26 Introduction 1.6 Computer Clusters

• OS history in TOP500: 27 Introduction 1.6 Computer Clusters 28 Introduction 1.1 Extracts from the History of the 1.1 Extracts from the

(see also, e.g. Internet Timeline( http://www.zakon.org/robert/ internet/timeline/))

• 1957 – Soviet Sputnik -> USA ARPA (Advanced Research Projects Agency)

• 1961 – 1. paper about packet exchange – , MIT: "Information Flow in Large Communication Nets"

• 1962 J.C.R. Licklider (experimental psychologist, in 1962):“If such a network as I envisage could be brought into operation, we could have at least four large computers, perhaps six or eight small computers, and a great assortment of disk files and magnetic tape units – all churning away”

– He had no clue at all how to achieve this. – But the idea led to ARPANET, 29 Introduction 1.1 Extracts from the History of the Internet

• 1964 , RAND: "On Distributed Communications Networks", (about packet exhange networks)

• 1965 A study at ARPA "cooperative network of time-sharing computers" TX- 2 at MIT Lincoln Lab and AN/FSQ-32 at System Development Corporation (Santa Monica, CA) directly linked with 1200bps dedicated phone line without packet switch; later a Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) computer ARPA got added, which together formed the "The Experimental Network"

• 1966 Lawrence G. Roberts, MIT: "Towards a Cooperative Network of Time- Shared Computers" – first ARPANET strategic plan

• 1967 ARPANET’s design discussions (Larry Roberts, ARPA Michigan)

...

• 1971 – 15 nodes (23 hosts): UCLA, SRI, UCSB, Univ of Utah, BBN, MIT, RAND, SDC, Harvard, Lincoln Lab, Stanford, UIU(C), CWRU, CMU, NASA/Ames 30 Introduction 1.1 Extracts from the History of the Internet

– Project Gutenberg (Michael Hart) to make electronically available materi- als free of copyright – First e-mail ever sent( http://openmap.bbn.com/~tomlinso/ ray/ka10.html)

• 1972 – (BBN) modified e-mail program on ARPANET where it became popular. Introduction of symbol @

– Larry Robert wrote the e-mail program (editing, sending, reading by choice, forwarding, storing and replying) called RD

* ARPANET’s demo on 40 connected computers * First computer to computer chat * French ARPANET - CYCLADES * RFC 318: Telnet specification 31 Introduction 1.1 Extracts from the History of the Internet

• 1973 – First international connection with ARPANET: University College of London (England) via NORSAR (Norway) – Bob Metcalfe’s (Harvard) PhD thesis on idea – Cerf and Kahn idea on Internet – RFC 454: File Transfer specification – Network Voice Protocol (NVP) specification (RFC 741) and an application enabling conference calls over ARPANET – ARPANET News; 2,000 ARPANET users – ARPA study: e-mail 75% of ARPANET traffic

• 1974 – and , "A Protocol for Packet Network Interconnec- tion"– Transmission Control Program (TCP). [IEEE Trans Comm] – Telenet, (first commercial ARPANET version)

• 1975 – first ARPANET mailing list, MsgGroup – John Vittal develops MSG, full-functional email program – Satellite link over 2 oceans (Hawai and UK) as first TCP tests 32 Introduction 1.1 Extracts from the History of the Internet

• 1976 – Queen Elizabeth II, sends her first email on 26th March – UUCP (Unix-to-Unix CoPy)

• 1977 – RFC 733: email specification – ARPANET/SF Bay Packet Net/Atlantic SATNET demo

• 1978 – TCP split into TCP and IP (March) – :-) ja :-( in e-mails

• 1980 – ARPANET stalls on 27th october due to a virus

• 1981 – BITNET, the "Because It’s Time NETwork” email and listserv servers as well as file transfer – CSNET ( NETwork) network services (especially email) to university researchers without access to ARPANET – (Teletel) by France Telecom – RFC 801: NCP/TCP Transition Plan 33 Introduction 1.1 Extracts from the History of the Internet

• 1982 – Norway leaves the network to join the Internet trough TCP/IP over SAT- NET; UCL does the same – DCA and ARPA: protocol package Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP) – TCP/IP, for ARPANET. –> First definitions of the In- ternet as united TCP/IP networks – EUnet (European UNIX Network) formed by EUUG for email and USENET services: preliminarily Holland, Denmark, Sweden and UK

• 1983 – Stuttgart and Korea get connected – CSNET / ARPANET gateway – ARPANET –> ARPANET and MILNET – Desktop workstations, many with Berkeley UNIX (4.2 BSD) with IP network software – EARN (European Academic and Research Network – FidoNet (Tom Jennings)

• 1984 – Domain Name System (DNS) 34 Introduction 1.1 Extracts from the History of the Internet

– 1,000 computers connected – JUNET (Japan Unix Network)

• 1985 – Symbolics.com first registered domain; followed by: cmu.edu, pur- due.edu,istre rice.edu, berkeley.edu, ucla.edu, rutgers.edu, bbn.com; mit.edu; think.com; css.gov; mitre.org, .uk

• 1986 – .fi registered by Finnish Unix User Group (FUUG) in Tampere

• 1987 – 10,000 computers connected

• 1989 – 100,000 computers connected

• 1990 – ARPANET ends its existence – Archie program – world.std.com first dial-in service provider – Checkoslovakia (.cs) connects to EARN/BitNet (.cs erased in 1993) – Gopher 35 Introduction 1.1 Extracts from the History of the Internet

– World-Wide Web (WWW) born in CERN; Tim Berners-Lee – developer. First Web server: nxoc01.cern.ch, renamed later to info.cern.ch. – PGP (Pretty Good Privacy) released by Philip Zimmerman

• 1992 – Internet Society (ISOC) formed – 1,000,000 computers connected – First MBONE audio multicast (March) and video multicast (November) – Veronica, a gopherspace search engine – World Bank becomes on-line – term "surfing the Internet" by Jean Armour Polly – NSFNET connects: Antarctics (AQ), Kameron (CM), Cypros (CY), Ecuador (EC), Estonia (EE), Kuweit (KW), Latvia (LV), Luxemburg (LU), Malaysia (MY), Slovenia (SI), Thailand (TH), Venezuela (VE)

• 1993 – USA White House in the Internet (http://www.whitehouse.gov/): presi- [email protected]; [email protected] – Mosaic 36 Introduction 1.1 Extracts from the History of the Internet

• 1994 – Yes, from now on you can order pizza online from the Hut – WWW traffic becomes predominant over telnet – First virtual CyberBank open – RealAudio – WWW takes over ftp – Netscape company victory at NASDAQ index at stockmarket – Technology of the year: WWW, search engines – JAVA, JAVAscript, Virtual environments (VRML)

• 1996 – US telecom companies ask the Congress to ban Internet Phones – Domain name tv.com sold to CNET for $15,000 – .firm, .store, .web, .arts, .rec, .info, .nom. – WWW browser war between Netscape and Microsoft – Technologies of the year: Search Engines, JAVA, Internet Phone

• 1997 – 71,618 mailing-lists

• Domain name business.com sold for $150,000 37 Introduction 1.1 Extracts from the History of the Internet

• Longest registered hostname at InterNIC-is: CHALLENGER.MED.SYNAPSE.UAH.UALBERTA.CA

• Technologies of the year: Push, Multicasting

• 1998 – Network Solutions registers its 2 millionth domain – Open Source Software – Technologies of the year: E-Commerce, E-Auctions, Portals – Emerging technologies: E-Trade, XML, Intrusion Detection

• 1999 – business.com sold for $7.5 million – Myth of the year 2000 – Technologies of the year: E-Trade, Online Banking, MP3 – Emerging technologies: Net-Cell Phones, Thin Computing, Embedded Com- puting – Viruses of the year: Melissa, ExploreZip 38 Introduction 1.1 Extracts from the History of the Internet

• 2000 – US timekeeper (USNO) and some other sites give the year as 19100, 1 Jan – denial of service attacks to Yahoo, Amazon and eBay – 1 billion web pages indexed – .aero, .biz, .coop, .info, .museum, .name, .pro – Technologies of the year: ASP, Napster – Emerging technologies: devices, IPv6 – Virus of the year: Love Letter

• 2001 – SETI@Home – GÉANT, the pan-European Gigabit Research and Education Network – Viruses of the year: Code Red, Nimda, SirCam, BadTrans – Emerging technologies: Grid Computing, P2P 39 Introduction 1.1 Extracts from the History of the Internet

• 2002 – Internet 40 Introduction 1.1 Extracts from the History of the Internet

• 2003 – First official elections online in Switzerland – SQL Slammer worm largest DDoS attack ever, spread over the world in 10 minutes. Followed by Sobig.F virus, fastest spreading vius and MSBlast worm, one of the most destructive ever

• 2004 – Network Solutions offers 100 year domain name registration – Internet2 backbone Abiline upgrade 2.5Gbps –> 10Gbps

• 2005 – gaining popularity – YouTube.com creation – Local elections over the Internet in Estonia

• 2006 – skype’i mentioned by, Ian Foster, main architect of Globus Toolkit – skype: 7M Users Online – Emerging technologies: Cloud computing

• 2007 – In Estonia first elections of Riigikogu, where one could vote over the Internet on 26.-28. Feb 41 Introduction 1.1 Extracts from the History of the Internet

• 2008 – Google indexes over trillion websites (1998 – 29 millions; 2000 – billion)

• 2009 – Emerging technologies: Location awareness

• 2010 – ??

• 2011 – ?? 42 Introduction 1.2 Network Technology Developments 1.2 Network Technology Developments

George Gilder’s and ’s laws George Gilder’s law: (prophet of the new technology age, in 1995) The total of communication systems triples every twelve months for next 25 years.

– New developments seem to confirm that bandwidth availability (at least at back- bone level) At the same time, Latency always restricted by the speed of light!

Robert Metcalfe’s law: (originator of Ethernet and founder of ) The value of a network is proportional to the square of the num- ber of nodes

– so, as a network grows, the value of being connected to it grows exponentially, while the cost per user remains the same or even reduces. 43 Introduction to the Grid 2.1 Some quotations on the Grid 2 Introduction to the Grid Grid – basically enhancement of possibilities of the Internet to the area of high capacity computations and distributed data management 2.1 Some quotations on the Grid

• Ian Foster: three point checklist (2002):

1. No central administration of com- 2. Open standards are used puting resources 3. Non trivial quality of service

• Plaszczak/Wellner: Grid is "the technology that enables resource virtualisa- tion, on-demand provisioning, and service (resource) sharing between organ- isations." 44 Introduction to the Grid 2.1 Some quotations on the Grid

• IBM: "Grid is the ability, using a set of open standards and protocols, to gain access to applications and data, processing power, storage capacity and a vast array of other computing resources over the Internet. A Grid is a type of par- allel and distributed system that enables the sharing, selection, and aggregation of resources distributed across multiple administrative domains based on the resources availability, capacity, performance, cost and users’ quality-of-service requirements" 45 Introduction to the Grid 2.2 Definition of the Grid 2.2 Definition of the Grid

Grid is a term for a system, where The main purpose of the Grid is to aggregate • geographically remote – computers, • different computers, – supercomuters – special devices (data storage, sen- • computer centers sors etc.) • data storages are forming a common resource such a • special devices way that user of the system must not know in a way that their use is simple and com- • where exactly his/her computations fortable also without any deeper knowl- and data analysis tasks are being edge in processed •IT • how exactly the data management is performed. • distributed- and supercomputing. 46 Introduction to the Grid 2.3 Properties of the Grid

GRID – The Next Big Step After Occurrence Of The Internet The word Grid – like electrical power grid Academical circles have quickly adopted to the technology; while there has been, quick growth of commercial interests

2.3 Properties of the Grid

• distributed

• dynamic

• heterogeneous

• virtual environment

• collaborative environment

• transparent access to all the available resources