Urban Planning and Management Institute for Graduate Studies and Research Anton de Kom Universiteit van Suriname
Urban Sprawl in Paramaribo
The neglected opportunity to sustain communities in the fringe
Case study: Kwatta Region between the Derde and Vierde Rijweg
Student: Celestine Weidum Student number: 09UP1001
Promoters: Prof. M. Schalkwijk Prof. G. de Bruijne
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Urban Planning and Management Institute for Graduate Studies and Research Anton de Kom Universiteit van Suriname
URBAN SPRAWL IN PARAMARIBO THE NEGLETED OPPORTUNITY TO SUSTAIN COMMUNITIES IN THE FRINGE CASE STUDY: KWATTA REGION BETWEEN THE DERDE AND VIERDE RIJWEG
Student: Celestine Weidum Student number: 09UP1001
Promoters: Pof. M. Schalkwijk Prof. G. de Bruijne
October 2014
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“We all want economic prosperity and a high quality of life for our families, regardless of where we live or what we do for work. People want neighbourhoods with safe streets and good schools, jobs that are not hours away from home, housing they can afford and neighbourhood parks where children can play, get to work without spending hours in traffic, clean air to breathe and clean water to drink, live in a place that feels like a community”
(Al Gore, 2000)
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Table of contens
Summary 8 1. Introduction 9 1.1 Background 9 1.2 Problem statement 10 1.3 Research question 10 1.4 Relevance of research 10 1.5 Conceptual framework 11 1.6 Research design 12 1.7 Research methods 13 2. Description of the research area 13 2.1 Physical-geographical aspects 13 2.2 Social-geographical aspects 14 3. Literature overview 17 3.1 Introduction 17 3.2 Urban Sprawl 17 3.3 Urban Form 19 3.4 Land Use 20 3.5 Community Wellbeing 21 3.5.1 Planning schemes and their impact on community development 22 3.6 Urban Ecology 23 3.7 Smart Growth 24 3.8 Assessment 25 4. The role of government in planning and implementing housing scheme projects 26 4.1 Assessment 29 5. Results of field research 31 5.1 Characteristics of the Kwatta neighbourhood 31 5.1.1 Introduction 31 5.1.2 Objectives 33 5.2 Population 34 5.2.1 Assessment 38 5.3 Accessibility 38 5.3.1 Assessment 42 5.4 Living conditions 43 5.4.1 Housing characteristics 43 5.4.1.1 Assessment 45 5.4.2 Neighbourhood characteristics 45 5.4.2.1 Assessment 51 6. Conclusion: Advantages and disadvantages of Sprawl in particular the Kwatta 52 region in Greater Paramaribo 6.1 Introduction 52 6.2 Discussion on the theme of Sprawl 56 6.2.1 Reflection on community development and wellbeing 59 6.3 Conclusion on the research question 61 7. General conclusions: Strategies for development of sustainable living 63 communities in Greater Paramaribo 7.1 The KAR- strategy 63 7.2 Values and elements to design sustainable neighbourhoods 65 8. Recommendations 67 Literature Interviews Annexes
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List of tables
Table Page Title 1 23 Issues and related valuable features for achieving the wellbeing of a community 2 33 Total of projected households 3 33 Total of projected housing 4 35 Housing surface and household size related to per person living space 5 36 Housing size according to district 6 36 Place of origin of households 7 38 Working members according to households 8 41 Types of vehicles on the T-junction of the Rijweg naar Kwatta and the Tweede Rijweg 9 42 Transport mode and total of cars according to households 10 46 Ownership according to parcel size, price in relation to quality of neighbourhood and appreciation of neighborhood lay-out 11 47 Title on the house related to the choice to live in the Kwatta neighbourhood 12 50 Former residence qualified as low-income for migrated households 13 51 Priorities to sustain community wellbeing 14 53 Paramaribo: Resorts according to Area, Population density and Population 15 63 UN Habitat features for sustainable communities
List of figures
Figure Page Title
1a 13 Location of study area; geomorphology elements 1b 14 Location of study area; dense occupation along the main road 2 15 Rijweg naar Kwatta as part of East-West Connection 3 15 Rijweg naar Kwatta with abandoned agriculture land 4 15 Dead ending arterial road 5 16 House built on land filled plateau 6 16 Small street without side walk 7 17 Relation scheme of internal and external features related to community wellbeing 8a 19 Influence of transport on urban form 8b 19 Influence of transport infrastructure on spatial structure 8c-d 19 Concentric City (Burgess) and Radial City (Hoyt) 9 20 Spatial interaction related to transport system and land use 10 21 Satellite image of main network in Greater Paramaribo 11 22 Relation scheme of Community Wellbeing and Community Development 12a 24 Urban Ecology Initiative 2000 12b 25 Relation scheme of the impact of Urban Sprawl 12c 26 A possible calculation for Smart Growth 13 31 The Kwatta region at the fringe of the city 14 32 Congestion on the Rijweg naar Kwatta near the Tweede Rijweg 15 32 Cars on the Rijweg naar Kwatta 16 34 Percentage dwelling surface per household in m² 17 35 Floor area per person by country ranking and region 18 37 Absolute age composition according to sexes 19 37 Education according to level 20 38 Total of breadwinners according to employment position 21 39 Total of transport mode for students to education institute 22 39 Total of transport mode for breadwinners to work 23 39 Main road to work/school in absolute figures
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List of figures
Figure Page Title 24 40 Two momentums of traffic flow; morning and afternoon peak 25 41 Monthly costs for transportation in Srd per category 26 43 Conveniences in dwelling commodities in absolute figures 27 43 Years of residence in the Kwatta region 28 44 Parcels according to size 29 45 North-eastern part 30 45 South-eastern part 31 45 North-western part 32 45 South-western part 33 46 Appreciation of the lay-out 34 46 Contact with neighbors 35 47 Living advantages in the Kwatta region 36 48 Robberies related to number of times during residence 37 48 Overall satisfaction; price related to quality of parcel 38 49 Flooding of parcels 39 49 Maintenance of open drain 40 49 Investment to improve living quality 41 50 Qualification of former neighbourhood 42 53 Resorts of the Paramaribo District 43 60 Community development and community wellbeing in the Kwatta region 44 65 KAR-Strategy 45 65-66 Values and elements to design sustainable neighbourhoods 46 68 Master Plan for Sustainable Housing Scheme
List of abbreviations
ABS: Algemeen Bureau voor de Statistiek EBS: Energy Bedrijven Suriname SWM: Suriname Waterleiding Maatschappij GLO: Gewoon Lager Onderwijs VOJ: Voortgezet Onderwijs Junioren VOS: Voortgezet Onderwijs Senioren HBO: Hoger Beroepsgericht Onderwijs PPP: Public Private Partnership SPS: Stichting Planbureau Suriname RGOB: Ruimtelijke Ordening Grond en Bosbeheer OW: Openbare Werken SoZaVo: Sociale Zaken en Volkshuisvesting IOL: Instituut voor de Opleiding van Leraren Srd: Surinaamse dollar Parbo: Paramaribo GB: Governementsblad SB: Staatsblad
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Foreword
By 2050, 7 in 10 people will live in urban areas. Every year the world urban population increases by 60 million people and most of this growth is taking place in Low and Middle income countries (UN Habitat, 2013). Many families and individuals prefer to live in or near urban areas, because of the availability of necessary facilities for comfortable living. As such, urban areas will continue to grow, either through guided and regulated control systems or spontaneously, because of weak regulations, thereby resulting in sprawl.
Since its establishment in the 17th century the City of Paramaribo has continued to evolve and mutate, in such a manner that was accompanied by unwanted consequences for the spatial organization of the city. This study has been carried out to examine and understand the changing processes in land use in the Kwatta region in relation to planning. Indeed, spatial planning is broader than traditional land use planning, as it integrates policies for the development of urban areas and land use planning, which are both needed to increase liveability in cities.
“Cities are where the battle for sustainable development will be won or lost”. (Christine Platt, CUF Conference Barbados 2014). To win this battle, new approaches for planning sustainable neighbourhoods are needed, whereby collaboration and partnership should be recognized. Planning is not one dimensional, but requires the involvement of all stakeholders, including the people and their livelihoods (housing, economic activities and recreational facilities) to create more liveable and sustainable communities. Spatial planning should strengthen the living advantages of neighbourhoods and minimize the negative impact on natural ecosystems. Future cities should combine optimal use of available natural resources and the location of necessary economic activities and services in order to achieve higher density, proximity and accessibility, which in turn should increase the attractiveness and liveability of the city.
Paramaribo, September 2014
Celestine Weidum
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Summary
Within urban and rural communities, geography plays a critical role in the development of the built environment. Planning has to rely on knowledge of geographic space when deciding how best to manage the growth of cities. The physical expansion of an urban area, caused by uncontrolled and uncoordinated urban planning and management, is typified as urban sprawl.
Because of the lack of adequate urban planning in Greater Paramaribo, where more than 50% of the Surinamese population is living (ABS, 2013), the growing need for housing, jobs and services has often caused the development of more or less isolated neighbourhoods. Two contrasting types of urban sprawl along main roads, the so called “fish-bone pattern”, can be distinguished in the fringe of the city.
1. Informal patterns of land use in peri-urban areas, where especially poor migrants from rural areas and the hinterland have occupied available land in mainly exit roads such as Rahimal Project and Devisbuiten to live with their families in a situation where basic services such as water and electricity are not in place. The living conditions are characterized by uncertainty and hopelessness, as well as by huge dependence on public transportation. 2. Formal patterns of land use in sub-urban areas, mostly initiated by private investors, where people from the middle and high income classes have settled to meet their desired living environment, but became car captives. The Kwatta region and Leidingen as well can be mentioned as two well visible examples.
According to UN-Habitat State of the World Cities (2010/2011), urban sprawl increases an urban divide when social segregation along economic lines results in spatial differences in wealth and quality of life. Moreover, the not flexible nor pro-active organization of housing schemes to meet the growing need for housing has resulted in the explosive outward expansion of Greater Paramaribo over a large geographical area, which consecutively increased the pressure on the natural resources. As sprawl advances, over the years the new urban areas will become part of the major metropolitan area, which in comparison to better organized urban expansion will increase the demand for transportation, water and energy supply and other essential services.
Impropriate spatial information and measurement indicators limit a broader vision to support sustainable urban planning. People searching for a shelter have deliberately chosen to settle down on abandoned agricultural land in the Kwatta region, which is under private ownership and for a significant part developed for housing purposes by private investors. Due to its fish-bone structure the sprawled area between the Derde and Vierde Rijweg of the Kwatta region was chosen to explore to what extent this sprawl development has influenced the living satisfaction and living quality of the people.
The research comes to the conclusion that optimal land use planning, combined with active and proper development management is the key instrument for effectively dealing with urban sprawl in Greater Paramaribo. The involvement of all stakeholders, combined with adequate regulation and monitoring, providing necessary feedback and data, should result in efficiency of the development process for the benefit of all.
Thus, in the present context of the visible problem of urban sprawl, the challenges for future planning of the city of Paramaribo are to arrive at an integrated spatial planning support system to effectively plan, review and evaluate policy options. Correct implementation of master and/or development plans is a critical aspect to regulate the development of urban areas. The findings of this study can be a support for inter-department coordination, policy development and action at a national and local level, as well as a starting point for further research on the physical expansion of Paramaribo.
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1. Introduction
The topic of this research is to investigate, from a comprehensive perspective, the urban expansion of Paramaribo, in particular the Kwatta region between Derde and Vierde Rijweg. Within this research several critical issues will be explored that are relevant for regulations on urban planning and which hopefully should create awareness among stakeholders of how living conditions in neighborhoods in the sprawled areas of Greater Paramaribo can be sustained. The main objective is to learn more about the phenomenon of urban sprawl and to examine whether existing government spatial planning strategies satisfy basic living needs and how the living conditions in the different communities can be improved.
Supported by a survey of the residing communities in the Kwatta Region about their living conditions and current needs, new forms of spatial planning and land use can be identified for moving towards more coordinated procedures. The importance is to bring relevant stakeholders together and to create awareness of how living communities in urban Paramaribo can be improved to guarantee a healthy living environment by adapting some international standards. The research concludes with a number of strategic proposals for guiding a master plan for environmental and urban planning in Greater Paramaribo.
1.1 Background Since centuries Paramaribo has a crucial role in the national organization of Suriname. Due to political and economic developments as well as natural population growth the city has expanded substantially, in particular during the last decades. Governments, national organizations as well as scientists/researchers have to be aware of this continuing development, which also leads to important geomorphologic changes.
At present, urban expansion is evident in Paramaribo, being a very important force in the transformation of natural ecosystems towards a built social environment. This development can also be characterized as sprawl, a concept that refers to a certain kind of ‘leapfrog’ development in the urban fringe, which causes a disproportioned growth of the urban area (EEA;2006). Sprawl refers to the functioning of the city as a whole (natural ecosystem, buildings, traffic, water and energy) related to the possibilities and desires of people in the fringe, as well as to the related costs. The proper functioning of small communities at the fringe not only refers to the required level of daily goods and services, but should also guarantee an easy movement of people.
Since its founding, the lay-out of Paramaribo has been wide and spacious; an attractive place for residential housing of all ethnic origins and economic classes. Remarkable is that during the midst of the last century the spatial attractiveness of living in the city center of Paramaribo has changed. On the one hand there is a desire of living in a more quiet part of the city, in suburbs, somewhat closer to a nature-like environment. On the other hand, the extremely low price for former agriculture land, compared to already urbanized land, is also an important factor underlying the sprawl of Paramaribo. Also can be mentioned the depreciated living conditions in poor urban neighborhoods for example Frimangron and the deplorable houses in the backyards of mansions in the inner city. Migration of these people to areas outside the urban area, where more space per person was available was an option to improve their living conditions.
These observations call for the development of urban planning strategies for housing schemes to maintain and advance the quality of the neighborhoods. In addition, this should strengthen a mixed
10 | P a g e land use that can attract small-sized enterprises and bring about a change in transport possibilities as well. The political and socio-economic predominance of Paramaribo within the country is the main force that will continue to contribute to the growth and expansion of the city over the coming decades. This growth will have important and significant implications with regard to: the development of sustainable livelihoods for the population the land needed for housing, enterprises and public services the development of economic, social as well as transport infrastructure the preservation of agriculture land to ensure food production for the growing population
1.2 Problem statement In the urban fringe of Paramaribo land use with regard to housing is extensive and not always organized in a professional way. Without well-considered planning allotment, housing projects are developed, in which houses, built on parcels that should be at least 350 m², and stand apart from each other. Adequate services and infrastructure are often absent, while the needs of the population are hardly taken into account. In practice, urban development and planning is mainly effectuated by private project developers and the existing legal framework is insufficient to support adequate urban development. Therefore the urban expansion is an urban sprawl, not organized, visible along dead ending arterial roads, often of bad quality and which does not generate adequate connection with the older built up areas.
An important problem with regard to actual spatial planning policy in Suriname is the lack of constructive dialogue between policy makers, scholars/scientists and other parties opting for new houses. These stakeholders should be much more involved in translating research results in feasible policy goals. Intensified dialogue between policy makers and researchers on policy issues, to sharpen and underline priorities, is needed.
1.3 Research question Which are the advantages and disadvantages of the urban sprawl that have manifested itself in Greater Paramaribo in the Kwatta region between Derde and Vierde Rijweg and how can lessons learned in that area be used to formulate strategies for developing sustainable living communities in Paramaribo as a whole?
Sub-questions What are the characteristics of the phenomenon of urban sprawl? What are the driving forces that have determined the urban pattern of Paramaribo? What effects do the relatively small housing scheme projects, organized by private project developers, have on the fulfillment of people in need for a better quality of live? To what extent have communities been developed in those small neighborhoods? To what extent are decision makers, private and public, aware of their role in the development of sustainable communities? How can relevant research data be used to promote sustainable neighborhoods at the fringe of Paramaribo?
1.4 Relevance of research
The Kwatta region between Derde and Vierde Rijweg is one of the most remarkable examples of the recent physical expansion of Paramaribo. Former agricultural land and natural landscapes are transformed, slowly but certainly, into residential areas located in connection with exit roads of the Rijweg naar Kwatta. Land use here is one-sided, while the lack of adequate basic population facilities
11 | P a g e and services, as well as employment opportunities and cause an ever-increasing relative distance to the urban core, because people have to spend more time in the traffic to bridge distances.
Summarized, it can be stated that the answers to the research question and sub questions should give a clear impression of what effects urban sprawl has on the quality of living in the small communities in the Kwatta region between the Derde and Vierde Rijweg.
Different actors and institutes are involved in the urban development of Paramaribo. In order to come to an adequate analysis, answers to the several other questions derived from the main question and sub questions will need to be found, such as: . Who controls and monitors the urban planning of Paramaribo? . How is the licensing for developing housing projects organized? . What role do private developers have in urban development? . What is the role of the residents in urban development?
Those answers should give a picture of how the reality of the urban sprawl of Paramaribo manifests itself in the region between the Derde and Vierde Rijweg and which relevant starting points for urban planners and managers are needed to make strategic choices for the allocation and design of new urban residential areas.
The research results intend to provide some useful ideas for a future master plan for Paramaribo that should deliver potentials for guiding the allocation and design of housing schemes in the growing urban region in a way that will generate balanced and healthy communities. Regulating the use of private and public land for housing projects should intend to ensure the following: Community wellbeing Environmental protection and preservation Economic development Transportation infrastructure Recreational and green spaces
1.5 Conceptual framework
point of research impact result view urban ecology human quality of living preferences and opportunities Useful potentials for urban residential location Master Plan sprawl land use
government urban form policy smart growth
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The point of view of this research is Urban Sprawl in the fringe of Greater Paramaribo where land use patterns are dominated and/or characterized by low density and single family housing. The Urban Ecology Approach and Smart Growth Approaches have been used to understand the impact of human activities on natural ecological systems, on the one hand, and to explore possibilities to achieve a higher variety in land use and sustainable communities, on the other hand.
This research focuses on the extent to which human preferences and opportunities have determined land use in the fringe of Greater Paramaribo. Human preferences and opportunities, which are influenced by own socio-cultural and socio-economic factors, as well as by government spatial policy, are inextricably bound up with (urban) land use, and combined ultimately result in a certain urban form e.g. urban sprawl. The ultimate choice people have made to settle down in a certain neighbourhood is reflected both in the residential location as well as the quality of living. Finally, the research should result in some useful potentials to design a Master Plan for Sustainable Housing Schemes.
1.6 Research design
Design and Development of Questionnaire Survey Schedule for development design interviews Survey instruments
Data collection Random selection of 100 households
Initial Data processing Quantitative Qualitative analysis
Analysis Data analysis
Discussion and potentials Results for planning sustainable communities
Internet source: Adapted from L. Siragusa [Curtin University of Technology]
The primary data source is based on questionnaires (see Annex3) and interviews (survey instruments). In addition, relevant literature, articles and reports will provide adequate data to allow a qualitative as well as a quantitative initial analysis. Finally, the initial analysis will form the basis for the assessment/discussion of a selection of relevant topics in order to deliver potentials for planning sustainable communities.
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1.7 Research methods
This study is empirical and based upon qualitative and quantitative research methods. In Greater Paramaribo West, as a result of sprawl, a more or less contiguous territory with specific characteristics has developed. Based on a holistic approach, studies done on human preferences combined with opportunities that households can afford to meet a certain quality of living in a specific residential area have been explored. Also land use models have been studied to understand the dynamic and scattered character of the Kwatta region, which in turn has affected the urban form and its strong connection to the city core. The Urban Ecology and Smart Growth concepts will support this holistic approach to result in useful elements for designing sustainable neighbourhoods as is detailed in Figure 44. The research makes use of interviews of a random selection of one hundred households living in 16 exit roads in the southern as well as the northern part of the Rijweg naar Kwatta. Selected stakeholders involved in the development and functioning of the different communities have also been included. The households were randomly selected on the basis of the following criteria: (i) at least one year constantly living in that area, (ii) must be the owner/renter of the house and (iii) having a main job outside the living area. Individual households have been informed about the purpose of the study and asked to participate in the questionnaire. Almost every one of the selected respondents was willing to participate. Those willing to join the research have completed the questionnaire in a face to face meeting. Interviews have also been held with key persons in the different communities of the Kwatta Region, with representatives of different organizations related to urban issues, including key persons of ministries involved in housing projects, and with project developers and firms/people involved in the construction. The results are presented in tables and graphs and where possible correlations between the variables have been made. These data should contribute to formulation of a feasible strategic plan for housing schemes and project development.
2. Description of the research area The Kwatta Region between the 3rd and 4th Rijweg is located westward from the city centre. 2.1 Physical-geographical aspects The Garnizoenspad also known as Rijweg naar Kwatta, is the main road and part of the East- West Connection (see Figure 1a and 1b). This road was built on the highest points of ridges, which are part of the Commowine sediments in the coastal zone. Those ridges have an east-west direction, are well drained and often vary in width between 10 and 400 meters, while the length ranges from less than a hundred to several ten kilometres. The District of Coronie can be mentioned as an example Figure 1a: Location of study area; geomorphology elements where some ridges have a (Noordam D.) length for about 40 kilometres. (Noordam D. 2013)
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Geology Physiography Elevation Unit soil Soil (m+NSP) map Moleson Clay flats and 1-2m 11 Poorly and very poorly Phase inter-ridge drained depressions Nearly riped clay Moleson Ridges 2-3m 2 Well drained Phase Medium and fine sand to sandy loam Locally shells and shell grit Wanica Phase Ridges ± 2m 8 Moderately well drained Medium and fine sand Wanica Phase Abandoned rice 1-2m 18 Imperfectly to poorly drained fields Nearly riped clay Legend Figure 1a
Regarding the sedimentation pattern, the Kwatta Region shows a large diversity. Van der Eijk (1957) describes the Kwatta landscape soils, as part of the Young Coastal Plain with many ridges. The landscape evolution show a more or less uniform pattern. Also the ridges exhibit a significant diversity due to differences in their relief. The high ridges are dryer, while on the lower parts wetlands are developed. The Kwatta landscape has, with regard to the natural ecosystem, a typical biodiversity that can be characterized as not homogeneous in view of the many detailed differences.
2.2 Social-geographical aspects Especially the longer ridges have been important for opening up the coastal plain of Suriname. Already pre- Columbian indigenous people had made use of the ridges to cross large areas and to build their settlements. The nature of the ridge sediments (shells, coarse sand, fine sand) and the structure of the ridges (height, width, single, compiled, bundled), together with the width of the tide ways, should allow some form of development. The upper parts are mainly used for habitation and initially for agriculture/livestock. Further, expansion took place from the ridges by reclamation/rising of the tide ways. Figure 1a and 1b show clearly that especially the ridge numbered by 2 (see Legend figure 1 and 1a) is densely populated.
Figure 1b: Location of study area; dense occupation along the main road
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The mangrove zone is located about 6 kilometres north of the study area and is already seriously affected by human activities. As figure 1a and 1b show, the study area is located in a fresh water area, outside the influence of the sea. The vegetation that is still present is mainly swamp vegetation, which because of the poor drainage has not been favourable for the effort of human activities. Still, it is locally visible that people have entered the swamp from the Roadway to Kwatta to develop agriculture and residential activities.
The Roadway to Kwatta is built on small ridges, which have poorly drained clay flats or inter- ridge depressions on both sides. The outstanding structure of the ridges makes them favourable for different kinds of construction. On the flanks of the ridges buildings and facilities for water and electricity are raised close to this narrow two direction-road. Space for widening is therefore limited.
Figure 2: Rijweg naar Kwatta as part of the East-West Connection
In the past the Kwatta Region could be characterized as a highly productive agriculture area with many small fields for rice and vegetable harvesting. Nowadays, large parts in the study area are fallow lands and more or less abandoned as agricultural area, and it is hard to predict how the future use will be. Great parts have been re-organised and parcelled out for residential purposes. Also extensive cattle breeding farms are utilizing abandoned agriculture land. Only on some small sand ridges some vegetables are harvested, especially for the local market.
The 70s and 80s show a visible expansion of the urban space towards the Kwatta Region where land was relatively less expensive. This made it profitable for residential developments with single dwellings. The overall price for a parcel to build a house about ten to fifteen years ago was 10-20 euro /m² (Intervast, 2013), which was significantly lower compared to many sub-division housing schemes in Paramaribo North.
Figure 3: Rijweg naar Kwatta with Figure 4: Dead ending arterial road abandoned agriculture land
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Many dead ending arterial roads have been constructed along the main road (see Annex 1 and 2), where available land was parcelled out in lots with sizes varying from 180 to 1400 m² (see Figure 3 and 4). The parcels are located on the flanks and on the inter-ridge depressions and thereby highly vulnerable to flooding in the rainy seasons. Substantial landfill and good drainage are needed before building activities can be started. First of all, often a small plateau is built to create a stable foundation on which the building can be constructed. (see Figure 5). Most of the trenches in front of the parcels along the road are not well functioning, as they are not maintained in a proper manner. The connection with the main drainage system, which is most of the time in a deplorable state and even missing in some neighbourhoods. Some owners have replaced the open drainage by pipes, but have not always taken into account the standards of the Ministry of Public Works. The roads have no sidewalks and are also not well linked to each other, which constrains an easy movement of people between the different neighbourhoods. (see Figure 6).
Figure 5: House built on a land filled plateau Figure 6: Small street without sidewalk
The unrestricted ability to move to this new sub-urban landscape has led to a situation in which the parcel price became more important than the characteristics of the location. Commuting became the new lifestyle and people have become car captured. Due to this scattered residential design with single family houses, the installation of potable water and electricity became very expensive, because of the significantly increased distance to the main feeder. The infrastructure network has been extended over the years and power houses of different capacities and transformers were built to support the head production station in the centre of Paramaribo to guarantee a continuous current power.
Finally, the lay-out of these residential areas has become much disintegrated, which in turn was strengthened by the policies of the different developers, who are not communicating with each other, because they follow their own agenda.
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3. Literature overview
3.1 Introduction Urban and regional planning should always focus on community wellbeing issues. Social engagement and bottom up methods can result in a successful integration of community wellbeing issues in planning housing schemes. However, in general, housing schemes are poorly supported by social needs.
According to UN-Habitat (2009), the future planning of cities should focus on those factors that are the driving force and give shape to cities of the 21st century. The surface of all the cities of the world is 2.8% of the total world's surface and is home to approximately 50% of the world population. This situation differs by some means from Paramaribo, where about 50% of the national population lives on merely 0.1 % of the land surface (ABS; 2013). With an area of 182 km² Paramaribo is, compared with other (large) cities of the world, very spacious with mainly horizontal built areas.
Urban developments are currently being tested on how to improve and preserve the social and natural quality of the residential areas. As portrayed in Figure 7, I have constructed a relation scheme, to show that both external factors (urban sprawl, urban form, urban population and urban land use) as well as internal factors (lifestyle, social bounds, participation and awareness) are involved in the wellbeing of a community. The internal or local factors have to do with the characteristics of households living in the different communities of the Kwatta Region between the Derde and Vierde Rijweg, while the external or national factors are influenced by urban planning.
• urban • urban form sprawl
lifestyle social bounds
Community wellbeing
awareness participation
• urban land • urban use population
Figure 7: Relation scheme of internal and external features related to community wellbeing
3.2 Urban Sprawl Urban sprawl, the often hardly controlled fragmented urban expansion, is characteristic of specific urban forms, which are often developed at the outskirts of a city. Frelich (2003) is very critical about urban sprawl. He typifies urban sprawl as a bad performance of urban planning with regard to the peripheral areas of a city. It creates residential areas of poor natural and social quality, disintegration with the existing cultivated area, a low residential density as a result of the high land
18 | P a g e consumption per person and a great dependence on the car. Callies (1999) speaks of the lack of a clear continuum, which has implications for mobility and accessibility, the sprinkle and viability of the residential area, and the supply of public services and landscaping.
Holcombe (1999) is more nuanced. He has identified three kinds of urban sprawl. The first one is a ‘leapfrog development’ where the newly developed residential areas are located outside the urban city. Project developers choose for arable land that is relatively cheap which should make housing therefore affordable. The disadvantage is that the per person travel time is longer and the costs for road infrastructure, water and electricity are high. However, there is still one main advantage: the jumped-over areas are the potential land for future development of economic activities. Secondly, the ‘strip or ribbon development’ is characterized by an enormous development of commercial activities in a linear pattern along main roads with a disadvantage of traffic congestion, but with the concentration of commercial activities and residential streets with less traffic as advantages. The third one is a ‘low density single dimensional development’ that has pros and contras in the development of human activities. Houses are built on a relatively large parcel that causes high land consumption and the need for car use. On the other hand there is more green and therefore a healthier living area.
An analysis of the urban form gives insight into the spatial pattern of an urban area as a result of land use with respect to the historic center, the street pattern and the residential and commercial locations. In view of the future it is about how an urban zoning plan can be designed to exploit the current and future land use more efficiently. This certainly applies to urban transport i.e. transfer stations for public transportation, bus lanes, walking streets, public spaces and parking can play a more active role in reshaping the streets during many hours of the day. In turn this would increase the potential of the current usage and also could be an incentive for more mixed land use and a denser built up area that contributes to the wellbeing of the community.
Song and Knaap (1998), in their study in Metropolitan Portland (USA), have used different measuring indicators of an attractive urban form that seem relevant to this research, in particular points 2, 3 and 5. 1. Street design and circulation systems Indicators used to measure accessibility within and between residential areas, the distance between access points in the residential area as well as the number and length of the residential blocks. 2. Density Urban development is dominated by single family dwellings, which has caused a low building density and high car dependency, absorb much agricultural land and have increased the costs of public utilities. Three measurement indicators have been used: lot size, population density and the built up area. 3. Land use mix A larger variation in usage facilities promotes walking and cycling , resulting in less travel time per person, which combined appear to guarantee the air quality and the aesthetic appearance of the city. 4. Accessibility Urban development is generally characterized by inefficient land use patterns. For this they have adopted three measurement indicators: the distance to the commercial services, the bus stops and public parks. Footpaths would encourage walking, thereby reducing the usage of cars and consequently would have a positive impact on people’s health.
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5. Mixed land use Land use is a mixture of physical and biological systems and processes on the one hand and human behaviour on the other. Mixed land use commonly refers to the characteristics of the built environment. Well planned neighbourhoods with a balanced mix of land uses (e.g. residential and commercial uses, schools, recreation, offices) give people the option to walk, bike or take public transportation to the nearby destination. Low density and segregated land use combined with disconnected streets have a negative correlation with private and public transport. According to Inbakaran/Howes (2011), the mixed-use-factor looks at the number of different uses within the specified sizes of residential and non-residential zoning as well as to their relative sizes.
3.3 Urban Form
The structure of the city includes the built environment and its influence on the natural environment”(Velibeyoglu, 1999). Urban Form is primarily affected by land use and transport policy, whereby planners and architects play an important role. Their direct involvement in the spatial organization of the city also makes them responsible for the quality of the built and natural environment.
Figure 8a: Influence of transportation on urban form Figure 8b: Influence of transportation infrastructure on the spatial structure (Source: Geography of Transport Systems, 2013)
Figure 8c-d: Concentric City (Burgess) and Radial City (Hoyt)
Urban form may be defined as “the spatial configuration of fixed elements within a metropolitan region”
(Urban Studies Journal, 1966 33:7). This description also refers to the spatial pattern of land uses and
their densities as well as the spatial design of transport and communication infrastructure.
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During the 20th century the form of cities has rapidly changed as a result of changes in human settlement patterns. The Concentric City of Burgess (1926) is a zoning theory (urban land use model) that simply indicates the transformation from an agrarian to an urban economy in which people and their activities are spatially more clustered (see Figure 8c-d). The implication on Paramaribo is that the outward growth of the city is at the expense of the adjacent zone. Former residential and agriculture land has given way, in particular, to commercial activities. On the other hand the Radial City of Hoyt (1939) adopted the Central Business District of Burgess, but advocated that the outward expansion of the city centre was along railroads, highways and other transportation lines. This theory commonly refers to a certain grade of Urban Sprawl that is characterized by an outward expansion of the urban body to rural land. Segregation in land use was typical and visible in the fringe. In contrast to the Central Business District a general decline in land use in relation with population density took place, while the existing transport network connects the peripheral points to the city centre.
This theory underlies the way the expansion of Paramaribo has taken place in the past decades. The Rijweg naar Kwatta is not only the main transportation line that connects the Kwatta Region to the city centre, but has contributed to the expansion of the city in westward direction as well.
3.4 Land Use
Figure 9: Spatial interaction related to transport system and land use Source: Geography of Transport Systems, 2013
Spatial interaction is the inter-link between land use and transportation systems as well as with the different elements that underline the coherence of their spatial manifestation. To a large extent land use and transport systems define people’s mobility and accessibility. Mobility can be described as the capability of people to move from one to another destination, based on the transportation mode, including their walkability, while accessibility depends on the technological condition of the available transport infrastructure, which result in a certain urban dynamic system (Lauwers in UPM 512; 2012). Mobility and accessibility influence people’s (daily) activity patterns. Within the hierarchy of Central Places transportation is the main source for their connection (Christaller, 1933).
Streets are the connections between people and places, besides being spaces by themselves. Many researchers have the same opinion about upgrading the walkability, while minimizing the dominance of the private automobile, when it comes to improving the functioning of a city. Transport systems, which connect the different parts of cities, enable people’s movement throughout the city. A network of roads, bicycle and pedestrian lanes together forms the total movement system of a city.
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Figure 10: Satellite image of main road network in Greater Paramaribo
The layout of the Inner City of Paramaribo consists of two main axes stretching east-west and north-south with streets crossing at right angles. This radial pattern of the street network is part of the city that makes it unique. The streets can be ranged from a high interconnectivity such as the Indira Ghandhiweg and Rijweg naar Kwatta to small unpaved dead ending roads. The balance of these various transport infrastructure systems helps to define the quality and character of Paramaribo, i.e. to what extent they are either friendly or unsympathetic to pedestrians.
3.5 Community Wellbeing A community has different backgrounds, but summarized, it is the neighbourhood where people live with their families, make friendship, do their daily shopping, can recreate and often go to school and sometimes also to work. Knowing people to develop and maintain connections is important to create a healthy community. One of the most fundamental aspects to reach the level of community wellbeing is community engagement. The wellbeing of people is a vital component of developing a liveable community. A liveable community is more than knowing your neighbours in the direct surrounding, but a place with a balance in land use for housing, green spaces, services and commercial activities. A mix of age, incomes and ethnicity are also indispensable ingredients, which help foster a broader spirit of community (Community Services, 2007).
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Urban Sprawl Community wellbeing
Quality of living Residents’ satisfaction
. Income . Location influences . Household structure . Accessibility
. Infrastructure . Security
. Housing . Community relations
. Services . Healthy environment . Recreation facilities
Neighbourhood Life style perception
. Behavior . Ethnicity . Protection . Awareness . Preservation . Involvement
. Participa tion
.
COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
Figure 11: Relation scheme of Community Wellbeing and Community Development
I have constructed Figure 11 to show the different components of community well-being and their interactions, and how this whole process should lead to community development in a broader perspective. Although this is an optimistic approach, it may unfortunately also be in conflict with the creation of a pleasant surrounding where people feel safe and enjoy the benefits of prosperity.
3.5.1 Planning schemes and their impact on community development
Many studies have been done on community wellbeing on different scale levels. According to the Royal Australian Planning Institute, RAPI (2001) planning schemes influence communities by:
- guiding the use of community sources (land, people, infrastructure, natural environment, public investments) - guiding the effects of development on people’s way of life, their culture and their community - providing opportunities for communities to participate and be represented in planning processes
Depending on the scale, housing planning schemes should also be supported by a wide variety of issues needed to achieve the well-being of a community. Table 1 shows a selection of some valuable social features and their related issues, adjusted and expanded to support community development, when planning housing schemes in the Kwatta region.
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Table 1: Issues and related valuable features for achieving the wellbeing of a community (Adapted from RAPI, 2001)
Issues Valuable features
Economic development . employment and income . home based business . skilled laborers
Housing . cost and affordability . household size . government and private housing provision . housing accessibility
Health . medical services . recreation facilities . life styles
Built environment . mixed land use . traffic infrastructure . public transportation and hub stations . building density
Natural environment . biodiversity and conservation . waste management . energy use . potable water . air quality
Safety . perception of feeling safe . traffic safety . crime level
Social connectedness . diversity and identity . community strength
3.6 Urban Ecology First applied in sociology and planning, urban ecology is a constantly evolving discipline that integrates diverse professions concerned with the urban phenomenon and its social and ecological dynamics (Vega, 2011). Presently, urban ecology is a sub discipline of ecology, emerged in the 1970’s, in response to growing awareness of human impact on the natural environment and the role of cities in this regard (Ecology and Society 1 (4): 23 (online). Different scholars do agree that urban ecology is an interdisciplinary field of ecological systems that aims to understand how human activities coexist with ecological processes, which in turn should help societies to become sustainable.
Urban ecological systems are positioned in the functioning of society with respect to the significance of people both as ecosystem drivers as well as integral parts of ecological systems (Marzluff et al, 2008 in Ecology and Society 1 (4): 23 (online). Cities are the result of human activities over many years in a heterogeneous landscape and spatial diversity. In the urban ecology approach there is a growing awareness that the qualities of human practices and cultures are fundamental for sustainable management of ecosystems. Moreover, in urban planning it is becoming an essential
24 | P a g e need for managing at an ecosystem scale that is beyond traditional boundaries of a city, both with respect to biophysical and social aspects (Elmqvist et al, 2008, Rees 1997 in Ecology and Society 1 (4): 23 (online).
According to Niemalä, maintenance of the biodiversity is an inherent property of well-functioning ecological systems at various spatial and temporal scales. The importance is protecting green areas as a vital part of nature conservation. Maintenance of diverse green environments is essential for the well-being of humans as well. (Vandruff et al, 1995 in Biodiversity and Conservation 8: 119-131, 1999. Evans (in Transaction of the Institute of British Geographers, Vol. 36, Issue 2, 2011) even suggested that solutions for current city problems are linked to the high diversity and density of the population living in the city with its unique ecological environment. Therefore, the city can function as practical knowledge center and as such hand decision makers and other integrated disciplines in urban planning new concepts, tools and institutions, which should help to establish a sustainable environment at the core of public interest.
Socio economic drivers (demographics, political institutions, technology, and organizations) and human preferences affect urban patterns, which in turn are in charge of ecological processes, which cause ecological change that could influence our social goals. New research should address ecological and social knowledge, which is relevant to urban planners to make strategic choices and address priorities as well as their location.
Figure 12a: Urban Ecology Initiative 2000, Fact Sheet #12
3.7 Smart Growth In 1977, Governor Glendening of the State of Maryland (USA), launched the Smart Growth and Neighborhood Conservation Initiative; a progressive land use program built on the pillars of economic growth, resource protection and the Planning Act (NCSG University of Maryland, 2013). The primary goal was to limit the sprawling patterns of low density residential development and ribbon commercial development along main roads at the fringe of the city. A smart growth improvement would create efficient and high density mixed land-use patterns (Maryland Department of Planning, 1977).
Segregated land use as a result of urban sprawl has increased distances between destinations, which has led to car dependent communities that affect traffic safety, the quality of the air and the physical well-being of people. Currently public health and public safety have become important issues in urban planning. The smart growth approach emphasizes the concentration of people in
25 | P a g e manageable bounded areas with mixed land use development and a wide range of public transit links and options. Within these areas zoning and civic engagement are the basis for developing healthy and livable communities in the cities.
The promotion of Smart Growth is a public-private approach to accommodate a variety of income groups in compact mixed-use settlements in such a manner that people can profit from economic growth, environmental protection, a healthy physical condition and public transportation (Daniels,2001). These principles contribute directly to the development of sustainable communities, which are good places to live, to do business, to work and to raise a family (Harris, 2013). According to Reeds (2013) urban areas work best when they are compact, with higher densities, lay-outs that prioritizes walking, cycling and public transport so that they become the norm to improve deplorable communities.
3.8 Assessment
community wellbeing
urban urban urban form sprawl ecology
land use
Figure 12b: Relation scheme of the impact of Urban Sprawl
Urban sprawl is a phenomenon that is visually present in the landscape of the Kwatta region. Low building density and monotonous residential development - compared with the urban core – is manifested especially along the Rijweg naar Kwatta and the exit roads. The exit roads are separated by open spaces that vary in size. This so called ‘leapfrog development’ has created an urban form that can be typified as a fishbone structure. According to Holcombe’s classification of sprawl, the Kwatta region between the Derde and Vierde Rijweg can be classified both as a leapfrog and strip or ribbon development. Yet it can be stated that the degree of sprawl in the Kwatta region appears to be different in a linear pattern when calculating all buildings (not their size and quality) within equal surfaces in the total size of the research area. Although the mechanisms that cause the sprawl of Paramaribo are not yet well understood, it can be stated that land use patterns are not comprehensively. There is little variation in land use patterns that also underlies the concentration of a large service employment sector in the core of the city of Paramaribo.
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I have constructed Figure 12b to demonstrate the impact of urban sprawl, which is commonly related to an uncoordinated urban growth with a number of adverse effects on the wellbeing of a community. Poor quality of public facilities and services are very often offered to people on parceled out natural land or land that was formally used for agricultural purposes. Expanding human requirements and economic activities over the years put an ever increasing pressure on the carrying capacity of the natural landscape, which in return create an unsustainable urban form. Land use change is the major drive behind the loss of urban ecological systems, which consequently impacts human health and the quality of living in a community.
Limitted sprawl Economic growth creates and protection of Smart Higher building ecological density systems Growth
Figure 12c: A possible calculation for Smart Growth
The development of human preferences and needs has created an urban lifestyle that asks for more space to accommodate human activities, and as such has an impact on the natural ecological processes of the urban environment. I have constructed Figure 12c in order to show how a smart growth effect can be achieved. Proper urban planning and management is needed to limit sprawl through higher building density, and simultaneously boost economic growth, while seriously taking into account the protection of the natural environment.
4. The role of government in planning and implementing housing scheme projects
The current Government role with respect to the location for the development of housing projects is very important, because the Government acts on different scales and in different ways, which ultimately influence locations for housing projects. There are several theories with respect to the location of settlements, in particular in predicting and understanding their development.
The location theory addresses the questions which economic activities are located where and why. The location of economic activities can be determined on different levels. In a broader approach such as a region or metropolitan area or on a narrow one such as a zone, neighborhood, city block, or an individual site (Encyclopedia Britannica).
Walter Christaller, a German geographer, has developed the Central Place Theory in 1933, based on studies in South Germany. His central question was: 'are there rules that determine the size, number and distributions of settlements?’ A Central Place is a settlement or a node that serves the area around it with goods and services of different orders (Center for Spatially Integrated Services). Christaller's model is a hierarchical organization of settlements, where the population size is not
27 | P a g e the determining factor for the economic power of the settlement, but the location of the settlement. The market principle of Christaller assumes that a minimum market is needed to accommodate new businesses and services, whereby people can make a median minimum distance to meet their needs. In his transportation model, he supposes that transport costs can be minimized when maximizing the connectivity of centers to be served. This theory is also relevant for sub urban housing and neighborhood development.
Many factors in housing development, such as the accessibility, the design, the location of the site in relation to the built-up core are directly related to public authorities. In Suriname, the Government has, in particular, influence on the site(s) through its regional planning policy.
In the State Decree of 10 October 1991 on the establishment and terms of reference of Departments and General Board (SB 1991 No. 58), modified in September 2005 (SB 2005 No. 94), the tasks of the Ministry of Public Works are described. For this research the following points are relevant: a. policy, planning and development of general structural engineering, civil engineering and other infrastructure facilities in the public interest f. water management and drainage g. urban planning and urban development, some in collaboration with the relevant ministries i. the provision of research for the building industry and the monitoring of compliance with the building Law j. technical reserves relating to the traffic on land and for public transport, as well as supervision l. the garbage disposal and processing in Paramaribo
The Ministry of Spatial Planning, Land and Forest Management, mentioned in SB 2005 no 91 Article 7, paragraph 1, is responsible for the following: Sub l. Conservation of a balanced relationship between man and the surrounding nature and achieving and protecting a durable, optimal living environment Sub m. Setting up and maintaining the necessary structures and organisations, in order to give substance to the policy objectives for optimal living and work environment Sub n. Construction of parks and gardens
Some special tasks of the Ministry of Spatial Planning, Land and Forest Management (ROGB), regarding this research, are selected for better understanding of the subject: a. a sound regional planning, in consultation with the ministries of Regional Development, Planning and Development Cooperation 1, Public Works and Trade and Industry c. land use, where necessary interdepartmental f. control of legitimate and effective use of assigned land, where necessary interdepartmental i. responsible nature management and nature protection
The Ministry of Public Works has the most direct contact with the project developers, while the housing market is currently supervised by the Directorate of Construction Works and Services of this ministry. The latter also has the task to monitor compliance with the rules as laid down in the Building Law April 6th 1956 (GB 1956 No. 30), amended and supplemented by GB 1957 No. 30 and GB 1972 No. 96. Article 1a clearly indicates that building is only allowed if there is a permit issued
1 The Ministry of Planning and Development Cooperation does not exist anymore, but the Planning Division is nowadays accommodated at the Ministry of Trade and Industry
28 | P a g e by the Director of the Ministry of Public Works. Article 3.1 states that a petition shall be filed in the request for development consent. According to article 4, a construction plan and building design are required when submitting the application. Finally, article 8 concludes that a penalty or a fine should be implemented when the conditions are not fulfilled.
The Ministry of Public Works coordinates building procedures for Suriname. At the moment authorization of allotment is required for Greater Paramaribo till the boundary with the district of Saramacca, measured up to 500 meters from the axis of the road on either side of the road. However, the Planning Division has limited competences and is not fully equipped for future sight oriented spatial planning. The consequence is that project developers and investment groups very often cause an inefficient land use. In addition, their projects not only lack information, but also the availability of needed energy and water resources, alternative housing concepts as well as measures to be taken to strengthen and expand existing infrastructure.
Increasing demand of land for housing projects and the service sector has made the Kwatta region one of the most attractive areas to be developed. The existing pattern of the housing development in the Kwatta region has not only seriously reduced the available land for agriculture, but has weakened the living quality as well. Energy related problems and environmental degradation are already visible. Furthermore, as new settlements are not planned in a sustainable way, they put a huge stress on fuel consumption, traffic flow, maintenance costs for infrastructure and construction costs for water, electricity and communication. The physical-geographical structure of the inter- ridge depressions is seriously disturbed, whereby the natural drainage hardly functions, which in turn leads to flooding in the rainy season.
In February 2012 the Ministry of Public Works started a pilot project for project developers. An investigation of the Planning Department showed that more than 90 % of the projects of project developers do not comply with the required conditions. The new authorization conditions are identical to the previous ones, but have an important clause that transfer in the name of the buyer is only possible if all the conditions, as set out in the permit, have been met. According to the acting under Director of the Planning Department of the Ministry of Public Works, the Urban Planning Law (1972) is clear on which measurements have to be taken when planning new housing projects. The problem, however, is that there are too few trained staff to monitor the implementation of projects. Often, monitoring is carried out by staff without any civilian technical background. There are two control moments:
1. Road profiles: a minimum of 15 meters road width is required, of which 5.5 meter for the road, 2 x 2.5 meters for drainage on both sides of the road and 4.5 meters for sidewalks on both sides of the road. Actually these figures can differ, depending on the character and location of the housing project. 2. It is required that the road surface is hardened, but this does not apply to the footpaths. Parceling out according to the construction plan, the infrastructure for water and electricity and drainage
Parcelling out, according to the Urban Planning Law of 1972, is more than just dividing the terrain into sections. A subdivision plan is needed for the transformation of an open or natural land into a residential location: an attractive residential environment with room for different living forms. A subdivision plan should include all technical requirements, which are indicated by the Ministry of Public Works. According to the parcel license Article II. 1 lots also should be reserved for shops
29 | P a g e and social facilities. Basically, a subdivision plan is also a zoning plan, which clearly indicates how the area will be organized. The current regulations insufficiently take into account the creation of an integrated living area, where the future residents are assured of a safe and pleasant home- work area, which is in balance with the ecological carrying capacity of that area.
According to modern urban planning views it is recommended to include the following aspects in the authorization documentation: . the condition of the roads and maintenance strips to be transferred to the State . the correct ratio of the lots for houses, shops and social security . conditions for the ground preparation . systems for drainage and sewerage . the street naming
4.1 Assessment In general, the project developer does not comply with the submitted plan, but is able to avoid sanctions, because the mechanisms to monitor the implementation of development plans are not working properly. The flaws in the permit condition offer opportunities for speculation, which is not only to the detriment of the buyers, but also obstructs a sustainable developed residential area. Deficits in the development and implementation of spatial development plans and the lack of relevant competences, when it comes to new forms of spatial planning, have led to poorly developed neighbourhoods in the research area.
Based on the above discussions and findings, I have constructed a planning framework (see page 25), which can be helpful to set out strategies for land use and housing in Greater Paramaribo. The framework shows the current situation and deficits within the different categories that are related to urban planning. The main objective is to reorganize existing settlement patterns, which should contribute to sustainable neighbourhoods through an integrated spatial planning framework.
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FRAMEWORK FOR LAND USE AND HOUSING IN THE KWATTA REGION SUBJECT POLICY LAWS PLANS TOOLS AND MECHANISMS STANDARDS URBAN SPRAWL Existing Existing Existing Existing Existing . Investment in social housing to . Urban Planning . National Development . Energy Company Suriname . Electricity installation Urban form and structure address squatting and housing Law Program 2012-2016 . Water Distribution Company prescriptions . Built and natural shortage . Planning Law . Housing Plan 2012-2017 . Research Department of the . Minimum size of parcels and environment . Allocation of public land for . Building Law . Upgrading electricity network University of Suriname roads . Leapfrog and housing schemes . Monumental Law in Greater Paramaribo . Geographical Land . Distance to the building line ribbon . Eased regulations on applying for . Expropriation Law . Expanding local power Information System (GLIS) . Progressive electricity tariff government land . Tax Law on stations . Department of Spatial system for households and development . Attractive bank loans for Vehicles . Expanding power capacity of Organization (ROGB) commercials . Land-use construction of housing Staatsolie n.v. . Planning Department (OW) . Quality management of potable segregation . Financial support for low and . Feasibility study on non-fossil . Housing Department water middle incomes to build or fuel (SoZaVo) . Waste collection system Street lay-out rehabilitate their house . Local systems for efficient . Directorship Green Providing . Roadway to . Upgrading agriculture distribution of potable water . Land allocation department Kwatta main productivity by stimulating . Expanding (ROGB) horticulture telecommunication networks . Stichting Plan Bureau transportation . Rehabilitation of traffic . Building of VOJ and VOS . Stichting Volkshuisvesting line infrastructure education facilities . Project developers . Exit roads; hardly . Expanding of existing ring- . Building materials interconnected road company’s . Guide for Subdivision Plans . Road Authority Buildings (OW) . Organization of Bus Drivers . Single housing for Public Transport . Community programmers . Commercial and organizations . Services
Morphology . Abandoned and Not existing Not existing Not existing Not existing Not existing transformed . Maintaining and management of . Zoning Law . Multiple level buildings with . City Management Authority . Prescriptions for the lay-out of agricultural land urban expansion . Law on building mixed use in the inner-city to . Land use and urban planning residential communities . Primary and . Protection of vulnerable land regulations in the encourage walking and authority . House rent regulations . Time framework to manage the coastal zone of biking . Energy and potable water . Advanced standards for road secondary ongoing process and goals Paramaribo . Apartments for housing to authority designing natural . PPP- coordination . Law on accommodate multiple . Awareness programs to . Standards for public space and vegetation . Admittance to develop private developing household compositions and reduce energy consumption recreation . Ridges and inter- land for public benefits residential areas to lower infrastructure costs . Urban grid model to plan energy depressions . Coordination between private . Law on . Green planting in and potable water provision and with swamp land developers and government apartments communities to absorb and distribution vegetation . Coordination between key . Realization and reflect sunrays . Separated garbage disposal and persons on ministries regarding implementation . Studies on rehabilitation of waste treatment plant . Mangrove along the urban planning of many of the abandoned agriculture land Regulations to protect vulnerable coast line . Classification of roads for approved laws on . Modern mass public natural land mapping interconnections to building transportation and transits . Standards for mixed land use and battle traffic congestion procedures . Community Based compact building . Adequate financial plan to exploit Organizations international funding
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5. Results of field research
5.1 Characteristics of the Kwatta Neighbourhood
5.1.1 Introduction According to Oudschans Dentz (1944), historically the Kwatta Region was first settled as a plantation in 1770 and takes its name from the Kwatta monkey living in that area. One year after the abolition of slavery, in 1864, this region became a private cacao plantation that belonged to the family Van Emden. In 1919 the Middenpad naar Kwatta was bought by H.J. Fernandes, who also played a major role in the construction of Weg naar Zee. By resolution of December the 1st 1921 no. 4049 the Government obtained the Middenpad, adjacent trenches and construction works from the Tweede Rijweg till the Garnizoenspad. This road was meant to function as a public road (Article in Newspaper after 1960; date unknown).
Until the 1920’s this region was to some extent isolated from the city center, but during the last century it became one of the most well-known settlements where contract laborers, the Hindustani’s, who had left the plantation agriculture, and afterwards their descendants, have worked for more than 100 years in the food supply of a large part of the city population. The Kwatta Region became a food stock of the City of Paramaribo and still plays that important role. Farmers are organized in a cooperation and supported in the use of the horticulture technology and awareness by the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fishery.
Figure 13: The Kwatta Region at the fringe of the city center
During the fifties of the last century, the city population of Paramaribo started growing very fast through a natural increase and the in-migration of people from rural areas in search of better work and secondary education. The rural lifestyle at the outskirt of the city, based on agriculture and cattle breeding, came increasingly under pressure over the years. Paramaribo started to expand beyond its borders and this resulted in the shift of agricultural and natural lands into the
32 | P a g e development of urban land. This expansion of Paramaribo started as a ribbon development along roads connected to the city center such as Grote and Kleine Combéweg, Anton Dragtenweg, Tourtonnelaan and Anamoestraat (North), van ‘t Hogerhuysstraat and Pad van Wanica (South) and Commissaris Weythingweg and the Rijweg naar Kwatta (West).
Since the fifties of the last century, the government took it as its responsibility, at least to some extent, to provide housing for low-income and middle income households. During that time, according to the Planning Law of 1972, the Planning Department of the Ministry of Public Affairs played a great role in the urban development of Paramaribo. However, since the end of the 20th century Paramaribo has been influenced in particular by growth patterns led by private property developers. Their ideas about allotment of wasteland were exclusively focused on single family housing and hardly on a well thought out plan, in which a living-core also provides enough space for accommodation of businesses and services. This outdated way of parceling out land, risen along newly built roads of the Kwattaweg, has significantly increased the traffic pressure on this road. The Kwattaweg nowadays, during many hours of the day, is a congested road, which has radically increased the per person travelling time (see Picture 2 and 3)
Figure 14: Congestion on de Rijweg naar Kwatta Figure 15: Cars on the Rijweg naar Kwatta near the Tweede Rijweg
Based on the data of the 7th public and housing census carried out in 2004, the ABS made projections for the number of households and housing in Suriname for the years 2009, 2014, 2019 and 2024 with both a low and high variant. (see Table 2 and 3). The census also investigated the size of the households. In total 123.463 households were counted with a national average size of 4 persons per household. From all the households: . 20% consisted of 6 and more persons, and were living in Paramaribo and the Wanica District . most of the one-person households lived in Paramaribo . 81% were connected to the electricity network of EBS and 56% to the water supply system of SWM
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Table 2: Total of projected households Total of projected households The report H ousing plan 2012-2017 made an Year Low High Average extrapolation of the ABS data and concluded that by 2009 134,284 144,595 139,440 the year 2024, an average of 184.925 2014 145,301 166,263 155,782 accommodations will be needed. To meet this need, 2019 157,016 188,661 172,839 some 2,200-4,400 houses will need to be built on an annual basis. This figure does not include the 2024 168,900 211,125 190,013 overpopulated houses and existing shortage of 2004. The report emphasizes the reduction in demand, although the housing production, due to the low implementation capacity, runs far behind Table 3: Total of projected housing the need. Of the total housing stock 48% is located Year Total of projected housing in Paramaribo and only 17% in the Wanica District. With respect to maintenance, 15-20% of the houses Low High Average were in poor condition, while 40-50% were well 2009 130,688 140,723 135,706 maintained. Overdue maintenance of older homes 2014 141,410 161,811 151,611 leads to a steady deterioration and dilapidation, 2019 152,811 183,610 168,211 which occurs more frequently in certain older 2024 164,377 205,472 184,925 residential areas in Paramaribo, such as Abra Broki, Frimangron and Combé. Source: ABS 2008/2010
Geographically, the Kwatta Region is a uniformity based on the landscape evolution, sediments and bio-diversity. Like most of the new residential areas of the last decades, the Kwatta Region has been developed in the fringe with a very low building density, a mono-functional housing character, by which the inhabitants of those projects were increasingly dependent on the city centre. The neighbourhoods along the exit roads on the north and south side of the Rijweg naar Kwatta are more or less independent from each other, and also differ in size from each other: the largest neighbourhoods have more than 80 households, while the smallest ones less than 10. In fact, the size and design of the neighbourhoods, consisting of a mix of parcels and building sizes, is determined by the street pattern. The spatial organization does differ from other comparable neighbourhoods, for example compared to the southern part of the city centre, where main services such as water, electricity and front door waste collection are lacking in many small projects and dwellings are often poorly maintained.
5.1.2. Objectives The research area is very spacious. The road length between the Derde and Vierde Rijweg extends for a distance of about 3 km, while the maximum length of an exit road to the North is about 0.8 km and that in the southern direction comes on the Sophia’s Lustweg with a length of 0.9 km. The surface of the research area brings us to a total of 3 km x (0.8 + 0.9) km = 5.1 km².
The research activities, in which two students of the geography department of the Advanced Teachers Training Institute (IOL) have given their unconditional cooperation, has gone smoothly. The purpose of the study was discussed at length with the individual residents, who were all willing to cooperate in the research. In total 100 households have completed the questionnaire in a face to face conversation. In addition extensive discussions were held with six people about their knowledge and findings of their residential area.
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This research has focused on some specific features characterizing the neighbourhoods of the Kwatta Region between the Third and Fourth Roadway, whereby three main subjects: population, accessibility and living conditions have been distinguished. Those three features will be considered only when drawing conclusions at the end of the discussion of the results derived from the survey.
5.2 Population The research findings indicate that people from different incomes, age, ethnic groups, professions and ways of life meet in the different parts of the Kwatta Region, along the exit roads, where open land has been parceled out by different project developers. People who bought a parcel were free to build a house as a safe harbor and to fulfill their family desires.
People have made a conscious choice to migrate to the Kwatta region to build a better living. The choice for migration was mainly based on the desire for independent living (37%) and moving from house renting (33%), which underpin the need for having an own house. Other reasons which were mentioned are marriage, family gift and family support, close to work and family relations. As to future living in this area, 25% of the respondents are not convinced that this area is their final destination. This is linked to uncertainty for those who are not the owner of the house and desire to have an own parcel and house.
Buildings of different ages, conditions, construction materials and sizes typify the neighborhoods in the Kwatta Region. Based on the differentiation in housing characteristics, it is clear that the Kwatta Region does not show significant signs of decay. Most of the houses are built in concrete and have one floor. It is clear that land use in the exit roads is mainly used for residential purposes as people work and shop in other areas.
Living Space
An analysis of the data of the dwelling percentage of dwelling surface as presented in figure 16 and surface in m² per table 4 gives a view of the average space that is available for one person to live. household The so called living space or floor area per person is defined as the median floor area (in m²) of a shelter divided by the household size (UN (1996) Indicators of 32 35 Sustainable Development: Framework 24 and Mythologies). Hence, the smaller the 9 dwelling combined with a bigger household, the lower the per person <> 8080 80-80 100-100 101-150101-150 < >150150 living space.
Figure 16: Percentage dwelling surface per household in m²
It is calculated that the overall total average per dwelling surface is about 103m². However 67% of the houses have a dwelling surface of ≤ 100m². This average may be compared with the minimum size of 100m² that is standard for the affluent neighborhoods such as de Morgenstond. So, the largest part (67%) of the dwellings has a surface that is less than the minimum that is applied in the
35 | P a g e affluent neighborhoods. With an average household size of 3.7 persons, the average floor area per person is 27.8 m² (see Table 4).
Table 4: Housing surface and household size related to per person living space Household size ≤ 80 m² 81-100 m² 101-150 >150 Sum Average m² m² Total of households 41 26 25 8 100 Total of housing 2605 2463 2984 2236 10288 102.88 surface in m² Total of household 150 96 90 33 370 3.70 members Living space 17.37 25.66 33.16 67.76 27.81 per person in m²
In the Kwatta Region the average household size does not differ for the categories ≤ 80 m², 81-100 m² and 101-150 m², but is higher for the category >150 m², where it is 4.1. Still it can be concluded that these dwellings have by far more living space per person (67.8m²). Hence, the smaller the size of the dwelling combined with a large household size, the lower the living space per person.
Worldwide, the differences between the More Developed Regions with those of regions in Asia /Oceania and Africa are obviously huge (see Figure 17). The figures of the Kwatta Region indicate that the average living space per person clearly matches with an overall average of the More Developed Regions (see Figure 17).
Figure 17: Floor area per person by country ranking and region Source:UNCHS/World Bank (1996)
In an article in the New York Times “Living with less” (March 2013) Graham Hill has suggested a ‘needed’ average of 39 m² living space per person, based upon his life experience to manage a space in an effective way. The cost for living should be significantly lower and people can be encouraged to live with less to lower their footprint on the available natural resources. According to the view of Graham Hill the average of 27.81 m² living space per person in the Kwatta region would be a sign of
36 | P a g e overpopulated houses. For the houses with a dwelling surface of ≤80 m ² the situation is clearly worse (see Table 4) Table 5: Household size according to district District Average household The question is how much living space does a person size need? Ideas and guidelines strongly differ from country Paramaribo 4.01 to country. There are all sorts of reasons for these Wanica 4.08 differences, for example: land access, wealth level and climate. Fact is that modern life styles have significantly Nickerie 3.81 increased the ‘needed’ living space per person over the Coronie 3.08 years, while the average household size is decreasing. Saramacca 3.70 This also applies to Suriname where the average Commewijne 3.84 household size is 4 persons (see Table 5) Marowijne 4.16 Para 4.24 Brokopondo 3.79 Sipaliwini 3.44 Average 3.94 Source: ABS 2013
Table 6: Place of origin of households
Region Total People have come from different neighbourhoods to Parbo Center 21 start a living in the Kwatta Region. Most of the Parbo North 1 households have migrated over a relatively short Parbo South 11 distance, coming from the Kwatta Region itself. Besides Parbo West 3 the price in relation to the quality, the choice was also Kwatta 35 based on the familiarity with the neighbourhood. 32% Saramacca 14 of the respondents have migrated from Paramaribo Nickerie 2 Centre and South, which can be considered that people Wanica 4 have seized the opportunity for having an own house Commewijne 2 and living independently. There is also a distinctive Para 1 rural-urban migration from the adjacent district of Marowijne 1 Saramacca. Permanent Living 1
Foreign country 4 Overall total 100
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Age, Education and Occupation
The age composition differentiated by gender is 160 based upon three age groups that represent 140 those of the compulsory education (≤ 16), the 120 economic productive group (17-60) and the retired group (> 60). Within the total household 100 population of 370 persons, there is a clear 80 male female dominance of the economic productive group 60 (71%), while the age group ≤ 16 (21%) reflects 40 the current low birth rate in Suriname (ABS; no 294/2013-05). These figures plotted in a diagram 20 should show a pyramid age structure with a clear 0 narrowing at the base. The gender ratio shows ≤ 16 17-60 > 6o an equal spreading. Figure 18: Absolute age composition according to sexes
HBO/ UVS GLO About 30% of the total household population is 13% 10% attending one of the four education levels. It is VOS confirmed that from the compulsory education 17% group all the children attend primary school VOJ (GLO). The biggest group attends secondary 60% education (VOJ). Out of the economic productive group, it is calculated that 12% is visiting high school (VOS) and higher education (HBO) or the university (UVS). GLO VOJ VOS HBO/ Universiteit
Figure 19: Education according to level
A calculation shows that out of the total household population of 370, 40% is breadwinner (see Figure 20). The population in this area shows clear differentiation according to source of the income generation. The private sector (38%) and the independent/self-employed (33%) are the biggest groups. Government is also a source to guarantee an income, but to a lesser extent compared to other parts of the city. Traditionally this area was characterized by its self-employed workers, who used their home and yard for economic activities such as agriculture and cattle breeding. Nowadays, the activities are more diversified, such as repairing small appliances, construction work, baby- sitting and also processing of food and textile. The data also indicate that the group of retired people is about gender equal, they do not have a job as extra source of income and live independently.
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Working Total of Total of breadwinner members per households working household members independent 1 59 59 government 2 35 70 private 3 4 12
pensioner 4 2 8 Total 100 149 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Table 7: Working members according to breadwinner households Figure 20: Total of breadwinners according to employment position
5.2.1 Assessment
In the Kwatta region, as in Suriname as a whole, the well-known pyramid age structure for developing countries is now moving towards a grenade structure with a much more proportional balance between the age groups. It is also clear that the higher life expectancy for women has not changed over the years, but in the age group ≤ 16 the sexes are more balanced (ABS; no 294/2013- 05).
In general it can be assumed that government jobs are not the main source of income in this area and there is no clear indication for a huge shift from self-employed and private jobs to government jobs. There is no correlation between source of income and the education level of children. Worth noting that 93% of the children visiting a full time higher education level have parents who are self- employed or working in the private sector.
Regarding the total number of employed persons per household, it can be stated that on a total of 100 households, at least one person is working, which brings us to 40% of the total household population (see Table 7). This figure indicates a good ratio, which means that the livelihood of households is guaranteed. Generally household income is a very sensitive topic, because people are not willing to share this information. As such, since it is not possible to draw sensible conclusions, household income has not been taken into account. My impression is that the large majority is neither poor nor rich. But, the lack of this information does not jeopardize or compromise the objectives of this research. Also, in this research the topic of specific ethnic groups has not been taken into account, although it can be stated that the research area has become increasingly mixed during the years of parcelling out the area, compared to the beginning of the development of this area, when mostly Hindustani’s were settled.
5.3 Accessibility
Accessibility depends on the transportation mode, technology and costs that influence land use and human activity patterns. The growth of Paramaribo from a more compact city to a more dispersed city over the last 30 years has significant implications for the utilization of land for road infrastructure, housing and services. Network of roads and street patterns allow for connections between people and places, while transport systems connect the different parts of cities and enable people’s movement throughout the city.
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Presently in Suriname, public transportation is still very important, in particular for the lower income groups. It is strongly dominated by the private sector and is characterized by the system of ‘independent buses’. However, the government still plays a critical role in decision making with respect to the routes, subsidies and tariffs. Although the number of buses traversing these routes has increased, time-route-schemes for a regular flow of buses to create a user’s friendly service system does not exist yet. Travel time has increased due to land use changes and underinvestment in modern public transportation. Nowadays many people heavily depend on their own transportation. Out of two breadwinners, one uses a car as a transport mode.
It can be stated that accessibility to an education institute is one of the main factors to guarantee good educational performance. Within the area between the Derde and Vierde Rijweg two GLO schools are located, while nearby, but outside this area, there are three VOJ schools.
Students attending VOS and HBO/UVS must travel over a longer distance and 51% make use of public transportation, including school bus transportation provided by the Ministry of Education. However, for breadwinners the car is the main transportation mode to work (see Figure 21). Students travelling with their parents by car (36%), form also a large group. Walking and biking can be neglected, given that the traffic on the Rijweg naar Kwatta is unsafe for biking and even for pedestrians, because this road is very small and lacks space to develop separate lanes for bikes.
Transportation to Transportation to work school in total of in total of household students population 60 80 60 40 40 20 20 0 0
Figure 21: Total of transport mode for Figure 22: Total of transport mode for students to education institute breadwinners to work
Route to school/work The Roadway to Kwatta, as part of the East-West Connection, is by far the 60 main route to the final destination 50 (school, work) for people moving 40 inward and outward of the city centre. 30 This also underlines the fact that 20 Paramaribo is the most important 10 work location, as well as the economic 0 and political heart of Suriname. 4e Rijweg 3e Rijweg 2e rijweg Kwattaweg
Figure 23: Main road to work/school in absolute figures
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To get a better impression of the traffic situation on the Rijweg naar Kwatta, the traffic flow has been investigated. Traffic flow is defined as the rate at which cars pass through an intersection, measured in cars per minute. (The College Board: AP Calculus BC 2004 Scoring Guidelines). From a theoretical point of view the higher the traffic flows, the more vehicles per minute passing at a certain point.
The investigation, which only focused on the traffic flow of buses, automobiles and trucks was carried out at two moments within one day: the morning peak between 07.00h till 08.40h measuring only the traffic movement in eastward direction to the centre, while during the afternoon, between 13.15 and 14.55, the traffic movement in opposite direction was measured (see Figure 24). The measuring time for both peaks was 100 minutes and was registered on the T-junction of the Rijweg naar Kwatta and the Tweede Rijweg. The advantage of this location is that it allowed calculating the outflow and inflow of vehicles to and from the Tweede Rijweg during respectively the morning peak and afternoon peak. The result as presented in Table 8 shows a total of 1124 vehicles during the morning peak, while the afternoon peak counted a total of 1755.
two momentums of traffic flow 1800 1573 1600 1400 1200 1015 1000 800 600 400 118 200 60 64 49 0 Automobiles Buses Trucks
07.00-8.00u 13.15-14.55u
Figure 24: Two momentums of traffic flow; morning and afternoon peak
Traffic flow in both morning and afternoon peak is dominated by automobiles, accounting respectively for 90.3 % to 89.6 % of the total number of registered vehicles. This underlies the statement that the use of cars in sprawled areas is very high. The traffic flow in the morning peak was 11.2 vehicles per minute and with a score of 17.5 the afternoon peak was substantially higher. These figures underline the congested traffic situation on the Kwattaweg; the lower the figure, the slower the traffic flow. Table 8 also shows that during the afternoon peak there was an increase for all types of vehicles, while for the trucks the increase was significantly high.
Worth noting is that presently between 06.30h and 08.00h traffic lights at the intersection of the Kwattaweg/Rijweg naar Kwatta with the Kernkampweg and Washingtonstraat are switched off to increase the traffic flow on the Kwattaweg. However, this leads to a chaotic traffic situation caused by the traffic that inserts from the Kernkampweg and Washingtonstraat. On the Kwattaweg there are two main constraining ‘insert points’: Munderweg and Flustraat, which increase the westbound
41 | P a g e traffic, that in turn contributes to the traffic congestion. With just 13% of the total number of vehicles, the outflow of vehicles to the Tweede Rijweg does not significantly decrease the traffic congestion on the Rijweg naar Kwatta and Kwattaweg.
Table 8: Types of vehicles on the T-junction of the Rijweg naar Kwatta and the Tweede Rijweg Peak Automobiles Buses Trucks Outflow to Inflow Total number 2e Rijweg from 2e Rijweg
07.00 - 1015 60 49 143 1124 08.40h 13.15 - 1573 64 118 247 1755 14.55h
It was also noticed that most automobiles transport only one or two persons. Making an assumption that every car transports 1.5 persons, this brings us to an average total of (1015 + 1573): 2 x 1.5 = 1941 persons for the peaks. Comparing this with the buses that can transport an average of 25 persons, the average total of persons to be transported is (60 + 64): 2 x 25 = 1550 persons. This also underlies the statement that well-organized public transportation is the most efficient transport mode to address traffic congestion, by which individual car-use can be lowered. It goes without saying that more detailed research is needed to arrive at an optimal solution for the traffic problems on the Kwattaweg-Rijweg naar Kwatta.
Monthly costs for The cost of transportation consumes about one-tenth of the average household income. transportation per The average monthly costs for transportation category in % of total are more than Srd 300, while for the largest group the costs are between 150 – 300 Srd. households The average monthly income in Suriname is 40 Srd 2646 (www.numbeo.com). This means 30 that about 11% of the household income is spent on transportation. Any Increase in the 20 fuel prize, being the main item in 10 transportation costs, will add more stress on 0 the household budget. < 150 150- 300 301- 500 > 500
Figure 25: Monthly costs for transportation in Srd per category
The categories in figure 25 are calculated by taking into account the following factors: an average composition of three persons per household, who use public transportation for five days a week, an estimated use of both public transport and private cars and only the car as transport mode. The travel distance to work/school in relation to the price to be paid for fuel is also taken into consideration.
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Only 12% of the households make use of combined transport, with the most common combination being the car and public transportation. Many school children make use of public transport, while their parents usually go to work by car (see Figure 21 and 22). Of the households that use public transport, 31% has the lowest transport cost (< srd 150 per month), while for 98% of households with one or more cars, the minimum costs vary between srd 150 and 300 per month. Households with more cars have higher monthly transportation costs. On a total household population of 370, 1 in 5 persons has a car, which more or less corresponds with the national average calculated on data derived from traffic and transport (cars = 119.270 statistics 2000-2010 (ABS; 2011) and demographic data (total population = 541.638) of Census-8 (ABS; 2013).
Table 9: Transport mode and total of cars according to households Transport mode Total of Total of cars per household Overall households total of 1 2 3 4 cars Walking 9 Biking 8 Car 51 35 13 2 1 71 Public transport 54
5.3.1 Assessment There is a growing need for transportation because of population growth and rapid urbanization of Greater Paramaribo. Public transportation serving the Kwatta Region between the Derde and Vierde Rijweg can be typified as medium to long distance city service. Most of the buses can accommodate 24 to 30 persons and only serve the main road. For the disabled and elderly people public transportation is not appropriate, considering that buses are not adequately adjusted given the lack of ancillary infrastructure such as adjusted bus stops. This repeatedly leads to unpleasant experiences for these passengers. Furthermore, the lack of clear bus stops and time schedules has resulted in waiting in the open air or preferable under roofs of shops and other buildings. Fact is that buses can stop anywhere for passengers to get in or out, which contributes to traffic jams and chaotic situations, and which in turn is hindering a smooth traffic flow. The daily congestion on the Rijweg naar Kwatta caused by the increasing number of motor vehicles, especially the private cars, has resulted in increasing travel time per person, loss of productive working hours and a higher demand for fuel. Moreover, the exponential growth in motorization in Suriname (ABS; 2011) puts an ever increasing strain on the environmental quality and the national economy.
In Greater Paramaribo there is an unbalanced situation between the mobility needs of people and the supply of transportation infrastructure, services and technologies. In particular the accessibility from the Kwatta Region to the city center is limited, whereby the Kwattaweg plays a very crucial role. Within the Kwatta Region exit roads to the Kwattaweg are not well connected to each other and many of those roads are dead ending, especially in the northern part. In the southern part only the Hauraweg and Maisuriweg are connected to the Sophia’s Lustweg, which is parallel to the Rijweg naar Kwatta. Although there is not much space to widen the Rijweg naar Kwatta, measurements should be taken for separate traffic lanes to guarantee the safety of pedestrians and bikers. Another possibility is to
43 | P a g e develop an inner-ring-road for destination traffic, whereby the different neighborhoods can be connected and so congestion on the Rijweg naar Kwatta can be reduced.
5.4 Living conditions
5.4.1 Housing characteristics The human right to adequate housing is the right of everyone to attain a secure home and community in which one can live in peace and dignity. This right to housing is codified as a human right in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Preamble; Article 25). So, to achieve a decent standard of living, access to acceptable housing is essential. Housing not only fulfills physical needs by providing a roof over one’s head, but psychological (personal space and privacy) and social needs (togetherness) as well. In many societies, it also fulfills economic needs by functioning as a core for commercial production. Furthermore, according to UN HABITAT AGENDA 21, basic elements such as water, sanitation, electricity, ventilation and security are indispensable for adequate shelter.
dwelling commodities In general the basic conveniences are available in the houses. Water and electricity, 120 the main services to create a livable 100 environment for a dwelling, are available for 80 all dwellings. On the other hand, as Figure 26 shows, only 50% of the dwellings have a fixed 60 telephone connection, while internet facilities 40 are limited to about 20% of the households. 20 However, every household has at least one 0 mobile telephone which increases their water electricity telephone internet possibilities for a larger social network. connection
Figure 26: Conveniences in dwelling commodities in absolute figures
number of living years In general, households in the Kwatta region are internal migrants (see Table 6).The overall in % average of residence for households in the 35 Kwatta region is 17.8 years, while 40% of the 30 households live there for more than 20 years. But there is no clear correlation between the 25 number of residence and the size of the houses. 20 On the other hand it is clear that within a 15 specific road the number of living years differ 10 strongly. Overall it can be stated that the 5 average number of residence in the northern 0 part of the Rijweg naar Kwatta, developed in the 0 - 10 jr. 11- 20 jr 21 -30 jr. 31 - 40 > 40 late 80’s, is lower than the Southern part.
Figure 27: Years of residence in the Kwatta region
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The need for large parcels has decreased over the years. Children playing and socializing around the house, as usual till the late 80’s of the 20th century, has dramatically changed by the wider introduction of the television and in more recent years the computer with social media possibilities. Also is notable that during the last 20 years the prices for parcels have increased to such a level, that nowadays the average income household can only afford a small parcel that still costs between euro 30 and 50 per square meter (Intervast; 2013).
parcel size in m² An analysis of the size of the parcels (see Figure 28), shows clearly that 60% of the parcels is smaller than 350 m², which is the standard minimum size for parcels handled by the Ministry of Public Works for Greater Paramaribo. To some extent the change to > 500 22% smaller parcel sizes can be typified as a beginning stage of densification, although it is clear that 350-500 < 350 18% project developers do not take into consideration 60% the suggested minimum parcel size according to the Building Law. A comparison of the dwelling surface with the parcel surface illustrates that 72% of the dwellings with a surface of ≤ 100 m² is built on a parcel with a surface of ≤ 350 m². Also it is clear that 75% of the dwellings with a surface of ≥ 150 m² is > 350 350-500 < 500 built on parcels bigger than 500 ²m.
Figure 28: Parcels according to size
Presently, the supply of parcels for housing and to some extent the construction of houses is dominated by the uncontrollable influence of private developers. This research found that in the Kwatta Region at least ten private developers have been or are still active. They have anticipated on the changing situation during the years and nowadays they offer smaller parcels to the customers. The most influential developing company in the southern part has been that of S. Naipal, while Intervast is still active in the northern part.
The redefinition of the administrative (district) borders of Suriname in 1980 has had significant implications for the strongly outward developing urbanized fringe. Greater Paramaribo was expanded till the Vierde Rijweg. Indeed, until that time the rules for buildings and parcels as noted in the Building Law were not applicable to the area between the Tweede and Vijfde Rijweg.
The increasing number of households and the size of the household are the main driving force behind the growth of a residential area. The Kwatta Region is still developing due to the ongoing activities around parcelling out available land. During the years some houses have been expanded, mainly to accommodate multiple households that are living together, i.e. young couples, who cannot afford an own house, live longer with their parents. 88% of houses with a dwelling surface of ≥150m² have a household size between 3 and 7 persons.
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5.4.1.1 Assessment The expansion of the urban area towards the Kwatta Region is not only a challenge to provide basic services such as water and electricity for the new households, but also a common responsibility (developers, government and local community) to guarantee the accessibility as well as the protection of the natural and agricultural land. The expected sea level rising and the impact on the lower parts adjacent to the Atlantic, will have severe consequences for people and the economy if no adequate measures are taken to protect the natural land in a proper manner. The growing need for food in Suriname and the rest of the world ask for a pro-active agriculture policy to ensure production, good quality and affordable prices. Good spatial planning and housing can also influence energy consumption by promoting housing alternatives for the different needs of the customers (Ramlakhan, 2013). It should be acknowledged that there are still several issues linked to this research, which will need further investigation.
5.4.2 Neighbourhood characteristics There are different ways to measure the quality of a neighbourhood. In this research the focus is on the experiences of the people themselves living in those neighbourhoods. Fact is that the different neighborhood elements are not unconnected, but reflect the interrelation between buildings, parcels, streets, public space and the natural environment.
Street patterns can obstruct or enable walking and biking as well as the connectivity and accessibility that influence the cohesion within the neighbourhood. The street patterns in the Kwatta Region between the Derde and Vierde Rijweg have a typical ‘linear design’ pattern with no significant hierarchical structure related to the main road. A neighbourhood is therefore formed by a single exit road or street block with less or no interconnection (see Figure 29 till 32).
Figure 29: Northeastern part Figure 30: Southeastern part
Figure 31: Northwestern part Figure 32: Southwestern part
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Furthermore, street patterns characterize the physical as well as the social identity of those neighbourhoods. For many households, the neighbourhood as it is experienced, is the direct surrounding (streets/street blocks) where people live together and socialize. Figure 33 shows that 67% of the households are satisfied with the way their neighbourhood is constructed, while 31% disagreed. The disagreement reflects the dissatisfaction regarding drains that are not connected to a main drainage system, the low height of the parcels compared to the street, the bad construction of the roads that worsens in the rainy season and the lack of space for recreational purposes.
A well designed street pattern not only stimulates the interconnectivity, but a wider interrelation between people in the neighbourhood as well. By comparing Figure 33 and 34 it is obvious that the social contacts within the neighbourhoods is very similar to the way in which the neighbourhood is constructed. However, these social contacts are very limited, kept down to the direct neighbors in the same street or street block. This supports the statement that cohesion between people in a neighborhood is to some extent a reflection of the way the neighbourhood is constructed.
layno -out Contact with meaning neighbours 2% bad 3% not good 31% moderate 27%
good good 67% 70%
goed niet goed geen mening goed matig slecht
Figure 33: Appreciation of the layout Figure 34: Contact with neighbours
The reason why people have chosen to live in the Kwatta neighbourhood is shown in Table 11. For those who have a title of ownership on the house (73%) the main reason was the possibility the buy a parcel and secondly a family gift. However, for still about 10% the choice was to live close by work.
Table 10: Ownership according to parcel size, price in relation to quality of neighbourhood and appreciation of neighbourhood lay-out
Parcel size in m² Total Price in relation to Appreciation of living quality of neighbourhood neighbourhood layout < 80 80 101- >150 good not no good not no - 150 good answer good answer 100 23 19 24 7 73 53 13 7 47 26 0
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Table 11: Title on the house related to the choice to live in the Kwatta neighbourhood
Title on the Total Family Family Living Close Close Quiet Available Marriage Attractive house support gift together by by environ- house to buy work family ment Ownership 73 2 11 4 7 5 3 1 40 Estate 4 1 1 1 1 Family 10 3 3 1 2 1 dwelling Rent 13 1 1 2 9 Total of 100 7 14 6 9 8 5 10 1 40 households
Table 10 shows that all lots with a size of 101-150 m² are proprietary lots and this is also true for almost all lots that are larger than 150 m² (see Figure 16). Further, the table shows that most households, who have ownership on a parcel, are satisfied with the quality as well as the layout of their neighbourhood.
The choice for living in these neighbourhoods underpins the living advantages (see Figure 35) where people can benefit from. The noise pollution caused by traffic that is manifest on the Rijweg naar Kwatta, does not exist in the exit roads where destination traffic mostly occur. Commercial facilities in the direct surrounding make it easier for daily shopping. Many supermarkets, restaurants and shops for building materials are located along the Roadway to Kwatta. The Kwatta Market is a popular, but also an important facility, as three times a week (Sunday, Wednesday and Friday) people can buy fresh vegetables and fruit, fish, meat and plants. The organization of this market responds to the needs of its customers who have a multiple choice option for shopping. Recently the paid-car-park is adjusted and extended to accommodate more costumers. The research found that 34% of the households make use of this market, while 68% mentioned the possibility to do shopping fairly nearby.
living advantage
60 50 50 40 40 30 20 15 11 10 10 6 0 quiet all around accessibility security social contact nonno profit profit
Figure 35: Living advantages in the Kwatta region
Figure 35 shows that 50% of households consider important facilities in the area (' all around ') as a living advantage, while 40% has mentioned quiet as an important living advantage. Other
48 | P a g e mentioned living advantages are accessibility, security and social contact. Only a very small part (5%) does not experience the benefits of their living area (no profit).
On the question what are the living disadvantages in your neighbourhood experience, the response of the households was respectively 16% for the behavior of neighbors and 15% for a sense of insecurity. This last mentioned is explained by the increased number of robberies over the years and the fact that some households have been robbed several times (see Figure 36). Loud music and exceeding the speed limit have been mentioned as unacceptable neighbourhood behavior.
number of times
16 1 10 2 1 4 household 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
number of times
Figure 36: Robberies related to number of times during residence
In recent years, property robberies have increased in nearly all neighbourhoods of Greater Paramaribo, as evidenced by the daily messages through the media. In the research area about 25% of the households had to deal with theft (see Figure 36). The establishment of a neighbourhood watch in a particular neighbourhood was no success, because people were not willing to make the mandatory monthly contribution. In some neighbourhoods, social control functions optimally, as the residents keep an eye on each other's property and have intense telephone contact, e.g. in case ‘strange vehicles’ are observed.
The quality of the parcel also characterises a relation between price neighbourhood. Figure 37 shows that 62% of and the total households considered the price in relation to the quality of the parcel as good. quality of the parcel Some residents complained about the form and no opinion size of the parcels. The most heard criticism in 20% the neighbourhoods in the southern part of the Rijweg naar Kwatta is that some of the parcels good are not rectangular, but have a trapezium form and/or are too small for family activities such as not good 62% 18% growing vegetables and gardening. In the northern part the complaint is that the non- paved roads are in a deplorable state, especially during the rainy seasons, which puts a serious goed niet goed geen mening constraint on people’s mobility.
Figure 37: Overall satisfaction: price related to quality of parcel
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parcels floooding Overall 48% of the households struggle with flooding, especially those located in the during the rainy season northern part where there is no adequate drainage for waste water, or for rain water that is in fact collected in the lower parts of yes open natural land. The open drains (42% of the no 48% households) are not well maintained; however 52% 90% of those household actually agreed to be held responsible for the maintenance. Out of the households with a sewerage system, 74% have used drain pipes according to the ja nee standards of the Ministry of Public Works.
Figure 38: Flooding of parcels
100 42% of all respondents have an open 90 maintenance of open drainage. When it comes to actions to 80 drain maintain the open drains, 90% out of this 70 group agree that they themselves are accountable, while only 10% hold strong on 60 the opinion that the government is 50 responsible. In a situation where neither 40 government, nor household take effective 30 action, it is understandable that the open 20 drains are not maintained adequately and 10 have a very low storage and carry off capacity. Moreover, many open drains are overgrown 0 and full of waste material such as pet bottles Household Government and aluminum cans. Figure 39: Maintenance of open drain
The living quality of house and parcel
action to improve living What actions do people undertake to upgrade the living pleasure pleasure in their neighbourhood? 40 It is remarkable that people are 30 hardly focused on the general 20 interest of the living quality in 10 their neighbourhood. As shown in 0 Figure 40, residents are mainly raising level of maintenance of raising level of no action interested on their personal parcel house parcel and/or family wellbeing. &maintenance of house
Figure 40: Investment to improve living quality
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Addressing the problem of flooding during the rainy season is the most important concern of this region. Although, many cubic meters of sand have been used to raise the height of the parcels, still, many households experience flooding. Maintenance of the house is also an action people undertake to create a livable environment, but still about 30 % of the households do not see the necessity to make investments.
qualification of former The qualification that people have given to their past neighborhood also emphasizes the neighborhood need for living in a respectable living 80 environment. In total 72% of the households give a middle income qualification to their 70 former neighborhood, compared to 95% for 60 their current neighborhood. While 25% have moved from a poor to a middle income 50 neighborhood, only 3% noted to come from 40 a high income neighborhood. As this group mainly consists of people migrated from the 30 Netherlands, the objectivity cannot be 20 investigated. By excluding this group it can be stated that all households have chosen 10 for a living environment that is at least 0 better than their former residence. low income middle income high income
Figure 41: Qualification of former neighborhood
Table 12: Former residence qualified as low-income for migrated households
Region Total A closer inspection of the residential area where the households, which have qualified Kwatta 10 their former residence as low-income (25%), Saramacca 6 are migrated from, underlines the conclusions Parbo Center 3 from Table 6, that people have seized the Parbo South 3 opportunity for having an own house and Parbo West 2 living independently. The overview of table 12 Guyana 1 shows that most of these migrants come from Total 25 the Kwatta region (40%) and the adjacent District of Saramacca (24%).
As mentioned before, the infrastructure (roads and drainage systems) is in a deplorable state and in high need of improvement. Also safety is one of the main concerns regarding the community wellbeing. Nevertheless, on a score line from 1 to 10 people give an average of 7.8 for the quality of living in their current neighbourhood.
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Interestingly is that people who have migrated from a low income neighbourhood gave an average score of 7.6 for their neighbourhood, which hardly differs from the overall median, despite the fact that 40% out of this group is not satisfied with the layout of their residential area. Overall, these scores not only reflect people’s emotional relation with their neighbourhood, but also the overall satisfaction with their neighbourhood.
Table 13: Priorities to sustain community wellbeing
Top four priorities for improvement with the highest scores Frequency Pavements of roads 24 Maintenance of drains and drainage system 16 Community security 16 Maintenance of house and garden 10
Although people are in general quite satisfied with their neighbourhood, they have indicated a wide range of top three priorities varying from better streetlights, shops and recreation to enhance the quality of living in their neighbourhood. Out of this list four are listed with the highest scores as is shown in Table 13.
5.4.2.1 Assessment Specific features of the Kwatta Region can be classified into two main subjects: the physical functionality and the living conditions. The physical functionality can be described as the visual experiences, the maintenance of infrastructure as a whole, the living environment and protection of natural features, while the living conditions refer to the quality of housing, social interaction and sense of community, security from crime and those activities that support daily life. Overall people are satisfied with the neighbourhood, where they have bought a parcel to build their shelter or are renting a house. The poor conditions and bad maintenance of the infrastructure, resulting in unpleasant situations, have a negative impact on their daily activities. Although water and electricity are available in this whole area, people still experience that the quality and reliability of these services in not guaranteed. Indeed, the low water pressure during many hours of the day and regular electricity breakdowns do have a negative impact on people’s living satisfaction.
Also due to the lack of government control, private property developers have never fully implemented the required standard qualities related to spatial design. Indeed, a good neighbourhood design should also provide for public spaces, such as playgrounds, parks/botanical gardens, which are needed to invite people to socialize with each other. Furthermore, improvements are needed with respect to road and drainage maintenance as well as regarding facilities for recreation. Also other services such as medical care, police and fire departments have to be taken into consideration. Project developers must be held responsible to deliver good neighbourhood designs in order to guarantee quality, according to national standards and selling procedures.
Options for expanding the Ring Road, parallel to the Roadway to Kwatta, and the interconnection of the exit roads in combination with the improvement of modern mass public transportation should receive high priority to reduce traffic congestion on the Roadway to Kwatta during peak hours of the day.
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The fight against crime is a national issue that requires a wider discussion with all relevant stakeholders. However, the government should take the lead and encourage communities and other stakeholders to participate in the design of a national plan for crime prevention in all neighbourhoods. The starting point should be the introduction and empowerment of community organizations to stimulate community participation in the decision process.
6. Conclusion: Advantages and disadvantages of Urban Sprawl in particular in the Kwatta Region in Greater Paramaribo
6.1 Introduction The literature on sprawl offers a wide variety of definitions, but the following description is best suited for the Kwatta region; “Urban sprawl is a specific kind of development outside of the compact urban and village centers, dispersed along highways and in the rural country side and auto dependent” (www. vtsprawl.org). Within the Kwatta region sprawl has a variety of characteristics: Inexpensive and rapid parceling out of mainly former agricultural land to small residential entities Monotonous residential design with single family housing Limited land use and segregation of activities Roads are not constructed according to required standards Radial road system provides few direct interconnections Natural land and fresh water resources are threatened Residents are heavily dependent on the automobile, contributing to the congestion on the main road during peak hours
Urban Sprawl is a spatial phenomenon that manifests itself in the density and form of a city. Urban form refers to the lay-out of the city as an amalgamation of individual elements such as streets, houses, shops and a wide variety of services and is partly determined by natural features - swamps, ridges, coastlines - and partly a result of decisions and human activities over many years (Narayan K.et al, 2003). Terms such as density, concentration, centrality, diversity, mixed uses, connectivity and proximity are all used to define and conceptualize urban form. Urban sprawl is one kind of urban form and becomes visible on different spatial scales (residential, subdivision) and in different ways (leapfrog, ribbon development).
Land use patterns determine the degree of proximity between different places: the higher the level of proximity, the closer the point of destination. Sprawl is typified by a low proximity, by which there are both fewer destinations and less variety of destinations. In the Kwatta Region land use has direct implications for travel behavior. Only destinations for shopping and basic education are located nearby , while destinations for work, VOJ, VOS and higher education and other services are located elsewhere outside the immediate neighbourhoods.
Density is one of the most commonly used measures in urban and rural planning. A higher density is associated with shorter trips and lower transportation costs, while land use is a necessary and important component for measuring density, which refers to the types of land uses and their location. A high level of land use mix in a given area, should in theory, reduce the need to travel outside that area to fulfill one’s personal needs.
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Originally Greater Paramaribo has 12 subdivisions (resorts) and recently Zorg en Hoop and Maretraite have been added as independent resorts. The research area is part of the Welgelegen Resort (southern part) and the Weg naar Zee Resort (northern part). The Garnizoenspad / Rijweg naar Kwatta has a typical ribbon development, where mixed land use (residential, commercial, services, agriculture) occur, while the exit roads are mainly organized for residential purposes. The open spaces between the exit roads give Figure 42: Resorts of the Paramaribo District the impression of the leapfrog development.
Table 14: Paramaribo: Resorts according to Area, Population density and Population
Resort Area in km² Population density Population (2012)
Blauwgrond 43 661.3 31,483 Rainville 31 930.7 22,747 Munder 14 1146.4 17,234 Centrum 9 3252.7 20,631 Beekhuizen 6 3297.2 17,185 Weg naar Zee 41 321.3 16,037 Welgelegen 7 3386.0 19,304 Tammenga 6 2385.5 15,819 Flora 4 3836.5 19,538 Latour 6 4358.0 29,526 Pontbuiten 6 3246.2 23,211 Livorno 9 931.8 8,209 Total 182 1323.8 240,924 Source: Resultaten 8e Volks-en Woningtelling; ABS,2013
The average population density in Paramaribo is 1323.8/km², but there are great differences between the resorts. Indeed, Table 13 shows that the southern resorts are more densely populated compared to the northern parts. The research area is located in the resorts Weg naar Zee and Welgelegen. The resort Welgelegen has a population density that is more or less comparable to that of resort Center, but the eastern part is more inhabited than the western part. Although the
54 | P a g e population size of the resort Welgelegen and Weg naar Zee hardly differs, the population density in resort Weg naar Zee is much lower, because the surface is almost 6 times larger. Both resorts have visible lower population densities, which is more clearly in the western section, while the northern part of resort Weg naar Zee is very scarcely inhabited. It can be stated that the phenomenon of sprawl is more visible in western direction of the Kwatta region.
The location of a specific land use type also implicates how destinations are linked through transportation systems. The Rijweg naar Kwatta is, according to the hierarchical structure of the road network, a primary road in east-west direction, while the neighbourhoods are located along secondary and tertiary roads. There are no adequate connections between those roads, because the radial network has few intersections, which provide less connectivity and are exclusively designed for local traffic.
The low proximity (density, land use) and the low connectivity (street pattern and network) underline the higher automobile dependency, especially in the current situation, in which public transportation and transit opportunities are not well organized. For most people, objective indicators as density, proximity and land use mix do not overshadow their well-being. This is also clear from the responses to the question which factors have an impact on their human wellbeing. Table 13 indicates that technologically based factors (e.g. traffic infrastructure and maintenance of drainage) have the highest priority when it comes to ensure people’s well-being. Slow traffic movements, caused by the deplorable condition of the unpaved roads, especially in the rainy season and the congestion on the Kwattaweg are also major concerns for people’s mobility. Generally in Suriname, ownership of a car is partly a reflection of the urban lifestyle: a feeling of independence and mobility and not a feeling of being car captive and/or contributing to a higher fuel consumption.
The nature of peoples’ well-being between the Derde and Vierde Rijweg can also be analyzed by the ´population growth´. Since the establishment of the first agriculture communities in the late nineties of the 19th century, the population has grown steadily by natural birth and in-migration. However, the natural crude birth rate nationwide has decreased over the last decades, but the in-migration of people from Central Paramaribo and the adjacent district of Saramacca plays an important role in the current population growth (see Table 14). However, a phenomenon that is also considered to have impacted the population growth in the Kwatta region is the emigration of many people from Suriname in the seventies and eighties of the past century. Independent living, marriage and studies of children abroad, are other reasons for out-migration as well. Finally, it can be assumed that this out-migration had a negative impact on the farming communities as well as on the further development of the agriculture sector in the Kwatta Region.
The main reason people have chosen for the Kwatta region is to live in their own house and to a much lesser extent to hire a decent house for a certain time. The most rational argument and driving force for living in this area is the comparably low price for a parcel and the relatively short distance to the Centre of Paramaribo. On the other hand, the lay-out of the living community has played a subordinated role in their decision taking. Overall, people have no idea about the establishment of a sustainable residential area, but also have few choices when buying a lot. It can be concluded that project developers focus mainly on earning money fast and unfortunately not on developing adequate living environments, in which all the elements of a healthy housing scheme are included in the planning and execution of the project.
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Segregation of activities is typical in sprawled areas and also in the Kwatta region. While along the main road a visible transformation from residential to commercial land is taking place, available land along the exit roads is mainly being parcelled out for residential purposes. Services such as basic education, primary health care centres, restaurants and gas stations are also located along the main road. In fact, policymakers at the Ministry of Public Works and Ministry of Spatial Planning, Land and Forest Management are insufficiently aware of the consequences of the ongoing urbanization of Greater Paramaribo and also not of the factors influencing this process. Adequate energy and water supply are still of great concern, although plans are, to some extent, in place to fulfil the higher demands in the years to come. Also on the great need for social housing and the planned strategy of government to build as many dwellings as possible in the next years, there are still many outstanding questions with respect to: . available land and location . mixed land use (living, working and recreation) . designs for multi-family housing . connectivity and accessibility to destinations . better public transportation . efficient waste management . alternative systems for water supply . effective energy distribution systems
Urbanization in Greater Paramaribo takes place in the fringe, outside the urban body, where the principles of multi-nucleated centres to regulate economic activities to develop sustainable communities are missing. It is one of the critical concerns that the city will continue to sprawl out in the coming years if no measurements are taken to create a more effective and compact city. The compact city idea is based upon an adequate land use, according to a zoning plan, to achieve a reduction of energy consumption by promoting denser communities and mixed land use. These ideas are worthy to be implemented in Greater Paramaribo to achieve efficient energy consumption in the future.
Presently, the suburban regions at the fringe of Greater Paramaribo are growing faster than the central city. However, these increasingly diversified (ethnic, income, education level) regions are not the major locations for employment. Because of the rather slow out-movement of offices, manufacturing, shopping and other services, a multi-nucleated pattern of urban centers on the edges of the city cannot be developed. Due to lack of experience and expertise, a minimum efficiency plan is missing, which in turn has resulted in a radial road pattern with poor interconnections, stumbled building lines and inadequate water management.
More than a century ago, Ebenezer Howard, the founder of the Garden City Movement, put his ideas down into 'Tomorrow a peaceful path to real reform´ written in 1898 and rewritten in 1902 as ´Garden Cities of Tomorrow´. Howard stated that large cities, which have exceeded the natural border of growth will face direct downfall to house the population surplus. Although this view is from many decades ago, it is still relevant. According to Howard this problem should be solved by developing an urban pattern based on new small towns (Garden Cities) to house the population surplus. Also today one should promote new cities with a maximum of 30.000 inhabitants in a rural location, where people from different income groups could live in good houses, close to their work and where all other modern amenities are available. The Garden City would have the advantages of the city combined with rural areas to create a good living environment. Good infrastructure and
56 | P a g e reliable public transportation services in these cities would form the basis to connect cities with each other. Indeed, within this perception, Lelydorp (South of the Paramaribo District) is deemed to have the potential to be developed as a Garden City. The current center could be reorganized to function as a rambla2. Howard was not only interested in the morphological aspects of the city, but even more in the creation of an integrated community. The Garden City should have a green belt with agricultural corporations, which operate in close cooperation with the Central City. Regrettably, the Garden City idea was not fully implemented, but there are still some useful elements that can be explored and applied in modern urban plan.
In the Kwatta region, where there is much potential for agriculture and preserving of natural land, the basic ideas of a Garden City might be successfully implemented, but the scale, given the population size, should be adjusted. De Schuilplaats, a living community just outside of the administrative boundary of Paramaribo, where up to 500 households of different income groups will be accommodated in a nature like environment in the next five years, can be used as a reference. However, the possibilities for mixed land use should be further extended to create more employment in the immediate surroundings, otherwise it will only increase congestion on the Kwattaweg. In Barbados a pilot project was started to eventually build 17 town villages, where living, working and recreation in the village becomes possible. The design embraces all aspects of a compact city/town village, whereby safety, public transport, green planting and maintenance are included (CUF/Barbados; 2014).
6.2 Discussion on the theme of Urban Sprawl Urban sprawl and its consequences on social, economic and environmental conditions have become an issue in Suriname, which need to be addressed urgently. Some researchers argue that urban sprawl has negative consequences on urban population lifestyle and agricultural and natural land, while others argue that there are also benefits to sprawl such as housing and job choices in relation with poverty reduction especially for poor in-migrants from rural areas and the hinterland (Holcombe;1999). But, from a modern environmental approach, sprawl is increasingly viewed as a significant and growing spatial problem that entails a wide range of social and infrastructural costs. In an attempt to manage the consequences of urban sprawl, the government should realize and expand the implementation of legislation to manage the physical growth of Greater Paramaribo.
One of the main findings of this research is that there is a great need to improve the coordination of spatial planning and land use regulation issues in Suriname. Indeed, urban planning and land use questions are highly interconnected, but inefficient land use patterns and other forms of unfavourable spatial organization are at the origin of the development of unsustainable communities around Paramaribo. Therefore, regional resource management plans should support the development of strategies that are necessary in order to establish more sustainable communities. It will be necessary to set up appropriate models for policies and frameworks that should allow a close cooperation between researchers, planners, architects, politicians, investors as well as the communities. Simultaneously, social engagement and bottom-up processes should be encouraged and established to transform and enhance spatial planning institutes and departments of ministries involved in urban planning issues.
2 A vibrant tree-line pedestrian mall flanked by two one–way narrow service roads, which cuts through the heart of the center of the city of Barcelona.
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The basic question explored in this research is whether changing the physical form of a community through urban development and management would influence the quality of life of communities in the sprawled areas between the Derde and Vierde Rijweg in the western part of Paramaribo. It was also investigated how to deal with this situation in these existing communities structures and how to integrate these communities in more sustainable future planning. It can be concluded that in already built-up and established areas it is far more difficult to achieve sustainable living communities without legislative remedial measurements, compared to new areas to be developed. Hence, future housing development projects should avoid ineffective traditional methods and be more focused on developing and managing of new methods to avoid the establishment of isolated communities along exit and dead ending roads in the sub-urban areas of the city.
The research learned that local infrastructure has to be improved to attract economic and social activities and to eliminate traffic congestion problems. Indeed, individual motorized traffic is not supported by existing carrying capacity of the Rijweg naar Kwatta, which is part of the International East-West Connection. The existing public transportation system needs to be improved and modernized to ensure that people have appropriate access to their destinations. Furthermore, it is beyond doubt that the rich and unique agricultural land in the Kwatta Region should be protected against urban development as far as possible to support the food supply of the future population.
It is advised that the administrative ministries of the government on policy issues should have a separate inter-department planning unit to deal with the concerns and development of the city and its fringes, so that constant monitoring and feedback is ensured and action can be taken in those cases were activities are not authorized by the planning unit. However, sprawl cannot be controlled by a well worked out plan alone. An effective institute to coordinate urban planning and management is essential for success. The preparation of urban development plans should focus in particular on the execution processes, whereby guidelines for adaptation of appropriate measurements should be formulated and applied.
The research also indicated that awareness among politicians and project developers about the negative effects of urban sprawl is limited to non-existent. A sprawled area uses more natural resources (water, energy and land), and as such accelerates the degradation to the environment (pollution and damage to vulnerable areas). In order to enhance optimal land use, the promotion of different types of houses that allow a higher physical as well as population density should be considered, such as the construction of multi-level buildings. Although these buildings require more complex and expensive techniques, the available floor area and living space will be higher. As such, the damaging impact of population growth around Paramaribo on the use of virgin land can be limited. Regarding transportation, buses (private as well as public) are also far more efficient than cars in their use of land. Finally, optimal and varied land use can create a healthy and compact city with strong sub-centres, which in turn should promote the creation of jobs and reduce the need to commute.
In terms of spatial and land use planning a long time span of at least 20 years is needed in order to rearrange communities and enforce the importance of more liveable communities in Paramaribo. Therefore, the focus should also be on measures that should promote efficiency and renovation in existing communities. By putting people and resources (natural, financial) in place, the government and her working institutions could set a strategic direction to achieve an urban structure and form in a manner that is both accepted and supported by the people.
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Remarkable is that the public authorities in Suriname have not yet fully responded to the growing concern of the social and environmental costs of the sprawling development and patterns of Greater Paramaribo. Although meaningful stakeholders’ participation throughout the planning process and implementation is a cornerstone of effective urban growth management, there is a lack of main policy instruments to manage this growth and to protect natural urban space. This development has led to:
. Poor evaluations of urban growth: evaluations of public transportation, traffic infrastructure and housing should be more focused on techniques of how to manage urban growth and influence land use patterns, as well as on long term programmes and planning strategies. . Inefficient policy implementations: the future growth of Paramaribo should be based on mixed land use, including housing, public facilities and recreation. . Absence of zoning: efforts to integrate planning, incentives and regulations should be the starting point in land use planning to avoid unintended social and financial consequences. . Inadequate vertical and horizontal coordination: vertical coordination between policies on different levels of ministries (Public Works, Social Affairs and Housing and Spatial Planning, Land and Forest Management) and horizontal coordination between neighbourhoods, project developers and government institutes (PPP-approach) should gain higher priority.
Up till now, land use planning and policy have been dominated by the national government and private investors. Presently, it is time to challenge this “status quo”: the already established and future residents should be involved to support and coordinate the development in their neighbourhood. Undoubtedly it became clear that managing urban growth and land use planning are two main elements in dealing with problems caused by urban sprawl. In the planning process, monitoring of control mechanisms and feedback on regulations are two essential elements to arrive at sustainable communities in the Kwatta Region between the Derde and Vierde Rijweg. In this region the important implications of the uncontrollable urban sprawl can be summarized as follows: . Loss of agricultural land, natural land and valuable natural ecological systems . Sub-standard development of living communities in vulnerable areas . Lack of public services and traffic infrastructure . Limited provision of mixed land use
It has been questioned whether sprawled areas are the result of peoples’ explicit choice? Some researchers argue that the current sub-urban expansion is a matter of consumers’ preferences. Indeed, the price per lot is more expensive in the inner-city, especially people in the low income classes are seeking cheaper housing possibilities. Also, people are attracted to the sub-urban lifestyle, which offers a feeling of great quietness and traffic safety. These so called lower costs for housing are not realistic, because buyers face hidden costs such as raising the level of the parcel, maintenance of drainage, water and electricity connection. Furthermore if the costs for the environmental impact were to be included, sprawled areas would lose some of their price advantage over traditional compact neighbourhoods.
The resulting question is the need to change the current pattern of neighbourhood development. Continued low density single land use development requires massive investments in water, sewage and road infrastructure. Despite these investments, the hours of delay in congested traffic, combined with the additional transportation costs, will continue to increase significantly. Moreover,
59 | P a g e average commuting time will increase emission of greenhouse gasses. Nevertheless, buyers often focus on the costs of the parcel/house, which is cheaper compared to the city centre, and only pay limited attention to maintenance of the infrastructure in their new community.
Al in all, this research has been able to expose and uncover the negative consequences of ‘Urban Sprawl’. It can be concluded that if there is no change in the way Paramaribo and its sub-urban areas are planned and managed, the consequences will be an urban area that is not only unhealthy and unsafe for its inhabitants, but that also seriously contributes –although limited- to the process of global climate change. Steering Paramaribo away from sprawl is a long process, but changes in the pattern of urban development are necessary and achievable with sensible planning, standards and jurisdiction. It goes without saying that further research is needed to come to a comprehensive urban plan for managing the future growth and development of Greater Paramaribo.
6.2.1 Reflection on community development and community wellbeing As shown in figure 11: Relation scheme of Community Wellbeing and Community Development, community development results from the interaction between the four components that have been distinguished in defining community wellbeing, i.e. quality of life, residents’ satisfaction, neighbourhood perception and life style. A breakdown of these components into valuable features have been included in table 1: Issues and related valuable features for achieving the wellbeing of a community. The critical question is to what extent these components and features for achieving liveable communities do apply to the Kwatta region. In table 43, I present a summary of the main findings on the actual community development and community wellbeing in the Kwatta Region. In general, residents’ satisfaction with their neighbourhood is very high (cfr. on a score line from 1 to 10, residents give an average of 7.8 for the quality of living in their current neighbourhood). However, as also reflected in figure 43, residents themselves are well aware that there is still much room for improving the quality of living in the Kwatta region, and hence in community development and community wellbeing. Figure 45 contains an exhaustive list of values and elements that need to be promoted to increase community development and community wellbeing, both in existing neighbourhoods such as the Kwatta region, and in designing new sustainable neighbourhoods. .
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Theoretical approach Issues for livable communities Results of research Quality of living . Economic development . Average of three persons per household . Housing . Houses overall in good state . Health . Variety of shops and restaurants, medical facilities, GLO and VOJ schools and Kwatta market along the main road BUT: . Wide spatial distribution of housing along exit roads . Average to bad condition of road and drainage infrastructure . Loss of agriculture land and activities . Most jobs are outside neighbourhood . High transportation costs: minimum 10% of income . No recreational facilities
Resident’s satisfaction . Social connectedness . Ethnic, age, social and income mixed neighbourhoods and neighbourhood . Safety . Quiet living environment perception BUT: . Low sense of neighbourhood feeling . No community organizations . No common neighbourhood goals . Generally a passive attitude regarding issues in the interest of the community . Increasing number of robberies Life style . Built environment . People are correct to each other and keep an eye on each other's . Natural environment property BUT: . People are insufficiently aware of a proper environment and processing of home and garden waste . No full awareness for preservation and protection of nature . Limited ideas about a sustainable and harmonious living area . High dependency on the car: one in five persons has a car Figure 43: Community development and community wellbeing in the Kwatta region
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6.3 Conclusion on the research question
The main question raised in this research is which are the advantages and disadvantages of the urban sprawl that has manifested itself in Greater Paramaribo in the Kwatta region between the Derde and Vierde Rijweg and how can lessons learned in that area be used to formulate strategies for developing sustainable living communities in Paramaribo as a whole?
In order to answer this question first of all relevant characteristics of the phenomenon of urban sprawl in the research area have been explored. The main finding is that sprawl consumes potentially productive agriculture land, unique forest and wetlands around the city. Furthermore sprawl requires more and extensive infrastructure facilities (road, water, electricity and sewer) and hence is more costly compared to what is needed for compact urban settlements. Paramaribo still expands over a large geographic area, which has resulted in a type of land use, characterized by the development of new residential areas at the outskirt of the city, an ongoing horizontal density and the disappearance of green space. Given the lack of public transportation, this sprawl development has been accompanied by an increased dependence on cars and trucks to move both people and goods, which results in increased vehicle greenhouse gas emission into the atmosphere.
Sprawl in Greater Paramaribo appears to be the product of private project developers and the government, in the sense that numerous individual households, based on a variety of reasons, are encouraged to make a conscious choice to buy a parcel of a relatively low price at the outskirt of the city. The government subsidizes sprawl directly by financing facilities such as back-up stations for water and electricity, maintenance of roads and drainage, and indirectly, by absorbing the costs for damage to vulnerable natural land and infrastructure. Individual households also share in the costs as sprawl puts an increasing pressure on the household budget for fuel, caused by the longer per person travel time. Project developers are in fact the only beneficiaries of sprawl.
Sprawl in the Kwatta region is a rather ‘subjective experience’, which is supported by the following positive characteristics: ▪ The price in relation to the quality of the parcel ▪ The desire to own a house as safe haven for the family ▪ The living advantages in a quiet surrounding and the accessibility to shopping and public facilities
At the same time though, sprawl also inhibits negative characteristics, which people have to cope with in their daily life: ▪ The lack of road and drainage maintenance that have an unpleasant influence on the residential environment ▪ Flooding during the rainy season whereby accessibility of roads deteriorates ▪ The congested Kwattaweg which constrains easy movement of people and traffic from the original point to the destination during an increasing number of hours of the day ▪ The poorly organized and outdated public transport that has increased car use
When it comes to address the disadvantages of sprawl and consequently enhance the quality of living in the neighbourhood, the investigation clearly showed that above all the maintenance of the physical infrastructure has a high priority, while community security is lower on the priority list. Aspects that could improve the living pleasure such as secure public transport, walkable streets,
62 | P a g e better organized housing and more employment and leisure activities in the immediate vicinity, are not indicated as advantages. However, being able to do shopping in the immediate vicinity is considered an important advantage for the residents. Presumably, for people to secure a house (i.e. roof over the head) is more important than a good community, in which people feel more involved in developments that take place in their neighborhood. It can be concluded that the individual interests outweigh the collective interests, and generally people are quite satisfied with what is offered to them by the project developers. Unfortunately, there are only a few project developers, who are committed to design an integrated neighbourhood, where living is combined with work and recreation at relatively short distances.
How can lessons learned in the Kwatta region be used to formulate strategies for developing sustainable living communities in Paramaribo as a whole?
Building with a higher density can be linked to different aspects, such as the number of houses per surface unit, the number and size of the bedrooms per house, the number of people living in a house and the number of residential floors. In Suriname, building new houses at higher densities is still viewed as a problem, rather than as a solution for the increasing demand and high prices for housing and as a great opportunity to offer new forms of building. Higher density includes not only smaller parcel sizes, but also apartment buildings, urban villages, sub urban settlements as well as infill in the historic urban core. However, in general, people assume that more people living in the same amount of space will inevitably reduce the quality of life for the existing and new coming residents. There is also a range of potential barriers to build higher density housing, including legislation on minimum parcel size and apartments, the variety of peoples’ interests and the required minimum standards in order to prevent unwanted living situations. Furthermore higher densities can sometimes be controversial and are not always appropriate. Nevertheless, when well designed and built on the right location, higher density housing can be a means of creating better neighbourhoods. The associated road pattern and cluster development are also conducive for the construction of utilities. On the other hand, though, dense building does require extra features such as a playground, parking space and a community/botanical garden.
Sprawl increases construction costs of utilities and does not guarantee adequate supply of services, while a dense and viable neighborhood is capable of supporting local services. Yet, success should not be measured by density levels on a specific location, but by whether better neighbourhoods are being created.
Overall, people in the research area are satisfied with their living environment, which they have classified as a middle income neighbourhood with an average satisfaction score of 7.8 on a scale from 1 to 10, while 64% of the households gave a score above this average. This feeling of satisfaction is linked to the fact that people have not experienced deterioration in their living pleasure and living circumstances. Although, the choice they have made to live in the Kwatta region was well considered, it must be stated that the supply of residential areas based on modern standards is rather limited. Project developers are mainly focused on financial profits and not on designing residential areas that radiate a more pleasant living environment. People often assume that what is offered by the project developer is the standard for a modern living environment. The government, as a key player, is mainly focused on the technical aspects linked to the development of a residential area and does not provide basic guidelines for the aesthetic aspects of a living environment.
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UN-Habitat supports countries to develop urban planning methods and systems to address current urbanization challenges such as sprawl, poverty, inequality, pollution, congestion, as well as urban biodiversity, urban mobility and energy. They underline that cities of the future should build a different type of urban structure and space, where city life thrives and the most common problems of current urbanization are addressed. Urban planning theory should help build a new and sustainable relationship between urban dwellers and urban space. This approach is based on the five principles that support compact and integrated neighborhoods: ▪ Adequate space for streets and an efficient street network ▪ High density ▪ Mixed land use ▪ Social mix ▪ Limited land use specialization
7. General conclusions: Strategies for development of sustainable living communities in Greater Paramaribo
7.1 The KAR strategy In the literature many definitions of sustainable communities are described. But as each development of a specific area or community has its own characteristics, the result is a community with unique opportunities and constraints. This is also true for the Kwatta Region with its coastal wetland ecosystems, ridges and inter-ridge depressions and their unique natural species. All in all, a sustainable community undoubtedly refers to a naturally balanced and healthy community. UN- Habitat: The New Urban Agenda, 2002, mentions twelve major features which need to be addressed to achieve sustainable communities.
Table 15: UN Habitat features for sustainable communities Ecological Protection Affordable Housing Density and Urban Design Liveable Communities Urban infill Sewage and storm water Village Centres Water Local Economy Energy Public Transportation 3 R’s (recycling, reduced car dependency, restoration of ecosystems)
Although not all 12 features are relevant to the Kwatta Region, they do provide a starting point for a holistic and integrated framework to help understand what needs to be considered in developing sustainable communities. The rapid physical growth of Greater-Paramaribo does not match the international acceptation to use available land in an efficient and sustainable way. Urbanization is closely associated with land use, which has an impact on our environment and ecosystems such as an urban heat island effect3, loss of biodiversity, soil erosion and pollution. The outward expansion of Paramaribo has overall resulted in low population densities per square kilometre, commercial ribbon development along main roads and scattered residential settlements. The consequences of
3 Increase of the temperature as result of a high carbon emission by cars in a specific part of the city.
64 | P a g e this sprawling development should receive more and adequate attention in the urban planning of Paramaribo in the 21st century. Greater Paramaribo needs to be prepared for urban growth and the promotion of more efficient communities by improving current development patterns and address problems related to sprawl.
To achieve a harmonious development in neighbourhoods, basic values categorized in three domains and their related elements are presented in Figure 44. These essential basic values can support the path towards decentralization to be adopted by the government, whereby a local or district authority becomes the most important body in the localization of sub-urban services and housing schemes. In order to enable the implementation of this strategy, it would be necessary to restructure and strengthen the local bodies (Resort Council and District Council) and provide them with resources (human and financial) to handle this changing policy. It is also important to explore areas in which the government and private sector can cooperate in partnership, such as infrastructure development, for which there is an urgent need. Neighbourhood development should be addressed from an integrated perspective, whereby all stakeholders are involved in the discussion related to the quality of life and eco-systems of local communities.
Water and energy planning and management are some of the important sections of spatial organization of the urban landscape and spatial planning. Water distribution network and energy supply are not only the key infrastructure of a society, but also an important issue of spatial planning. Urban expansion is not only a challenge to provide basic services such as water and electricity, but also a common responsibility to protect the environment. Energy production from renewable resources, the reduction of energy consumption as well as recycling of waste water fit well within the 21st century approach of UN Habitat Planning Sustainable Cities (2010). All in all, a stronger focus on spatial aspects and community development is needed, consistent with a progressive government and an active participatory society.
Individuals in the different neighbourhoods of the Kwatta Region are often not aware of the advantages of sustainable communities. There is limited internal neighbourhood awareness and moreover neighbourhoods have accepted their living conditions as standard. There is a lack of advocacy due to long-term acceptance and living with unaddressed issues. Not only should the livability of the neighbourhoods be improved, but also the solidarity among households. Residents have to become pro-active to achieve a higher residential quality in their neighbourhood. Already from the beginning, the public and private sector need to engage people into the discussion on how to improve their livelihoods and thereby to achieve a better output of spatial planning. In fact, we need to move from planning for people (top down approach) to planning with people (bottom up approach).
Based on these basic values, I have constructed the KAR-strategy, Knowledge (K), Action (A) and Result (R), which is a simple tool to operate the bottom up approach (see Figure 44). Knowledge (surveys, data, maps and reports) of the physical and social aspects within a specific area or a community is the basis for planning. In the bottom up approach planning is action starting from the grassroots to create residents’ awareness and ownership that should result in sustainable communities.
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•built environment •natural ecosystems Knowledge •residents needs
• investigate people´s needs and livelihoods •strenghtening and involvement of community organizations to participate in planning Action issues for sustainable neigbourhoods
•variety in land use and compact neighbourhoods • attractive and safe living environment Result • a thriving and prosperous community
Figure 44: KAR strategy
7.2 Values and elements needed to design sustainable neighbourhoods
Which values and specific elements are needed to design sustainable neighbourhoods? Making use of the theoretical studies as well as the fieldwork experiences, I have developed a conceptual frame, as shown in the three compartments of Figure 45. The conceptual frame, which is based on the PPP-approach and takes into account principles of smart growth and urban ecology, can be used as a starting point to formulate some basic principles and/or values in designing a master plan for the development of sustainable neighbourhoods.
Values based on Urban Ecology Elements to be promoted Location characteristics based on give people the full satisfaction for their choice built environment of a specific residential area natural environment strengthen a sense of community identity residents among residents livelihoods stimulate residents to expand and maintain location history their social capital encourage the responsibility of residents to protect natural and cultural land make people aware of maintaining their neighborhood stimulate green planting and neighbourhood beautifying introduce new systems of waste collection attract businesses and services for the benefit of the people improve quality of housing in deplored neighborhoods revitalize abandoned agriculture activities
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Values based on Smart Growth Elements to be promoted Density concentration of activities and achieve costs savings on land, infrastructure for people in a certain (urban) area traffic, energy and potable water promote social connectedness help to conserve natural land in relation to urban development strengthen the mobility of the people Connectivity stimulate people’s sense of safety and security physical condition to facilitate access reduce carbon emission, through promotion of to a certain area modern public transportation reduce congestion in relation with time spending in traffic Mixed land use offer people more choices and opportunities in living and working activities within their neighbourhood e.g. small scale close proximity of the neighborhood recreational facilities encourage walking and cycling promote social integrity Adaptability increase diversity of uses of buildings and capacity of neighborhoods to adapt public space over years to changing needs increase the number of people who can benefit from a wider range of opportunities
Values based on PPP-principles Elements to be promoted Integrated decision making increase opportunities for good urban planning organizations/institutions involved in create a greater number of opportunities for urban policy, planning and people to benefit implementation allow complementary work; economic, social and environment Users participation involve all stakeholders to contribute from their public, private and people insights and possibilities consultation process allow a higher effective use of available resources create a great sense of user ownership Figure 45: Values and elements to design sustainable neighbourhoods
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8. Recommendations
A balanced and strategic land use planning is essential to achieve a sustainable city. The development of a region not planned with sustainability in mind is a neglected opportunity to sustain communities and will lead to urban sprawl, where due to single housing, the provision of infrastructure and services is often inefficient. Up till now, the government in Suriname has only limited ideas on the future development of the city of Paramaribo. In the fringe areas, such as the Kwatta region, the situation is worse, given that almost all land belongs to the private sector and the government remains a passive player. Participatory urban decision making is considered the key to involve a full range of stakeholders to debate, complement and budget their requirements. In fact the government should take more responsibility to establish a strong public-private-partnership in order to formulate a vision to set up goals for urban areas.
The modern urban planning approach based on zoning, was initiated in the 19th century with the dual objective of reducing the negative impact of the growing city on human health and providing safe and healthy environments for residents and workers. The lay-out of a community should encourage participation in physical activities such as walking and biking. Important design elements should also include street lightning, recreational facilities and access to schools, public transport and shopping and employment areas. The fishbone lay-out of the Kwatta region shows a concentration of stores and the Kwatta market along the main road, which are not within a walkable distance for the residents in the exit roads. In fact, the Rijweg naar Kwatta and even the sidewalks are dominated by the automobile. Possibilities should be explored to redesign and/or connect the exit roads, so that an inner-ring-road can be developed to reduce some pressure on the Rijweg naar Kwatta and moreover strengthen the neighbourhood feeling and local friendship network.
What constitutes a good neighbourhood is rather personal, being the perception of an individual of what a good neighbourhood should be. This perception is influenced by a combination of personal ideas and available opportunities. All in all, good neighborhoods have similar characteristics which last decades, including elements such as green surrounding and fresh air, proper collection and disposal of garbage and avoidance of health risks. Nowadays, commercial activities are expanding in the residential areas in Paramaribo, because in the national spatial planning economic benefits are being preferred over more social and environmental objectives. This development causes spatial as well as social tensions, whereby the presence of supermarkets, warehouses and casinos, ‘short visit’ apartments and car wash businesses has not only degraded the quality of the neighborhoods, but also the living pleasure of residents, and consequently the good feeling about their neighbourhood.
In Suriname spatial planning, and in particular zoning schemes, should change radically from an economic oriented one to a function oriented approach. Via regulations of land use, especially to protect natural reserves and areas vulnerable to sea level rising, orderly spatial structures can be created in an effective way.
In the Development Plan 2012-2016, Suriname in Transformation, the topic of spatial planning is summarized as “through a responsible policy existing space can be organized in such a way, that development goals can be achieved”. Urban planning and management is a fastidious process, but spatial planning should focus on a good balance between the ecological carrying capacity and the living quality. Yet, more research is needed to convince the government of the negative impact of
68 | P a g e sprawl on climate change, public health, ecosystems in the wetlands of the coastal zone and potential agriculture land as well. Government intervention is required to guide urban development to improve the quality of living in Paramaribo, both in the old and new sub urban centers. But, the development of sustainable neighbourhoods should be a multi-dimensional cooperation involving a wide range of stakeholders to ensure success in developing sustainable neighbourhoods.
I have designed a simple approach, which could form the starting point for developing a Master Plan for Sustainable Housing Schemes. This approach distinguishes three levels: an inter-ministerial planning department, an integrated site development plan and a control department. The development of housing schemes should be addressed through an inter-ministerial approach and based on an adequate integrated urban development plan, aimed at achieving sustainable living environments, in which attention is also paid to the protection of the natural ecosystems. Furthermore, the input from both project developers and future residents is needed in order to ensure that those elements contributing to as well as enhancing living pleasure are surely included in the integrated site development plan. Finally, via the control department the implementation of this site development plan should be managed and guided to ensure sustainable living environments and pleasure.
Master Plan for Sustainable Housing Schemes
inter-ministerial planning department public-private advice board collaborative civil technique department
integrated site development plan infrastructure and greenery housing and services
control department approval and completion sale and building
Figure 46: Master Plan for Sustainable Housing Scheme
If there is no change in the way Paramaribo and its sub urban areas are planned, the consequence will be an urbanized Paramaribo that is out of touch with its natural environment, unhealthy for its inhabitants, and although a small one, a serious contributor to the process of global climate change. Steering Paramaribo away from sprawl will be a long and difficult process, but changes in the current pattern of urban development are necessary.
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Interviews
Ramlakhan, F. (June 2013) Landscape Architect at FEMO WES Ltd.
Krishnadath, L. (July 2013) Director of the Planning Department of the Ministry of Public Works
Sardjoe, D. (July 2013) Director of Intervast Suriname N.V. REAL ESTATE AGENCY
Local residents: Hauraweg Maisuriweg Katwaroestraat Mariposaweg
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Annex 1 Satellite image with street pattern layer of the Kwatta region between the Derde and Vierde Rijweg
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Annex 2 Street pattern layer of the Kwatta region between Derde and Vierde Rijweg
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Annex 3 Survey form
Onderzoeksproject Derde en Vierde Rijweg 2013 Enquête vragen Code:
Kenmerken huishoudens
Wat is het Aantal aantal personen in dit huishouden? Samenstelling Mannen <16 17-60 >60 Vrouwen <16 17-60 >60 Shoolgaande Aantal kinderen Vervoer naar VOJ type onderwijs? Lopend Fiets Vervoer ouders Openbaar vervoer
Welke route? via 4e RW Via 3e RW Via 2e RW Via 1e Ringweg Kwattaweg RW Vervoer naar VOS Vervoer Openb. type onderwijs? Lopend Fiets ouders vervoer
Welke route? via 4e RW Via 3e RW Via 2e RW Via 1e Ringweg Kwattaweg RW Vervoer naar HBO/ Vervoer Openb. type onderwijs? Universiteit ouders vervoer Lopend Fiets
Welke route? via 4e RW Via 3e RW Via 2e RW Via 1e Ringweg Kwat RW taweg Kostwinner(s) Totaal Beroep Werkgever Werklocatie Type vervoer
L F A OV 1 2 3 4
Hoeveel geld besteedt u maandelijks aan transportkosten? Srd………………………………….
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Kenmerken huis/woonduur
Oppervlakte woning in m² Oppervakte perceel in m² Indien andere woningen < 5 jaar 5 tot 15 jaar 15 tot 30 jaar >30 jaar op het perceel. Leeftijd?
Wie wonen er? Familie Huurders
Hoe lang woont u hier? <5 jaar 5 tot 15 jaar 15 tot 30 jaar >30 jaar
Sedert welk jaar? In welke buurt woonde u toen u verhuisde? Waarom bent u uit uw oude buurt weggegaan?
Hoe typeert u de buurt Arm Middenstand Rijk waar u vandaan komt?
Wat is de reden dat u voor deze buurt gekozen hebt om te wonen? Is hier de plek waar u Ja, omdat voor de rest van uw leven zal wonen? Nee, omdat Wat is de Eigendom Huurvrij (wonen bij Boedel Huur eigendomssituatie? familie)
Hebt u stromend water? Ja Indien nee, waar haalt u water vandaan?
Hebt u electriciteit 1 fase 2 fasen 3 fasen (EBS)? Maakt u gebruik van Nee andere energiebronnen? Ja , welke? Hebt u telefoon? Ja Nee Hebt u internet? Ja Nee
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Kenmerken buurt
Hoe noemt u de buurt waar u Arm Middenstands Rijk woont? Wat zijn de voordelen van het wonen in deze buurt? Wat zijn de nadelen van het wonen in deze buurt? Waar doet u uw inkopen voor Dichtbij Vaak op de markt In de buurt van het werk elke dag? Is er een buurtvereniging die Nee de belangen van de buurt behartigt? Indien ja, bent Ja u lid? Nee Hoe typeert u het contact met Slecht Matig Goed de buren? Voelt u zich veilig in deze Ja, omdat buurt?
Nee, omdat Is er ooit bij u ingebroken? Nooit
Ja, aantal keren Komt de vuilophaalwagen hier Ja, hoe vaak? langs? Nee, hoe raakt u uw huisvuil kwijt? Loopt uw perceel/de straat Nee onder water bij zware regen? Indien ja, wie Niemand buren / Overheid stuent u dan? vrienden Heeft u een open of gesloten Gesloten Volgens Ja Nee riolering? standaarden OW aangelegd?
Open , wie onderhoudt dat? Zelf Overheid
De weg is niet geasfalteerd. Welke reden(en) volgens u?
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Percepties van een duurzame woonomgeving
Wie is de verkavelaar van deze wijk? Wat vindt u van de lay-out van de verkaveling?
Is de prijs die u betaalde voor het perceel (+huis) in verhouding met de kwaliteit die u gehad hebt? Waarin hebt u geïnvesteerd om de woonplezier in uw buurt te verhogen? Wat zou volgens u gedaan moeten worden om de woonkwaliteit te verhogen? Wie zou daarvoor verantwoordelijk Buurtbewoners Overheid Verkavelaar moeten zijn? Kunt u drie top prioriteiten 1 2 3 aangeven waaraan volgens u een goede woonbuurt moet voldoen?
Welke waardering geeft u aan de Waardering woonkwaliteit van uw buurt op een schaal van 1 tot 10
Bedankt!