PSYCHOLOGICAL Increased Autonomy EFFECTS for Children

Gary B. Melton

Discussions of proposals for self­ but that they would be adversely mediating variable and motivating determination by children and affected by facing the dilemmas force. Indeed, the social-psychological adolescents have typically centered involved. Conversely, it is possible literature is filled with research on on concerns about their ability to that children's competence to make a the effects of the experience of exercise autonomous choice reasoned choke is marginal, but that power and perceived control.J completely. Conseciuently, in recent there are positive benefits from the Even from a behaviorist years there have been numerous experience of decisionmaking ptr st perspective, "freedom" can be articles analyzing the cognitive which outweigh the risks. conceptualized meaningfully.4 The reciuirements for competent This article is an examination of degree of personal autonomy one has decisionmaking in various possible effects of freedom and can be defined as the breadth and situations.I Despite this interest in autonomous action on children. efficacy of his behavioral repertoire: applying psychological research to Competence issues aside, what the range of alternative behaviors an ciuestions of children's rights, the actually happens when the autonomy individual possesses in a given available literature has been largely of children is increased? It should be situation. Also relevant is the indirect. That is, data concerning the emphasized that this discussion strength of available counter­ ways in which children actually consists, primarily, of speculations controls: the degree of control an exercise choices when given the based on research which is tangential individual has over his controllers. opportunity for self-determination in to the ciuestion of effects of That is, does the individual have any "real life" are notably absent. Rather, increased autonomy. There have power to reinforce or- punish those reviewers of the literature have been few systematic evaluations of who are in authority? tended to extrapolate from natural settings in which children The significance of this laboratory research on cognitive and have been given a clear measure of psychological conceptualization of social development. ' autonomy. autonomy is that it implies that Furthermore, competence has been Jn considering the effects of freedom and autonomy are not all­ emphasized with the exclusion of autonomy, it is important to examine or-none variables. Even if children other pyschological considerations the psychological meaning of this possess rights (whether legal or which may be relevant to policy concept. Behavior may ultimately be "natural") to self-determination in decisions concerning increased determined by external particular contexts, it does not autonomy for children. In particular, contingencies, and in that sense necessarily follow that individual little attention has been given to the freedom and autonomy may in fact children will experience having real effects upon children of allowing be illusory. 2 Nonetheless, there is choices. them increased freedom and ample evidence that the tzperitnu of More generally, children autonomy. In what ways does the autonomy, irrespective of its (particularly young children) are experience of freedom and antecedents, is an important unlikely to perceive themselves as autonomous action change children? having rights, regardless of the It is conceivable that children might "objective" reality of their legal be able to make a competent choice,

10 status.5 As Keith-Spiegel puts it, Perhaps the clearest possible effect violation of rules established by children learn that they should of increased autonomy for children authority. "'obey thy father and mother'-and would be a facilitation of moral Expressed more concretely, it is anyone else bigger than they are."6 development and of legal unsurprising that children do not Children's history of punishment for socialization in particular.7 Both acquire a sense of personal non-compliance is likely to render cognitive-developmental and social­ involvement in a democratic political them disbelieving (at least initially) learning theorists emphasize the system when the student of gestures designed to increase their significance of participation in role­ "government's" authority is limited autonomy. The probability of taking in determining the rate of to choosing the band for the dance in experiencing rights as applicable to moral development.a Essentially, the school gym. Conversely, political oneself decreases further if a child moral-development theorists socialization is likely to be enhanced has rarely experienced entitlement. conceptualize achievement of if freedom of the press is not simply Thus, lower-class children tend to milestones in cognitive development taught as an empty platitude but is persist until early adolescence in an as necessary but not sufficient for t:rprritntrd by the school newspaper understanding of rights as those progress in moral development. For staff. "Due process" is much more things which one can, in fact, example, from a cognitive­ meaningful when actively applied to concretely have or do without being developmental perspective, formal­ school disciplinary procedures. punished. operational thought (the capacity to The long-term political cost of a The implication of the discussion think abstractly) is necessary for the system in which socialization is based thus far is that changes in children's attainment of principled moral on an experience of lack of legal status, for example, may have reasoning. However, attainment of participation and of a "law-and­ minimal impact on the level of such reasoning based on abstract order" morality is a populace which autonomy which they in fact ethical principles also requires does not apply democratic principles experience. Such changes may often extensive experience with resolving to concrete situations. There is be psychologically moot, particularly ethical problems in social interaction ample evidence that, while most for children from disadvantaged and exposure to diverse, "higher" Americans support civil liberties in groups. Furthermore, the freedoms points of view.° From a more social the abstract, large percentages of which are introduced may not be perspective, development of such American adults would not extend salient to the children affected and, principled reasoning requires a freedom of speech to unpopular consequently, of little effect. Thus, it pluralistic cultural setting in which groups or due-process rights to is not surprising that children are there is an opportunity to attempt to criminal defendants.11 While this lack more concerned about "rights" with integrate diverse expectations and to of tolerance is in itself disturbing, regard to family rules than due­ choose among a variety of means of one of the related issues is that process rights and freedom of access to social and economic goals. many citizens probably do not expression. It is quite possible that The implication of these analyses exercise their rights because they most minors would not exercise civil is that a requisite of enhanced moral neither perceive themselves as really liberties even if they were available development is the opportunity for having rights nor understand the to them. democratic resolution of social application of rights. Of concern Specific measures to increase conflicts and for independent moral here is that these views are most autonomy for children, too, need not decisionmaking by children. For common in disadvantaged groups translate into increased psychological example, in his classic text on moral who have little experience in diverse freedom. However, such an development, Piaget advocated social role-taking.12 Perhaps an initial experience is likely to be more schools based on "self-government" step toward these groups' use of probable if the new freedom does and interpersonal cooperation.10 their rights under the law as a not occur in isolation. A child who From Piaget's perspective, schools "mobility belt"IJ is the development has had a variety of experiences of based on a primary value of respect of socialization systems which foster active participation in decisionmaking for authority are unlikely to facilitate the experience of autonomy. would be less likely to generalize an moral development on an individual There may be immediate affective expectation for compliant behavior to level. Rather, such disciplinary and behavorial consequences of a situation in which he really can systems confirm the young child's increasing freedom for children. make a free choice. The discussion egocentric view of morality as the Perhaps most directly relevant here that follows, therefore, will be avoidance of punishment for is reactance theory. u Briefly, concerned with the effects of reactance theory predicts that when affirmative, broad attempts to design an established or expected behavioral systems which feature minors' self­ determination.

11 freedom is eliminated or threatened dli with elimination, reactance is aroused and the individual is ., motivated to restore the freedom. I! There are several ways in which this ~ l"'t1 motivation can be expressed \ behaviorally. Most obviously, the r. individual can act directly to restore kJ the freedom. The classic example of this means of expression of reactance is the phenomenon of "reverse psychology." That is, if told not to make a particular choice, the individual will in fact do so. Secondly, there can be an indirect attempt to restore freedom, such as disobedience of the next request made. Third, the individual may not take action to restore freedom, but (if not) reactance will result in a perception of increased attractiveness of the lost freedom. ., Given the relevance of this social­ psychological concept to children, it might be predicted that increased freedom would reduce reactance. Correspondingly, one might expect a children and adolescents, who are responses of children to increased reduction in oppositional behavior usually provided with more freedom. The best researched of which was principally motivated by a opportunities for independent these concepts is probably locus of desire to assert freedom of choice. behavior than younger children. At control, u the degree to which an However, such predictions are least one study corroborates this individual perceives reinforcement as overly simple. There are several hypothesis. Wicklund and J. Brehm17 being under his control. While there factors which affect the strength of informed junior-high students that is probably some relationship, it is reactance, one of which is the they would be having an assembly important to note that there is not a importance of the threatened with a speaker who would advocate direct parallel between increased freedom. One of the considerations lowering the voting age from 21 to opportunity for autonomous in making predictions about 18. Four days later, the students decisionmaking and locus of control, reactance in children is that, as were told that the assembly had been and the relationship may be a weak discussed previously, they may not canceled because a school one. To reiterate, locus of control feel that they have freedom initially. administrator objected to their involves perceived control over Obviously, one cannot restore a hearing the speech. As predicted by rtinfomrs. It is conceivable that a freedom which was not there. reactance theory, the majority of youngster might have control over Studies using first and fifth·-grade students in the "censorship" decisionmaking but still not feel that children, unlike earlier research with condition expressed more positive his behavior has systematic college students,15 have shown that attitudes toward lowering the voting consequences. In other words, a child direct attempts at social influence by age. Presumably the freedom to hear might believe that his being adults produce compliance. Only diverse opinions was in fact salient rewarded or punished was not when another adult creates or to the junior-high students. contingent on the quality of decision restores the freedom does the direct In addition to reactance, other that he made. influence produce observable social-psychological constructs may To the extent to which increased reactance behavior.16 be useful in explaining or predicting autonomy implies an increase in The initial predictions of decreased control over contingencies of reactance with increased freedom reinforcers, an increase in locus of may be valid, however, for older control would be expected, however.

12 consented. Consequently, the freedom to decide might increase the child's motivation to perform well in the program. Furthermore, to the extent to which such programs are in themselves stressful, participation in the decisionmaking process might serve as an "innoculation" against the stress to follow and increase the probability of the child's sustained involvement in the program.2~ The significance of choice as a factor in performance has been examined most extensively in a series of studies by Brigham involving preschool and elementary­ school children.2s In these studies, response rate in working arithmetic problems was markedly accelerated when the children had had the opportunity to choose among enjoyable math games as reinforcers (compared with teacher-selection of the consequence). Choice itself was also demonstrated to be a positive reinforcer. That is, response rate was Such an increase was reported in an that one is the Origin of his behavior further increased if the child had the evaluation of an "Open Campus" to feeling that one is a Pawn, pushed opportunity to choose where he or high school in northwest Georgia.19 around by the environment. Of the teacher would select the Students were given the same interest in the present context are consequences. Response rate was freedoms that they would have if the efforts of deCharms and his also accelerated, although not to a they were attending a community associates to develop school settings statistically significant extent, by the college. Locus of control of the which are based on increasing opportunity to set goals within the students became more internal, children's sense of themselves as contingencies. Even though the especially for blacks, who arguably Origins.2J Through teacher training, student-set goals were substantially had less previous experience of they have helped teachers to increase the same as had been set by the control. the "origin climate" in their teacher, most children preferred to The concept of "personal classroom, to increase students' set the goals themselves. causation"20 may be more promising sense of personal control and While there is reason to believe than locus of control as an outcome responsibility. Such attempts to vest that increased autonomy for children variable in studies of effects of control in the students result in would have a number of positive increased autonomy. While the increased academic achievement as psychological effects, it is probable concepts are superficially similar, well as increased Origin scores. that these variables would interact reported correlations between As suggested by such findings, with task difficulty and age. To the personal causation and locus of there is reason to believe that extent to which children are not control are quite low.21 The increased autonomy would increase predisposed to make "good" decisions difference is conceptualized as being children's performance in those in difficult situations, the negative between perception and experience.22 spheres in which they had the consequences of these decisions Personal causation refers to the opportunity to make choices. For might actually increase the children's global experience of being in control: example, the affirmative act of discomfort. Furthermore, where the a dimension ranging from feeling making a choice might induce choice is between aversive events or cognitive dissonante if a child did not one of such complexity that it is an follow through on an educational or treatment program to which he

13 impossible choice, the necessity of autonomy are likely to have effects ULevine, F.J. and J.L. Tapp, op. cil . making a choice itself may be quite which are situation-specific. UWicklund, R.A. Fmdom and Rtatlanu, anxiety-provoking. Researchers must be as sensitive to Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, In order to identify factors "psychological" as to "objective" 1974. freedom. 15Worchel, 5. and J.W. Brehm. "Direct predicting these potential negative and Implied Social Restoration of effects as well as to test other Freedom.'' in Journal of Ptrsona/1/y 11nd hypotheses suggested in this article, Social Psychology, 1971, 18, pp. 294-304. there is a need for field research Footnotes 16Brehm, S.S. "The Effect of Adult evaluating systematic attempts to Influence on Children's Preferences: •Keith· Speigel, P. "Children's Rights as increase children's autonomy. There Compliance versus Opposition," in Participants in Research," in G.P. Journal of Abnormal Chrld Psychology, 1977, are now many programs which Koocher (ed.), Childrtn's Rights and tht 5, pp. 31-41. include some measure of youth Mtnlal Htalth Profrssionals, New York: 17Wicklund, op. cit.; and Brehm, op. cil. autonomy, but these programs have Wiley, 1976. 11Lefcourt, H.M. Lieus of Control. Hillsdale, seldom been evaluated. 1Skinner, B.F. Beyond Frudom and Dignity, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1976. One of the few relevant evaluation New York: Bantam 1971. 19Rosen, C.E. "The Impact of an Open studies was an examination of the JPerlmuter, L.C. and R.A. Monty. Choiet Campus Program Upon High School and Pmtivtd Conlrol. Hillsdale, N.J.: effects of allowing elementary-school Students' Sense of Control Over Their Lawrence Erlbaum, 1979. children access to health care on Environment.'' in Psychology in tht Schools, •Mahoney, M.J. and C.E. Thoreson. Stlf­ their own initiative through the 1977, 14, pp. 216·219. Control: Powtr lo lht Ptrson, Monterey, school nurse as done by C.E. and 2odeCharms, R. Ptrson11I Causalian: Tht California: Brooks/Cole, 1974. M.A. Lewis, A. Lorimer, and P.P. lnltrna/ Afftelivt Dtltrmin11nls of Bth1111ror, 5Melton, G.B. "Children's Concepts of 20 New York: Academic Press, 1968. Palmer. Lewis et al. related use· Their Rights," in Journal of Clinical Child 21deCharms, R. "Personal Causation and patterns to variables which had been Psychology, in press; and, Child Ad11otaty: Perceived Control," in L.C. Perlmuter found to be relevant to adults' use of Piychological Issurs and lnltrlltnlions, New and R.A. Monty {eds.), Choiet and the health-care system {e.g., class, York: Plenum, in preparation. Ptretit1td Control, Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence sex, locus of control. perceived •Keith-Speigel, op. til., p. 56. Erlbaum, 1979. vulnerability, etc.). They also studied 7 Levine, F.J. and J.L Tapp. "The Dialectic of Legal Socialization in Community 22lbid. effects of the program on health­ 23deCharms, R. Enhancing Molivalion: Changt and School," in J.L Tapp and F.J. related beliefs, actual use rates, etc. in tht Classroom, New York: Irvington, Briefly, they found that the program Levine (eds ), LAw. Justict. and /ht Individual in Socitly, New York: Holt, 1976. was effective in reducing perceived UMeichenbaum, D. Cagnili11t·Bth11111or Rinehart & Winston, 1977. Modrficalion . An lntrgralivt Approach, New severity of health problems and •Selman, R.L. "Social Cognitive York: Plenum, 1977. increasing the value placed on self­ Understanding: A Guide to Educational 25Brigham, T.A. "Some Effects of Choice care. Actual patterns of utilization of and Clinical Practice.'' in T. Lickona on Academic Performance," in L.C. health care were not changed, (ed.). Moral Drotlopmtnl and Bthavior· Perlmuter and R.A. Monty (eds.), Choiet however. It was concluded that "the T1itory, Rmarch. and Social lssuts, New nnd Pmtivtd Conlrnl, Hillsdale, N.J.: York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1976. lack of behavioral change should not Lawrence Erlbaum, 1979. •Kohlberg, L. "Moral Stages and be a surprise, since the children are 20Lewis, C.E., M.A. Lewis, A. Lorimer Moralization: The Cognitive­ 'still immersed in a real-world system and P.P. Palmer. "Child-Initiated Care; Developmental Approach," in T . that removes them from a The Use of School Nursing Services by Litkona (ed.), Moral Dtvrlapmtnl and decisionmaking role with regard to Children in an 'Adult-Free' System.'' in Btha11ior. Thtary. Rt~arch , 11nd Saci11l ISS1us, Ptditllrics, 1977, 60, pp. 499-507. their own health care.''l' New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 27Jbid. Lewis et aL's study is instructive in 1976. at least two ways. First, it is •0 Piaget, J. Tht Moral /udgmrnl of tht Chrld, indicative of the kind of research New York: Free Press, 1965. (Originally that needs to be done: conceptually­ published, 1932.) based evaluations of attempts to II Prothro, J.W. and C.W. Grigg. increase children's autonomy in wFundamental Principle5 of Democracy: Gary B. Mtllon is Dimlor of Rmarch. lnstilult natural settings. Second, the results Bases of Agreement and Disagreement.'' in Journ11I of PoliliN, of Luo. Psychiatry. and Public Policy. Uni11mily of this study lend emphasis to the 1969, 22, pp. 276· 294. of Virg inia. Ht is Assistant Pro/mar. Gtntral point that a sense of autonomy may 11Zellman, G.L. "Antidemocratic Beliefs: Facully, School of Uiw. with joint appo1nlmtnls in not be easily engendered when most A Survey and Some Explanations," in psychology and in btha111oral mtdicint 11nd of children's experiences indicate that Journal of Social /ssurs, 1975, 31, pp. 31- psychiatry. Dr. Mtllon "s inltrtsls arr in child they have very little choice. At most, 54. ad1Jocacy, /11w-psychology inlmulion, and rural isolated attempts to increase psychology.

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