A Thesis Submitted to the Department of Environmental Sciences And

CEU eTD Collection

A thesis submitted to the Department of Environmental Sciences and Policy of S urvival strategies, land fragmentation and sustainability Central European University in part fulfilment of the Small scale farmers in Albania: inAlbania: farmers scale Small Degreeof Masterof Science Stela MANTHO May, 2013 Budapest

CEU eTD Collection Supported by the European Commission’s Erasmus Mundus Programme as a of result awarded the degree in of of fulfillment Master Science is submitted thesis This MESPOM Management Environmental Sciences, Policy and Erasmus Mundus Masters Course in (Sweden) and the Univers operated by the University of the Aegean (Greece), Central European University (Hungary), Lund University of the Erasmus Mundus Masters course in Environmental Sciences, Policy and Management (MESPOM) jointly

ity of Manchester (United Kingdom).ity (United of Manchester

successful completion

CEU eTD Collection Mantho, S. (3) any of suchwhich and conditions a prescribe will the terms University, the of permission written the without parties bythird use for available bemade not may and the contrary, to agreement toanyprior subject University, European Central the in vested (2) Author. the of (in writing) permission without the made be not may with instructions accordance such in made copies of process) (by any copies Further made. copies such any part of must form page This the Librarian. from may beobtained Details Library. University European the Central in lodged and bythe Author given instructions with accordance in may bemadeonly extracts, of or (1) Notes on copyright and the ownershipof intellectual property rights: University. European Central Policy, and Sciences Environmental theof Department of the Head from available is place take may disclosuresand exploitation underwhich informationFurther conditions onthe Universit European Central thesis, Science of Master

For bibliographicFor and reference betoshould purposesthisreferred as: thesis is thesis this in bemay described which rights anyproperty of intellectual The ownership inCopyright text this of thesis rests with theCopies Author. (

2013. Small scale farmers in Albania: Survival strategies, land fragmentation and sustainability and fragmentation land strategies, Survival Albania: in scale farmers Small iii

y, Budapest. y, greement.

by any process) either in full, by any either process) full, in

. CEU eTD Collection otheranother anyuniversitylearning. thisor institute or of degreequalificationof other or for an theapplication tohasof of thisbeen referred in thesis work submittedsupport No in portion declaration Author’s iv MANTHO Stela

CEU eTD Collection policies. This study explored the Europe. to Western the comparison pathways in Agriculture sector Cent in and sustainability fragmentation land strategies, Survival Albania: in scalefarmers Small entitled: and Science of Master of the degree for MANTHO Stela OFTHESIS submitted by: ABSTRACT requires a deeper and multi and adeeper requires This tobetheaddressed. least appears fragmentation social whereas fragmentation, activity and physical toaddress mostly initiatives informal are endowing farmers fragmentation, contribute address socio- to cooperationof amongstand fostering farmers willthe publicorganizations; of participation the mode three to order balance in links model. aagriculture Constructing developing sustainable for implications raises disproportion encountered. This lesswere strategies reciprocity and whereas redistribution S fragmentation. land of implications environmental the and strategies survival of context economic accession. EU multifunctionality, sustainability, fragmentation, land strategies, Keywords: development Albania. in current the under toimplement difficult be may practices multifunctionality it consideration environmental and social economic, the addresses that concept development a represents agriculture of Multifunctionality activities. agricultural in participating people young of decline urvival strategies of Albanian of strategies urvival encompasses Common Agriculture Policy reforms Policy Agriculture Common

transition post transition s of agricultural activities and aspects of development for the rural areas. Even though though Even areas. rural the for development of aspects and activities agricultural of s s of economics of new integration through: marketbuilding structures, forms promoting

a wide range of concerns in the rural areas, there are various reasons why why reasons various are there areas, the rural concerns in of range a wide

- small scale farmers, survival farmers, scale small agriculture, Albania, countries, communist

ral and Easternral Europeanhas developed countries different through CENTRAL EUROPEAN UNIVERSITY EUROPEAN CENTRAL - economic pressuresandsustainability. increase Wit faceted agricultural sustainability concerns sustainability agricultural

small scale farmers we farmers scale small n solutio

and are often considered as an obstacle to development to obstacle an as considered often are and Month and Year of submission: May,2013.Month and Yearsubmission: of especially especially v Small scale farmers are sometimes marginalized by marginalized sometimes are farmers scale Small

re more aligned towards market exchange, exchange, market towards morere aligned due todue

the high rate of migration and the and migration of rate high the

in Albaniain

by analyzing the socio by analyzing h regards to land h regards to land

socio

latter

- economic economic

issue issue -

CEU eTD Collection Natkat, P Natkat, Mina, food), amazing her for Marikaneni (especially family his Irisi,Jona, Keida,the and way: Levi my special to thank want I in the villages. ac and homes their me in that welcomed the farmers all to especially to grateful amvery I this of beginning master early thesis. the since recommendations program. understanding and patience, and fo brothers amazing my two and my parents to due are thanks last My megreat with introducing grateful amvery I advices helpful his , insights for to Thanasis Kizos also very thankful amthesis I research. help guidance, that amazing mean with provided wou I Acknowledgements ld like to express my immense gratitude and special thanks to my supervisor Guntra Aistara Aistara Guntra tomy supervisor thanks special and gratitude my immense toexpress like ld aromita, Pohito, and Rowrow. Pohito, aromita,

to MESPOM to me MESPOM for giving the opportunity to be part of this special

in Albania and Albania and in research my field me during that helped the persons all friends from all over the world. the world. over all from friends close friends that supported me and kept me happy, calm and sane along along sane and calm happy, me kept and me supported that friends close their their

unconditional vi

and

affection during the two years of this master master this theof two years during affection encouragement

companied me along my visits my visits me along companied

along the along long months this of r their emotional support, theirsupport, emotional r program and program

and CEU eTD Collection 4. 3. 2. 1. ContentTable of

4.3 4.2 4.1 3.4 3.3 3.2 3.1 2.5 2.4 2.3 2.2 2.1 1.5 1.4 1 1.2 1.1 .3 4.2.1 SURVIVAL STRATEGIES OF SMALL SCALE FARME 3.3.3 3.3.2 3.3.1 3.2.3 3.2.2 3.2.1 TRANS IN DEVELOPMENT URE PATTERNS AGRICULT OF 2.2.2 2.2.1 METHODOLOGY INTRODUCTION

4.2.1.1 3.2.2.2 3.2.2.1 Albanian agriculture development agriculture Albanian post Agriculture in Limitation Research Research Scope Group Target datacollection and design Research “twist” Research the chapters of Outline framework Theoretical Research questions objectives and aim Research andResearch problemdefinition background Survival strategies at household level at strategies household Survival level at strategies professional Survival strateg survival and marginality Defining Nati the selected regions of characteristics Development

onal framework and legislation and framework onal Market exchange strategies exchange Market Lushnja of Region Korca of Region Kukesi of Region Curr the 1990s before development agriculture Early characteristics Country Process Interviewing Selection Region

ent agriculture development after the 1990s the after development ent agriculture New farmers’ markets New farmers’ period communism The War World Second the before agriculture of Patterns

......

...... - ...... communist countries communist

......

...... vii ies

......

...... RS

...... ITION COUNTRIES ITION

...

21 19 48 37 27 26 18 14 13 12 27 34 21 51 43 40 38 35 29 26 19 17 16 13 53 48 43 31 4 5 1 1 5

CEU eTD Collection 8. 7. 6. 5.

5.5 5.4 5.3 5.2 5.1 4.4 APPENDIX REFERENCES CONCLUSION 5.4.1 5.2.3 5.2.2 5.2.1 AND SU FRAGMENTATION LAND 4.3.2 4.3.1

4.3.2.1 4.3.1.1 Land fragmentation and sustainability and fragmentation Land accession EU of context the prospectsin Future fragmentation land of implications Environmental fragmentati land of Dimensions fragmentationLand landconsolidation vs. strategies survival Balancing

Redistribution strategies Can multifunctionality an option? be fragmentation Social fragmentation Activity fragmentation Physical strategies Reciprocity

...... Social networks and public organizations and public networks Social support for structures and Cooperation

......

...... on

...... STAINABILITY CONCERN

...... viii

......

...... S

...... 105 66 91 85 82 74 68 56 53 97 93 79 77 68 64 87 74 61

CEU eTD Collection Figure 8: From conventional agriculture towards multifunctionality towards agriculture conventional From 8: Figure Figure 7:Parcel size distribution. Figure 6:Distri land agricultural bution of by distance DistributionFigure 5: farms of by size ConsumersFigure 4: score viewshopsand supermarkets onfarm (rightmodel sustainable of side) developmentagriculture of the and side) (left thewelfare western of the crises integration; economic of The 3: spheres Figure Figure 2:Share ofland in individual use in CEE (percent ofagricultural land) 1990and 1997 toillustrate examples some and integration economic of The 1: spheres Figure Figures of List

......

...... ix

......

...... 76 53 88 75 74 46 22 9

CEU eTD Collection consolidation and fragmentation land of Characteristics 5: Table landfragmentation of and theTable Three informal 4: dimensions consolidat alternativesof collectives agricultural and cooperatives service of Comparison 3: Table Table Household survivalstrategies 2: and theeconomic integration of modes the regions of characteristics General 1: Table Tables of List

...... x

......

...... ion ..... 59 71 47 39 73

CEU eTD Collection western ones, the CAP model is mostly suitable for the Western European famil European the Western for suitable mostly is model the CAP ones, western in socio difference several legislation. new adaptive the of the implementation to regards in problems torise institutional given the states new has member in instruments policy 2012; especially ( of current countries conditions towards CEECs the policy this of adaptability the little for stands it of critique main the and the CAP of implementation writte have scholars Many reality. in policy this of efficiency and suitability the regarding controversies of a lot to led has which interest of point important an represents implement The policy. development rural with relationship close its and development agriculture theof future regarding framework, decision thestructural challenge for appropriate accession representsongoing the Union an to European Policy. procesadaptation This with andCommonsof the Agricultural the Standards for European de and the almost of population half living rural in areas ( territory of its 90% than more with economies their of share alarge represents It Europe. Eastern the of most one the remains important for sectors transition countries Agriculture of Central and 1.1 1.

velopment, Albania is working to improve Albaniavelopment, working is and adapt

INTRODUCTION Research background and problem definition problem and background Research Gorton

reasons why CAP EU the has not successful been the in CEECs as for instance: the

et al. ation of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) in the new member states of CEECs CEECs of states member new the in (CAP) Policy Agricultural Common the of ation -

economic conditions of the rural areas between the new member states and the the and states member the new between the rural areas of conditions economic 2009; Mincyte 2011b

; Zellei 2001) 1

. The implementation of the EU agricultural agricultural the EU of implementation The . According to Gorton

its development policies in order to comply tocomply order in policies development its

EC 2007 ) Chaplin . With regards to agricultural to . agricultural With regards et al. et

et al. 2004; y farm model, and and ymodel, farm

(2009) Davidova n about

there are are there

et al. the the

CEU eTD Collection farms is not is size onlyfarms based on small for categorization casesthe several that in confirm officials Government them. categorizing a cl not is there although farmers, farm size is 1.26ha ( average the country whilst land, the of agricultural total 70% represent 2ha than less of area average ( the area of land total 39% representing of 1 area total average an theof process the decollectivization from resulted which fragmentation land of rate a high by beencharacterized has regime the socialist of the demise after development agriculture Albania’s the of approximation the implement as well as and Policy Agriculture the Common of the with new requirements policies development their integrate and toadapt required they were Union, European tothe accession for ec planned and state acommand from period transitional the toface had have these early and 1990’s countries in the late1980’s regime the communist ( differences important development of patterns similar somehow experienced have countries these that shows contexts this in literature The Western differentproceeded comparison in to developmentEurope. pathways the in through has (CEECs) countries European Eastern and Central in sector agriculture the of Development reorganization institutional by offered measurements the between the balance Gorton

90’s

et al. . The number of small scale farmers is high, accounting for 320,000 small farms having having small farms 320,000 for accounting is high, farmers smallscale . of number The

2009; ( Gardner and Lerman 2006 Lerman and Gardner Doko Macours and Swinnen 20 of the of European Union. acquis environmental

highly dependent on the agrarian reform implemented in each of them them of each in implemented reform agrarian the on dependent highly - 1.2ha which is fragmented in small parcels with an average of 0.27ha and 0.27ha of average an with small parcels in fragmented is which 1.2ha

of the current transition countries transition the current of et al.

but also on productivity of farms and their commercial rate; howeve rate; commercial their and farms of productivity on also but 2011) . T ear division on the regulatory or national framework for for framework national or regulatory the on division ear he majority of farmers fall under the category of small scale scale small of the category under fall farmers of he majority Doko ; 00; 2001 Lerman

2 et al. et Mathijs andMathijs Swinnen 1998

the CAP and the administrative capacity and and capacity the administrative and the CAP

2011) onomy towards a free market. In the road the road In market. afree towards onomy ; . . . At the prese

Sharman 2003 ) nt time, farms with an an with farms nt time, ) . After the demise of of the demise After . , although there are are there although ,

in the beginning the beginning in r CEU eTD Collection eholds communities and households employ strategies The survival phase. implementation and adaptation policy in challenges may face accession EU of light the in Albania, in farmers scale small for developmen these offarms.conditions theUnder 27 50% EU than more they represent and 10ha than less of size afarm accountfor 12 EU the in farms of majority The another. in large and are states high what one amongst country consider is smallfor differences may considered be the as relative theremain These 27. EU numbers 13ha for of size farm average toan leading 22ha states) is member (established 15 the EU of size farm the average whereas 6ha is states) member T countries. amongst difference aconsiderable exists that there confirms and states, new member of the accession after especially the EU in farms scale a clear division is missing. (2009 Hubbard the toillustrate hope I development for approaches individual their and farmers of strategies survival regarding the ( influencing theinfluencing developmentthe of sector agriculture Albania in factors theimportant most of one seenas been has fragmentation land hand theOn other constructingopportunities sustainable for agriculture. from perspectives different together to bring literature wide futuresustaina a functional foundation for sometimes undermarginalized farmers such conditions is stepa first upthetowards building Meert 2000 Meert socio- economic ; ir Pile 1991

regarding the transformation of the transition countries, an althoughis transition the of the transformation regarding By examining the the By examining context. environment and economic cultural, social, historical,

situation that small scale f scale that small situation ; Redclift 1986) to ed by small scale farmers scale small ed by respond to the pressure of the macro of pressure tothe respond Exploring the current survival strategies of small scale and and smallscale of strategies survival the current . Exploring There There livelihoods. and sector rural ble agricultural )

addresses the defining issuethesmall of of “smallness”

these these 3

facing todayand facing are armers “transitional “transitional he average size farm of the EU 12 (new of farm the size EU he average 12 (new

are seen as an instrument of rural instrument an seenas are

societies ( Deininger - socio economical processes economical socio ”

from various disciplinesfrom

et al.

2012 the the to explore evident evident ; Müller and and Müller t policies t policies exists a a exists need need CEU eTD Collection future alternatives for alternatives future far scale small by employed strategies the survival of the impacts toexplore is research this of aim The 1.2 2004; Davidova practices, constructlivelihoods futuresustainable and their increase quality life of ( agricultural of diversification the improve will that institutions effective and structures organizational research methodsandfor approaches ( policies development to obstacle an as considered thesometimes are in whose CAP farmers smallscale the of role defining in discrepancies ( Policy Agriculture Common future. near regarding it seemsv theIn conditions, current spheres. environment and economic social, amongst approach balanced a needfor the emphasize agriculture sustainable of the principles when relevance higher gain considerations environmental the sametime, towards may move sector the agricultural benefits, ecological byits offered the opportunities byusing and fragmentation land of effects negative the mitigate that alternatives of the promotion Through system. upon the sustainability th of e agricultural impacts its understand to is it highly important moreover, perspectives development future with Sikor 2006 ; mers in Albania and Albania in mers

Research a Research small scale Müller and M Müller S mall scale farmers are sometimes marginalized by the reforms implemented under th under implemented reforms bythe marginalized sometimes are farmers scale mall etal. im 2012; Mincyte 2011b

and objectives objectives and sustainable agriculture development the of light the in agriculture sustainable farmers will represent a good opportunity for this sector to revitalize in the the in torevitalize sector this for opportunity agood represent will farmers

land fragmentation implicati fragmentation land unroe 2008 Davidova ;

Sikor iable that policies, decision making programs or practices practices or programs making decision policies, that iable

et al. the development of small scale farmers and farmers scale small of the development ; Renting Hubbard 2009 Hubbard

et al.

2012;

4 2009)

etal. ons for sustainability ons for Mincyte 2011a . The significance of this issue is correlated Thethis. issuecorrelated significanceof is 2005) ) it is necessary to apply apply to necessary is it Henceforth, .

more sustainable farming prac farming sustainable more . ; Mincyte 2011b

look at at tolook additionally and EU accession. accession. EU ) , and there are there and Chaplin

build tices. At At tices. et al. new new e

CEU eTD Collection bring together these three distinct bodies of literature and analytical approaches in order to represent torepresent order in approaches analytical and literature of bodies distinct these three together bring Eas and of Central countries the transition in farmers smallscale of issues sustainability and patterns development regarding theories existing in rooted is research this of framework theoretical The 1.4 are: questions my research objectives the above and aim the of overall light In 1.3 follows: as defined are research this of objectives main The

tern Europe and household survival strategies based onmodes economic of will integration. I • • • • • • Research q Research Theoretical framework framework Theoretical local patterns of development. of patterns local development? How does agriculture asustainable of the development affecting issues the what are and strategies survival employing farmers scale small are How To ne To evaluate stakeholders. other and actors state with interaction of discuss the gaps to todayand facing are that farmers constraints and problems of the range identify To future perspective opportunities. To assess the understand uestions sustainability and what are the whatfutu are and sustainability affects fragmentation land

w tegies on a on tegies stra the survival of feasibility the need for more “personalized” and appropriate policy policy appropriate and “personalized” more for the need development of small scale farmers. farmers. scale small of development sustainable future for alternatives

model ?

households’ everyday and on life re opportunities transfer

based on based on

of of CEU eTD Collection new market infrastructure new market peoples’ frameworks new institutional and ( sought to address various emerging issues such as: that changes structural that the the premise Embracing countries. European Eastern and the Central of transformation literature wide a is There farmers. scale small of development sustainable future for alternative an as explored th Moreover, sustainability. and with toconsideration identify environmental opportunities landfragmentationregards the of acc fragmentation land of approach ecological the use will I constraints. its toovercome alternatives new explore to and fragmentation land of the impacts tounderline used bySabates developed fragmentation land aspectsof dimensional three The farmers affect developed (2000 by Meert development post in I fragmentation. land socio the analyzing by concerns at sustainability look will I together frameworks these diverse Bymerging country. socio of the economic, chronicle a broader Buchowski 2001 will use of awide range

perception ’

practices and what are the opportunities towards developing a sustainable agric asustainable developing towards the opportunities what are and practices ; Burawoy and Verdery 1999 Verdery Burawoy and -

economic context of survival strategies and the environmental implications of of implications the environmental and strategies survival of context economic - ( communist communist Bridger and Bridger Pine 2013

occurred the in require region

( ) analytical approaches to describe and analyze the patterns of agriculture agriculture of patterns the analyze and describe to approaches analytical Chaplin

and Ploeg and Renting (2004 and Renting Ploeg by multifunctionality of e concept

from various disciplines and theory domains concerning the theoryconcerning disciplinesand domains various from Meert . Based on the modes of economic integration integration economic transition on countries Based of the. modes

( Gatzweiler et al.

et al.

2004;

) (2002) ; , as well as environmental concerns and sustainable

- Gardner and Lerman 2006 Lerman and Gardner De Waal 2004 De Waal et al. cultural and e and cultural 6

land ownership rights and property relationships

2001; I will explore the survival strategies, how they they how strategies, the survival explore will I

a n Lerman 2001 Lerman inter ; nvironment struggles ofnvironment struggles a transition Verdery 2003 Verdery ciplinary dis approach, scholarshave ) , , forms cooperation of and Bentley (1987 to Bentley ording ) , social capital social capital ) ‐ , organizational changes changes organizational , Wheeler (2002 Wheeler change change ) )

will be will be ulture. ulture. and )

CEU eTD Collection implement democrac and capitalism decision economic of framework institutional the destabilizes it because also “ system: transition (1999: 6) system. economic anew build and process the transition whereas economists neoliberal have pushedthe through theory shocktherapy of countriestheTransition in emerged lig Albania. in farmers scale small of stories and my with observations interviews 1999 Verdery along thesurvival transformationprocess ( comprehend pathwaysin theethnographic undergoing CEECs, studies and qualitative help to research i traditions and peoples’in perceptionchanging this transitional process on are crucial points to take micro the on struggles cultural the social with domains macroeconomic and place taking currently processes transitional thatthe conditions the important highly under approach This theoretical is insights. details with ethnographic approachcombines which an anthropological also but common reality, in knowledge critic from only insights notrequire Moreover, 2011b development the in light of n consideration. ; Schwartz 2005;Sikor 2004 ; Sikor 2009

argue against this theory as misleading an misleading as theory this against argue

Buchowski (2001) induced western policies ( policies western induced

connections between andcontemporary the struggle people ) . That is the reason that, in my research I am combining the data collected from my from the datacollected amcombining I my research thein that, is That . reason In order to analyze and understand the macro order understand In toanalyzeand Shock therapy is the wrong medicine not only because of its single its of because only not medicine the is wrong therapy Shock y has been always a goal for agoal always been y has

the new state ( regime

points outtransitional thatprocesses CEECs in thatare the occurring s in the social sciences the social in s ht of building new realities with a totally new economic order new economic atotally with new realities building ht of Burawoy and Verdery 1999 Verdery and Burawoy

Bridger and Pine Bridger 2013 represent a complex range of issues that merge political political merge that issues of range complex a represent ; Zellei 2001) 7

Gatzweiler 2005 Gatzweiler d inappropriate given the characteristics of the the of the characteristics given inappropriate d

eastern countries eastern . Burawoy and Verdery Verdery and Burawoy this, spite of In

, whose, -making ; ; Buchowski 2001 Gatzweiler -

processes the of transitional to replicate the the replicate to fail times at ) . However, the western the western . However, e western model of of model The”. western s minded concern to destroy but but destroy to concern -minded , reflec

whose have fought towhose fought have

in order order in to overcome

- ted in strategies for for strategies ted in et al. Local Local scale. local

; 2001 Burawoy and and Burawoy ; Mincyte Mincyte

CEU eTD Collection development. o patterns economic and the socio toframe help will farmers of strategies survival themodes three in based the CEECs, for 2003) ( context western a under mostly although sphere h of a representation are that strategies survival develop system farmers economic and the new social of the with insecurities faced Being nowadays. faced are countries that these problems specific of therange wide them tosupport utilize myand study of the backbone consider as which I transition in countries of thesein theories based is myThe of skeleton research identitiesand socio- ascultural the differences in at putting threat apossible seenas is sometimes model thewith western compatible more asystemis new build which historicalcommunity values and uponlocal tradition, give to required often are they goal this toachieve order In prominent. still are regime old the of shades realities European eastern in functional and beadaptable mayalways not categorization . Given that there is a lack of theoretical grounded typology for the survival strategies in the in strategies the survival for typology grounded of theoretical alack is . Given that there of inteof rventions and activities. Scholars have ident Scholars activities. and rventions

purpose of this researchof use will I purpose the model

of economic integration byPolanyi integration (1944 economic ) of

( Brandtstädter 2007 Brandtstädter the the to reflects situation macroeconomic ow the Meert 2000 Meert

stake the national or local well grounded traditions local thewelltraditions stake or grounded national 8 economic patterns often lead t lead often patterns economic

; ) Pile 1991; . Thus. , ified different types of survival strategies strategies survival types of different ified

Meert (2000 Meert by developed

the newly emerged model system system model emerged the newly Redclift 1986;

(Figure 1) (Figure o social struggle o social Vemimmen . . the Exploring f agriculture agriculture f micro scale scale micro )

which is

et al.

the the s.

CEU eTD Collection take into consideration the opportunities offered by the natural ecosystems. ecosystems. bythe natural offered opportunities the consideration take into devel agriculture in sustainability common of ent managem collective non- processes, of minimization ecological and biological of integration are: agriculture sustainable for that stand key principles and fibr food of production agricultural from receives society that the net benefits assets.environment Tilman agricultu of sustainability for implications several are there Therefore, practices. tofarming related assets no impacts which asector is Agriculture

Figure Figure 1 re when considering the interaction between the socio thebetween interaction re when considering : The spheres of economic integration and some examples to illus to examples and some integration economic spheres The of :

et al. renewable inputs, the use of farmers’ local knowledge and skills, andrenewable skills, local knowledge usefarmers’ and inputs,the of opment stands for a balanced integration of farm practices which which practices farm of integration abalanced for stands opment

(2002: 676) - pool resourcespool ( t only the social and economic social and the t only

“The goal of sustainable agriculture is to maximize maximize to is agriculture sustainable of state “Thegoal that: 9

Pretty 2008 Pretty trate - economic development and the the and development economic

) ( e and from ecosystem services” ecosystem from e and Source: Source: . Therefore, the concept of of concept the Therefore, . life, but also the environment but the environment also life, Meert (2000 Meert

) )

. The The . CEU eTD Collection ( the produc increase security, enhance food conservation, toenvironmental contribute furthermore and development agriculture for alternative agreat represent approach ecological agro an by systems accompanied farming Smallholder scaleHigh fragmentationof Albania in also is related tonumbe a high sector. the agricultural of sustainability the toevaluate beused will fragmentation land of implications the environmental research this In ( Policy Agricultural bythe Common theoffered one and legacies national between the gap highlight whose structures new reconstituted and the of terms appropriate in challenges represent terms in socio- of opportunities therestructuring transitional agricultural system in the CEECs. Addressing this issue does not only for challenges main the beenone have consolidation for alternatives and fragmentation Land practice. in rights and rights legal between the divergence tackle to the need and resources pool common managing for governance in the state of role the out change the environmental and reform agrarian the between argument the same In protection. resource to contribute can and assets ental environm with interdependent and connected beinherently should practices agricultural that hestates Further resources. environmental of management of terms in especially that the rights and Sikor (2009 ) agriculture. sustainable of development the and assets regime, the own regarding especially and CEECs the system in the overall of change The Altieri 2000 has dr ) . In the samec In . awn attention into the discussion regarding fate and transformation of environmental fate environmental and transformationof discussion regarding awn into the attention

new ownershipnew system rural property, for brought it alsoderivedlegal obligations ontext ontext Amekawa (2011 economic and ecological aspects ( aspects ecological and economic tivity of small farmers and empower local communities communities local empower and farmers small of tivity 10

)

agrees that the interaction between the agro the agro between that the interaction agrees

s in thecountries.s in He transition points Sikor (2004)

argues that besides the benefits that besides argues r of small scale farmers. scale offarmers. small r

brings out the linkage out thebrings linkage Bentley 1987 ership andership property VanDijk 2007) ) , but, also . CEU eTD Collection agriculture in the light of the EU accession. accession. the EU of in the light agriculture fragmentation uncertainties and the to order develop macro in unfolding sustainable of institutions socio between the connection todescribe seek will I side the On other Albania. in development farmers’ scale small on influence their identifying byfurther strategies the survival in reflected process the transition of context social and economic micro and analyze the explore will I framework within this working While systems. ecological and economic social, of interface at the stands sustainability of concept The development. rise gives to environmental and concerns modessustai approaching of The issues complexityof regarding the socio- the future. in policies flexible more tocreate help moreover production farm status current the of appreciation abetter to lead will practices and activities farmers’ Investigating practices. multifunctionality on emphasis with willbeanalyzed category this of ( transition countries of patterns development different the consideration in taking without societies western of context the CAP Mincyte 2011b ( producers smallscale category of this more marginalize seemsto which policies ( practices sustainable more and polycultures, sed of variety increa assets, ecological and biodiversity of protection as: system such agricultural more benefits tothe overall tobring often are considered farmers scale small Although for smallscalecountries. developing livelihoods in farmers tosustainable build cancontribute agriculture of multifunctionality and practices ecological

as sustainableas development policies are often builtto industrialization counter the in ) mall scale farmers are sometimes marginalized by the reforms implemented under under implemented reforms bythe marginalized sometimes are farmers scale . Small Mincyte 20 Mincyte Altieri 2008) 11b ) .

In this research study, future opportunities for development for opportunities study, thisIn research future

on the other side there is a discrepancy reflected in the EU the EU in reflected adiscrepancy is there side the other on - economic transformation of the of CEECseconomic countries transformation economic aspectsland andof environmental issues 11

nable agriculture agriculture nable Mincyte 2011a

of small scale scale small of - scale scale ; CEU eTD Collection fragmentation and development of sustainable agriculture. agriculture. sustainable of development and fragmentation this main of findings toresearch regards with transition countries, survival strategies, land accession EU of in the light agriculture in multifunctionality of Albania and e development agriculture themain from findings re field study agriculture Albanian of characteristics specific and Countries discusses 3 Chapter Further, Albania. 2 Chapter this research: of overview an give To 1.5

Outline of the chapters the of Outline Next, . Next, also e considerations, and also nvironmental Chapter 4 Chapter . Then, Chapter 5

examine

s search, and explore search, and the survival the

agricultural development in Central and Eastern European European Eastern and Central in development agricultural

discusses

strategies of small scale farmers by presenting the the bypresenting farmers scale small of strategies 12 outline

xplore

s the landfragmentation issues concerning in s for building a for building sustainable the challenges the methodology and the field and the methodology s

the main c the main and the three selected regions of this this of selectedand three the regions . Finally hallenges and opportunities hallenges and opportunities ,highlight Chapter 6

research in in research s the CEU eTD Collection being their most prominent problems regarding their agricultural activities agricultural their regarding problems prominent most their being morecontinued thisfocusing time research, were onissues my and that out pointing as farmers I Nevertheless development. of stage early very a in were cases better in or missing were practices, multifunctionality for, was researching what I that torealize started I questions, research my first and further on withdifferent in farmers villages and regions. Despite assumptionsprevious my on my time During conductethesituation there, ground. onI pre the in a lot traveled and my rese todo and topic this more toexplore decided I Albania in sector the agricultural of situation actual the about some tohave knowledge presuming wasalso person, alocal myself consider that I Given mu theme, the main to this stage early my countries. Henceforth European Eastern and the Central on focused my research bykeeping topics emerging similar regard articles many of scholarly review literature thorough avery did I Albania. in sector the agricultural of development the future for alternative potential economic environmental and of opportunities this new concept considered I which as a great i my research during “multifunctionality” of the concept across came I . Albania in farmers scale small the re of aim early the Albania, in activities agricultural on research my focusing on ideas developing was whenI stage the preliminary In 2.1 2. n various agricultural topics.n various continued I to deepen my bymore about research reading the soc

METHODOLOGY METHODOLOGY

Research “twist” Research arch on this specific matter. matter. specific this on arch

ltifunctional practices of small scale framers. framers. scale small of practices ltifunctional - selected regions, I had a more realistic and close perception to the real the real to perception close and realistic amore had I selected regions,

However, after I went to Albania where I did my field research research field my did I where Albania to went I after However, literature review and my research design were built with regard regard with built were design research my and review literature search was to explore the multifunctionality practices of of practices the multifunctionality was toexplore search 13

d interviews with government officials officials government with interviews d ing the multifunctionality topic and and topic theing multifunctionality

on farms. Traveling on farms. io - CEU eTD Collection as well as with regards to the social, historical and cultural perception of farmers. After my field my field After farmers. of perception cultural and historical tothe social, regards with as well as Policy, Agriculture Common current the of adaptation and transfer policy membership, EU of light prob of therange wide of view of point complex a me toconstruct allowed scale review The farmers. small for development of new pathways and practices multifunctionality on as well as Albania structurein agricultural countries, new member policiesthe EU in adapting of the countries, constraints and transition Eastern Countries European and Central in development toagriculture regards with review aliterature did I phase the first went t design research My 2.2 on data collected my of results the in based framework analytical and theoretical my up built that I meaning thus the Given country. transition a for thatmultifunctionality represents opportunities and constraints thesisthe to this section of a dedicate will I hand, other the On Albania. in nowadays facing are farmers scale small especially and sector agricultural that the issues theimportant most to representation and better approach Thethis actual decision for “twist” findings. onmyquestion taken researchto was order give in a r stage early my review to decided I my interviews through investigating of process the long During the farmers. work my field concluding and site my research leaving After sector tod agricultural of situation the current of view realistic gave me and amore new things of alot realize mademe hours of acouple for life daily their of tobepart trying and farmers meeting around,

Research design and data collection collection data and design Research esearch questions and tried to build my new research framework closer closer tothe framework my triednew tobuild research and questions esearch - ground. ay in Albania and esp and Albania in ay hrough differenthrough developmentof stages andthe adaptation along In road.

outlook outlook of my research of ecially the ecially

14 lems that these countries are facing today in the todayin facing are countries that these lems

everyday reality everyday , I tried I

I started to analyze my interviews with with my interviews startedI toanalyze

to apply a grounded theory approach; approach; theory ato grounded apply of farmers .

main main

the CEU eTD Collection ( stakeholders the with interviews of consisting qualitative are research this in methods the perception, subjective getting and experience others’ understanding on amean as methods the qualitative indicators. Keeping that consideration in and studi ethnographic approach for the above mentioned as reasonsin as well order to assess non- and aqualitative towards aligned amethodology tochoose decided I research, tothe field Prior interpr analyzeand will objectives the on depending and available when used are data quantitative research, this In period. transitional this in byfarmers implemented being currently that are practices main the identify scal alarger on the system of overview overall an have and describe data qualitative use also but study case selected the for appropriate most method the analysis choose and framework my analytical was toselect step next the the research, for my background setting after and review literature this to addition In farms development pathways transition in and post concerns fragmentation land and sustainableof livelihoods rural in areas and pathways building for a sustainable model of agriculture the development farms, marginal on strategies survival as: such issues the newlyemerged regarding researc Ritchie and Lewis 2003 Lewis and Ritchie and environment h and the change in objectives of my thesis, I did a complementary literature review, this time time this review, literature acomplementary did I my thesis, of objectives in the change and h . As for any research, it is necessary and very important to have quantitative data data quantitative have to important very and necessary is it anyresearch, Asfor . et them. al implications of land fragmentation land of implications al ; Seidman 1990 2006;Straussand Corbin depending onspecificdepending topics. As the ones former to order arein useful . Accordingly, my theoretical framework is based on agriculture agriculture on based is framework theoretical my Accordingly, . - communist co communist 15

es other of scholarsin this area which consider . untries,

) . e, the latter ones are helpful to helpful are ones thee, latter survival strategies on marginal on marginal strategies survival tangible tangible CEU eTD Collection regions in Albania in regions characteristics below with the farm as well as aregion of development overall the that influence features important are characteristics local opportunitiestraditions.The de employment and agricultural the e conditions, geographical are: they set and the objectives of basis the on wereselected criteria These criteria. toaset of according and process where my conducted interview I theregions three of selection The 2.2.1 • • • ers’ strategies ( strategies ers’

Region Selec Region Lushnja Kukesi Korca o o o o o o o o o o o o region, which is situated in the eastern part, re part, eastern the in situated is which region, region, situated in the northern part, represen part, the northern in situated region, a low level of migration rate. migration of level a low off farmhigh opportunities and activities, agriculture intensive traditional proximity, lowlands ancoastal d migration. of rate a high low off activities, husbandry animal on mostly traditional landscape, a mountainous patterns. migration seasonal off high orchards, of cultivation mostly activities, agricultural on traditional lowlands andlandscape, hilly region, situated in the central in situated region, Kizos tion tion - - farm opportunities employment and farm employment opportunities and

et al.

2011 ) . Taking in consideration the above criteria I selected three three selected I criteria above the consideration in Taking

- conomic development of the area, migration patterns, patterns, migration area, the of development conomic western part, represent a region with with region a represent part, western

: 16

presents a region with: region a presents

ts a region with: with: ts aregion s mographic, social andmographic, economic was made during the screening the screening was madeduring

CEU eTD Collection government officials. The format of the interviews realized with the farmers was a semi was farmers the with realized interviews the of format The officials. government tothe and farmers tothe wereaddressed which my interviews for two formats prepared I aim. research successive the with wasconsistent that information dataand useful collect and explore me to allowed my interviews through collected I ofthat thebeginning the research, information the since ashift experienced research my of aim the main though Even practices. multifunctionality of development and engagement future for potential possible the evaluate well as and strategies their difficulties and concerns their collect their farms, on applying are the farmers Albania. of Protection andregions wit different in farmers with interviews conducting was from data collection of source primary My 2.2.2 the regions. each of in 10 interviews, 30 realized I total vi different in totravel opportunity the had I regions three the all In them. amongst basis arecommendation in farmers identified 1981 Waldorf As withtoselection sampling regards method thesampling snowball was employed ( regions the of development overall depend and intertwined inherently are farmers by employed strategies the reflected socio general and development the of because important The

choice Interviewing Process Process Interviewing

of these criteria which resulted in the selection of these three specific regions was regions thesespecific three of the selection in resulted which these criteria of ) . Primarily, within each of the regions I established a contact point and later I I later and point acontact established I regions the of each within Primarily, . h government officials atofand the Ministry Food Agriculture, Consumer officials government h The aim of these interviews was to have a clear idea about the activities that that activities the about idea aclear wastohave interviews these of aim The

magnitude of variations that the regions represent in terms of agricultural agricultural of terms in represent that the regions variations of magnitude - economic conditions. These factors gain importance in analysis as as analysis in importance gain factors These conditions. economic . llages which had different characteristics of development, and in in and development, of characteristics different had which llages

that are influencing influencing that are Biernacki and and Biernacki ent ent - structured structured from the the from

CEU eTD Collection defined to: the of light In structural this research, organizationandof thefindings the is main target group 2.3 CommonPolicy.new Agricultural Union European the with alignment and adaptation policy of terms in Albania todayin facing is sector agriculture the that the problems and policies the of status the implementation toidentify tried interviews essence In . and Analysis Monitoring anddirector the of Information Agricultural Science and Service, Extension and Research of the director Protection, Soil and Irrigation of the directory of sectors: different from officials government with held were interviews The participants. the of consent the with recorded were they and communication aformal required was that it given format, interview structured amore used I officials government the with the interviews For withprovided and aninformation approval document of they theand were consent interview awritten for for signed wereasked All farmers process. the interviewing during that rose issues particular down write and tohighlight tried I afterwards notes thesetake of Under had I to duri not a lot recorded. conditions they thus were the interviews, recording about cautious and suspicious bit they werea the interview toconduct were willing the farmers all Although actors. bydifferent received help organizations or in participation activities, farm on encountered problems agriculture, for satisfaction of practicesthe and andhouseholdincomes, activity,agricultural composition size rate on farm used, my interviews of 30 between lasted and interview ended open

Targe

t Group Group t

, which c which , the Appendix) details (see for

- 90 minutes.90 had I prepared a questionnaire support in 18

onsisted of differentdata of onsisted sections including: my project. my project. ng the interviews and and the interviews ng

the director director the , the the , CEU eTD Collection in terms of geographical conditions and climate, rural employment, market access as well as as well as access market employment, rural climate, and conditions geographical of terms in thre to only restricted is study the research this of timeline the short Giving research. this of the work to related limitations certain are There 2.5 Policy. Agricultural Common ag new and farmers of perception cultural and social actual the with aligned pathways development appropriate finding of complexity to socio- prospects. land Further, fragmentation issues represent impor another in developmentcreatinglivelihoods agricultural sustainablethe new of and rural process future different regio three in farmers scale small of activities toagricultural limited is study my research of scope The 2.4

• • • Research Limitation Research Scope Research livelihoods in livelihoods transition countries. Acade practices; agricultural regarding farmers of knowledge and the capacities increasing communitiesand of rural the role of thestrengthening field organizationsinterested developing Nonprofit and implementing in in programs/projects toEU; accession future on framework legislative and regulatory the national compiling for responsible state officials administrative and makers Policy This research is aiming to demonstrate the the todemonstrate aiming economic researchis considerations. and environmental This mic researchers in the area of exploring new alternatives for developing sustainable sustainable developing for new alternatives exploring of the area in researchers mic ns of Albania. Survival strategies of these marginal farms are analyzed in the light of of the light in analyzed are farms marginal these of strategies Survival Albania. of ns

ricultural policies in accordance with the European Union Union European the with policiesaccordance in ricultural e regions of Albania. Albanian regions vary considerably varyconsiderably regions Albanian Albania. of regions e 19

tant role which is connected is which tant role CEU eTD Collection it be will used onlygeneraltrends. to show to my opinion has been not entirely reliable as farmers may not have responded honestly; responded have may not farmers as reliable entirely beennot has to my opinion a besubtracted could new information that no wasperceivable it where wasreached point saturation a gathered, insights distinctive the besides regions, the of each in interviews the after Nevertheless no would which of the interviewees number the limited was research field of term the short to was related which study the of limitation Another the interviews. during information some of the loss to led may have interviews Fu attitudes. specific neglecting or missing by perception objective my jeopardized sometimes have may reality that of apart being hand, other the On difficulties. “i and problems not having understandingmy environment surrounding gaveme the opportunity to alocal Being observing. wasby farmers of the perceptions and insights the gathering of One form other institutions. cont realizeany not toget timeI did of period the short given Unfortunately, officials. government and farmers with interviews of consisted research This region other in as the same be may situation the terms general under Although development. infrastructure nymore. The part of the questionnaire that was related to financial terms and incomes of farmers farmers of incomes and terms tofinancial related was that questionnaire the of part The nymore. ntrude” into farmers’ everyday life and helped me fully understand their perspectives and and perspectives their understand fully me helped and life everyday into farmers’ ntrude” s, different characteristics of these latter ones may present variability of issues of thesevariability may present of ones latter differentcharacteristics s,

t allow making any significant statistical analysis. analysis. statistical anysignificant making t allow 20

acts nongovernment with organizationor rthermore, the lack of recorded recorded of the lack rthermore,

and problems.

therefore therefore CEU eTD Collection experienced somehow similar patterns of development ( of patterns similar somehow experienced have and thewith landownership. The issues countries literature thisthat in contextsthese shows process the decollectivization is the CEECs in development sector the agriculture of characteristics in 1991 the s had theAlbania hasprivatethe and lowestsharelandin of 1990s after the the of redistribution land into holdings individual farms has characterized countries most the countries, CEECs on regime the socialist of the demise After systems. farming different of challenges and deterioration, environmental (CAP), Policy Agricultural Common the of implementation ownership, land and decollectivization are: sector agri the today in facing are the countries that problems main The ways. various states in the each of implemented by reform the agrarian of nature tothe due mostly changes fundamental different economieshas shown patterns experienceddiverseand development of and has the implement as well as and Policy Agriculture the Common of requirements the new with policies development accessionthethe U for European road in In market. afree economytowards planned and acommand state from period theface transitional to had have these countries 1990’s early and 1980’s the late in regime the communist of the demise differentundergone through comparison in to pathways the After development WesEurope. in tern has (CEECs) countries European Eastern and the Central in sector agriculture of Development 3.1 3. COUNTRIES COUNTRIES

PATTERNS A OF Agriculture in post in Agriculture ituation changed in the opposite side, by privatizing all theOneof land. the main all byprivatizing the side, in opposite changed ituation of the EU of acquis environmental the of approximation

- GRICULTURE DEVELOPME communist countries communist nion, they were required to adapt and integrate their their integrate and toadapt were required they nion, 21

Gardner and Lerman 2006 Lerman and Gardner (Figure 2). (Figure

breakup of large scale agricultural agricultural scale large of breakup TRANSITION NT INTRANSITION . The transition of these of The transition . As seen the from figures, ; Ler man 2001; cultural cultural CEU eTD Collection experienced similar economic development, the pat the development, economic similar experienced (2003 input addition, supply.In Sharman f are countries transition in agriculture of new cooperatives that emerge new cooperatives Another problemassociated with decollectivization the the is process performance the of and old ( regulations decollectivization and privatization reform, the land risk, and imperfections market system, trade the scale, of economies pr decollectivization the influenced conserved such systems, thus their increasing benefits (such as Hungary).The factors that have have and process the decollectivization on levels lower experienced have productivity cooperative coun Inversely Albania). as (such decollectivization of rates higher had have farms cooperative of productivity of level low with that countries showing farms; cooperative the deco regarding states but alsowithin one country and depending also onthe time variable. One their of findings 1997 and 1990 land) agricultural of (percent CEE Figure

(Source: Lerman, 2001) 2 : Share ofland in individual use llectivization process is closely related to the production and efficiency level of level efficiency and tothe production related closely is process llectivization

Gardner and Lerman (2006 d duringthis process.Lerman According and to Gardner Mathijs and Swinnen 1998 Mathijs ocess in the CEECs countries are: the labor productivity and and productivity labor the are: countries CEECs the in ocess in in ) development has been noticed not just between just development different hasnoticednot been c the d of nature and (1998 Swinnen and Mathijs noticed are implemented reform agrarian the on dependent 20 Sharman Mathijs andMathijs Swinnen 1998

ountries, showing thatountries, showing different patternsof highlights that even thoughsome countries may have 22

( Gorton 03) terns of organization institutional of terns and , although, differences highly important acing problems in the marketing and the the and in the marketing acing problems

et al. et ) .

ecollectivization process in several several in process ecollectivization

2009; Verdery 20 ; Verdery Macours and Swinnen 2000 Swinnen and Macours )

have assessed the impact impact the assessed have tries with high level of 03) .

) , the , ; CEU eTD Collection implementation of the new adaptive legislation. legislation. adaptive the new of implementation thein instruments tomember rise to newhas institutional given the regards states problemsin Gorton thetowards of current theCEECs ( conditions countries policy this of thefor CAPadaptability stands the of little the implementation of critique main and CAP the of the implementation regarding written have scholars Many reality. in policy this interest has led which to acontroversies lot of discussions the regarding suitability and efficiency of The implementation the CAPin the of process. transitional this of the way along assets as properties and rights land their lost web and system new complex this in were caught the farmer for outcomes negative in resulted followed, market the land that pathway the new afterwards and association the farmers of the creation process, the decollectivization that emphasizes She development. of differentwhich stages went through nges cha important of aseries to led context, aTransylvanian in terms. economical and social in farmers for realities problematic of creation tothe led ownership property of recreation of these c Under system changed. economical and political the as whole difficulties of alot with faced being thus quickly, very and The decollectivization process these in transition countries took place a in very shortperiod time of country. the of tures fea economical and social to related development the historical also but reform institutional and legacy political the only not consideration totakein important is context in Thus, this different. are arrangements

et al.

2009; Mincyte 2011b Verdery (2003 Verdery s. She describesfurther this process as “ ircumstances, the poor land management policy and a flawed process process aflawed and policy management land poor the ircumstances, ;

Zellei 2001) )

explains how this new reality and the new emerging system emerging new the and reality new this how explains new member states of CEECs represents another point of of point another represents CEECs of states new member . The implementation of the EU agricultural policy policy agricultural EU the of . implementation The

Chaplin the vanishing hectare the vanishing et al.

2004 ; Davidova ” where farmers farmers where ”

et al.

2012

the the ; CEU eTD Collection Gorton agricul asustainable creating of terms in outcomes todifferent lead can setup institutional and practices the farming and how countries CEECs environmental the in change discusses impactsof the agriculture/irrigati of the infrastructure suchenvironment as:water soil problems, pollution degradation, deterioration environment of or the impacted substantially have resources pool common of management and institutions changes in governance, socialist post issueschanges. of environmentalThe resulted significant to have countries CEECs the accompanied that reform agrarian the and period transitional The reorganization. institutional and capacity administrative betwee the balance model, farm family European the Western for suitable mostly is model CAP the ones, western the and states new member socio in the difference in the CEECs: successful 2004) environmental agro applying off in innovate or toparticipate to farmers given is incentive less consequence Râmniceanu also (see Ackrill and payments (2007) the direct on focuses and agriculture of one for was primarily countries the for CEECs funds of allocation largest thatthe argues countries.the He accession new of problems of range the and situation the real appropriately reflect not does the policy of transfer presently this aim seems to be not very well tackled ( tackled well very tobenot seems aim this presently but Policy, Development aRural of objectives wider the with it crosslink to but policy sectoral a as the agriculture on tofocus only not is the CAP of aim The life minimalistic. forare farmers . . According to Gorton ture. Consequently, changes the are in required and institutions policyas onthe levels as well

et al.

(2009)

asses the suitability for CEECs the cou of ntries CAP and discusses how the

the axis of the policy which entails increase of competitiveness in in competitiveness of increase entails which the policy of the axis

et al. measures whereby measures

(2009) on etc ( etc on

there are several reasons why reasons the EU several are there

Sikor 2004) Sikor - the expenditures for the improvement of quality of of quality of the improvement for expenditures the 24 economic conditions of the rural areas between the areas the between the of rural economic conditions

n the measurements of the CAPthe and of measurements then Chaplin . Furthermore, Furthermore, . et al.

2004; Gorton Gatzweiler

CAP has been poorly - farm practices, or or practices, farm

et al.

et al. 2009; ). As a a As ).

(2001) Sikor

CEU eTD Collection and tos regards with especially systems and farming of development and the performance is concern of issue important Another 2004; Gatzweiler ( success of cornerstone the are which actors local as well as attitudes social changes, bethese a developed These should countries. interventions in agriculture of development tothe adaptable are systems that farming of design and construction three Czech CEECs: Republic, Poland Chaplin and Hungary, thediverse in comparison CEECsin to countries the an westernIn analysis european model. the of is more agriculture much of the as nature consideration, is totakein task important a very legislation development in these countries, in order to give a successful outcome. outcome. asuccessful togive order in these countries, in development of patterns the with merge and fit properly to states has member new in be implemented that important t very is it perspective, this Under the sector. of share alarge represent which farmers subsistence scale the small marginalized the CAP has in of howLithuania of the implementation example excellent an presents (2011b addition, Mincyte stage. In onthe implementation has EU failed the approach by promoted q and slow beenvery have regulation and legislation administrative of the casesthe implementation of most in that they state Dissing (2004) Beckmann and these countries. in programs of implementation way of a new alternative proposing adeq and efficient moderately as Development) Rural and Agriculture for Programme Accession Special (the programs CAP the of Davidova

et al. make the same critiques regarding several programmes for accession countries and and countries accession for programmes several regarding same critiques the make etal.

(2012) 2001; Zellei 2001 )

entation of the the of entation implem adequate an neededfor adjustments that the agree Chaplin the sector. in efficiency their and farmers scale mall - “bottom the and CEECs of situation actual the for inefficient uite uate to the present situation of small scale farmers and furthermore furthermore and farmers scale small of situation the present to uate he policy transfer and the institutional framework that have to to that have framework the and institutional transfer he policy . 25

nd must take in consideration historical historical consideration takein must nd et al.

(2004

)

make a critique over one over acritique make Chaplin et al.

(2004) et al. up” up” )

CEU eTD Collection 43km of area surface atotal with behigh to conisdered 4 temperatures yearly 12 temperatures yearly average with 3,400,000 represents and km 476 reaches Sea Ionian and Adriatic both in extends the coastline the On part areas. western lowlands is hilly its territory of 70% than More Peninsula. 28.748km of area an has Albania 3.2.1 3.2 development. impleme successful for alternatives better evaluate CEECs and CAPto the by European theandoffered strategies Union assess policies thoroughly to necessary is it these conditions In CEECs. the in areas rural of marginalization tothe leading developmen rural poor and of unemployment rates tohigh led have inefficiencies agricultural in the increase and process decollectivization privatization, The development. agricultural in To sumit up, evident is that im

Albanian agriculture development development agriculture Albanian Country characteristics with 50% of it living in rural areas. The climate is mediterrenean near the coastal areas areas coastal the near mediterrenean is climate The rural areas. in living it of with 50%

- 12°C. The average yearly rainfall is 1300mm/ye rainfall yearly average The 12°C.

its boarder with Italy and Greece in the south. Albania has a populatin of of populatin a has Albania south. the in Greece and Italy with boarder its

portant differences exist between the eastern and western countries countries western and the eastern between exist differences portant 2

and - 16°C and continental in the mountainious areas with average average with areas the mountainious in continental and 16°C is situatedis the in south-

- 2 ntation according to regional patternsaccording to regional of ntation mountainous whereas only 30% represents mountainous represents whereasonly 30% ( Doko etal. eastern part of Europe in the Balkan the Balkan in Europe of part eastern 2011;Skreli 2007) ar and the water resources are are the waterresources and ar .

t, thus CEU eTD Collection legal regime r regime legal strong very a set was century, XIV the till and century IX the around period the Byzantine Under 2003) activities agricultural the as well as resources common of management the toorganize order in wereimportant rules of these sets Apparently water. for right the and elements tha the and activities agricultural for rules are there specified Dukagjini Leke of In the Kanun Albania. land properties are still very prominent nowadays,particularlymountainous in areas, northof “ as declared was land s area remote Dukagjinit The these mostof prominent Kanun organizationandself governance. for sovereignty state of manifestation first the represent they legacy of terms years. hundreds of In throughout important beenvery have and organization life way for beenatraditional have laws The landandbetweenthe theKanun regarding rules landandpeasants. userelationship the of the Kanun under were laws confined agricultural earlier The the history. during impact strong bytheir characterized been has development its Africa, and geograph strategic very one been always has Agriculture 3.2.2.1 3.2.2

Early agriculture development before the 1990s

Patterns of agriculture before the Second World War World Second the before agriculture of Patterns ” (The” Leke KanunDukagjini) of which has been mountainous widelyin and spread t are more distinguished on it are: the peasants and its activity, the land and livestock livestock and the land activity, its and peasants the are: it on distinguished more t are ( egarding the rights of land and ownership. The byzantine agricultural law represents agricultural byzantine The and ownership. land the of egarding rights Agolli and Nezha 2003) e shenjte dhe e paprekshme e dhe shenjte e ical position and between the borders of three different cultures Europe, Asia betweenthree Asia of ical cultures positionand borders different the Europe, of the main activities and living resources for Albanians. Being in Albanians.in mainBeing the activitiesandresources living of for a private ownership has its own legacy and and legacy own its has this In set. laws,ownership private of nd untouched. These last two definitions for definitions two last untouched.These and sacred ” 27

ws) which were defined weredefined ws) which la traditional (set of

of farmers. ( farmers. of is the “ the is Agolli and Nezha Nezha and Agolli Kanuni iLeke CEU eTD Collection the Kanun areas lowl and coastal these Theof land. without implementation of andthe rules lawsin only were applicable ownership and marginalized most the remained still which villains called otherwise or peasants of class poor which had extended landownership their larger in area period In this land. more bybuying activity their part ownership beca peasants. poor of As adecades result,during the following land substantialand place to changes ok Consequently these contr rules normative the land. of owners the towards terms financial byobliging accompanied use of right the they had have the rightlandownership, of which was attributed(as to feudallords bygiven the sultan), but P owned. tostate converted and registered was land all period this During Empire. of the rules Ottoman in wasbased general which transformation asubstantial endured regime legal the land 1912) until (1481 centuries almost five of period and lasting not only.Given the long The has ottoman invasion been certainlyonethe of most influential Albanian in periods agriculture ( it. on labor of right the with only land their of serfs madethem and the land over peasant of the rights removed which system, feudalism the byzantine of formation the noticeable ownership.Hereto bondtheof is strongly theirthe toright peasants withremove landand agro basic some with as well as animals, vineyards,livestockworking ownership,cropfields, mostlywith: landand deal importance agricultural and legal with documents the first of one

they theownership aswasandof tonowthey societygrow, theirrecognized, land began me now available for smallholder peasants, being converted now in manors. This convertedThis peasants,manors. smallholder available now for being in nowme was the only recognized form of only therecognized of was form social organization. The powerthe of Kanun and areas as well as near the main cities and villages, whereas in the mountainous the mountainous in whereas villages, and nearcities as the well main as areas and - technical processes of working the land. The main aim of this reform was reform this of aim main The the land. working of processes technical ibuted to the extreme impoverishment and marginalization marginalization and impoverishment tothe extreme ibuted 28 ,

it is distinctive the creation of this new social class new social this of the creation it distinctive is

s and become more powerful as the as well powerful and s become more . It contains 85 articleswhose 85 contains It . Shundi 2003) easants did not easants not did extended extended

was was

CEU eTD Collection to the state or cooperatives ( cooperatives or state to the belonged 8.6% whereas the land of 81.4% owned individuals private 1950, year By the eradicated. t and dismantled weretotally now until sector the agricultural of characteristics feudalism the theyrestrictionsnot rentreform, as sellor the only onit.By could work endthis the landbut of the Likewise condition working land. of the with farmers to it bygiving land of distribution the enforced and themselves the land work untouc and sacred wasconsidered the where land irreplaceable and remarkable family family each landfor 5haof by attributing distributed a in familybasis was equally 40ha over manors land the pre landin of redistribution whichand provided successful begunreform was very conditions, 1946 agrarian in tothe place take ( all at any land own not did families peasant of 14% whilst By the the SecondWar,of end of World 3% owners hadownership in all 27% of agricultural land, 3.2.2.2 ( minimalistic. were effects its and successful was not land at all not or little very had which topeasants land of redistribution and reforms agrarian several for whereattempt the The powerful landnowconcentratedtheof population, in wasman handors. of majority the representing wasstill peasants landless of part marginalized The created. were ones g and created state newly The much. very change not did the situation 1912, in independence of the declaration After Nezha 2003

( Agolli and Nezha 2003) The communism period period communism The )

overnment kept in place the old rules and laws of the Ottoman Empire until new new until Empire Ottoman the of laws and rules the old place in kept overnment

Lusho and Papa 1998 and Papa Lusho determined rules for use and ownership. State owned land as well as as well as land State owned ownership. and use for rules determined . Furthermore the law sequestered the land of owners that did not not that did owners of land the sequestered law the Furthermore . ,

peasants became owners of their lands, although with high theiralthough peasants lands, became of owners 29

Agolli and Nezha 2003) ) . The redistribution of land diminished the the landdiminished The. of redistribution Agolli andAgolli Nezha 2003)

hable. hable. . Under these Under . ( Agolli and otally otally CEU eTD Collection lands communismDuring regime and underthe socialist“ slogan crisis. abig entering was country welfare to the further manage not increase system did economic the socialist run ( law owned” “state the after sequestered was everything as long last not did that unfortunately but themselves, and cattlesome for gardens t were allowed farmers the beginning, In period. the first in that emerged benefits the and cooperatives of creation the with content and were satisfied farmers now inexistent, comparison to and were working were more private land had no which now farmers and rates growth high experienced agriculture of the development years 30 the first For state owned exclusively as declared Papa 1998) ( lands owned state previous the entailed which enterprises owned state and cooperatives all land 1967 year bythe and the country all in extended step that got the first was cooperatives creation The of Socialism”. “Scientific called the so of the construction th after Right landownership. thefor peasants statenumber of owners andof religiousland, big land, owned landand gavethe opportunity to all 1980 and hardlong process, especially for the working population occurred agricultural production, firstly because the terr becausethe firstly production, agricultural ”, ”, ( Doko a wide range of conversion from forest or pasture land to agricultural land toagricultural land pasture or forest from conversion of range wide a . By this time private land totally disappeared and on the 1976 Constitution, land was was land Constitution, 1976 the on and disappeared totally land private time Bythis .

et al. prevailed prevailed regime communist new the place took reform is the previous years when agriculture was undeveloped and the mechanization was was the mechanization and wasundeveloped agriculture when years the previous

2011) . Although the hard and immense work, these areas were unsuitable for for wereunsuitable these areas work, immense and .the hard Although

( Agolli andAgolli Nezha 2003) Agolli Nezha and 2003; 30 ain andqualit theain

. to convert our mountains in fertile agricultural agricultural fertile in mountains our to convert Lusho and Papa1998 Lusho employed in the cooperatives. In In cooperatives. the in employed

was collectivized in agricultural agricultural in was collectivized y of land were land y of

for for 20 years from 1960 till and on the following years years following onthe and o have their own little little own their have o

of people and the the and people of

took place took

) not in great in not . In the long long the In . Lusho and and Lusho . This This CEU eTD Collection mountainous areas. mountainous 0.24ha/person 2012; the emp of 50% for counting Albania, in sector employment the major represents agriculture type and other or pasture forest, is it 76% whereas land, total its of 26% only represents Albania in land Agricultural orchards. process was the destruction andespecially degradation of areas a lot of forest agricultural and migration this of part distinctive Another areas. these in the environment of degradation partly ch process was plots.This was convertedto a occupied ita partbuilding consequenceof of and illegally landwere Parts land. ownershipagricultural of previous of notconsideration take in accord tothe peasants redistributed economic and the political changes The life. economic and the social of sectors different in development future regarding on with faced Albaniais 1990, the in regime communist the of collapse the After 3.2.3 abandoned, represent 10 represent they and abandoned are these areas of majority the Nowadays process. the working and activities conditions aotic and unplanned internal movement of rural population towards the urban areas and led to a a aoticunplanned internal movementand andpopulationled towardsto areas urban rural the of

Skreli 2007) Current agriculture development after the 1990s loyed population,albeitloyed its GDP contribution only is 16.9%of ( and secondly because these harsh landscapes would make very difficult the agricultural the agricultural difficult very make would landscapes harsh becausethese secondly and extended and uncontrolled overgrazing extendedan and uncontrolled - 16% ofall agricultu ( Lusho and Papa1998 Lusho . Albania has one of the only Albaniaof . haslowestrates onearable for landper personaccounting of

system led to substantial structural changes in agriculture. The land was Thewas land agriculture. in changes structural to substantial system led ral land ( ral ing to the Law “On the Land” Nr. 7501 dated 19.7.1991, and did and 7501 dated19.7.1991, Nr. the Land” “On tothe Law ing )

which is related to the high percentage of hilly and and hilly of percentage tothe high related is which Do ko 31

et al.

problem is emerging is problem

2011)

. As these areas now are currently currently . are now Asthese areas Doko .

et al. - growing challenges challenges growing

2011 ; MAFCP

in in CEU eTD Collection farms with varied landscapes as a result of the fragmentation may also reduce the benefits related to to related the benefits reduce also may the fragmentation of a result as landscapes varied with farms on the hand Deininger other ( Albania in development agriculture for constraint acritical toplay evaluated is fragmentation Land sector. agriculture the of nature the and the importance inclined and reversed years, transition du development economic and social the that accompanied changes thethat, severe the after ( ’90 half by declined it of the GDP, although 50% than more for accounting the country, of development of economic pillars the main of one represented and important very was sector Agriculture fragmented individualprivatized tofarmers 490,000 and around ( agricultu all of 95% than more where farms, of the restructuring and reform land the privatization, regarding countries, similar of that pathway from different avery took According to L Noev 2004) post Europe Eastern and the as Central pattern asimilar Having a as well as abandonment caused have time, the communist from connection onestowardsurban or off difficulties of economi of Duetolack communities. mostthe rural of for the land from toa“disconnection” leaded has the country of situation economic difficult the and fragmentation fai the lenses, cultural and the social from Seen Deininger

et al. et , agriculture in Albania was developed under the collectivization and intensive model. intensive and the collectivization under wasdeveloped in Albania , agriculture amongst

nagement the rural areas have experienced a major migration towards the towards migration amajor experienced have areas rural the management property erman (2001 erman

2012; Cost

people, feed people, Müller and Sikor2006; a 2008; continuous degradation. environmental - ) farm activities ( activities farm , the agriculture reform after the ’90 was one of the most drastic and and drastic the most of wasone the ’90 after reform the agriculture ,

et al. Cungu and Swinnen 1999 - in also from a negative historical memory of collectives’ farms farms collectives’ of memory ahistorical negative from in also

(2012) a negative

argues argues that these all of a consolidation dispersed sm Costa 200 Costa Müller 2008 and Munroe 32

effect in rega in effect

led and problematic agrarian reform, land land reform, agrarian problematic and led 8 ; ; Sikor Macours and Swinnen 2000

rds to poor farms development tofarms rds poor et al. - communist countries ( re land was distributedre landby being

2009) Cungu and SwinnenCungu 1999 ; Sikor . The decrease of . decrease The

et al. c incentives and and c incentives

2009) ) . . spite In of Mathijs and and Mathijs , although , ring the ring the , land , land

land land all all ) . CEU eTD Collection that the level of these farms is about 7% in Albania. The main causes identified are: deficiencies in in deficiencies are: identified causes main The Albania. in 7% about is these farms of level that the (2004 Noev and Mathijs ( farms of restructuring for need emergent increasedthe and subsistence farming of the difficulty augmented has places market permanent of lack even or managed poorly Moreover, products. domestic the of a deficiency to led has imports other hand, land connection rurala communities.On change the social perceptionregarding of throughout ( sector agriculture tothe percussion negative subsistenc of percentage in increase as well as areas urban the towards villages remote from migration of rate high remittances, bythe emigrants supported farmers family small as: such patterns various taken andAccording to Müller (2008Munroe todomestic non- and shift products in agricultural decline and abandonment toland led land fragmentation of that the process argued is It conflicts. social also embodying issues of toacomplexity birth gave ha)which 1.2 area (average the lan of fragmentation resultedtoahigh ’90 early in reform the land literature, this to According ( sectorAlbania in the agriculture of the development Governmen place. the the other hand wayhow this process take should place remains still onethe of big questions in development beshould consolidation rural onethepriorities, leadalthoughon will of to and main land for landconsolidation the need for policies.From perspective, the policy makers’ beneeded will specialization of rate high and approach ameaningful Consequently diversification. e farming. The internal large scale migration from rural areas towards urban gave another gave another urban towards areas rural from migration scale large The internal e farming. t implication on fragmented policy fragmented on implication t due to the low efficiency and productivity of the sector, the increase of subsidies for for subsidies of increase the sector, the of productivity and efficiency low tothe due )

on subsistence farming agricultural act agricultural )

nd abandonment the cropla has during theperiod transition Costa 2008 McCarthy - making has shown to have a detrimental impact on on impact shownadetrimental has tohave making 33

ivities (see for example Sikor example (see for ivities in Centralin results andEurope, theshow Eastern

; Cungu and SwinnenCungu 1999

Sikor et al. et

2009) et al.

2009) . This process was also related to to related also was process This . . In a comparative study by by study . In acomparative etal. ; Sikor (2009)

et al. ). ).

2009) d . CEU eTD Collection households and their families. of a couple visit and manymore tomeet the besideopportunity had and that I each region, in mos the of understanding adeeper have to me allowed which the regions, each of in villages several visit to opportunity the had I Albania in research my field During exports. regional as well as flexibility quality, various cultivated cropsand cultur varies and different rather Korca is Kukesi, Lushnja selected three and The the in developmentagriculture regions of 3.3 reforms. institutional and economic and requires farmers of encouragement financial for state the by instruments policy needfor the important highly is it successfully it implement areas. Howev in life the rural of quality and practices farmer biodiversity,of improve conservation agriculture,contributetoin protectionand the which will lan diverse the highly and characteristics specific site The them. in involved activities and patterns The landfragmentation the in country has alsoled to the creation highly of diverselandscapes, practices. sustainable on awareness and knowledge raise to communities local for al. developi are: activities agricultural fostering on issues important emphasistraditional production by giving onthe local identity promotionof values.Other i and policies institutionalized appropriate of lack the and practices cooperation and facilities market ncentives. Therefore, it is important to revitalize and strengthen the market structure and the the and structure the market strengthen and torevitalize it important is Therefore, ncentives.

dscapes of farms in farms of dscapes 2012)

t critical issues and the current development in the areas. In total I conducted 30 interviews, ten interviews, 30 conducted I total In the areas. in development the current and issues t critical Development characteristics of the the of characteristics Development

in order to decrease rural unemployment and poverty and instigate educational programs programs educational instigate and poverty and unemployment rural todecrease in order

in termsin the of: typology of geographical land, and climate soil conditions,

Albania would represent a good

selected regions selected es, employment opportunities, market access and access and market opportunities, employment es, 34

opportunity for multifunctionalityopportunity for measures er, to approach this orientation and and orientation this toapproach er, ng market connectivity ( connectivity market ng

Deininger

et et CEU eTD Collection climate with harsh winters and hot summers( hot and winters harsh with climate 350 of altitude average an with area andhilly mountainous lives76% in rural areas ( collectivization process happened very late in comparison to other regi other to comparison in late very happened process collectivization 1) the wasto several due reasons: this in region distribution theprocess. feature This land regarding re these areas in farmers Instead, country. the of rest the in as place in law tothe national according made was not Nezha 2003 one the the of last the collectivization undergoing ( communistregime, during process to land As with regards th in size farm average development. The husbandry animal mostly for suitable has been landscapewhich steep the and harsh climaticconditions and the mostly to specific region, due the developed in t emigration as well as areas urban other or the capital towards migrations both ratesinternal of high has experienced the region years twenty the last during Consequently, wasabandoned. 1990 the in the regime of the change after which extracting and mining developed a had has the area period the communism During non- of type other and pasture byforestry, composed is rest the whereas structure the land of 10.6% only inhabitants/km inhabitants density 48 a 45,624 of of and has apopulation total It Kosovo. of The region 3.3.1 e region is 0.71ha, whereas the average parcel size is 0.16ha ( 0.16ha is size parcel whereas the average 0.71ha, is e region agricultural

Region of Kukesi of Region ; De Waal 2004 De Waal -

distr Kukesi is situated in the northeastern side of Albania and close to the border with Kukesi is with situatedborder close Albania northeasternsideto the of and in the land( ibuted their land prior to their previous ownership before the collectivization the collectivization before ownership to their previous land prior their ibuted MAFCP 2012) management issues, this region altogether with other adjacent areas has been been has areas adjacent other with altogether region this issues, management

INSTAT 2013 ) ) . Further on, after the collapse of the regime in 1990, land land distribution 1990, in the regime of the collapse after on, Further . . . The landscape in this region has Thethea. landscaperegion of characteristics this in owards other countries. Agriculturehasmoderately been countries. owards other Kabo 1991 35

) . Agricultural land in the region represents the region landrepresents in . Agricultural m from the sea level and a continental continental a and level the sea m from MAFCP 2012) ons in the country 2) the the 2) country the in ons .

industry sector, Agolli and 2

where where CEU eTD Collection ratingfor 22% and services different on as well as the area in investment related mostly toinfrastructure is sector private the in employment The sector. public bythe followed agriculture, is area employment the of in sector main the Nowadays, continuesbe verythe tosensitiveth e for inhabitantsregion. of which issue centuries, for sacred called been has and family the of part important an constituted has always thisin area and ownership rights ownership.Land redistributed previous based on l why reason main been the have areas these in the inhabitants of development cultural and This landrights. latter issuesthehas including alwaysone onseveral and social very been prominent perception wi “connection” the about havestrong very this region in people 3) development; agricultural level of toalow led has area, the on lands rocky and steep very the and mountainous are condition geographical and climatic and as a meat source. ameatcows, dairyproducts source. and sheepgoats,which for as are used and givenforage that this in theregion livestock productionmore is developed. It consists mostly of and fodder cultivating also are Farmers vineyards. small on grapes and glasshouses) in (mostly vegetab cultivating recently are farmers some as well as apples, pears, plums, cherries, trees, such walnut as orchards wheat,corn, beans, potatoes, are: bythe farmers cultivated cultures main thistheIn region, given condiharsh migration. in members family from remittances as well as livestock, and activities agricultural on income

( D.A.K 2012) . Most of the families in the rural areas base their main source of of source main their base areas the rural in the families Most of .

the trade se trade the tions of the mountainous landscape as well as the the as climate well as landscape the of mountainous tions th land and the customary law represented by the the by represented law customary the and th land ctor. The unemployment rate in the region is high, is the region in rate unemployment The ctor. 36

Kanun and was was and

legacy legacy les les CEU eTD Collection ( summers hot and winters cold with climate continental mediterranean a has it and regions two other in rural are It has a total 138,898 population of inhabitants a density and 80 of inhabitants/km Greece. with tothe border close Albania of part situatedthe southeastern is in of Korca region The 3.3.2 agriculture production, especially fruit and nut trees. trees. nut and fruit especially production, agriculture towards oriented more are there as cattle to have do prefer not and farmers region this in developed The grazing. livestock cattle and for fodder and variety cropsincludes: wheat,beans,cases of vineyards potatoes, andsome orchards, in forage corn, The main known and traditional culture cultivated is Korca in region apples. Besides that, the ( 0.29ha is parcels of size average the whereas households’memberstheof (per numbercapita the de from land their acquired of Korca the in region farmers dated19.7.1991 7501 Nr. the Land” “On the Law the countries.land with proximity Afterof the1991 in neighborhood distribution given area the of characteristic very is emigration seasonal as flexible is region the in rate migration the has exper offers region developing. close Being tothe and thegiven that border priority Greek its geographical position or crafting construction businesses tourism and services sector areand increasing including althoug agriculture, remains region this in activity main The composedbyotheris pasture forestry, type and of Kabo 1991

Region of Korca of Region as as ) - . Agricultural land in the region represents 24.5% of the land structure whereas the rest the rest whereas structure the land of 24.5% represents region the in land Agricultural . collectivization of the previous state cooperatives. The land was distributed based on was based state Thedistributed on cooperatives. collectivization theland of previous ( INSTAT 2013 )

ienced economical development throughout the last decades. The The decades. last the throughout development economical ienced . The average altit average The . MAFCP 20 ude from the sea level of 850m is higher than in the the in than higher is 850m of sea level the from ude 37 non- ) and nowadays the average farm size is 1.31ha 1.31ha is size farm average the nowadays and )

animal husbandry sector it is not that much that not much is it sector husbandry animal agricultural land ( land agricultural 12) .

h other activities such as artisanal such artisanal as activities other h MAFCP 2012) 2

where 54% lives . according to to according CEU eTD Collection tomatoes, pepper etc), wheat, corn, fodder and forage (mostly for crop rotation), orchards, vineyards vineyards orchards, rotation), crop for (mostly forage and fodder corn, etc), wheat, pepper tomatoes, c broccoli, carrots, oranges, melon, (watermelon, fruits vegetablesand variety of agreat are: ( 0.37ha is size parcel average the whereas 1.7ha, for counting to regions other the in than greater is size farm average The dated 19.7.1991. land region, the Korca in as Similarly activities. farmers’ on pressure additional increases also which low is service maintenance the and continuously degraded system has the irrigation the 1990 after Thi toflooding. continuous area prone is this systems, irrigation and channels with infrastructure necessary by the wasaccompanied region the in the drying the swamps of process Although lands. converted agricultural to marsh were cultivation. During the communism period a lot of aperiod lot the During communism cultivation. crops for variety agreater gives and mild climate the makes which the seaside with closeness producti regionThis has always been onethe of most developed and intensive ones terms in of agriculture land ( non type of other and pasture byforestry, composed is rest the whereas structure land ( climate mediterranean mild close to the seaside 204of inhabitants/km two to theregions comparison density other inhabitants 143,276 in total of and a higher population situatedshnja is Lu of The region 3.3.3

MAFCP 2012) Region of Lushnja of Lushnja Region on. This has come mostly due to the appropriate landscape composed by lowlands and the the and lowlands composed by landscape appropriate the to hasdue This comemostly on.

. the average altitude from the sea level is very low, rating for 15m with a very avery with 15m for rating low, very is sea level the from altitude average the 2

where 73% lives in rural areas ( lives rural in 73% where Kabo 1991 western part of Albania close to the seaside. It has a a has It seaside. tothe close Albania of part western center the in

was distributed according to the Law “On the Land” Nr. 7501 Nr. the Land” “On Law tothe according was distributed ) . Agricultural land in the region represents 64.5% of the the Agricultural. of the landin represents region 64.5% s problem has become more prominent nowadays because nowadays more prominent s problemhas become MAFCP 2012) 38

the INSTAT 2013) . The main cultures cultivated in the region the region in cultivated The cultures . main

areas in the region in areas . Given that it is situated very very . situated Given thatis it

that were swamps and and wereswamps that - agricultural agricultural abbage, abbage, CEU eTD Collection Table 1 Table Farms sizeParcel (ha) Farm size (ha) distribution Land Population a shows which decade, the last during parcel farm expansion the is regions three the all of characteristic distinctive region. A Lushnja lower parcel is and farms theof size and land agricultural of percentage alower is there theIn other two regions Kukesiand Korca whose have moreand hilly landscapes mountainous and the s farms of share largest the has region This land. agricultural available of percentage high tothe related closely is which fact sector agricultural intensive amore had always thethat one has is of Lushnja region the however char the overall them and amongst specifics different considerable have To sumtheregions up, three production.agricultural husbandry sectorvery developed not is as farmer the region, animal Similarly to Korca the differentnewand glasshousesfor cropsand seedlings. acteristics are presented in Table1 in presented are acteristics : General characteristics of the regions of characteristics General :

% of farms farms Total 2011 2000 2011 2000 land (%) Agricultural (ha) land Total (inh/km Density (%) Rural Total

ize of the farm parcels is slightly higher than in the other two regions. regions. intwo than the other slightly higher is parcels the farm ize of

with sales with

Agriculture represent the main activity in activity main the represent . Agriculture

(Source: Generated data from INSTAT 2013, MAFCP 2012) MAFCP 2013, INSTAT from data Generated (Source: 2 )

39 237,348 Kukesi tendency consolidation. farm of 10,373 45,624 87.7 0.16 0.13 0.71 0.44 10.6 s find more beneficial to dedicate their time to timeto their todedicate beneficial more find s

48 76

371,032 138,89 30,284 Korca 96.2 0.29 0.17 1.31 1.24 24.5 80 54

Lushnja 189,069 143,276 56,695 97.1 0.37 0.26 1.49 64.5 204 1.7 73

the three regions, regions, the three

in farm size and and size farm in

than in the in than

CEU eTD Collection confirmed that is actually in process the draft proposal for a law re alaw for proposal the draft process in actually that is confirmed Albania in Agriculture of Ministry at the Officials parcels. small very in land of fragmentation c were distributed to a villagersin per capita basisand landcannot be but sold just rent or withgiven land farms state and land farms collective law, tothis According law. this of legacy questionable pl took process when the decollectivization the 1945 (before ownership land the former dismissed and ignored it this wasthat law regarding forrules the distribution of land after the demise the of communism. The most contested issue se wasthis It which law Albania. thein in two laws decades last controversial most the and debated most the of one been has land” the “On 7501no. datedLaw 19.7.1991 ( et al. ( sector efficient more and based market a towards agriculture centralized and collectivized refor of aportfolio and package acomprehensive of implementation and design bethe will the government for challenge important and mismanagedpoor deve rural ( policies management land inadequate with economic associated continuous development instabilityarena, and the in political reforms of whichmatrix make will possible the endthe of The transition period. low level of theHaving status a country of with an economy transition,Albaniawith in coping is a complex 3.4 Mathijs and Noev 20 Noev and Mathijs oncession. Nonetheless, the main effect of this law regarding agricultural land was the wasthe land agricultural regarding law of this effect the main Nonetheless, oncession.

National framework and legi and framework National 2012)

and in the same time coping with the requirements of the Common Agriculture Policy Policy the Common Agriculture of the with requirements and the sametimecoping in 04) as well as prioritizing the needs for a successful rural development strategy. strategy. development rural asuccessful thefor needs prioritizing as well as Cungu and Swinnen 1999 and Cungu lopment lopment ms to the improve transition outcomesthe of a ongoing from slation slation ( Müller and MunroeMüller 2008 ace). This has led to a complicated and sometimes sometimes and toacomplicated led has This ace).

)

has led to cropland abandonment and a veryabandonment andto a cropland has led garding future consolidation.garding ; Sikor

et al. t the principles and

2009) . The most The . Deininger

CEU eTD Collection which set up the basis for new law This which gai for formscooperation the farmers. set of amongst basis up cooperation” agricultural “On dated 05.04.2012 no.38 Law is year last approved law important wil processors and sector and quality This farming. scheme considerable provides funds for the farmers and food agro of development the facilitating and development rural in involved actors of capacity and to “Support Development”Agriculture and Rural wi - IPARD the launched was year Last lastnational agricultural and yearsmeasures supportschemesproduction. for on expand been has it new structure, a Although development. rural and developmentrural the responsiblefor implementation is policy of measures and it onagricultural agen this of objectives and The aim main 2009. January since function his started has and law mentioned above tothe according Agency) wascreated (Paying Development Rural and Agriculture Agencyfor The developmentrural agric through for accounting it of aspects main The development”. rural and agriculture “On dated 22.10.2007 no.9817 the Law is development torural agriculture integrate to aims which law important Another • • • • Improvement of local governan local of Improvement areas rural in activities economic of promotion and life of the quality of Improvement environment of improvement and management Land areas rural in industry agro and competitiveness agriculture of Improvement cy are to administrate the state funds and programs for direct support of agriculture and and agriculture of support direct for programs and state funds the cy toadministrate are l contribute to increasing the competitiveness of the agro of the competitiveness toincreasing contribute l ulture entail: entail: ulture like Grant Scheme in the framework of the IPA 2011 project project 2011 the IPA of framework the in Scheme Grant like ce and instigation of local development potentials potentials development of local instigation ce and 41

the main objective of increasing awareness awareness increasing of objective the main

ing its services throughout the the services throughout its ing - food sector. Another sector.food Another

n more n more

- food food CEU eTD Collection a successful execution of these new policies. policies. these new of execution a successful tosecure order in instruments financial and structures implementation regional creating on failed has o adoption for framework the legislative creating on succeeded has government the central While pitfalls some encountered has status the implementation but framework legislation direc EU with comply to cases the of most in approved, and drafted been has activities agricultural regarding laws Other implementation. of level low avery at are currently whose farmers, amongst cooperation new creating for especially importance tives and regulations. In this regard it tives this In regard and regulations. noticeable is aand verylarge good 42

f agricultural laws, it it laws, agricultural f CEU eTD Collection the of characteristics its evolvement throughout these transitional processes becomeshigh of to understand necessity the employment, of source major the represents agriculture itsand entire of half population represents Albania in that population rural the Given the decades. haslast followedduring currentthatagriculture the and pathway understand toidentify important very are settings historic and social Both strategies. survival their they shape fami rural influencing are which challenges important with dealing is Albania development in agricultural transition, economic of decades the last During 4.1 Albania. in agriculture sustainable and farmers scale small of the development for impediment an represent strategies survival types of different the between disproportion that the argue Iwill Further encountered. rarely are strategies of types reciprocity and redistribution the whereas exchange, tomarket correspond strategies the survival of the majority each region of dissimilarities the despite that show By thissustainable balancedapproachwill I agriculture. following formodes deve economic integrationand of andbarriers analyze opportunities the the different between relationship the identify intertwined will I this, Alongside reciprocity. and e will I categorization this on strategies First, I will survival define the and model? farmsagriculture marginality a sustainable of development iss the whatare and strategies survival employing scalefarmers small question are How on: research my first answer will I process exploratory this In my research. focused that I regions In this chapter Iwill explore 4.

SURVIVAL STRATEGIES Defining margina Defining based on the modes of economic integration and the sustainable agricultural model agricultural the sustainable and integration economic of the modes on based lity and survival strategies survival and lity and an and xplore the survival strategies related to market exchange, redistribution redistribution exchange, tomarket related strategies the survival xplore alyze the current survival strategies of small scale farmers in the in farmers scale small of strategies survival current the alyze OF SMALL SCALE FARME SCALE SMALL OF RS 43

lies' and farmers' activities regarding the way regarding activities farmers' and lies'

ues affecting the affecting ues

lopment of

the system and and system the

furthermore . Based

CEU eTD Collection vocational privatism privatism to related are use M characteristics. and local thesedevelopment systems of economic characteristics on social and dependent environment changing aconstantly in needs immediate tomeet and toadapt their and selected activities farmers stra Thedisciplines. term “survival various of byscholars beenused has term the although countries, transition in agriculture for literature in lack a is There category. the first under fall study research this of object farms scale small the context, management economic and financial poor face which farms 2) and techniques modernization and development necessary to the adapt to small too economic and difficultiesdistinguished onstructural andrel constraints andbased characterized aspe and cultural social other as well as level farm and household the in place take that choices and the activities of strategie the survival evaluating and farms these aspects of plots different in the marginality and a high parcels degree self of supportingDefining farmers. fragmented by accompanied size small bytheir characterized are in Albania farms of majority The institutionalnetworks.transformation of and social developin transitional a represents It importance. these features are intertwined are these features

which involve farmers’ social relationship such as patriarchy and succession and b) the the successionand b) and patriarchy social relationship such farmers’ as involve which (

Redclift) 1986 problems they encounter in their farms. These categories include 1 include categories These farms. their in encounter they problems

either the ho either cts which are important for the local development. local the for important are which cts ccording to a study from Pile (1991 afrom study ) to according oreover, wh ic h involves farmers’ economic farmers’ involves h .

useholds or theuseholds or economy and and

these survival strategies is closely connected and and connected closely is strategies The survival choice these of

very important important very defining theoretically the typologies for survival strategies in in strategies survival for typologies the theoretically defining tegies” used is to define the relationshipbetween structural

( 44 Meert

to define

g system caught in a web of consequential consequential of a web in caught system g

relationships such as labor and capital. All capital. All and labor such as relationships

et al. s clearly involves an economic an involves clearly s

he distinguishes between a) the: familial the the 2005;

identity and contin and identity rvival strategies that farmers farmers that strategies survival the Vemimmen

Marginal farms can be canbe farms Marginal

et al. ) farms which are are which ) farms ated to financial financial ated to uity of farmers’ farmers’ of uity

2003)

evaluation evaluation . In this

CEU eTD Collection development and more importantly how is reflected and implemented in local communities local in implemented and reflected is how importantly more and development local the areas.Thus sustainable rural of development economic sector the and the agricultural for role alt redistribution access, exchange market bycombining escape marginalization and strategies survival implement r in thathouseholds He argues strategies. survival types of Polanyi (1944) development survival strategies examinationbetweenbroader distinguishing onthe of stands applie different bythe macro defined micro their intentions and goals macro battle to intentions household’s or the individual’s involve They character. strategic from actsare excluded unconscious only because consciousness discursive the sphereof as to well as consciousness On the hand,accordingto other perspective. economic and the social regarding context the analytical includedside in separated; clearly not is tothese categories according strategies survival of differentiation research this In decisions. management farm of components are they as strategies 2002) approach combination balanced s social and the local consideration totakein has agriculture sustainable of development . The with andare exogenouspressures faced endogenous . - development of the farming system is tightly connected with the macr the with connected tightly system is farming the of development level In this wayIn which faced . Alongsidethis, : market exchange, redistribution and reciproc and redistribution exchange, market : ernatives reciprocity or using social links networks. Farming plays an important depend wi ,

we have the transformation from we the transformation have th the constraints and opportunities by socio andthe - constraints opportunities the th ”. ”. - The importance of understandingand analyzingimportanceof these The development. level Thus, survivalThus, strategies represent choicesa the in households’farmers of on social -

Meert (2000 Meert of these three forms of economic in economic of theseforms three of Meert (2000: 327 )

historical context historical )

asserts that the three modes of economic integrati economic of modes three the that asserts 45 well awell achieve and communities rural of pecifics

the curre

“ Survival strategies belong to the sphere of recursive the sphere recursive to of belong strategies Survival

and politicalof and economic forms and ural areas ural ity define and categorize these different different these categorize and ity define nt model (the left side of the Figure side (the left nt model tegration

faced with poverty attempt to to attempt poverty with faced economic domain whose are are whose domain economic - social obstacles that obstruct obstruct that obstacles social

(Figure 3 (Figure o- level economic economic level

)

( d forms of of d forms instead it is is it instead Meert

which which on of on of , the the ,

et al.

any any

3 )

CEU eTD Collection development of development Figure possible for this research to separate between these two types of survival strategies. The authors authors The strategies. survival of two types these between toseparate research this for possible example three modes of economic integration and on and integration economic of modes three of marginal research farmsexploratory Meert at level, whichinclude Vemimmen reciprocity and fostercitizenshipby links redistribution. agriculture households ofsustainable and theof the stateaeconomic model restructuring towards welfare of transition the markets, demographic of restructuring the economic from crises in is which

professional level, which include activities based on market exc market on based activities include which level, professional 3 : The spheres of economic integration; the crises of the western welfare (left side) and the model of sustainable sustainable of the model and side) (left welfare western the of the crises integration; economic spheres The of : s) . (

right side of t et al. ta da in regarding on availability the low Given Source: ( side)Source: (right agriculture

(2003)

activities on the reciprocity and redistribution sphere and, 2) survival strategies strategies survival 2) and, sphere redistribution and reciprocity the on activities

categorize he Figure

survival strategies in two levels: 1)survival strategies at strategies 1)survival two levels: in strategies survival

3 ) which accounts for markets as a social utility, affiliation of of affiliation utility, marketsasocial as for accounts ) which Meert et al.

et al. et 46 - 2002)

farm and off and farm ) (2005

classify the survival strategies based on the the on based strategies survival the classify - farm and off and farm - farm strategies ( strategies farm hange. Moreover, based in an based an in Moreover, - farm activities, it is not not is it activities, farm see see Table 2 Table

household

for for CEU eTD Collection in the recipro networking and organizationsin exchange the market approached and sustainable model of the on based Moreover, nowadays. implementing are farmers that strategies the survival sections next which the of characteristics the rch, resea tothe classification According 2 Table Reciprocity Redistribution Market ac have classification identifying usedwith of diversification this intention the opportunities for apparent mutual relationship mutual apparent challenges and opportunities identify and integration economic of modes the three tivities of marginal farms, issue which may be relevant for future research in Albania. Albania. in research future for may berelevant which issue farms, marginal of tivities

: Household survival strategies and the modes of economic integration economic of modes the and strategies survival Household : are too small to adapt to the necessary development and modernization techniques modernization and development necessary tothe toadapt small too are

development of agriculture by agriculture of development

Meert (2000 byMeert the use will categorization I

remuneration without harvest during farmers other with Cooperation Investme produce of marketing Innovative Within agriculture new farmers’ markets the new farmers’ byincorporating I will these new alternatives explore sphere nt support by the state by the support nt ,

the agriculture cooperation in the redistribution sphere redistribution the in cooperation agriculture the

amongst the three different spheres, different the three amongst above

category of the category under fall regions the selected in farms

( Vemimmen

Meert city sphere.

47 et al. et

Off On Off On Off On agriculture Outside

et al.

(2002) ------

farm farm farm farm farm farm

2003 )

and

I will explore the intertwined nature of of nature the intertwined explore will I to repair the households’ dwelling households’ the to repair Non on farm activities holiday for rooms to arrange Non aid charity Support public from social services, conservation nature to linked measures Support employment agricultural Non farms Holiday )

( Vemimmen data collected in the fieldin collected the data and Meert - - remunerated support from relatives relatives from support remunerated by support remunerated

et al.

low a balanced I will abalanced follow

2005)

et al.

(2003 and and . Given the the Given . )

to explore the the . In the In . relatives relatives

farms farms social social

in in

CEU eTD Collection activities that use money as an exchange tool tool exchange an as money use that activities all includes which integration economic of modes three the of one represents exchange Market structures market of development the poor and the instability Given sector. agricultural of production subsidiesregul importing new as well as markets competitive Thus the to economiccountry environmentthe opening of inefficiencies. of rates toincreased leading structures necessary appropriate of lack from suffer and taking care of their garden and their field crops. Given that this village is situated in a remote area, area, remote a in situated is village this that Given crops. field their and garden their of care taking the of school elementary at the ateacher as employed Heis market. in the local his products tosell him for is tomeimportant how explained Ademi in the(Kukes), Shishtavec ofthat one at of one had farms During theI visits farmers. of concerns one the major for represent trade and pricing access market Consequently, a profit. make and expenses main the cancover profits their market at the products their tosell they manage that if claim farmers all overview, As ageneral consists selling of their prodmarkets. ucts tothe local t research, my field conducted I where regions the three In farmers. marketable are which services and goods byproducing utility Sarris ac market influencing especially destabilization a macroeconomic experienced astateecono from led the regime of the change After 4.2.1 4.2

Survival strategies at strategies Survival

M et al. arket exchange strategies , farmers tendt farmers

(1999)

argue that markets structures especially in transition economies are ill developed developed ill are economies transition in especially structures that markets argue o be lessto conducive expansionand growth. ations is continuing to have a detrimental detrimental a have to continuing is ations

professional level professional

(

Meert village, whilst his wife is unemployed and currently currently and unemployed is wife his whilst village, 48

et al.

2002) Albania has has Albania market, the free my towards

seholds’ farmers use this social this social useHouseholds’ farmers . and provide a source of income of a source and provide he main activity of farmers farmers of activity main he effect on the domestic domestic the on effect cess and trading terms. terms. trading cess and

for CEU eTD Collection and unsatisfied about and the theconcerned impact of se more farmers gives the city from collectors different or middlemen with contracts etc melon, peppers, cabbage, broccoli, region of of region the in noticeable mostly is feature This contract and promoting organizing farming. would help necessary networksis and the creation of of trading, forms to order these In achieve production. insecurities market of prices instability their andfutureinvestments thus hindering agricultural on the whosewith faced are farmers scale small for opportunity good a represents alternative p better towards incentive apositive give processors food and farmers between contracts that innovative confirm Swinnen (1999 and Gow issue, this Regarding inefficiencies. other or prices market of instabilities li asecure creating in successful more been have points local market or middlemen with l contacts persona arranged that have Farmers sources income market their reducing scenario) weather worst the (in months entire for products their market cannot they and snow the that They claim Ademateacher. as of the salary from the income after family, this for income of source second the is market tothe products their Selling officers. customs with difficulties have they as border products in whichKosovo, very is close the to often this across village. go theynot do However, market the local mountaintea.Besides and hip cases rose They twomostly on weeks. oncein potatoes, sell away,only hour one almost i which market, the to go they only and market the to transportation of difficulty the they have Lushnja ricescers, forinvestment produ ,

where their main products are vegetables su vegetables are products main their where worst season for them is winter, because the village gets isolated from the heavy the heavy from isolated gets village the because winter, them is for season worst curity regarding the sales and marketing of their products, although they were they were although products, their of marketing and the sales regarding curity . seem to be less affected by by affected less tobe sale theirand productsseem nkage for . The majority of the farmers that I interviewed had made had interviewed that I the farmers of majority The . 49 subsidiesfor goods. imported agricultural

stability and technology improvements. improvements. This technology and stability ,

or from the capital from or they have attempted to trade their their trade to they attempted have ch as: tomatoes, cucumber, carrots, carrots, cucumber, tomatoes, ch as: and in some some in nutsions, and . This alternative alternative This . , thus thus , s )

CEU eTD Collection necess is it integration, economic of modes important the main of one represents exchange As market Lithuania). in farmers scale small case for ) (2011a (see Mincyte regulations and policy the EU of transfer handobligations. it about raisesconcerns On the other the all with tocomply afford that cannot farmers small these marginalized for risk asevere pose f in farmers, to This selltheirsmallscale products informally. represents for futurechallenges onethe of production they choose their which for costs raisesthe marketing of forms legal Instead choosing of d marketing with faced are which farmers of the struggle clearly shows Thisexample marketing. way of this tochoose beneficial at not all is him for and low to som security,under thefood of health regulations new and hygiene.products tohis He market has tried that He customers. knows thi onthe his meat of demand depending to Hegoes Korca. the city the city of in now more thanbeen products his years for ten andselling cows ten the has six and sheep has He city. in customers different to products dairy sells Korca, of region the in met I that farmers the One of the in expresses Kukesiregion concerns: his the farmers or of connectedness lack or connections poor that have farmers those hand theOn other middlemen ary to create stable markets near toand develop consumers markets new flexibility mechanisms of forcreate stable to ary e special and nothing and survive to work Wejust limit. minimal the very at are profits the because satisfied self am I prices. import hard is with it compete costs, to cover ourproduction always don’t we can get the prices that markets but local Wetake exchange. market stable and a secure have don’t you when difficult is “…it ace of the requirements of food and safety from the EU regulations. These latter ones ones latter These regulations. EU the from safety and food of requirements the ace of

find this process v this process find ized thebut in collectors region, more”.

ery difficult and problematic and difficult ery

every other day, and sells milk and also cheese also and milk and sells and day, other every the prices offered by these collection points are too too are points collection bythese offered the prices 50

ifficulties sustainability

for marketing their products. One of of One products. their marketing for

for more insights regarding a similar

in light of financial problems. financial of light in s marketing process is illegal illegal is process marketing s

issues with regards to the issues withto the regards

our products to the to our products

with markets markets with CEU eTD Collection and the features that they imply induce changes for the development of agro of the development for changes induce imply that they the features and relationship between producersand consumers network ( connectedness 3) and identities, and regional local of and promotion empires by food large elements preempting that help resist ducts pro of and the production process 2) itself, rootedness specificity, 1) are: these nested markets of characteristics centralfeatures”. makethem markets nested constructed these newly connectedness, te latter the Whereas empires. food by governed increasingly are that markets consumers.“[T] a empiresnewtional food and offer connection multina between producersand big the against necessity of astren with self direct of access the balance must process intertwined this from emerging markets of the new forms Accordingly, reciprocity. and market integration: economic of modes the two of intersection the between stands utility asocial as markets of reconfiguration of development theAccording to sustainable 4.2.1.1 an management the improve will private by management the and deficiencies, high to lead has state the by markets these of management the tohim, According markets. private entirely better or ownerships public byprivate management onethe of expressedregard, governmentthe officials and ap willingness this In terms. trading and farmers for environment a difficult created have markets of infrastructure orde in trading market

New farmers’ markets New farmers’

nested markets nested new emerging Van der Ploeg Vander network. social gthened he newly emerging, nested markets are undoubtedly a response to the main food and agricultural agricultural and food main the to aresponse undoubtedly are markets nested emerging, he newly r to build a sustainable and efficient food chain. Market failures and the poor andpoor the failures Market efficient chain. food and a sustainable build to r

, which promotes which , horizontal hierarc

d the performance of these markets. markets. these of thed performance which are new alternatives from a social struggle resistance resistance struggle asocial from new alternatives are which 51

agriculture model of of model agriculture

which accounts for the farming style, quality style, quality the farming for accounts which et al. Van der Ploeg der Van

, which entails the social and material material and the social entails which , (2012: 153(2012: ) nd to eliminate specificity, rootedness and and rootedness specificity, eliminate to nd hical patterns and fosters the the fosters and patterns hical - marketing of farmers markets markets farmers of marketing

et al.

proach to address market market toaddress proach describe describe Meert

- 2012) ecological production

et al. The three main main three The . These markets . These markets and explore the the explore and

(2002)

the the CEU eTD Collection Winter points and selling betweenconsumers thearound the relationship perception aregarding In study andsocial public networks organizations. strong from cooperation increased and knowledge of spread the awareness, of the rise via promote environmentally friendly, environmentally relationshipsand connectedness,of quality and freshness products, of traditional and shops and supermarkets connectedness these of Consequently, there the a is needfoster androotedness contributemore regarding to and structure. chain market traditional the of acause as deprivation in result sometimes region sociallack of organizationand promotion these of products which bear traditional valuesthe in want they wherever can find you meat was explaining one them of themselves. farmers from perception aformal without and formed genuinely A in found canbe nestedmarkets of type These patterns. production, bysustainable promoting livelihoodslocal values and supporting and redistribution of modes and features local specific to emphasis more bygiving characteristic, the main are and retailers between relations where markets traditional the from differ markets Nested consumers whilst it gives more emphasis to social relations generatedthe byprocess. distribution contributein as well as mountain

et al.

ous

(2010) village quality of certain specific products, a products, specific certain Even thoughfarmersof ”. arethe consciousquality of in thein region

presented score points resultspresented score of (Kukes) Shishtavec

new (Figure 4)

whereas supermarkets scored more in fields regarding their commerciality their commerciality regarding in fields more scored supermarkets whereas building new networks and tied relationships between producersand to me the uniqueness of their meat products “… their meat of uniqueness tothe me , as we have here the best grazing areas to feedthemand animals areas as weto , haveheregrazing the best nested markets nested . As seen As . ,

farmers are very proud of their lamb meat quality and quality meat their lamb of proud very are farmers from the results, farm shops scored more in the sphere the sphere more in shopsscored results,farm the from

in Albaniain 52

on the behavior of consumer regarding farms farms consumer of regarding behavior on the lbania although in the majority of cases are casesare of majority the in although lbania last last two These . features features it is the best quality of lamb lamb of quality best the is it are necessary to to necessary are

are free to graze free to are In In

the producer producer

small small er er CEU eTD Collection Figure Figure this mode e of the society. Currently part the of to services order help marginalized in goods, funds charitable or the interven by exclusion social or inequalities as such sphere exchange the market from emerge can that effects The r 4.3.1 4.3 soci more and contributesto connectedness other more promotes accessibility supply,the and constant what offered is to consumers. the Whilstone offers more opportunities form terms in of consumers these twoforms towards show selling different what and theyhow entail differ of behavior and connection The accessibility. and infrastructure as well as availability and

al and sustainable features. features. sustainable and al 4

Survival Survival : Consumers score view on farm shops and supermarkets and shops farm on view score Consumers: edistribution R strategies strategies edistribution tion of states’ of tion help ( conomic integration is mostly a characteristic of western welfare states, as it requires requires it as states, welfare western of acharacteristic mostly is integration conomic strategies a strategies sphere is that mode of eco of that mode is sphere t

household level level household Meert 2000 Meert ) . . other In the words, state redistributing in intervenes nomic integration which helps which integration nomic

Source: Source: Win ter et al. et (2010)

tempering the negative the negative tempering

ent is ent is ,

CEU eTD Collection require require theseaids cultivation. Applyingfor subsidies different cultures for especially for cropsand regarding the government aids from several of support the existence acknRegarding policies,farmers owledge them. any of tomeet the opportunity but not did I have samehelp This forthe otherin product, projectfarmers apples. region, offered t as project, this with Organization) Development (Netherlands SNV aid financial from aid technical Some size. and scale of amount limited a within and number asmall in remain these projects still but Cooperation), International Agencyfor (German GIZ Developmen International for Agency States (United USAID Organization), Development (Netherlands SNV as such byorganizations organized projects different in to takepart future pr their align to tried have and cultures, certain for bythe state given the subsidies about knowledge some have to admitted them of Most levels. low at really was farmers may help that projects th with conducted I tothe interviews According levels. low moderately integrity financial and economic higher referenced to it as: “ as: it to referenced very not are farmers the interviewed of part A small beginning. the investments in bigger they require and terms byfinancial constrained are their as possibilities as long farmers scale these small from bereached casescannot several in which the fulfillment of certain conditions of land size, livestock number or intensity of intensity or number landsize, of livestock ofconditions certainthe fulfillment oduction these towards However, opportunities. Kosta, a farmer in the region of Korca of the in region farmer . Kosta, a material aid su aid these material organizations, his storehousehis himmore gives trading flexibility andmain for marketinghis ghost subsidies” . This farmer This

satisfied with the subsidizing aid offered and onethem satisfied aidoffered with of the subsidizing

of the state the of

e farmers he builtan applehe storehouse. He was very satisfied 54

explained to me that often these subsidies are are subsidies these often to me that explained ,

told me how with how me told , which in the ofAlbania case is still in ch as , the awareness of agricultural programs or or programs agricultural of the awareness ,

some them of had the have opportunity

farmers confirmed tohave confirmed farmers seedlings

the help of a project from from project a of help the and in several cases also casesalso several in and

, orchards

received received t) and and t) CEU eTD Collection whereas the lending institutions problems were regarding the availability of immovable collateral. collateral. immovable of the availability regarding were problems institutions lending the whereas lon were: loans credit and Dubali) (2000 uponthis,Lemel Taking loans. the payingback of risk increased and interest high very with them they as identify apply credits about skeptical werevery interviewed farmers The future expansion. encounter the in production process, financing problemsare overwhelmingly influenci ( model agricultural sustainable access. Another prominent problemwhich expressed is more as adeficiency formmarket of the credit is appropriateof issues areinfluencing important knowledgefarmers their futureopportunities. of th meeting farmers’ feasibilitytheir of projectssuccessfulness inthese dependent is and onthe subsidies the access of regarding process and form the application tothem, According since 2007. farmers for that express officials government side, theOn other Korca. the city of in He has now increased number the of apiculture.for He government the schemesof the subsidizing from benefited has region, Korca the in afarmer Pirro, instance, For apiculture. and barns and livestock vineyards, glasshouses, for material plastic systems, orchards, irrigation for: such as schemes subsidy different from benefited they have cases several requir these schemes from benefit always not would farmers thell sma thus livestock, of number ahigh and land of areas larger that have farmers to addressed ements Moreover, this issue it is a very important part of the redistribution sphere inside the insidethe sphere the redistribution of part very important this issue ita is Moreover, e set of criteria. Besides these factors, they agree that the small size of farms and the lack the lack and farms of size the small that agree they factors, these Besides criteria. set of e However, b . However,

found that the main concerns from the farmers’ perspective inregarding Albania perspective the farmers’ from concerns the main that found has increased the number of barns and has also participated in several trainings. has increased and barns hasnumber alsoparticipated theof trainings. several in g and complicated procedures and fear of inability to pay back and debt, debt, and topayback inability fearof and andprocedures g complicated esides these complaints most of the farmers admitted that in one or esides admitted one thesemostfarmers in complaints the or of that Meert

his his et al. customers

2002) 55 .

Besides the economic diffic economic Besides the and alsohas made contracts with several shops subsidy schemes andhave grants available been ,

because they because

cannot fulfill the necessary the necessary fulfill cannot ulties that farmers that farmers ulties ng their their ng CEU eTD Collection 2007; Tisenkopfs etal. ( economies market developed and flexible more towards form transitional required a represent initiatives up bottom and cooperatives of forms new emerging dependency o ahigh theyand have ontheunsuccessful and not thecountries long in viable transition ( middle individual emerging the new than viable beless will structure farm cooperative the context the historical given that them argue of Some Europe. Eastern and Central of countries development of forms theappropriate most nature the and cooperation suitable for transition to rebuild spe avery induced which legacy historical the and forms cooperation these of enforcement the former Given Europe. Eastern and Central of transition in countries in especially sector, agricultural the for important very is and collective action Cooperation approach. balanced awell for the need implying thus integration, the between found is cooperation Agricultural 4.3.1.1 opportuni farmers’ increase and market the credit improve will institutions lending functional with accompanied framework thus abetterregulatory strategies, farmers’ influence which factors main the opportun offered that have programs or projects differentforeign from more beensupported have farmers general In investments. risk high considered are these as investments, agricultural regarding functional nor adapted well neither been hasslow and sector this of the development and important very are factors institutional Hence, Sarris

et al. Cooperation and ties and the need to invest or expand their activities. activities. their expand or toinvest the need and ties updated structures and successful cooperation. of haveabout Scholars been the arguing

1999) ,

as theas cur 2011) structu . res for support res for r ent it is a difficult challenge challenge adifficult is it nowadays system, social and economic cific

cooperatives emerged after the regime change has pr has change regime the after emerged cooperatives n social capital ( capital social n

ity of low interest rates. Financial support is one of the is of one support Financial lowrates. interest ity of 56 intersections

Valent inov Deininger 1995

et al. of the three modes of economic economic of modes three the of - term ( term

2004) Gardner and Lerman 2006 Lerman and Gardner . Some others argue that that . argue others Some ; Kelemen and Megyesi Megyesi and Kelemen oved to be - size farms farms size ) , CEU eTD Collection fruitful future collaboration, as Nasi another farmer explains: explains: farmer another Nasi as collaboration, future fruitful for allow not does regard this in skepticism their as farmers between cooperation of new forms bri and farmers the between influence that process this longstanding represent terms in building of trust and collaboration the well as but system, of the former the and theoppression with failure associated memory bitter Seemin farmers. amongst noticeable very still are memories the negative forms, cooperation these of dismantling the from years twenty than more after even that, noteworthy is It the in explained howcooperatives it was those in working days: region the Korca in interviewed the farmers of one Berti, memories. farmers’ in connotations profita andaccomplish mission resul their to they failed reality in engagement, community improving and performance economic increasing Although these of forms cooperation and the collectivizationprocess were promoted as a form for ( use private for allowed was family per 0.1ha only whereas farms, state and cooperatives bythe wasowned land agricultural of all 96% almost process the collectivization of end ownership was abolishedimportance and a high was to given the state private this period During farms. collective and the cooperatives of the creation brought Albania transition countrsimilar As other in bility as well as influencing as well as bility me, as everything was divided equally equally was divided everything as same, the getting all were we end the matter…In not did that but products, more for havethe opportunity to order hard,in hard very Wewere working which large. was quite family my fiftee for worked I and wife “My anymore.” new cooperatives any creating for perspective future see not any do and I ended period this that glad very am I questionable. quite were efficiency and morals whose coordinators the chief with deal we had to and plus survive to minimum usthe bare just was giving for the cooperative and working else anywhere e of working need.choic Wedid haveany not ourfamily for we that useplant to plots small the us even took as the state anymore exist not did it property, ourown know you land, have not “We did dging soci

social capital. Collective cooperatives have still nowadays negative negative nowadays still have cooperatives Collective capital. social n years on the cooperatives. We were a young couple and we were living with with living were we and couple a young were We cooperatives. the on n years ted in a series of negative consequences in terms of economic economic of terms in consequences negative of aseries in ted ies of Central and Easter Europe, the communist regime in in regime communist the Europe, Easter and Central of ies al capital. al This represents a big constraint when dealing with with when constraint a represents big dealing This 57

- led collective farms. By the Bythe farms. collective led Pata and Osmani 1994 Osmani and Pata gly, it is not only the the not only it is gly,

) . CEU eTD Collection inefficiency of the collective cooperatives. cooperatives. the collective of inefficiency transitio from evidence empirical on based disadvantages ( cooperatives collective and cooperatives service cooperatives: agricultural of forms organizational the two main of efficiency the evaluates Deininger economy. (1995 the market ) of new challenges the and system economic cooperativ the organizational Europe, Eastern and of Central countries the transition of the context In access. market higher and costs transaction lower fragmentation, of land effects the negative toovercome aneed as more more have participated other in forms of cooperation based onbusiness forms organizatiof farmers state support, and legal adequate of lack a with even However, interviewed. I the farmers creation the in resulted not has it farmers, among yet not acknowledged and widely implementation earlyof an phase in is this law As cooperatives. new of creation the and modesbetweenfarmers different cooperation of approved the newno.38 dated Law 05.04.2012 “On agriculwhich promotestural cooperation”, the government initiative, this tosupport order in year, Last concern. this in support legislative Accordingly profitability. incre and each other with tocollaborate farmers small scale for especially opportunities the main of one represent cooperation of forms new of creation the agree that officials Government Lusho and Papa(1998 Lusho ponsible for something that was not ours was difficult to achieve.” to difficult was ours was not that something for responsible butfeeling all, at not fair, not was us.That the same as receive would they the butat end aswork much, to mind not would otherfarmers that know I same... be the should everybody where socialism in were and we e agricultural structures represent a major necessity given the characteristics of the existing of the characteristics given necessity amajor represent structures agricultural e

of any cooperative to date and I did not encounter anyexamples encounter not did I and todate anycooperative of ,

they expressa positive perspective onthe issue and highlightthe ) ). The cooperation as an organizatio an as cooperation The ). Table 3 Table 58

). By comparing their advantages and and advantages their By). comparing n countries he highlightsthe overall

nal form in this case has come this in casehas come nal form

escribes and and describes on (see for

amongst ase ase

CEU eTD Collection The cre The competitiveness. cooperatives farms and individual to both inefficientcomparison in cooperationshown of to hasbe form tran in especially cooperatives, collective evidence on By giving 3 Table production) (Joint collectives Agricultural provider) (Service Service cooperatives village, in order to reduce the costs for the machineries they use. However, the experience did not not did the experience However, they use. the machineries for the costs toreduce order in village, me how told us”. amongst mentality old of aquestion andmore is minds, two together bring to difficult very is it reality an in Albanian us and obviously of all between trust and cooperation of a lack and nottothis alternative. about keen follow opinions cooper the Onefarmer the of suspicious very wereall farmers but Albania, in today farmers of situation the current for especially : Comparison ofservice cooperatives and agriculturalcollectives

whose

several years ago they attempted to create a cooperative with other farmers of his of farmers other with a cooperative create to attempted they ago years several

provide moremembers, benefitsprovide for increase and supportmarket productivity

ation of these cooperation forms would represent forms a good ation these cooperation of • • • • • •

members members amongst Equity scale of economies No significant goods Prov farmersas help for di Innovation of the market on competitiveness of Enhancement scale of economies of utilization Great Advantages fferent technologies technologies fferent ision of public ision

Source: Generated from Deininger from Generated (1995) Source: • • • • • • Another farmer in the Kukesi region the Kukesi in farmer Another

sition countries he argues that this he thatthis sition countries argues term term incentives short and investments Low substitutionworkforce of opportunities and risk employment Less supply and supervision effort Problematic intervention political of risk and the cooperative to maintain investments sufficient of Lack problem –riders free The cooperative the managing of Cost control of Disadvantages

atives: atives:

alternative alternative “there is is “there service service

CEU eTD Collection values values engagementand norms individuals,shaping relationshipsas trustwellnetworks amongst as and and between and is individuals very significant organizational for development. cooperation functional building in factor important and powerful a very represents capital Social agreement. the initial with comply not could and problems financial theyuse had beca the initiative from up backed the farmers of some as long for last initiatives emerge: emerge: initiatives (2007 Megyesi and Kelemen (see also paper they present several cases successful of cooperation initiatives the in Czech Hungary Republic, i Although, low. is initiatives marketing farmers' collective of that the number implying thus post in capital social of the level that They acknowledge farmers’ of initiative up bottom a as emerged Tisenkopfs action. collective the and cooperation the of the characteristics determining in important very is legacy historical controversial • • ( production; organic and friendly environmentally towards scale farmers small of orientation a pluriactive Multifunct food large chain towards westernaligned production; and more model Traditional Tisenkopfs ; which represent those types of cooperatives that are multifunctional and with with and multifunctional are that cooperatives of types representthose which ional; ; which represent big entrepreneurial types of cooperatives more similar to the tothe similar more cooperatives types of entrepreneurial big represent which ;

et al.

2011) . The role that social capital plays in a system shaped by a bya asystem shaped in plays capital social . that The role ) ) and Latvia, where three types of collective farmers marketing marketing farmers collective types three of where Latvia, ) and et al.

) (2011 resistance against big internationalresistance supply chains. big food against 60

present the new cooperation forms that have have that forms cooperation new the present - socialist transition countries quite is low

It consists building of n their their n CEU eTD Collection macro communities rural in especially networks smallscale of relationships facilitates which of vicinity principle integ economic of mode third the represents Reciprocity 4.3.2 pluriactivities. multifunctional other agro as such activities other integrate as well as food and products actio community foster which pathway, feasible a represent territorial a Besides the of first form traditional farmers. of situation current tothe well respond may that alternative another tooffer seem initiatives theof costshigh curre the to greatly responds alternative This mechanisms. the flexibility and offer they the benefits given cooperation for alternative great a are cooperatives Service country. the in organization of modes different of experiences successful are there although the farmers, present amongst highly still is cooperatives old mythThe of economy. atransition of the characteristics whenhaving lly especia Albania, in farmers scale small viable a represent initiatives and cooperation of forms mentioned above the All nd is more suitable for medium scale farmers, the other two alternatives of multifunctionality of alternatives two the other farmers, scale medium for suitable more is nd •

- R level developmen level products. local traditional of value the increase and networks food local promote and reinforce Territorial

eciprocity initiatives can be easily adapted by small scale farmers. These- bottom farmers. scale bysmall adapted canbeeasily initiatives . This form entails those strategies which encounter as an individual response to ; which represent cooperative forms that entail local embeddedness that local and try entail to forms cooperative represent which ;

strategies machineries, inputs machineries, t challenges t

initiatives, which clearly requires a higher level of coordination of level coordination ahigher requires clearly which initiatives,

and are based on kin related on kin are based solidarity and nt situation of farmers of nt situation and market i market and 61

nsecurities. Collective ration and it gains importance due to the the to due importance gains it and ration

n, promote local markets, traditional traditional markets, local promote n, and their main concerns regarding the the regarding concerns main their and - tourism, organic production or or tourism, production organic . By means of choosing choosing of By. means s farmers marketing marketing farmers

opportunity for for opportunity up initiatives

and and

CEU eTD Collection village in the Korca region has been producing honey the in has been toit: village Korca region cts related producing produ and medicinal point amarketing as relatives their thenuse and the farmer of exchangeused smallnetworks in for such rakiaproduction of (traditional and drinkAlbania) in by asstrategy used farmers are areciprocal - and honey,agro products from storage activi farm on Other diversification. of forms and the farm on new activities developing in role important increase opportunities. As shown their by Meert tofarmers develop supportivestrategies in order to respond to local development and constraints The rakia. or as wine honey, , farm their in get would they each guest for guest tofind them helped the city have in relatives into their houses. to bringcostumers usedevelopment, farmers social connectionareas urban order within relatives area, Shishtavecmountainous (Kukes) and Vithkuq (Korca), which had opportunities for tourism products products, honey, suchetc. aswine dairy Furthermore In ( relatives. or families communities, small in evidently more services and goods reciproc several require a lot of knowledge, and I have been to a couple of training workshops about it, and that and that it, about workshops training havebeen and I to of a couple of whichrequireknowledge, alot jelly royal and bee milk propolis, selling been also I know. they people to it sell me to help there relatives my where the to sent it city I beehives. of number haveincreased I the now and by ago years of acouple started it “I al strategies hou strategies al

instances instances s implements some agro some implements s In two farms that I visited in Vith in visited that I farms two In farmers ties implemented by farmers such as such byfarmers implemented ties create trust amongst themselves and exchange exchange and themselves amongst create relationships, trust seholds build

use their connections or family relatives in the city to sell their specific specific their city tosell the in relatives family or connections their use creation of these reciprocity links these reciprocity of creation - farm their of products to related mostly practices processing processing apple of as in as

they would “reward” their relatives with products such such products with relatives their “reward” would they

local shops or bars in the in bars local shopsor nearby A cities.minority 62 . For instance, Pirro who lives in a mountainous who instance, a For in mountainous . Pirro lives -

visitors. visitors. In a funnyconfession they me told kuq (Korce), the farmers narrated me how their their how me narrated the farmers (Korce), kuq

et al.

s and other fruit trees,processing, wine (2005) apiculture and processing of medicinal of medicinal processing and apiculture

as a mode of integration allows integration of amode as etworks play anstrong play social networks ,

in two villages situat two villages in Meert etal.

2002) ed in ed in .

that

CEU eTD Collection mean to increase diversification on agricultural activities. Thus, the extension and the wide the wide and the extension Thus, activities. agricultural on diversification mean toincrease ( existing The they covered. all the villages in farmers people,clearly not 5 which meet aof does needs staff the andhave of centers regional the main in support but to needs. are wellandfarmers responding These functioning structures are located only state more need and new are these structures that confirm they body, advisory and extension gove the with interview the from Although service. this for directed toget where aware not are farmers the time of most and number in new limited still are services neededcommunities the farmers. for supportof The new structures extensive of and advisory and villages in specializedstructures of lack afactual exists there though, side theOn other pathways. development regarding insecurities them tofuture exposes and and system the agricultural ves lea it Hence activity. impediment toproblems for theirfarmers accessand resolvesvarious concerning information an shows structures such processes.lack of farm The problemsregarding different knowledge on bodiesthese advisory in and well proper functioning of he tries to otherwhen askaround farmers different encountering In the farm. absence problemsin instead anymore, dothis to Now cannotafford he the renting car. for neighbor also his service, and whenfarm he has specific problemsregarding crops. his Moreover he has to the pay for agronomist farm. his wascomplaining Kukesi, in the farmers One of helpful. very been not have tothe farmers according very and well functioning not are specialists agro and services the advising farmers, between networking the social that besides noticeable is It MAFCP 2013) that just for ourselves and sometimes send it to ourr to it send sometimes and ourselves for just that we use but the fruits, and season the on depending jam, of types different makes also wife My helped me… He has to go the city the with neighbors, onehis and car get of to thehis agronomist . Chaplin et al.

(2004)

underline the need for extension and advisor and extension for need underline the

about the high costs needed to get an agronomist at at agronomist an toget about needed costs the high 63

elatives” elatives” the interests of these small scale farmers, barren barren farmers, scale small these of the interests

extension services reach only 20% of of farmers 20% only reach services extension

remote areas, farmers use and exchange peer peer exchange and use farmers areas, remote rnment official in charge of the of charge in official rnment

y structures as a a as y structures - CEU eTD Collection development social infrastruc of havecooperation undermined the social domain public of organizations and hindered the for networks new tocreate willingness low or engagement and trust of decrease as such capital social t regarding benefits clear no expressed and the outcomes about skeptical were they structures such in participating of cases past In organized. projects different th of activity the about knowledge and awareness of level a low is that there confirmed interviewed I farmers of majority The limited. moderately is to agriculture related those of number the emerged, public of organizations number and non- decadesalarge two the last publicorganizationsof during theand in spreadEven experienceda country netthough growth. creation the Afterwards, controlled. extremely and state socialist the of principles the on dependent werehighly acting community promoting organization public regime the communist During grass empower solve deepthat and- approaches address don't current situation weak of government which institutions, often pr areas rural the in movements social any or structures government non organizational of alack is there communities, rural closed small createdin often networks scale ( model agriculture of development sustainable the in integration economic of mode the reciprocal of feature important an comesas socialnetworks Fostering 4.3.2.1 areas. rural in rate efficiency their increase to tool beanecessary would farmers amongst these structures of promotion ese organizations, whereas only a few of them admitted they have been part of or involved in or involved of beenpart have afewthemthey admitted only of whereas ese organizations,

Social networks and p networks Social - roots initiatives becomes a more feasible approach. approach. feasible amore becomes initiatives roots

ublic organizations organizations ublic ture. Therefore, organizations and NGOs are very important important very are NGOs and organizations Therefore, ture.

64 seated problems in rural areas, the necessity to to necessity the areas, rural in seated problems

Meert heir farming activity. Changes in activity. Changes farming heir

et al. ovide state governmental organization organization governmental 2002) mall Besides. small the - led top down top down led Under the . Under

public

CEU eTD Collection means of a participatory and proactive approach. On the other hand, in a study about public public aabout study hand,in On other the approach. andparticipatory proactive means a of Steele (1994 farmers marginalized small system and of the sector agricultural public the between abridge creating in play that NGOs the role about countries different in analysis acomparative In pathways. agricultural sustainable promote and development rural tofoster is objectives whose and communities local from rise which initiatives private and projects on focusing programme to the LEADER new marke values and contributingto environmental considerations, social improving networks and creating livelihoods, local promoting local communities anddevelopment fostering improving but alsofor outcomes the beneficial they underline importance. By illustrating the grass rootsinitiatives the in White Carpathians Czech in Republic, - abottom from initiatives facilitating aand transition organizationsand NGOswhich of process,encouraging thein are undergoing role Biggs 1990) rural communities andimproving livelihoods life ( education resources,extensionof rural environmental goal andpractices;with supportfor final the strategies, governments governance such and marginalizedfarmers as:guidanceimplementation onadoption of and for both benefits several provide that structures coordinating are NGOs and organizations Public these goals. toachieve means and measures necessary the provide not and strategies do theagricultural of institutions implementation cannotaccomplish that considering institutions networks supportandgovernment thatbuild provide to need t opportunities. Eventually, the European Union has given a high priority andopportunities. priority Eventually, at hashigh given attention the Union European Beckmann and Dissing (2004 Dissing . Beckmannand )

confirm the great contribution of NGOs in agricultural research and extension by agricultural of in NGOs contribution the great confirm

providing advice technologyproviding andthe supportfor transfer, management of up approach and contributing to rural development is of great development of tois rural and contributing up approach

of suchof actions not only forsocio improving - )

state that in the countries of Central and Easter Europe Europe Easter and Central of countries the in that state 65 Bebbington and1993 Farrington

; Farrington andFarrington Mattocks and Mattocks and economic economic CEU eTD Collection farmers are similar and less diverse. diverse. less and similar are farmers by employed strategies the survival different, slightly are regions the three of conditions geographical 2003) at encountered the ones are strategies survival prevailing strategies, strategies whilst survival supporting arepurposive less significant ( The current 4.4 agricul regarding and areas the rural in especially structures, organizational highlydomains. That of whyis concernbeneficial is to it and develop these and encourage establi agriculture the state between actor representthe intermediary Theyshould communities. rural foster and toengage order in support and create networking building increase capacity farmers, new Public local opportunities. of the development and compromise farmers of marginality the influence which interests farmers’ to related organizations or participating unions of lack aclear areas is there the rural in Evidently, whenthegivingconsideration conditionsto rise evaluating favorable for public organizations. into take to factor important an represent conditions local and development Economic low. amongs noticeable is fact This increases. level incomes their when organizations public of initiatives and activities in engage toparticipateand willing more are areas rural in people that implies the r and income peoples’ of level the between Pelse) Latvia, (2004 in organizations and participation

Balancing survival strategies strategies survival Balancing , which, account shment and marginalized farmers, which help filling the gaps in policy implementation implementation in policy the gaps which filling help farmers, marginalized and shment t small farmers in Albania whose have lower incomes and the level of participation is very very is participation of the level and incomes lower have whose in Albania farmers t small

survival strategies employed by households and farmers have the characteristic the have farmers and households by employed strategies survival

for market exchange activi exchange market for

organizations and NGOs help flow the information amongst help theorganizationsand flow NGOsamongst information

ate of participation in public organizations. The study The study participation publicorganizations. in ate of 66 ties. Even though the overall socio the overall though Even ties.

found that there is a positive correlation correlation apositive is there that found

the professional level professional the tural development. tural development. Meert 2000) ( Vemimmen - economic and and economic . The.

et al. s of of

CEU eTD Collection balanced and integrated approach in terms in approach integrated and balanced , organizations and socialpublic networks forms, cooperation market, farmers’ the new , relationships and roles the intertwined inte economic of modes the three amongst interaction and distribution equal development an requires thisaagricultural chapter,sustainable of out beginning the in As pointed modes e of level. at alower remain thebut in of Kukesi, region Korca and farmers amongst noticed are strategies reciprocity The have supportfrom foreignaidorgani found different andoften funds supportfrom of Farmers of thedistribution structuresangrants. uneven state and The knowledge. and connection of lack and prices market of instability infrastructure, access and market poor as: such difficulties of range wide a exist there farmers, for remains strategies survival of integration economic of mode important the most production agricultural low difficulties theUnder influencedifficultcapital of overall of economic alack with conditions

redistribution redistribution

the , deficiency in expertise and informative organizations as well as small size of farms with with farms of size small as well as organizations informative and expertise deficiency in , conomic integration,itevidentconomic is an uneventhese strategies. of distribution Although the local markets are one of the main sources of incomes incomes of sources the main of one are markets the local Although exchange. market thus representing the inability thus representing the inability the regions, three in encountered less are strategies After exploring the survival strategies of small scale farmers based on the based the on scale farmers small of strategies the survival exploring After

between the the between of achieving sustainability in agriculture. agriculture. in sustainability achieving of 67

zations, although notzations, with although of economic integration such as such economic integration of spheres three gration. Henceforth gration.

an even. distribution

and market access access market and

offer a ,

CEU eTD Collection sustainable development livelihoods countries( especially transition in to FAO the obstacles to of which achieve main development, itone inhibits and is according view phenomena these where disciplines, consolidation alternatives represent an issue that has been debated long bydifferent scholarsof as structure household livi for represent terms andLand ownership,especially agricultural in 5.1 i development of conditions current the for represents multifunctionality prospects the in of light accession theinvestigate will I to EU, that the and barriers opportunities fragmentat land study, the and patterns development the current Next, fragmentation theoretical onlandfragmentationissues.Further, will andI approach consolidation explore the land fr nd la between development of opportunities future the are and what sustainability affects “ question: discussresearch thiswill integration. In chapterI my second developingopportunities for sustainable based agriculture thre onthe strategies and survival the are employing how discussed farmers chapterI theIn previous 5.

an opportunity of incomes and empowerment in rural areas. rural in empowerment incomes and of opportunity an LAND FRAGMENTATIONLAND A , Land fragmentation vs. land consolidation consolidation land vs. fragmentation Land

land fragmentation has been seen as the main reason for lower agricultural efficiency and and efficiency agricultural lower for reason main theseen as been has fragmentation land I will argue that under thatunder argue discuss will theI implicationslandfragmentation environmental of and and the three dimensional aspects of it of aspects dimensional three the and agmentation, sustainable practices and future development. First, I will introduce a a willintroduce I First, development. future and practices sustainable agmentation, ion can contributepositivel ion ng and successionng but theyconnectedto are highly economic offer advantages and disadvantages. Fro disadvantages. and advantages offer ND SUSTAINABILITYND CO

particularities of the selected regions in this research this research in theregions of selected particularities 68 y tosustainability

, physical, ac

not only the basic and most important ?” Lastly, with regards to future tofuture regards with . Lastly, tivity and social fragmentation social and tivity

e different modes of economic economic of modes e different by exploring the relationship the relationship exploring by

Riddell andRiddell Rembold 2002 n Albania Land fragmentation and and fragmentation Land How does land fragmentation fragmentation doesland How m a western point of of point m awestern NCERNS

structures structures

) . . CEU eTD Collection very insignificant results. insignificant very tack and resolve to aimed have which decades the last during programs and projects several been have there this, of spite In term. the and long strategymedium consolidation for prepared being onland is aproposal draft regard, nd consolidation.this In la of consist that will framework adequatelegal an of implementation and the design is sector the agricultural of the future toimprove the of government challenges the main p the to negatively contributes which factor the as main Albania in fragmentation land recognize officials Government Swinnen 2003 2004;Verdery theother in applied countries region other or selling/leasing restitution options ( ( process the collectivization before ownership farm state or collective where Albani reform, agrarian the of similarities the from apart Henceforth, reform. the agrarian of the implementation given Europe Eastern and Central of countries transition accompanied seemingly has differentrates, in aAlbania. is This feature that although system in the agricultural of characteristics prominent most the one represents fragmentation Land this topicimportanceof to be tackledbased onlocal considerations. the debateconsolidation fragmentationissues andthe and explore on land concept regarding relevant and adequate are that strategies landconsolidation and adopting withare struggling applying the of earlyreform 90s, the agrarian the diff facing are which countries transition hand, other the On roduction rate and efficiency of small scale farmers. They emphasize that one of of that one emphasize They farmers. scale small of efficiency and rate roduction

) .

land was distributed without taking into consideration any previous previous any into consideration withouttaking distributed land was le the problem of land fragmentation, although with no success and success with no landfragmentation, and although problem of the le

to local Cungu and SwinnenCungu 1999 69

and national conditions. and national iculties of the impaired effects of of effects the impaired of iculties a represented the only case only the a represented ; Lerman 2001 Lerman I will give a broader Rozelle and most most ) ,

whereas whereas of of the

CEU eTD Collection “ne countries transition,hesimilar in proposesseveral other from examples Based and real oninitiatives institutionsinternational , landconsolidationfor transition in countries not accordingto just a legal base formal forcedby economic towar approach abetter that agree and countries European Eastern and Central in processes consolidation socio and economic measures to in important take is shows thatit shown thatthe study (19 by Bentley need put to agricultu in land fragmentation of the role arguments, Miluka remittances and migration high of a consequence tobe proved has latter the the causeof hand, the On other abandonment. cropland influence may it also that they claim and PapaLusho (1998 (2000 Dubali and Lemel countries failed to accomplish their toaccomplish failed countries European Eastern several in place Sabates outcomes. fragmentation land on assumptions early making system before the whole of the( last two decades during fragmentation ( alternatives dimensions various w landfragmentation to informal” of address ds the solution of land fragmentation should be more community be landfragmentationsolution of should ds the

‐ et al. Wheeler (2002)

did not take in consideration the typical development of the agricultural sec agricultural typical developmentthe the of notconsideration in take did local characteristics. I characteristics. local

in balances in 2010) fragmentation rate did not have any effects on agricultural productivity. This case case This productivity. agricultural on effects any have not did rate fragmentation

as well other asforcesthat of constraining hasundergoing been the country

features of these of features transition countries. Sikor 90) ) argues that land fragmentation in Alb in fragmentation that land argues

claims that the majority of imposed land consolidation process consolidation land imposed of majority that the claims

) the advantages or disadvantages in an Albanian context. Moreover, in a in Moreover, context. Albanian an in disadvantages or advantages the but on- based on

conducted in Portugal regarding land fragmentation effects, the result effects, land fragmentation regarding Portugal in conducted state that two that state Deininger n the same arg same the n

c economic economic the social, onsideration

- thirds of agricultural holdings are highly agriculturalof holdings thirds et al. the - ation initiatives by local communities. communities. bylocal initiatives ground consolidation

ument, 2012; 70

there is a a is there and evaluated yet is tobe activity re

Mathijs and Noev 2004) Sabates ania is hindering agriculture activity and and activity agriculture hindering is ania ‐ Wheeler (2002 Wheeler

et al.

(2009) drive objectives and

( n and based onsocio n and based ) environmental aspects environmental McCarthy

emphasize critique . Taking. upthese Table 4 Table ,

fragmented and and fragmented as policy based based policy as

the state

es tor and the the and tor ). et al. s

that took that took the need need the

2009; - led led s -

CEU eTD Collection from Sabates 4 Table Social Fragmentation Fragmentation Activity Physical fragmentation : T hree dimensio hree ‐ Wheeler (2002

ns of land fragmentation and fragmentation land ns of

)

markets; markets; L actors; market and suppliers P farming; for suitable toequipment access Restricted systems irrigation Migration Ownership ri reform land of nature The T and size A O owner P enterprise; owned as a single and tilled N roblem arcels that are distant are that arcels ack secure of input and output he divorce of labour and land. he labour divorceof mismatch between small holding holding small between mismatch on- wnership of very small parcels small very of wnership land parcels that are that are parcels contiguous land ’s homes or from each homes’s from or other; large of co s of

Characteristics ghts - scale machinery scale - ordination among ordination alternatives ofinformal consolidation alternatives the

; 71

from the from

and

Constraints Equipment Labour and Land Consolidation Constraints Fragmentation Market Exchange Parcel Informal Temporary Market Constraints Market LabourRelieving and Land Markets Rental Informal ormal consolidation consolidation ormal Inf and Physical Physical and for Relieving Land Relieving for alternatives Source: Generated Generated Source: for Relieving for

for for

CEU eTD Collection in fa influencing strategies, landconsolidation all implementing or to designing current the to related two between set balance the ( zones ecological in different well as farming as scheduling crop management, other side shapecost size,terms in production constraints and of and use mechanization of restriction include: they and known well are fragmentation land of effects negative The ( issues marketing and perception social ambiguities onlandownership rights and difficulties registration, in infrastructure lack of support, take problemsand educationalit notinstitutional mechanisms,le did into consideration as implementation on failed project this achieved, be to hoped was what to contrast In transactions. villagesof Albania, land several in consolidation regarding 2001 in Bank World the by funded aillustrated project by . term” medium even or short, the in possibility feasible a not is markets land via consolidation the court swamping cases land and with systems, management land new support to capacity technical Sabates fragmentation activity and social both to address fail and fragmentation physical new the Generally, to consideration that may inhibit or improve the improve consideration or inhibit outcomesthis thatmay reform of ‐ Wheeler (2002: 1012Wheeler ) ,

there are several advantages coming from lan coming advantages several are there

projects landconsolidation projects for approaches

conditions and development of a specific place. Thus, it is necessary that prior development a itnecessary specific is of that place. and Thus, conditions prior whose aim was to encourage landconsolidation through market land irrigation s of advantages and negative effects of land fragmentation is inherently inherently is fragmentation land of effects negative and advantages of s

states

infrastructure, risk of abandonmentinfrastructure, of todist risk large due

that: Childress (2001 Childress

“With low institutional capacity, insufficient administrative and and administrative insufficient capacity, institutional low “With 72

- ) time efficiency issues ( issues time efficiency in d fragmentation as:risk reduction such and Sabates ‐ take in Wheeler) (2002 to (Table 5). (Table

consideration only the consideration only the Bentley 1987 ctors be should taken Bentley 1987)

). ). This issue is fairly issuefairly This is

s, ‘formal’ land ances and ances and ) . On the the On . . The.

and gal gal

CEU eTD Collection consolidation has been generally characterized by economic and social consideration social and economic by characterized beengenerally has consolidation alternative consolidation informal or potential existing thedimensions three : physical, on based a fragmentation land the approachSabates of will follow I section the next In 5 Table Consolidation Fragmentation Source: Generated from ( from Generated Source: and consolidation fragmentation land of Characteristics :

No cots for the farmers the farmers cotsfor No and drainage irrigation infrastructureforImproved yields higher process and efficientMore production farmers moneyfor timeand Saving eco multiple of Use diversification schedulingCrop yields for management Risk Advantages

73 and

- zones zones s. The debate on land fragmentation and and fragmentation land debate The on s. ‐ Wheeler (2002)

l, and socia and ctivity Infrastructure and development development and Infrastructure Size problems and shape use land of Distance Disadvantages stratification) social rural (increasing by prioritizinglarger farms farms small of Marginalization boarders of disruption natural ecological and biodiversity Decrease of zones scheduling and multiple- eco crop management, risk e.g.: fragmentation of benefits ecological of Disruption infrastructural a High

and describe the aspects of the aspectsof and describe

dmi Bentley 1987) nistrative and nistrative

cost s and often the s

identify any any identify

CEU eTD Collection all ( of (Figure5) almost farms 90% than for 2haaccount rate landconsiderable of consolidation amongst the farmers. almos by declined ( type land for categories todifferent according smallparcels different in separated was land whose created, Law no. 7501 dated 19.7.1991 “On the land” as and a result approximately 480,000 radical and rapid wasvery 1991 in place took which reform agrarian Albanian The the CEECs. in place that took reforms the agrarian of most accompanied agricultural an of shape size fragmentat Physical 5.2.1 5.2 byBentley(1987 described as alternatives consideration environmental of terms in farmers scale small for and approach en vironmental impacts of impacts vironmental

D Physical fragmentation imensions of land fragmentation fragmentation land of imensions Lusho and Papa 1998 and Papa Lusho

I will explore the opportunities and constraints that land fragmentation may represent represent may fragmentation that land constraints and the opportunities explore will t 26% accounting for 353,000 current farms ( farms current 353,000 for accounting t 26% conditions conditions geographical spatialthe distribution, different accounts for ions Figure Figure

these phenomena are left apart. In apart. left are phenomena these 5 : Distribution offarms by size

holding ) During the last two decades the number of farms in Albania has has Albania in farms of the number two decades the last . During

( Sabates ) .

‐ 74 Wheeler 2002 Wheeler

. Source: Dokoal. et 2011 Doko . Land was distributed according to the tothe according wasdistributed Land .

etal. this regard Iwill follow an ecological However ) . Ita. is phenomenon which has 2011) Doko s based in the advantageous the advantageous in based , farms with the size of less theof with size farms .

et al.

2011)

farms farms showing ashowing were were and and CEU eTD Collection Figure Figure minutes. Conversely,the in region Lushnja of areas mountainous and byhilly mostly characterized (20 Dubali However, Albania. in reform agrarian the of characteristics sizeThe of smallplot where Kukesi of region the In regions. three the in varies parcelsLikewise, the distributed of size 2000) distance holdings agricultural of from the house villagers’ region, parcelLushnja sizes (Figure7) areregions bigger than both in in similar somehow represent 1ha than . 6

land was distributed based towas based distributed land : Distribution ofagricultural land distance by

00) ,

the majority of the holding plotss, region holding the Korcathe in and of Kukes majority s

the Ko the majority of the parcels for more than 40% of them. The situation is situation ofThe them. than more 40% for the parcels of majority the

the land and the high fragmentation rate is one of the most distinctive distinctive the most of one is rate fragmentation the high and land the rca region, although the parcel although region, rca previous ownership, previous . Source Lemel andDubali, 2000 75 ,

which

are shortdistances distributed within upto 15

plain of characterized more is the size of the parcels accounting for less less for accounting parcels the of size the s is bigger (

size is slightly bigger, whereas in the whereasthe in bigger, slightly is size according to a study by by astudy to according . Figure 6

)

( Lemel and Dubali Dubali and Lemel

Lemel and and Lemel which areas ,

the are are ,

CEU eTD Collection farmers try to find informal tofind try farmers sometimes which time, same at the them all farmers plots, small different in land their of fragmentation the Given defective and unpredictable land market. The responsiveness of farmers regarding this problem this problem regarding responsiveness farmers of The defective unpredictable landmarket. and L costshigh and time consuming. constraint land market to avoid order in land transactions informal tomake trying Rental Markets Informal of bymeans and social fragmentation 2) land his to adjacent Exchange Parcel Informal Temporary of arrangement informal byan fragmentation physical 1) toovercome: tried he has case this In a nd in Albania cannot be sold, cannot Albania nd in Figure Figure convenien be will it and mine to close is that land some exchange to farmers neighbors my of one with negotiate to trying also been have I less fragmented. and bigger got land my how is that mine to next is which land of his piece immi in is brothers my of One them. of all attend to and money time, much so spend to have I and parcels, different in are and small are plots The land. piece of ourown got and married got brothers) us (the of each After, land. of plenty got ourfamily was distributed when land the“In beginning that is going to go.” 7 : Parcel size distribution Parcel : t to me…but it is difficult with the current with difficult is it me…but to t

arrangements

where he has tried to consolidate his farmland by renting parcels parcels byrenting farmland his toconsolidate tried hehas where . only inherited or leased or inherited only Source: Lemel and Dubali, 2000 how to expand their activity such as the case of Bardhi of the as case such activity their expand to how also affects the production activity. In these conditions, these theactivity.In conditions, affects production also 76

land market…it has a lot of insecurities, so will see how how see will so insecurities, of lot a has market…it land ,

thus showing the characteristics of a a of the characteristics showing thus

find it difficult to ita difficult find gration, so I am renting renting am I so gration, ,

which ar which ,

where heiswhere e usually e usually ttend to to ttend :

CEU eTD Collection most this infrastr of represent management appropriate of lack and countryside system the in agricultural the of infrastructure The the surviva chapter previous regarding in depth in more discussed been have ones latter the two regarding problems The activities. farming systems farms the large of breakup process the decollectivization of acharacteristic is fragmentation type of This ( marketing and production of means the for accounts and fragmentation physical with associated closely is which fragmentation land of afeature is fragmentation Activity 5.2.2 market credit and time consuming costsare and transactionshave high formal landdisputes, questionedarebeing there unsettled and consent f of agreements informal remain activities these that noteworthy is It as: toit activity referred but farming its of the improvement acknowledged Kukesi region the er in afarm i, Bashkim market. land the of difficulties the overcome to sufficient However rate. the fragmentation toreduce order in parcels to attempt their shows

Activ , supply of input supply, of their land to us that want to stay in the village and increase our production”. our production”. and increase the in village stay wantto that us to their land developin are industry and tourism If small. so remains the farms of size as the long as change will Nothing aturtle. of rhythm the has development “This

a major problem faced today in the rural areas. After the demise of the communist regime regime the communist of the demise After areas. the rural in today faced problem major a ity fragmentation armers. Farmers feel trapped and unsafe in an environment where land rights are still still are rights land where environment an in unsafe and trapped feel Farmers armers. ucture was massively abandoned as well as damaged during the first transition transition the first during damaged as well as abandoned wasmassively ucture

initiate exchanges of land and transactions, or renting land plots aside their landplots renting aside or their landand transactions, of exchanges initiate s, s, market insecurities and credit insecurities supplymarket represent still hugeconstraints for ,

tion of production means, production tion of the privatiza

opportunities arelow. still opportunities l strategies and market exchange. exchange. market and l strategies g then people will move towards these sectors and probably rent rent and probably sectors these towards move will then people g 77

these initiatives are sporadic and not not and sporadic are these initiatives ,

most of the time made with the the with made the time of most

machineries

Sabates ,

where where ‐ Wheeler 2002)

and irrigation irrigation and alongside

the the . CEU eTD Collection Korca showed me parcels onehis of spray pumps own they and themselves seeds the spread or weeds the clean they times several that They admitted a as machineries large using of the difficulty expressed farmers Kukesiand theEspecially of region Korca in 29% realize the processes work by hand,25% use both w difficult. fragmentatio tothedue high sometimes although processes, other mechan use farmers of majority The soon. ta not ken are measures land management if future the in worsen will the situation predict problem for farmers. F and the soil quality of soil the degradation of salinization the coast, the years along maintained o rates is This onethe terrain. of thewhich plain regions intensity and have always had high agricultural the former considering lower slightly is fragmentation activity the Lushnja of the region In from theAfrimi Kukesiregion: w of the systemavailability and the irrigation of sector. Most the agricultural of part asubstantial are which assets infrastructural these maintain or recover to beendone yearshas less the following In years. highly exploited and and exploited highly been system has irrigation the former and productivity, agricultural f my own well that I constructed I that well own my I have farming. continue order in to system irrigation own hadmy to I build so anymore those maintaining is one. nobody now good But and was areally ourlands, irrigate water to of supply main was the That wo not are from water used get to we that the channels all and system irrigation “The old According to or otheror small handy equipment Doko soil quality has been decreased and they and they decreased been quality has that soil confirming are now ers arm western part of the of part . However, the in western

et al. myself and I am lucky that there is plenty of water” water” of plenty is there that lucky am and I myself

(2011) ical equipments for the cultivation of their lands and all the the all lands and their of the cultivation for equipments ical that

38% of farmers are using machinery to work the towork machinery are using farmers 38% of

ater necessary for their land, as for instance the case of asthe case instance of for land, their for necessary ater was situated in a very steep terrain uphill. these In uphill. steep terrain a very in was situated

for for use different in in . Oneof processes the farmers ,

where the terrain is mostly hilly and mountainous and hilly mostly is thewhere terrain 78

the consequence hereas the 8% are using animals using are 8% the hereas

n rate of their farms become farms their of rate n farme Lushnja rs’ complaints are related to related are complaints rs’

has become has

region region of small area of parcels. parcels. area of small of

which is close to which close is to

rking anymore. anymore. rking a prominent a prominent

land, land, very very , , .

CEU eTD Collection the land. the land. owners has been a constant sourcecontestation of and constantthe conflictowners for previous of that “ 19.7.1991 “On the land”land ownership of previous was abolished and it was the based principle on as areas aconsequencerural regarding issues entails fragmentation ( change the regime of aconsequence reform, land theIn countries, social CEECs fragmentation seen is as athe result of pa distribution 5.2.3 activities. farming their in processes mechanization of costs rep initiatives and Sabates o to used farmers amongst initiatives cooperation (1998 Papa and Lusho of the study in However, fragmentation. activity of problems the tosolve order in other trustof amongst fa Cooperation problemsand lack them. amongst arrangement informal of modes found yet not have farmers fragmentation, the activity of constraints the though Even fragmentation. activity overcome the rese field during conducted interviews I Based the in theof casesby hand. conditions itimpossible is himto for use to machineries work the landbut most onlyin animals or l

abour abour law belongs to those who till it till who those to belongs law Social fragmentation ‐ Wheeler (2002) )

c regarding land fragmentationregarding and consolidation in Albania they identify onstraints resent rmers are the main reasons why farmers are not too keen to collaborate with each each with tocollaborate are keen too not why farmers reasons the main are rmers

an op

are amongst the most most the amongst are informal agreements of L consisting portunity for the farmers, which express which the farmers, for portunity

of high rate of migration of rate high of ” ( Pata and Osmani 1994 Osmani and Pata

the right of land of the right common 79 vercome activity fragmentation activity vercome

Sabates

and ownershi and

ording to the According . i arch n some of the CEECs countries. CEECs the of n some ‐ ) Wheeler 2002) and Consolidation . The distribution process to Thethe. process distribution new ,

I did not encounter any examples to examples any encounter not did I

p and demographic changesp andin their concerns about the high high thetheir about concerns . dimension This of land

for r for

Law no. 7501 dated dated 7501 no. Law elieving As suggested by. As

several several tterns of the the of tterns e quipment informal informal These

CEU eTD Collection kids to have farming as a second alternative or a part time job, time part a or alternative second a as farming tohave kids farmi With regards to instances. the continuity several in threat of apotential may represent disputes land t even regions, the two other In farming. from the alienation perpetuates and activities agricultural to allocate that households decreasetime incomes, in of agricultural it results impactthe phenomenondoes not although this M crop instance from production, as for production toward shifting s livestock.study Another of farmersagriculture intensiveof towards forms less decreasing efforts labour and aligning is strategy this of implementation the increasing are farms these in incomes total the although theythat show Further sector. the agricultural of outside moving for astrategy as used being is instead productivity, agriculture toenhance used not are remittances from that incomes show asignifican to have shown has remittances from incomes the system, agricultural the outside workforce the of outflow Besides the fragmentation. social in role important an play may rate migration the high region, processdistribution whichus ownerships.On the wasprevio side,in based made other on Kukesithisthe of region feature is not that encountered highly due to the own nature the of long their land and of the new owners for environment insecure created an privatization and the of decollectivization effects from emerged tension social The that “ towards off farm activities farm outsidetowardspossibilities the sector. thoughat and of off other agricultural Even moving are people educated more that a tendency is it noticeable Thus, sector. the agricultural future”. the in alternative cCarthy in both Lushnja and Korca region farmers agreed that they would like their their like would that they agreed farmers region Korca and Lushnja both in the inside family ng land should be the last option for my kid, I don’t I my kid, for option be the last should land

et al.

(2009) t impact on agricultural productivity of farms and household. Miluka and productivityhousehold. farms agricultural of t impacton

In general their opinions of generaltheir opinions their children’ In futureplans were out aligned of on the impacts of international migration on agricultural activities shows that, that, shows activities agricultural on migration international of on the impacts hough I did not did I comehough across

want him to become a farmer…maybe to have it as a second as asecond haveit to afarmer…maybe want become to him 80

any similar issues during my interviews, my interviews, issuesduring similar any

and one of the farmers explicitly said said explicitly farmers the of one - term investments. In In investments.

processes has has processes

et al.

(2010 )

CEU eTD Collection worthwhile. worthwhile. arrangement informalof of costs difficulties transactionsandinputs;thetheir high implementation farms, of Given c market land (2002) a any informal did not I encounter fragmentation, the with activity as Similarly fragmentation. social activities. farming and areas rural beaway from will oriented more prominent as thisforce “possible” future labour ltural agricu current amongst observed slightly is feature this the moment Lemel and Dubali (2000 Dubali and Lemel land consolidation.regarding I Bank bythe World the for initiated project failure of the main reasons wereamongst fragmentation fragmentation cooperation land disputesinsecuritiesand ownership market regarding and perception risk high financial of a matter as vulnerable feel farmers general in although farmers, the during interviews wereidentified and place taking already are these alternatives of the and purchases land and rental for framework the legal greement initiatives amongst the farmers I interviewed in the selected regions. Sabates regions. selected the in interviewed I the farmers amongst initiatives greement

the constraints that small scale farmers are facing such as: low productivity and efficiency of of efficiency and productivity low as: such facing are farmers scale small that the constraints Informal Rental Markets Rental Informal of that consist agreements suggests that leasing .

Childress (2001 Childress alternatives alternatives offer opportunities elder onstraints especially for offer people and city

such as:land ma to overcome the three the to overcome )

decrease the negative impacts of land land of impacts negative the optionsdifferent to decrease propose ) This perspective of farmers may lead in the future towards a greater agreater towards future the in lead may farmers of perspective This

rket solutions, parcel exchange between farmers, the farmers, between exchange parcel solutions, rket n a study onl in in Sabates ‐ Wheeler (2002 Wheeler and fragmentation and consolidation issues in Albania, and consolidationand fragmentationissuesAlbania, in

dimensions of landfragmentationdimensions of seem 81

) creation of farmers’ organizations. Some Some organizations. farmers’ of creation

showed that both activity and social social and activity both showed that

farmers, in the future it will become become will it future the in farmers, as well as lack of knowledge and and knowledge of lack as well as

for for relieving labour and - dwe llers. improvement of of improvement

viable and and viable

‐ with the the with Wheeler Wheeler CEU eTD Collection usage of specialized and adv agronomist absenc the about confirmedand complained visited, farmers regions three the all In explains: Divjaka from farmer old years a63 Alfred, land. of the overexploitation by ecosystems consid are activities farming mostlyregarding the these of sustainability solutions social and economic benefits of land consolidation, farmers” small against prejudice an irrational of expression areschemes an Bentleyopportunities landconsolidation of Besides58) the (1987: etc. mechanization sav tothe these solution development and infrastructure agriculture regarding the constraint p amongst the distance include: fragmentation of development the and practices agricultural of illness the as considered often and scholars different amongst debated been long has fragmentation Land 5.3 ing for farmers, more efficient production cycle, improved infrastructure and increased rate of of rate increased and infrastructure improved cycle, production efficient more farmers, for ing

Environmental implications of l of implications Environmental fodder there and so on, but still this land is degrading I can tell the difference” tell can I degrading is land this but still on, so and there fodder th on depending changeit constantly and I crop rotation apply now.try Ito always too long land this have been farming we and country the in lands fertile most the has Divjaka know, You ago. years 20 or years 10 have to used th more haveany Wedon’t ahugeproblem. becoming is soil of “The quality

chemicals ered as good, farmers express their concern their express farmers good, as ered in Albania Albania landin agricultural . Even environmentof thought overall the conditions

or other farming activities farming other or

e crops I plant…so for example, one year I plant wheat in one plot and next year I plant and wheatoneplot I in nextyear plant I one year example, for plant…so e cropsI problem s ising body which would helpnee them with their as it offers benefitsoffers such as: as it and fr and arcels land, of the smallsize and shape problemsand . Farmers 82 agmentation agmentation

there are several several are there

and the connection with small farmers and farmers small with connection the and The main disadvantages of land land of disadvantages The main areas. rural

s use their use with regards to the change of natural natural of change the to regards with consolidated parcels, .

Henceforth states that: “Many consolidation that: land states

. Land consolidation Land . stands for own experience and knowledge knowledge and experience own environmental considerations considerations environmental

e same production rate as we we as rate production e same , apart from the above the above from apart , time and money money and time ds for a proper e of a local alocal of e

CEU eTD Collection ip where parcels are distinctive for their small small their for distinctive are parcels where ownership ontheir previous landbased acquired their Kukesi, microclimaticthe In of production of less farmers susceptible region to conditions. the risk their making and farming crop for properties diverse with land tohave farmers allowed process 19.7.1991 “On the land” the7501dated no. Law on their landbased that regions Lushnja acquired theand in Farmers Korca production yea the during conditions andweather the onthese latter Depending ones windquality direction. and moisture, of soil terms in characteristics diverse may have which parcels different in the samecrops h Farmers drought, and flood. such as hail, factors climatic ( production failure different in having parcels of opportunity related tothe is it and offers fragmentation that land the advantages of one is management Risk management Risk practices. farming of the sustainability ( zones andusemultiple the of crop scheduling I it: on effects has land their on put they everything how wasexplaining the farmers of one instance the of aware are they and ecosystems the natural about n this section, I wil I section, this n main things to check the health of your farm.” your of health check the to things main two the These are the bees. killing are those and time wrong the in pesticides many too havesprayed you probably wrong, is then something haveany, not do you If clean. is surrounding the and clean is air thethat causeshows sign it s that agood havealot, you trees. to If your are bees coming many how see should you the ground above happens what see wantto you If and healthy. fertile keep it will it land, the for is better it t the more the earthworm, for check conditions andgood in healthy is soil land, your see wantto if you “If rs, yields will be assured for farmers for beassured will yields rs, such as risk management, management, risk as such fragmentation land of benefits ecological the explore l Bentley 1987 Bentley

had the opportunity to own differentcategories land ) Having distant parcels help minimizing risks associated with associated with risks minimizing help parcels distant . Having various t minimizing various quality,conditions thus and

Bentley 1987 Bentley 83

thus risk would bethus avoided risk .

impact of their agricultural activities. For activities. agricultural their of impact ave the opportunity and benefits to plant toplant benefits and the opportunity ave )

and how enhance to enhance contribute they . The distri he risk ofhe risk bution he he CEU eTD Collection which activities digging, as harvesting, and such harrowing plowing, far for factor important pesticides and fertilizers chemical of t using terrain eco ecosystems., the region For Lushnja of feature the farmingpracticesmultiple using cropping diverse opportunitiesthesystems of and natural , theusing benefits of eco multiple of use The eco multiple of Use systemscropping . processes farming Byspreading the peak intensive. labour more are practices farming and less vary conditions local region the Lushnja in whereas characteristics, local way economical more a in resources and force schedulCrop scheduling Crop low is mechanization of level in the thethese areas of terrain landscapesproperties the given diverse However, size. - zones is limited, however in the other in two regions however limited, is zones

, are distinctive for owning land in different altitudes different in land owning for distinctive are he opportunity of planting in different parcels there is also the benefit of decreasing the decreasing use of parcelsthe different in thereplanting benefit also is he of opportunity the implementation of these practices is more viable. viable. more is these practices of the implementation

land frag land ing is a beneficial feature abeneficial is ing ,

mentation reduce canand erosion maintain help soil farmers tr farmers - ,

zones zones different altitudes to plant altitudes different whereas the diversity of crops planted is higher based on local varieties. By varieties. based local on higher is planted crops of the diversity whereas mers - zones stands mostly for mountainous areas which have opportunities ofzones areashave mostlymountainous which opportunities stands for ,

which allow which y to overcome the need for using external labour external using needfor the y toovercome , which

which represents a plain landscape aplain represents which fragmentation that allows farmers to use their labour labour their touse farmers allows that landfragmentation of s are extensively used in contiguous large farms. farms. large contiguous in used extensively are them to organize the different process the different organize them to 84

demand demand various cropsvarious ( (

Bentley 1987 ,

which which , farmers , different times for the the for usetimes and making different of . are are In the regions of Kukesi theIn of regions and Korca ) . The scheduling of work is an is work of The. scheduling Bentley 1987 situated hi in

rieties cropsbased va of on plant , the presence of presence the , the biodiversity in these these biodiversityin the ) lly and mountainous By implementing . Byimplementing es

and use several several use and of their farming farming their of

multiple multiple

this this ,

CEU eTD Collection Belletti ( arethey response markets (i.e. food and agricultural the main of functioning causedthe by the difficulties to as responses are emerging they that is and practices policies development envi and communities of latter The entails one areas. rural in life of quality ahigh maintaining and improving of aim afinal with complex in be treated co and related highly are development rural and agriculture that is It evident policy. development rural with relationship close its and development t process adaptation of theto for accession and the Standards and withcurrent comply European the Nowad 5.4 practices. the landfragmentation of constraints at and eco bythe different offered the opportunities using and efficiency, labour their increase and scheduling crop alternate itself, toincrease farmers for important are practice the above of All differences. environment tural na the and development The benefits and strong correlation with the agriculture sector through new multifunctional pathways that will help to to help will that pathways new multifunctional through sector agriculture the with correlation strong Van der Ploeg Van der agriculture of nature the future regarding framework, decision structural he appropriate

F uture uture

ays, ays, et al. et

Albania is working onAlbania working and is improving adapting its development policiesorder in to meet

(2003) prospects prospects etal.

constraints of land fragmentation are dependent in terms of local economic economic of local terms in dependent are land fragmentation of constraints and 2012: 138) Ploeg and Renting ( and Renting Ploeg in in ronmen -

the context of EU accession accession EU of context the zones. the improvement of the improvement .

“A common feature, then, of rural rural of then, feature, “Acommon conservation. and t protection

can mitigate canmitigate farmers these options implementing of By means security for their farming practices and the production process practicesthe production and their farming for security

the European Union represents an ongoing challenge representsongoing the Union for an European 2004)

the same time foster the sustainability of their farming farming their of the sustainability timefoster the same - dependent on each on dependent 85

state the importance of rural development and the and development rural of the importance state economics in these areas, the these areas, in economics

s to what economists refer to as major ‘market failures’)” ‘market as major to refer whateconomists s to

Common Agricultural Policy. This Common Agricultural

other, hence both of them must them must of hence both other, social consideration social consideration s and opportunities and opportunities s

CEU eTD Collection recommended the creation of large farms.” of creation the recommended is it development market the with today, and needs, family meettheir but mainly profit, specific any provide farms “Small accession: the EU of the light in implementation policies future for impediment an as and inefficient as seen often is farmers of category This farms. commercial towards directed mostly is projects and strategies of the whereby implementation not is positive, always farmers other side,policy the On in future. the near this torevitalize sector for opportunity represent agood will farmers of reg practices or programs making decision policies, that viable seems adequately it isIn verythe conditions, high. scale current offarmers small the number and decollectivization de agriculture Albania’s ( t improving and communities local byfostering new programs the of implementation abetter for role important transformation the C of transformation The community. European the in cohesion facilitate and countries these of situation the real reflect and fit pathwaysto find institutional toand restructuring policies help and that canbeadapted He capacity building. administrative fragmented and arrangements organizational and by weakinstitutional characterized are and countries EU the other from distinctive are CEECs hand,Riz On other the management. environment of enhancement and resources natural of protection the to contribute as well as and areas rural in activities of diversity the increase economically, communities local foster of this category o category this of Beckmann and Dissing 2004Beckmann Dissing and he quality of life in rural areas as well as regarding as well as rural areas ofin life he quality s in order to order become s in

n agriculture based on small family farms will in future be more important for for important be more future in will farms family small on based f farmers:n agriculture “[A] makers and government official government and makers ov (2006) ov velopment has been characterized by a high rate of land fragmentation and and of rate fragmentation land byahigh beencharacterized has velopment ) .

argues that the environment and the pattern of development in the the in development of pattern the and environment the that argues

( Doko

efficiently functional. Ground up initiatives may play an an may play initiatives up Ground functional. efficiently

et al. is still undergoi still is sector agricultural EECs

2011: 37) 86

insights regarding the development of small scale scale small of the development regarding insights

However they recognize the importance importance the recognize . However they the protection of natural resources resources natural of the protection arding this category category this arding nce it is necessary necessary nce is it

so that theyso ng throughng

do not

CEU eTD Collection development ( development countries and withrural linked closely livelihoods sustainable development developing in tothe regards more with lity multifunctiona of term the defined has (FAO) Organization Agriculture and the Food Likewise, goods. public of perspectives market from to viewcommoditiespoint productionas of referring theexternalities well of as jointness and economic an from lity tomultifunctiona been referring has (OECD) Development and operation last yearsother Economic 20 disciplines from for Co- andThe organizations. Organization the multifunctionalityThe of concept during approachesdefinitions experienceddifferent and has 5.4.1 life. their of the quality improve and the farmers toencourage order in strategies development rural – off and on of diversification the that conclude farmers Furthermore, devel rural foster to the ways of one is approach this how and scale farmers small for economically (2011b Mincyte Agricultural Policy Common the under policies the European and development characteristics agriculture national investors” and foreign local state, supportfrom and financial technical more benefit should and they economy the Albania practices are becomi are practices Model the Farming European regarding the reforms and arena policy making the decision in prominent become has CAP of the EU reform the within associated of multifunctionality role The

opment from an economicopment from viewenvironmental point of and from social considerations. and Can multifunctionality be an option? option? an be multifunctionality Can the dualistic perspective out This the points . Renting Vemimmen ) , Schwartz (2005 Schwartz

which may lead to contested notion of sustainability policies (see for instance instance (see for policies sustainability of contested notion to may lead which ng the cornerstone for ruralthis development perspective, policies.From for cornerstone the ng etal.

2009) et al.

(2003) . ) ). ).

Van der Ploeg (2002 Ploeg der Van

and small scale scale small and marginalized of activity the analyzing after

87 possible divergency in the future between current current between future the in divergency possible

farm activities must be accompanied by by beaccompanied must activities farm )

points out the importance of farming farming of importance the out points concepts of agricultural agricultural of concepts

CEU eTD Collection and rural developmentand rural per 2005) activities and the increase of efficiency and pluri and efficiency of the increase and activities processes and new supply chains; and 3) 2) diversification; and management activities, agricultural broadening 1) farmers: byhouseholds’ implemented can be that conventio from framework development theimplies a boundaryof shift rural farmers. of multifunctionality the increase and agriculture conventional from shift aparadigm to achieve mul of dev rural with related strongly are practices agricultural and Renting (2004 Ploeg approaches.regulation approa regulation market approaches: et al. otheralso provides non- production in it goods commodity of provision development strongly related and view of point amultifunctional is seenfrom agriculture

2003; . These latter ones entail a broad range of activities and outputs from an environmental, social social environmental, outputsan and from of activities range . abroad These entail ones latter tifunctionality practices, tifunctionality nal agriculture towards increased multifunctionality through 3 main pathways ( main 3 pathways through multifunctionality increased towards agriculture nal Ploeg and Renting 2004 ( elopment and the typology the typology and elopment Renting

et al. et spective. Renting spective. )

2009)

and that agree

; aiming aiming and beas should an considered approachbesides which the Râmniceanuand Ackrill 2007; ches, land ches, This This

regrounding

Source: Ploeg and Renting, 2004 Figure et al. - - use approach, actor approach, use activity. activity. 88

(2009)

8 : From conventional agriculture towards multifunctionality

involves the mobilization of new off

analyze multifunctionality in four different different four in analyze multifunctionality

deepening

refers to the increase of new non of increase tothe refers Renting - oriented approaches and approaches public oriented

commodity goods ( goods commodity lates to new innovative innovative new to lates

et al.

2009; to sustainable to sustainable Renting Figure 8 Belletti -

farm et al. - )

. CEU eTD Collection and arg and RentingThe study of countries. European eastern and western between the diversity on toconsider issue evidently another is which adopte have incomes higher with countries that show They also increased. has economy) the rural of diversification and practices friendly to new environmentally invest farm or efficiency production to increased (related measures competitiveness more implemented sector. Furthermore, their findings show the thatin pre h others whilst development, rural of polices broader applied have countries some that state They agriculture. of multifunctionality state member multifuncti to“rural it byrelating the CAP of pillar second (2007 Ackrill and Râmniceanu by non- providing challenges tomarket they how respond and farmers scale small of the practices tounderstand order thethrough three broade of processes multifunctionality. of expression Another study Kizos of (2010 d the see can we where is level farm the that adds He impacts. tangible to measure way the best farm based is pathways on transition and of presen reflecting in role important that hist argues and activities their on based multifunctionality (2008Wilson ments), whilst in the post accession period the number of multifunctionality measures (related (related measures multifunctionality the of number period the in accession post whilst ments), ues that given the nature of nature the given that ues )

countries have implemented rural development policies development rural implemented have countries analyzes different types of farming systems and evaluates their degree of of degree their evaluates systemsand farming types of different analyzes commodity other or services. goods

et al.

(2005) )

give a broader definition to the term multifunctionality under the the under tothemultifunctionality term definition abroader give ave followed a narrower approach by focusing on agriculture as a as agriculture on byfocusing approach a narrower followed ave

gives an overview of multifunctionality practices in the CEECs the CEECs in practices multifunctionality of overview an gives transitional agricultural development agricultural transitional t and future transitional pathways. His evaluation explores explores evaluation His pathways. transitional future t and ning, deepening is andning, regrounding fundamentalof help in - level and on ground practices, which is presumed to be practices,whichtolevel presumed be andis onground 89

nalyze how the new new the how analyze They onality”. ) orical development changes play changes development orical - d more multifunctionality measures, measures, multifunctionality more d

accessionprocess countries have shows that analyzing farm activities activities farm that analyzing shows ,

these practices are broadly broadly are practices these ,

which included the irect

an an CEU eTD Collection the constraint of small size farms and financial problems ( problems financial and farms small size of the constraint w reasons.However, to due economic mainly production,and this intensive is towards of modes Curre orchards. which newproduction government andof arethe increase subsidizedsuch seedlings from as vegetable for area glasshouse of increase areas, mountainous in mostly number livestock of new of cr planting activity, the apiculture of increase apples, for especially capacity storage of improvement potential, touristic high with areas agro as: such activities plans future near includ activities their of extension and engagement afurther that see positively Farmers the future. in activities diversification or initiatives take further to desire and will the them expressed on- positive input towards sustainable development. good a represents Albania in strategy development rural planned and designed byawell accompanied and farmers scale small for practices multifunctionality towards leading sector agriculture The these countries. and reforms areregulations ne policy adequate more and research more thus totheones, western comparison in these countries in multifunctionality agriculture of context adifferent is It . thatis there clear links cooperation cooperation of lack and structures of agricultural collapse degradation, infrastructure migration, and unemployment of rates high as such factors economic and cultural implemente farm and off farm ntly the development of the agricultural sector and perception of farmers is more oriented oriented more is farmers of perception and sector agricultural the of development the ntly opportunity for the country to strengthen its economic growth and strengthen economic to countryits the opportunity for d, although in slightly different terms because of the difference in social, historical, historical, social, in the difference of because terms different slightly in although d, - farm activities, farmers activities, farm eded that will correspond better to the current rural development of development rural to the current better correspond will eded that

ops depending onthe nearby industry, processing increase in the three regions had a positive approach and most of theregions three in - - processing differentagro of products, 90 U

nder the perspective their futureexpansionof of Meert

et al.

and trust on building new trust onbuilding and 2005) at

the same time give a a time give same the

it it seems difficu tourism in some tourism some in e in their their e in lt to lt ith ith CEU eTD Collection such as initiatives for relieving equipment and labor labor and equipment relieving for initiatives as such agreements informal system, agricultural overall the of the Inof difficulties. spite characteristics various with theycoping how are and activity landfragmentation theydimensions shownare of I refle how fragmentation. social and activity physical, entails which fragmentation the understandingof land landconsolidation threeof a requires full However, dimensions adopting development. cultural and economic social, of terms in differently realities rural the shaped and impacted tohave shown has countries transition address the fal may experience, western imposed an come from often which programs, consolidating land that showed has Experience fragmentation. land of effects negative the toovercome solutions are often Albania.consolidation in Land suggested programs sector as fruitful the agricultural and farmers scale small affect that problems major the of one as considered is fragmentation Land 5.5 marketing. of management better and improvement infrastructure such have farmers tourism, skiing I tourism. agro future for opportunity a great present food of quality and the variety and products local Authentic activities. their agricultural for support come into also which incomes farmers' of amount av takes one latter This employment. farm off and scale asmall in farming organic tourism, farm selling, direct are: noticeable most the activities activities or pluriactivity diversification employ

Land fragmentation and sustainability sustainability and fragmentation Land development n one of the villages in the mountainous area (Kukes)with mountainous Shishtavec the in opportunities villages one the of n wide array of array wide

alternatives

issues

started started . Nonethe . in

the Eastern European countries. The transformation of these the Thethese European Eastern transformationof countries. to gain consciousness and try consciousnessand gain to less such alternatives requ alternatives such less

at the current development stage development the current at 91

ery important place and it accounts for a large alarge for accounts it and place important ery

cted in farmers’ everyday life and and life everyday farmers’ cted in

to orient their strategies towards towards strategies their to orient ire ire state support in termsin of state support By examining these three these three By examining . Amongst these these Amongst . l short to shortto l for - CEU eTD Collection areas. urban towards oriented and activities agricultural deficiencies; knowledge and social networking socio- may be practices reasons whyvarious multifunctionality address agriculture multifunctional of the benefits though Even sector. the agricultural of the competitiveness increase and life of quality economics, community rural foster aspectsbut environmental improve only not which practices, sustainable promote and fragmentation toland related difficulties to overcome country the may help areas. the rural for development environmental and social economic, the addresses and that entails concept adevelopment represents agriculture of Multifunctionality level. farm the practices at agricultural sustainable of promotion the towards fragment toland approach the ecological Thus practices. crop rotation through soil of the quality improve and land fragmented of biodiversity enhance the levels, lower at rate supply input and mechanization the to keep aim resources. practices These natu of pressure environmental the decrease and systems natural these of characteristics theeco multiple and of use scheduling crop management, co environmental especially address that fragmentation land of benefits several exist there hand, other the On fragmentation. land of the constraints toovercome farmers help constraints, infor economic economic development development and contribute and to found positively are exchange, parcel informal and markets mal nsiderations. By taking advantage of these opportunities which entail: risk risk entail: which opportunities these of advantage taking By nsiderations. in Albania: a) l Albania: in The orientation of policies and objectives towards this alternative alternative this towards and objectives policies of The orientation

the wide range of con of range wide the iderations of agricultural activities and aspects of aspectsof and activities agricultural of considerations ack of capital and high risks for investment; risks for high and capital of ack 92

c) o

utgoing flow of flow utgoing young people outside of

difficult to implement under toimplement difficult - ation represents a beneficial impetus impetus abeneficial represents ation zones, farmers can make use of the the of use canmake farmers zones, cerns in the rural areas, t areas, rural the in cerns

the current the current

here exist exist here b) e xpert ral ral CEU eTD Collection future alternatives for sustainable agriculture development in the light of the of the light in development agriculture sustainable for alternatives future far thesis The this aim of 6. That That data. ground analysismy thorough of Specifically, I strategies based on the three modes o modes the three on based strategies farmerssurvival of of with and classification mystories the observations merged spiteI In that, of the literature. in strategies these of categorization of alack is there whereas studies, anthropological the countries are transition mostly ethnographic in researches discussed the m that the influence toshow sought I employ farmers scale small that strategies the survival By examining local communities experiencesof them.conditions varyamongst and which theseconditIn ambiguous has economies development shown patternsof to different the has comparison in western countries and these of transition the Therefore, development. economic and cultural social, their affecting of range toawide been subject have countries European Eastern and The Central agriculture. sustainable of development the for land fragmentation of implications environmental and strategies survival of aspects economic post transition of development of the patterns amongst interplay

mers Alba in CONCLUSION triggered acro

fundamental changes that have affected significantly the development of rural areas. rural of the development significantly affected that have changes fundamental based - economic level of development of level economic nia and land fragmentation implications for sustainability for fragmentation implications nia and land

my analysis on my analysis

was

to ions, the emerged endeavored strategies are often closely tied to local tolocal tied closely often are strategies endeavored the emerged ions, explore explore a threefold theoretical approach that approach theoretical a threefold f

the survival strategies employed by small scale scale small by employed strategies the survival of the impacts Meert (2000 byMeert developed integration economic allowed me to explore to me allowed

have on agricultural practices. Survival strategies practices. in agricultural on have 93

- , communist countries, socio- communist countries,

in a more holistic way holistic more a in

look at at tolook additionally and was build depending build was

by scholarsrepresenting

transformation EU accession EU ) . , on a

the s .

CEU eTD Collection different western perspective western different fragmentation the l evaluation threeof regarding dimensions poor of aconsequence as goals their accomplishing on failed they have fragmentation, land tackle to strategies and projects of terms in been taken have attempts several though Even areas. rural tothe d impediment an as and activities agricultural of illness the as the government system. the agricultural of the development concerning issues The thesis also to address socio- contribute will NGOs; publicorganizationsand of the participation amongst and fostering farmers integration which consistbuilding of: s new market public organizations. networks and social strong theof and lack cooperation for and difficulties ownership instability, land problems identified as barriers developingwhich raisesimplications sustainable further for a model for agriculture. The main clear disproportion results a showed The extension services. or advisory regarding help support or external of absent are networks the However, social opportunities. other in the absenceof struggles their of reflection atraditional represent and farmers amongst encountered are strategies Reciprocity red of level the low in reflected is needs economic tofarmers’ state torespond the of capacity limited the side, the On other problems. financial their to overcome farmers for alternative reachable closely the represent markets development, economic needfor statusand the rare are reciprocity and distribution regarding the strategies whereas exchange, market of under the category fall farmers scale bysmall employed the strategies of majority The ( Childress 2001 Childress reflect economic pressuresand increase the one of the major the major of one for stands which Albania in fragmentation ed uponland Constructing links in order to balance the three modes of economic of tomodes three order balancethe in Constructing links , will likel, ) . Land consolidation programs which are conceived under a highly a highly conceived whichunder Land are. programs consolidation

sustainable agriculture are: poor market structures market are: poor agriculture sustainable y fail to address the complexity of issues faced in the Central in issuesfaced the Central of the toaddress complexity y fail 94 and fragmentation: physical, activity, and social social and activity, physical, fragmentation: and

sustainability of the overall system. the overall of sustainability tructures, tructures, This phenomenon is considered from phenomenonThis from considered is promoting forms of cooperation istribution strategies. strategies. istribution Given the fragile the fragile . Given evelopment of of evelopment

and price CEU eTD Collection alternative may come across several difficulties, e difficulties, several come across may alternative Even thoughfor the current development Albania. as of state conditions Albaniacandidate this of future asustainable pathways for new alternative of the promotion concerns, environmental and sustainability on topics emergent theUnder economic continuous pressurefor growth andprosperity, accompanied financial by the sustainabilit increase and fragmentation land of environmental the Retrieving knowledge. and awareness increased for programs through disseminate and necessary is to promote it thus ways, anecdotal in known mostly although farmers amongst present e usedifferentscheduling and making of eco- landscape fragmentation land regards with especially benefits are there to, beenprone have fragmentation that land connotations the negative of spite In activities. agricultural in participating people multi addressed the least tobe appears negatively supportingHowever, of stakeholders the socia, shortcoming fragmentation. activity and physical address to mostly these initiatives of forms several endowing are thatfarmers myIn found I study landfragmentation. of addressconstraintsoutcomes the to ground from surge which alternatives and agreements Countries ( and European Eastern cosystems and enhancement of biodiversity and land quality ( and landquality cosystems enhancementbiodiversity of and - faceted approach e approach faceted the further instigation of instigation further the

benefits of land fragmentation, would help to diminish the socio the - diminish help to would landfragmentation, benefits of specially regarding the high rate of migration and the decrease of young of the decrease and migration of rate the high regarding specially , the employment of activities such as: risk management, crop crop management, risk as: such activities of employment the s,

Especially in areas with diverse diverse with areas to environmentalin considerations. Especially

dimension of land fragmentation. This issue requires a deeper issuea and This requires landfragmentation. of dimension Sabates

these initiatives. On the other hand, social fragmentation fragmentation social hand, other the On these initiatives. agriculture agriculture ‐ Wheeler 2002; more ecological benefits to the natural the natural to benefits ecological more imply zones, y of agricultural practices. practices. agricultural y of 95 xploring different approaches which are entaile are which differentapproaches xploring such as multifunctionality can be for fruitful a multifunctionality as such

- up initiatives may offer more feasible more offer may initiatives up Van Dijk 2007 l networks l Bentley 1987)

) . and knowledge affects affects knowledge and

. These practices are are practices These . Conversely, informal Conversely, informal economic impacts impacts economic several several d in d in

CEU eTD Collection characterist the specific consideration in keep willbe to necessary this new framework of the creation and developments These policy. development rural with policy linked farming flexible by a them tackle tra policy and reforms of pathway the on Being to local connectedadaptation policies. intrinsically concept is the sustainability for keyword The practices. friendly environmentally and knowledge local of but would also help in achieving andconcerns. strengthenbut and would social alsohelpachieving environmental in in Albania of farmers wealth economic and production enforcethe internal and just not raise will well and capacities collective and developing by appropriatemechanism,fostering close developing financial partnership social of help assistance, and provision continuous stakeholders, the betweenall an interactive link services advisory constru, ction and of knowledge spreading by efficiency farmers small of increase process principles: underthe revitalization land- following of prospective, experience local and the historical consideration into policy address should economic thisThe of findings research show that, t the ag in situation current the to beadaptable will practices and regulation policy, of transfer the how and beimplemented will willd it of the that, success Despite accession. EU agood represents sector agricultural Albanian of development current tothe adaptability their assessing and Policy Agriculture Common the EU ics and historical development of the country as well as social and cultu and social as well as country the of development historical and ics sustainability , ricultural sector. sector. ricultural would be identified as a concept impliesan ongoingand which complex - functioning structures,functioning ,

social and environmental concerns environmental and social he promotionand deve opportunity for theopportunity for countrythe in is which process of 96 nsfer, the government has a strong possibility to to the possibility ansfer, strong government has

epend onhow the AgriculturePolicy Common facilitation of market inclusion andinclusion promotion market of facilitation . For the Albanian agriculture future future agriculture the Albanian For .

lopment aagriculture sustainable of connection in local communities, communities, local in connection

in thein long - term term bytaking and

ral assets ral . This This . CEU eTD Collection Bridger, S. and Pine, F. 2013. Surviving post 2007.TransitionalBrandtstädter, S. spaces: as a postsocialism cultural process. Introduction. Crit D.1981.Snowball P. ProblemsBiernacki, and Waldorf, sampling: and techniqueschain of referral 1990.Wouldn't______. onefragmentation yourland in have place?in of youall to like Land Appr Ecological and Economic 1987. W. J. Bentley, Belletti, G., Brun Central in development rural sustainable and enlargement 2004. EU H. Dissing, and A. Beckmann, 1993.Bebbington, A.J. and Farrington, Governments,developmeand agricultural NGOs to approach integrated an Towards livelihoods: sustainable and Agroecology 2011. Y. Amekawa, the support we should why reasons key asset:five ecological asfarms aplanetary 2008.Small ______. Latin in farming traditional of multifunctionality and the productivity Enhancing 2000. A. M. Altieri, Agolli, S.and Nezha,2003. Reforma A. agrare, kolektivizimi dhe sistemi ibujqesise. e In Historia 7.

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- socialist landconsolidation. World nia Cornell University University Cornell - 677. ground for rural

47.

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010. Food on the farm: consumer research on farm farm on research consumer the on farm: Food , by CEESA discussion by, CEESA 383.

- level

CEU eTD Collection

1. 17. 16. 2. 15. 14. 13. 18. 4. 3. 5. 6. 9. 8. 7. 12. 11. 10. APPENDIX APPENDIX Formulari Intervista per me Fermeret/ Semi – Albanian/English

A duan femijet tuaj te behen fermere?  Po fermere? behen te tuaj femijet duan A Perse/ Why Kur dhe si filluat te merreni me bujqesi ne ferme?/ How did u start u farm did How meferme?/ ne bujqesi merreni teKur dhefilluat si Jeni te kenaqur me zhvillimin akt it? on spend you have much How use? you machineries of type What perafersisht?/ kushtuar ka Sa tuaj? nefermen perdorni makineri Cfare - on your extend Si mendoni tezgjeroni aktivitetin ne ferme,dhe sa% ne1vit ne 3vitee 5vite?/ Do agriculture development? yes development? agriculture A ju ndihmojne ne ferme? ferme? ne ndihmojne ju A Perse keni zgjedhur te merreni me bujqesi?/Why do you farm? farm? you do bujqesi?/Why me te merreni zgjedhur keni Perse Si e keni marre token (blere/trasheguar/me qi (blere/trasheguar/me token marre ekeni Si beginning? the in was what and now the farm of thesize is What sot?/ jane cilat dhe fillim ne efermes permasat qene kane Cilat Sa te punesuar ka ne ferme gjthesej gjthesej neferme ka tepunesuar Sa How many are from the family? from are How many what period are they hired? they are period what Punonjesit jane me kohe te plote apo sezonal, dhe per cilin prodhim cilin per dhe sezonal, apo plote te kohe me jane Punonjesit Praktika multifunksionale ne ferme/ Multifunctional practices in the farm: the in practices Multifunctional ferme/ ne multifunksionale Praktika (weeds/ with deal you do how and farm on face you that problems the are /What ekeqija/insekte/farerat/semundjet)? (barerat ndryshme Cfare problemeshzakonisht hasni neferme lidhurkultivimin me si i dhe menaxhoni veshtiresite e use you do thods/practices me what and farm you do How kultivim? per perdorni metodash Cfare neferme bagetive e Llojet Sa nga keto jane per konsum vetiak ne % vetiak konsum per jane keto nga Sa neferme prodhoni qe kryesore produktet jane Cilat Regional market Regional rajon/ ne eksport Per Organic agriculture Bujqesi organike/ practices Traditional bujqesor/ Artizanat tourism Agro Agroturizem/ market ( popullor)/ Treg Praktika/Practices

farm or off orfarm

Local

?/ Livestock?/ the in farm? 

farm activities, how in % many 1, 3, 5years?  Po Po

no  ual teual bujqesise?  P Year Viti/ 

Jo / Do they help in the farm?  farm? the in help they Do / Jo

?

sa ngasa ketate jane familjes ? pests/seeds)?

consumption self for is much How ?

 Jo 105 started it Reason Shkaku/ ra)?/ How did you get the land (buy/inherited/rented)? theland get you did How ra)?/

structured interviews withfarmers / Would your children become farmers?  farmers? become children your Would /

? / Types of cultivation in the farm in cultivation of Types / ?

 Jo / Are you satisfied with the actual actual the with satisfied you Are / no

? /If yes, what do they do and in in and do they do what yes, /If ? / Do you have employees Dohave you /  ing and for how long how for and ing yes 1 1 1 1 1 Satisfaction Kenaqesia/

- - - - - 2 2 2 2 2 - - - - -

3 3 3 3 3 - - - - -

4 4 4 4 4 - - - - - 5 5 5 5 5

you want to to want you

no Perse/Why

 yes yes  ?

CEU eTD Collection Consumer Protection Food and Agriculture, Ministry of the of the administration format with /Interview . Konsumatorit se Mbrojtjes dhe Ushqimit Bujqesise, se Ministrise te publike administraten me Intervista 2. 1. 3. 35. 34. 33. 32. 31. 30. 29. 28. 27. 26. 25. 24. 23. 22. 21. 20. 19.

agriculture is facing today? facing is agriculture that problems themain are What / neShqiperi? sot tebujqesise kryesore problemet jane Cilat Perberja familjare/ Family composition? Family familjare/ Perberja Profesioni kryesor?/ ts agriculture land? agriculture ts represen land the of percentage what and today distribution land the is What / bujqesore? toka sot ze perqindje cfare dhe tokes e shperndarja eshte Si scale/large sc small for see you do future What / e vegjel? fermeret per shikoni perspektive apo ardhme te Cfare structuresor regional directories) (state support knowledge and services with you supports that structure or organziation any there Banim i perhershem?/ of Place living A keni mundesiper teaplikuar per kredi?/ (drejtoriabujqesise, e instituti i tokave, veshtire, apo te lehte ekeni po nese njohuri me mbshtese te mund te qe organizem ndonje ka A involved? you Are help? to anything doing they Are organization? association/ any of part you Are perfshire?/ te i ajen dhe ndopak ndihmon po ju a po, Nese organizate? ndonje ne pjese beni A programs/projects that can help you? Do you understand them? understand you Do you? help can that programs/projects any of aware you Are ndihmojne?/ t’ju mund qe projekteve apo programeve te dijeni ne jeni A 1,000,000L; 750,000 related to the farm? tothe related expenses main the are What subvencion?/ ndonje merrni A ferme? ne kryesore shpenzimet jane Cilat Cili eshte burimi kryesorte ardhurave?/What i is the main source? 250,000L 250,000Ne cilen kategori teardhurash vjetore perkisni?< farm? your in activities of diversification the about think you do /What E shikonituaj? pozitivisht krijimin e fermen njeaktiviteti ne shtese activity? farm your on succeed you help will it what and missing is think you do What tuaj?/ nesipermarrjen ndihmonte t’ju do dhe mungon se mendoni Cfare t can help your farm production? Do you receive any? receive you Do production? farm your help can t tha programs/projects are there think you Do merrni?/ ndihme Cfare tuaj? nesipermarrjen mbeshtetese/nxitese politika ka se Mendoni not? or better be will future your think you Do e keqe?/ me apo emire me jete do juaj ardhmja e se Mendoni agricultur of future the about think you do What neShqiperi?/ ebujqesise ardhmen te per mendoni Cfare Why? Perse? / children to become farmers?  farmers? become to children Do ti keshillonit femijettuaj teme merreshin bujqesi?  Po

e in Albania? Albania? e in - 1,000,000L  ale farmers? 500,000-

Do you get any subsidies? any get you Do

Main profession? Main 750,000L;

no 

? 



1,250,000L  Yearlyrevenues? > / yes

>1,250,000L

mada, faf, komuna, instituti pemetarise, instituti i pyjeve etj)/ Is Is etj)/ pyjeve i instituti pemetarise, instituti komuna, faf, mada,

your access to loans/financial help? help? loans/financial to access How is your 106

<250,000-

 Jo

/ Are you going to advise your your advise to going you Are /

,000L; 500 - 500,000L  250,000L; 750,000-

500,000- 750,000L CEU eTD Collection 4. 5. 6. 7. 9. 8. 12. 11. 10. 14. 13.

fragmentation and the issues of smal of issues the and fragmentation land on perspective future and policies ministry’s the are What / neShqiperi? vegjel te fermereve takojne i qe ceshtjeve dhe tokes te (fragmentimit) copezimit perket i sa per eministrise politikat jane Si programs for land consolidation or/and for small scale farmers? scale small for or/and consolidation land for programs any there Are / e vegjel? per fermeret dhe/apo tokes e konsolidimin per programe ekzistojne A of the ministry? the of policies future and existing the on farmer scale small the represents priority of level ministrise? What / polit ne e vegjel fermeret perfaqesojne prioriteti niveli Cfare problems? - on for available programs development rural the from support and onfarms activities additional the regarding regulation a new in base alegal need activities Such agriculture. of field the in active are that families rural for Non / tani? me deri problem/perfitime pasur aka dhe fushe ne kete bere eshte Cfare ferme. ne aktivitetet per rural ezhvillimit programet nga mbeshtetje dhe si ligjore baze nje kerkojne aktivitete Keto rurale. ne zonat today? arefarmers facing small scale problems biggest the are What / sot? evegjel fermeret hasin po qe problemet jane Cilat Ne strategjine Ne today? agriculture and Development Si e shikoni lidhjen midis zhvillimit dhe rural bujqesise? What is theconnection between Rural include? it does areas What today? t are What / ndihma? keto konsistojne fushe cfare Ne sot? pomarrin evegjel fermeret qe subvencionet apo incentivat jane Cilat On the Rural Development strategy 2 strategy keto Development viteIperket persa Rural ketij plani?the On / ne arritur eshte cfare se thoni teme Mund neShqiperi. bujqesise te shumefunksional rolin forcoje Aktivtitetet jo promoted? are practices multifunctionality onwhich programs/projects any there Are / shumefunksionale? praktikat promovohen te cilave te baze ne programe/projekte ekzistojne A this of status implementation the of achievements the main been have what me tell please you Can Albania. in agriculture of role multifunctional the strengthening at aims strategy this under comes that Plan Strategy National The farmers? scale small for programs/projects tothe allocated is budget the of percentage Cfare perqindje e buxhetit i eshte alokuar programeve/ alokuar eshte i ebuxhetit perqindje Cfare available? is support of kind what and concern this in done been has What ta?/ per ndihme ndonje ekziston a dhe problemeve ketyre perket i persa bere eshte Cfare

e Zhvillimit Rural 2007- bujqesore ne nje ferme perfaqesojne nje burim shtese te shtese burim nje perfaqesojne nje ferme ne bujqesore -

agri cultural activities on a farm represent an important additional source of income income of source additional animportant represent farm a on activities cultural

farm activities. What has been done in this area? What have been the main main the been have What area? this in done been has What activities. farm he incentives and/orsubsidies that the small scale are farmers receiving

plan? plan?

l scale farming today in Albania? Albania? in today farming scale l 2013 permendet se Plani Kombetar Strategjik synon qe te qe synon Strategjik Kombetar Plani se permendet 2013 107

What What / e vegjel? fermeret per projekteve ikat ekzistuese si edhe ne ato te ardhme te ardhme te ne ato edhe si ekzistuese ikat

ardhurash per familjet fermere fermere familjet per ardhurash 007- 2013 is mentioned that mentioned is 2013

CEU eTD Collection

22. 21. 20. 19. 18. 17. 16. 15.

will be easy to implement the new regulations and legislation? and regulations new the implement to beeasy will legisl of adaptation tothe regards with As / reja? Politikes seBujqesore? Perbashket Mendoni se do te jete Ilehte Irregulloreve zbatimi apo ligjeve te dhe Evropian Bashkimit te ate me telegjislacionit perafrimit takon i persa thoni me te mund Cfare ? it of benefits the or problems the negotiations, the about think you do What accession? EU for road the in agriculture the see you do How / emundshme? perfitimet e problemet negociatat, me ne lidhje Si e shikoni sektorin e bujqesise ne p rrugen quality? water and land protection, biodiversity as such regulations EU the to relations in farming of effects environmental the on thepolicy is mbr psh: si Evropian Bashkimit e rregulloret Cila eshtepolitika e ministrise persa Itakonmjedisore ndikimeve te bujqesise si dhe lidhur me extension services. What are the on especially farmers scale medium and small the help will that centers advisory of creation the mention is Strategy Development Rural the of Plan Strategy National the On / pefshire? te ajane dhe kane fermere A sot? qendrave ketyre I statusi dhe eshte roli Cili zgjeruese. sherbimet per te mesem dhe tevegjel tefermereve synim per ndihmojne kane qe keshillimore KombetarNen Plani te Strategjik Strategjise se Zhvillimit Rural permendet krijimi Iqendrave structures and are they being involved? involved? being they are and structures problems for the cooperatives today? cooperatives the for problems main the are What / sot? kooperativave e krijimin per kryesore problemet jane se mendoni Cilat associations? new these farme the to assistance and help theadequate provide to place in structures new any there Are farmers. the for cooperation of structures new to create trying is cooperation” agricultural of associations the “On law new The and/associations. organizations the farmers’ about What / bashkepunimeve? tani implementimi Iketij dhe ligji te a mundthoni me shifra disa mbikrijimin e ketyre me deri ecur ka Si fermeret? per ndihme te ofrojne tecilat struktura ka A fermeret. per bashkepunimit Ligji Iri “Mbi kooperimin orgnizatave e bujqesore”per ka synim krijimin e st regarding farm programs development rural to regards with done been has What / ferme? ne te tjera aktivitete tu fermat me lidhur rural tezhvillimit programeve perket I sa per bere eshte Cfare - non promote to order in regulations commercial and markets property bi e promovimin me lidhur tregtare rregulloreve apo pronave te tregut te konsolidimit perket I sa per bere eshte Cfare rs? What is the implementation status and do you have any numbers regarding the creation of of creation the regarding numbers any have you do and status theimplementation is What rs? - tourism and other agro related activities on farm? onfarm? activities related agro other and tourism zneseve rurale jashte ferme? / What has been done in regards to consolidation of of toconsolidation regards in done been has What / ferme? jashte rurale zneseve

the role and the status of these centers now? Are farmers aware of these these of aware farmers Are now? centers these of the status and role the

erBashkimin hyrjeEvropian? ne Cili eshtejuaj mendimi ojtja e biodiversitetit, cilesia e ujit dhe tokes etj. ? / What What / ? etj. tokes dhe eujit cilesia biodiversitetit, e ojtja 108

ation with the EU and the CAP, do you think that it it that think you do CAP, the and EU the with ation

farm ruralenterprises? farm t dijeni per keto qendra qendra keto per t dijeni rukturave te reja te te tereja rukturave ristike apo agro apo ristike