as a philosophy of human relations. an illusion. All I would simply this: The approach to the fortress was The main consideration to keep in mind, for · not, the human race can­ known to be mined. And the mines had to be ex­ present purposes, is that two quite different but .vith itself on the basis of ploded. So wave after wave of human flesh was equally justifiable positions are implicit in this te human animal, as we sent forward, as conditioned cattle, to get blown approach to specifically human motivation. ersonality by first master­ up, until all the mines had been touched off. Then There is a gloomy route, of this sort: If action :ch happens to be its par­ the next wave, or the next two or three waves is to be our key term, then drama; for drama is tment. thereafter, could take the fort. Granted, that comes the culminative form of action .... But if drama, list even summarily the pretty close to sheer motion, doubtless conceived then conflict. And if conflict, then victimage. ·amatistic screen without in the best war-game tradition. Dramatism is always on the edge of this vexing new project. For present Basically, the Dramatistic screen involves a problem, that comes to a culmination in tragedy, 1y enough to indicate my methodic tracking down of the implications in the song of the scapegoat. that a Dramatistic screen phic character adapted to general, as distinct from ~ I\ {)\c,1>"""-"\ r-t>~,c_. It ·ded by the application of ilogies. (_?) im that the "dramatistic a "collective revelation" :e it to recall such key dike, energeia, hodos, ·ds for action (to which 1, as the name for a sub- obviously active possi­ : with God's act, by ere- sociological theories of : same general scheme. , ,, " exc h ange, " "compe- are but more specific here are countless words tke, run, think, etc. The ,ith "game theories" is of the same term. Add uch speculative playful­ -med with "war games." ept of such games must :mentary a fashion, the under stress. And even !tically reduces most of

BURKE I LANGUAGE AS SYMBOLIC ACTION 1347