Axis Mundi. Vol 2 (2006)
Legend, Veneration, and Nationalism: The History of Devotion and Pilgrimage to the Miraculous Icon of Our Lady of Czestochowa
MIKE MLYNARZ 1st Year, MA History University of Alberta Edmonton, Alberta
According to legend, St. Luke the Evangelist painted an icon of the
Blessed Virgin Mary, which eventually found its way to a monastery in
Częstochowa, Poland. Due to the miraculous nature of the icon and its eventual
placement in the monastery, the area took on the name of Jasna Góra, or ‘Bright
Mountain’.1 The hill is two miles from Częstochowa’s medieval centre.2 In his
1979 pilgrimage to Poland, the late Pope John Paul II declared the area to be not
only a centre attracting Polish pilgrims from around the world, but also to be the
very heart of the nation itself.3 Jasna Góra is one of the largest and most important
Marian shrines in the world and is the only major Marian shrine that was not
founded on the basis of an apparition. It stands as the largest pilgrimage centre in
Central and Eastern Europe, and, outside of France and the Russian Far East, the
largest Christian sanctuary in Europe as a whole.4 With its central European
location and veneration of a Byzantine-influenced icon in a Roman Catholic
1 Jan Długosz, Roczniki Czyli Kroniki Sławnego Królestwa Polskiego. Księga Pierwsza, Księga Druga (Warsaw: 1962), 182. 2 Robert Maniura, Pilgrimage to Images in the Fifteenth Century: The Origins of the Cult of Our Lady of Częstochowa (Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press, 2004), 1. 3 Jan Paweł II, Przemówienia, homilie. Polska 2 IV – 10 VI 1979 (Kraków: 1979), 65. 4 Andrzej Zembik, Polski pielgrzym: wystaw: pawilion wystawowy Muzeum Częstochowskiego, sierpięn 2000 (Częstochowa: Muzeum Częstochowskie, 2000), 32-34. 2 Axis Mundi. Vol 2 (2006) monastery, Ptaszycka-Jackowska argues that Jasna Góra is a vital cultural and religious meeting point, a ‘połeżenie ekumenicyne’, or an ‘ecumenical meeting point’.5 Malinski argues that over its history, the icon has become a symbol for the entire Polish nation, as well as for each individual Pole.6
The image of the Virgin at Jasna Góra has been shown to have a very controversial and detailed history. In light of the fact that it has become a strong nationalist symbol for many Poles, the original purpose of the image was for pilgrimage and veneration, despite its political connotations today. The image plays a central role within a larger framework of pilgrimage and Marian worship.
The goal of this study is to gain a more detailed understanding of the image and the function it plays within Polish society and history. Through a thorough examination of the history of pilgrimage and Marian worship in Poland, the phenomenon of Marian worship in the Catholic world, the development and nature of Polish Christianity, the nature of pilgrimage behavior to Jasna Gora, and the continued, modern day relevance of the image, this paper seeks to better ascertain the role that the icon has played throughout its history.
5 Danuta Ptaszycka-Jackowska, Jasnógórskie pielgrzymki w przestrzeni miasta i regionu Częstochowy (Kraków: 1998), 26-27. 6 Mieczysław Malinski, Polska ikona: historia swietego obrazu w historii narodu polskiego (Częstochowa: Edyjca Swiętego Pawla: 1994), 30-34. MLYNARZ: LEGEND, VENERATION, AND NATIONALISM 3
Pilgrimage: Concepts and History
The pilgrimage to the image of the Virgin at Jasna Góra has been ongoing
for centuries. The majority of early Catholic pilgrimages were to shrines, often
containing a saint’s body; even modern pilgrimages are usually directed towards
the lives of famous people, with visits to their tombs being interpreted as a visit
with the individual. A major difference with the Częstochowa pilgrimage,
however, is that it is an image, not a grave or relics that are revered. Relatively
few works have been written on this subject, as art historians have often neglected
images that attracted pilgrims.7 In recent years, however, it has come to attract
more scholarly attention. The image at Jasna Góra is more than an enigmatic
piece of religious art; it is intimately connected to social behavior.
A pilgrimage was frequently a liturgically structured activity. Pilgrimages
to Jasna Góra were centered on the cult of the local saint, in this case the Virgin
Mary. The help desired by the pilgrim is always connected to the shrine, and by
visiting the shrine, the relationship comes full-circle. Despite the fact that the
Częstochowa shrine contains no physical relics of the Virgin, image the has become the central point of pilgrimage visits and prayers.8 According to statistics from 1995, forty million Christians went on pilgrimages to twenty of the most significant Christian shrines in the world. The most important Christian
7 Maniura, Pilgrimage to Images in the Fifteenth Century, 6-7. 8 Maniura, Pilgrimage to Images in the Fifteenth Century, 177-80. 4 Axis Mundi. Vol 2 (2006)
pilgrimage centres, in order of the numbers of pilgrims visiting them, are Rome
and the Vatican, Lourdes, Jasna Góra, Fatima, and Guadalupe.9
Although the focus of many pilgrimages in Poland is on Marian
sanctuaries such as Częstochowa, a strong cult of uniquely Polish saints had been
established early in the nation’s history. By the thirteenth century, pilgrimage in
Poland has begun to take on an increasingly stronger popular character, as
peasants and townsmen flocked to holy sites in larger numbers, although previous
centuries had been marked by pilgrimages made primarily by nobles and royalty.
This change of direction developed along with the rapidly expanding cult of relics
and of native saints.10 One of the more significant saint cults was that of St.
Stanisłaus, canonized in 1253. His death and dismemberment were seen by many
to represent the troubles of Poland, and he rapidly became a central figure in
Polish history.11 Seen as a martyr by many, Stanisłaus was buried in the Kraków
cathedral, where many pilgrims would eventually come to venerate him and to
direct prayers to him for help. Scenes from his life were created for the cathedral,
and Maniura argues that through the combination of the paintings with relics,
images were able to give references to holy places associated with that saint. In a
similar fashion, the image of the Virgin at Częstochowa builds some of its
9 Ptaszycka-Jackowska, Jasnógórskie pielgrzymki, 23. 10 Jerzy Kloczowski, A History of Polish Christianity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 46. 11 Kloczowski, A History of Polish Christianity, 44. MLYNARZ: LEGEND, VENERATION, AND NATIONALISM 5
strength from the interrelationship between the life of the saint and the help desired, making the shrine itself the ultimate loci of importance.12
The Marian cult has a strong historical basis in Poland, beginning to take root there already by the thirteenth century, and later propagated in the following centuries by various religious orders, including the Carmelites and the
Franciscans.13 The cult became increasingly popular at the start of the fourteenth century.14 One of the earliest and strongest forms of public devotion to the Virgin in Poland took shape with the archaic hymn Bogurodzica, which had been composed by the thirteenth century. Studies of the song are unclear, as no models on which it is based have been found in Slavic, Western, Byzantine, or Latin sources. The song, invoking the power of Christ through his mother, drew upon the western and eastern tendencies common to Polish Christianity at the time.15
The hymn was often used as a battle song during the Jagiellonian period, and was sung before the 1410 Battle of Grunwald. The earliest surviving copy of it has been found in a fifteenth century manuscript:
Bogu rodzica dzewica Virgin, Mother of God, Bogem slawena Maria! Maria, honoured by God, Utwego syna gospodzina, Your son’s patroness, Matko swolena maria, Maria, chosen Mother! Sziszci nam, Assist us. Kyrieleyson! Kyrie Eleison!16
12 Maniura, Pilgrimage to Images in the Fifteenth Century, 175-77. 13 Karol Górski, Zarys dziejów duchowości w Polsce (Kraków: Wydawnictwo, 1986), 49-51. 14 Zembik, Polski pielgrzym, 7-15. 15 Kloczowski, A History of Polish Christianity, 78-79. 16 Norman Davies, God’s Playground: A History of Poland in Two Volumes, Volume I: The Origins to 1795 (2 vols; Columbia University: Colombia University Press, 1981), 161. 6 Axis Mundi. Vol 2 (2006)
Marian Worship in the Roman Catholic Church
The phenomenon of Marian veneration at Częstochowa is deeply
connected to the phenomenon of Marian worship elsewhere, often a ubiquitous
and vital part of worship within the Catholic world as a whole. Mary was elevated
above all the other saints in terms of the degree of veneration accorded to her.
There were no physical relics of her at her shrines, other than clothing and related
objects attributed to her. By the twelfth century, she had already received the
accolade of “Queen of Heaven”. Her cult acquired a very mystical character.
Many feast days were dedicated to her, and she was known by a great variety of
titles. Many miracles were credited to her, and a specific group of praises and
prayers were devoted to her, among them the Salve Regina and the Ave, which led
to the development of the Rosary.17 The official designation of Mary as Mother of
God, or Theotokos, came in 451, at the Council of Chalcedon.18 By the fifth
century, institutionalized worship of the Virgin began formally in Byzantium,
when the first feasts dedicated to her were announced. Also around this time, her
divine motherhood and miraculous virginity were proclaimed. Eventually, monks
escaping from Muslim conquests of the Holy Land in the seventh century brought
these feast days to the Catholic Church.19 The Catholic Church often encouraged
Marian worship when difficulties were experienced and discouraged it at times of
17 R.N. Swanson, Religion and Devotion in Europe, c. 1215-1515 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 144-45. 18 Elliot Miller and Kenneth R. Samples, The Cult of the Virgin: Catholic Mariology and the Apparitions of Mary (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House Company, c. 1992), 19-21. 19 Marina Warner, Alone of All Her Sex: The Myth and the Cult of the Virgin Mary (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1976), 62-67. MLYNARZ: LEGEND, VENERATION, AND NATIONALISM 7
change and stronger ecumenicalism.20 The Virgin, often seen as having powers of intercession to help those who prayed to her, worked through her divine son.21
Although shrines dedicated to her are common throughout Europe, Carroll argues that in Poland, Italy, and Spain, Marian devotion reaches its highest peak and that the religious hierarchies of Italy and Spain can draw upon Poland for assistance in placing more emphasis upon Mary worship.22 European devotion is also reflected
in the fact that many of the most important Gothic cathedrals were dedicated to
the Virgin.23 The Vatican II Council of 1964 published a decree on the Church,
De Ecclesia, which featured a chapter summarizing the traditional Catholic
understanding of Mary’s role in helping to secure salvation;24 previously in 1950,
her Assumption had been defined.25 More recently, the late Pope John Paul II
helped to revive the cult of the Virgin, which had been diminishing in importance.
His devotion to her was very strong, and he lived with the motto Totus Tuus sum
Maria, “Mary, I am all yours”. His devotion included visiting Marian shrines and
establishing a Marian liturgical year.26
20 Warner, Alone of All Her Sex, 103-4. 21 Warner, Alone of All Her Sex, 285-87. 22 Michael P. Carroll, The Cult of the Virgin Mary: Psychological Origins (Princeton University Press: Princeton, 1986), 10-17. 23 Sarah Jane Boss, Empress and Handmaid: On Nature and Gender in the Cult of the Virgin Mary (London and New York: Cassell, 2000), 100. 24 Boss, Empress and Handmaid, 1. 25 Warner, Alone of All Her Sex, 92. 26 Elliot Miller and Kenneth R. Samples, The Cult of the Virgin: Catholic Mariology and the Apparitions of Mary (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House Company, c. 1992), 13-15. 8 Axis Mundi. Vol 2 (2006)
Marian Apparitions
Apparitions, or appearances of the Virgin, have become increasingly common over the past two centuries, further increasing the popularity of her cult.
Since the 1930s, some 200 apparitions have been reported worldwide. By the fourth century, Marian apparitions had been reported, and throughout history, an estimated 21,000 sightings have been reported.27 Miller and Samples describe some of the more significant sightings, which have led to the establishment of shrines devoted to them. These include Guadalupe, Mexico; Lourdes, France;
Fatima, Portugal; Beuraing and Banneux, Belgium; Bayside, New York; and
Knock, Ireland. One of the most recent and most popular apparitions occurred in
Medjugorje, Hercegovina, in the former Yugoslavia.28 Such apparitions, and their psychological and historical effects, are discussed in detail by Miller and
Samples,29 as well as by Carroll.30
The cult of the Virgin Mary has been demonstrated to be a vital part of the
Roman Catholic Church throughout its history. The veneration of the image of the
Virgin in the monastery at Częstochowa can thus be seen as one strand in a very complex and ancient line of worship, stretching back from Byzantine councils,
Vatican decrees, and peasant sightings, to the personal devotions of the Catholic
Church’s first Slavic Pope.
27 Miller and Samples, The Cult of the Virgin, 79-82. 28 Miller and Samples, The Cult of the Virgin, 88-116. 29 Miller and Samples, The Cult of the Virgin, 121-78. 30 Carroll, The Cult of the Virgin Mary, 115-218. MLYNARZ: LEGEND, VENERATION, AND NATIONALISM 9
Christianity in Poland
Poland was first converted to Christianity in the tenth century. Malinski
argues that from its beginnings, Polish Christianity has always been influenced by
Eastern Christian traditions. Although the nation was converted by the Roman
Church, there has always been a strong Byzantine influence, as can be
demonstrated through Poland’s history of interaction with its many Orthodox
neighbors, and its limited adoption of the cult of icons.31 Although Sts. Cyril and
Methodius were able to spread their Slavic styled rites into parts of Moravia and
Bohemia during the tenth century, the clergy from neighbouring Germany extinguished these rites. By 966, Poland had been baptized officially by Rome, and its international position, largely independent of German interference, had been established.32 Davies argues that since Poland’s conversion, the nation has
always seen itself as the guardian, or antemurale, of Roman Catholicism and
Western civilization, defending the true faith from scores of enemies and heretics,
despite the fact that, for most of its history, it contained large populations of non-
Catholics.33 This helps to further illustrate Poland’s transitional position between
East and West, and offers additional proof for its religious traditions, which
adapted elements of Eastern Orthodoxy into its strongly Roman Catholic outlook.
From its introduction in Poland, as in neighbouring Bohemia, Christianity
has had a syncretic nature, combining ancient Slavic pagan rituals and beliefs
31 Malinski, Polska ikona, 5-9, 29-30. 32 Kloczowski, A History of Polish Christianity, 1-14. 33 Davies, God’s Playground, 159-60. 10 Axis Mundi. Vol 2 (2006)
with Christian ideals. In Poland, there was far less emphasis on the negative
features of Church history, such as the Inquisition. Mendicant orders, which had a
strong influence in helping to shape the religious feelings of the nation, often
emphasized the positive aspects of religion while minimizing teachings regarding
Satan, hell, and fear, in part to help syncretize the ancient pre-Christian rituals and
customs. For example, although the Polish liturgical year was originally organized
around the Roman calendar, certain customs, such as feast days of the Virgin and
the saints, were organized around pagan celebrations and holy days. Within this
model, the cult of Christ and his mother, the Virgin, had a very influential role.
Although originally adapted from Western Europe, Eastern Slavic traditions,
strongly influenced by ancient family and agrarian traditions, helped to shape
Marian worship. Aspects of the Virgin as celebrated in Poland, such as her mediating function, were also strong elements of Eastern Orthodox belief.34
Braun maintains that this religious culture is unique and that it can be seen throughout the country. For example, he lists aspects of religious culture such as pastorals, wayside shrines, sorrowful Christ-figures, matins, feast days, and
Lenten hymns. As well, there has always been a strong iconographic and architectural tradition; it includes wooden rural churches, elaborate Calvaries, and masterpieces of medieval architecture and is particularly well represented by the
Doors of the Gniezno Cathedral and Kraków’s strong artistic tradition. Braun even sees Polish Catholicism as the fourth form of Catholicism in Europe,
34 Kloczowski, A History of Polish Christianity, 74-82. MLYNARZ: LEGEND, VENERATION, AND NATIONALISM 11
following the Byzantine, Carolingian, and post-Trentian phases.35 Soon after their arrival, the Paulite monks of Częstochowa helped to establish a strong historical basis for Polish culture. For example, the very first work of Polish prose entitled
Kazania świętokryzskie, or “Holy Cross Sermons”, was written, albeit with a strong addition of Church Latin, by a monk of Częstochowa in 36 1350. The
Apostolic See even accepts Polish forms of folk Christianity, such as ‘bitter laments’ and the Advent dawn mass, as para-liturgy. Poland also has had its share of mystics, including various monks and nuns from the fourteenth century on.37
By the fifteenth century, renewed interest in Stations of the Cross and the
Rosary surged in Europe, and vernacular languages were used increasingly in prayer.38 Particularly since the seventeenth century, Catholicism in Poland has been characterized by its high level of inward piety. At this time, mystical aspects of the faith, such as pilgrimages, detailed Calvaries, and ascetic Orders came into being, and rituals of public flagellation and repentance were practiced by some members. The cult of Mary in Poland gained new levels of popularity at this time, partly in response to the centralizing and Latinizing reforms of the Council of
Trent, and partly as a reaction to Judaic, Orthodox, and Protestant challenges.39
The characteristics of Polish Catholicism listed above found expression in the popular religion of the people, who frequently went on pilgrimages to places such
35 Jerzy Braun, “A Thousand Years of Christianity in Poland,” in J. Braun (ed.), Poland in Christian Civilization (London: Veritas Press, 1985), 41-50. 36 Davies, God’s Playground, 78-79. 37 Kloczowski, A History of Polish Christianity, 401. 38 Kloczowski, A History of Polish Christianity, 52. 39 Davies, God’s Playground, 170-72. 12 Axis Mundi. Vol 2 (2006)
as Częstochowa. As discussed above, the Polish attitude to icons differs from the
views of many of its Catholic neighbours; icons used for veneration often can be
found in Polish churches, homes, and centers of pilgrimage.40 In many traditional
Polish peasant homes, a special corner near the stove often was set aside; here
icons, including the saints but always featuring the Virgin, as well as other items
of religious importance, such as green boughs, flowers, and candles, and
souvenirs brought back from centers of pilgrimage, could be placed.41 In terms of
local veneration, roadside shrines are very common in Poland. Benet states that
each village usually had at least one set up at its boundary, and often placed at
crossroads. These shrines serve the purposes of veneration and also help to
facilitate social interaction.42 Benet argues that peasants frequently had a close
and intimate relationship with the saints and, above all, the Virgin, who was seen
as a personal intercessor; only the Virgin was seen as having the power to perform
miracles, which may have included healing the sick.43
Pilgrim Behavior to Częstochowa
In addition to Częstochowa, other main pilgrimage centers in Poland
include Gniezno, Niepokalów, Warsaw, the Calvary of Zebrzydowsky, and the
Mountain of St. Anne, near Kraków. Jackowski and Sołjan give detailed
40 Malinski, Polska ikona, 29-30. 41 Sula Benet, Song, Dance, and Customs of Peasant Poland (London: Dennis Dobson, 1951), 181. 42 Benet, Song, Dance, and Customs of Peasant Poland, 28-29. 43 Benet, Song, Dance, and Customs of Peasant Poland, 38-39; William I. Thomas, The Polish Peasant in Europe and America (New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1958), 251-52, 266-67. MLYNARZ: LEGEND, VENERATION, AND NATIONALISM 13
descriptions about the locations and number of pilgrims in the country. In modern
Poland, there are almost 500 registered religious sanctuaries, 98% of which are connected to Roman Catholicism. Of these, around 430 are sanctuaries to the
Virgin, and about 180 of these Marian sanctuaries feature crowned images.44 The non-Roman Catholic places of worship in Poland are primarily Orthodox and
Greek Catholic, and there is also a major Muslim mosque, at Bohoniki. Many of the Catholic shrines were receiving pilgrims by the nineteenth century, while 16% already were seeing pilgrims by the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, and 53% by the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Within the nation as a whole, seven million people go on pilgrimage annually, 70% of whom go to Jasna Góra. Close to 80% of foreign pilgrims who come from outside of Poland go to Jasna Góra.45
The specific manner by which pilgrims come to the Jasna Góra chapel is well documented. Many follow a set route, often arriving on August 15, the Feast of the Assumption of the Virgin. Many of the pilgrimages are made on foot.
People come from all over Poland and make their last stop in the monastery of
Mstów, close to their goal. From there, pilgrims walk through the avenue of the
Blessed Virgin Mary, a route which takes them from the old centre of the town to the shrine itself. Upon reaching the top of the mountain, Paulite monks greet the pilgrims at the east of the monastery, where they prostrate and then are blessed.
Once pilgrims reach the main entrance to the monastery, south from the site of the
44 Zembik, Polski pielgrzym, 1-8. 45 Ptaszycka-Jackowska, Jasnógórskie pielgrzymki, 29-31. 14 Axis Mundi. Vol 2 (2006)
blessing, they queue into the line of people preparing to enter the chapel housing
the miraculous image. Once they enter the chapel, the pilgrims file past the image,
sometimes on their knees, singing hymns and prayers, and then enter the main
church, reaching their goal.46 As Jabłonski describes for the pilgrimage during the
nineteenth century, pilgrims often had hoped for a strong, emotional religious
experience in the presence of the image and usually tried to be present for the
unveiling and veiling of it each day.47
Often, this pilgrimage, as undertaken by peasants, was carried out on foot, usually in groups, each with a cross-bearer. Along the route, people helped each other and displayed levels of camaraderie, such as singing songs and the chanting of prayers. This pilgrimage, according to Benet, stands as the most genuine expression of religious feeling amongst Polish peasants.48
During the sixteenth century, a recommended pilgrimage route to the shrine already had been laid out by Cardinal Radziwiłł. He recommended that pilgrims should enter the church through the ‘porta Ordinaria’, after which they would receive communion and confession, and then go make their petitions and offerings at the chapel. Upon the conclusion of this activity, they then were to exit through the doors near the chapel, and then through the monastery gate. However,
46 Maniura, Pilgrimage to Images in the Fifteenth Century, 1. 47 Szczepan Zachariusz Jabłonski ZP, Jasna Góra Ośrodek Kultu Maryjnego (1864-1914) (Lublin: 1984), 106. 48 Benet, Song, Dance, and Customs of Peasant Poland, 74-75. MLYNARZ: LEGEND, VENERATION, AND NATIONALISM 15
it is now possible to get to the chapel via two directions, from the south and from the west, the details of which are laid out by Maniura.49
An accurate estimate of pilgrimage numbers to Częstochowa during the
Middle Ages is difficult to make. As Swanson details, medieval pilgrimages were very popular, and although they could be studied through artifacts such as monastery narratives and pilgrim badge sales, exact numbers are not readily available.50 Several works have been compiled, however, that may help to give a general idea of the size of the early flows of pilgrims to the image. The earliest established pilgrimage routes to Jasna Góra were from Kraków; a route formed during the time of Queen Jadwiga in 1434, following the Hussite attack four years previously.51 There were so many pilgrims journeying to the image at this time that in 1429, King Jagiełło requested that Pope Martin V grant indulgences to the monastery for pilgrims. Following the 1430 attack, there was a similarly large stream of pilgrims, who came from the kingdoms of Poland, Silesia, Hungary and
Prussia. By 1435, the presence of many pilgrims coming to the shrine from outside of Poland illustrated that in the beginning of its history, the shrine had not yet become a major religious and cultural symbol for Poles.52 In the books of the confraternity at the monastery, pilgrimage statistics have been recorded at times.
Between 1517 and 1613, 4426 people, of whom only 814 were Polish, journeyed
49 Maniura, Pilgrimage to Images in the Fifteenth Century, 146-47. 50 Swanson, Religion and Devotion, 165-68. 51 Jabłonski ZP, Jasna Góra Ośrodek, 164. 52 Zachariasz S. Jabłonski OSP, “Ruch pielgryzmkowz na Jasną Górę w Częstochowie. Tradycja I współczesność,” in A. Jackowski (ed.), Jasna Góra – światowe centrum pielgrzymkowe (Cracow: Institute of Geography of Jagiellonian University, 1996), 125-26. 16 Axis Mundi. Vol 2 (2006)
to the shrine. The majority of pilgrims at this time came from outside of Poland.
The nations represented were primarily Hungary, Moravia, Slovakia, and Silesia.
Between 1517 and 1526, Hungarian pilgrims dominated the flow. The majority of
recorded names at this time were those of elites connected with the corresponding
kingdoms listed. Following the fall of the Hungarian Kingdom to the Ottoman
Empire in 1526, the number of Hungarian speaking pilgrims to Jasna Góra was
reduced greatly.53 During the fifteenth century, icons of the Virgin of
Częstochowa were widespread in Hungary, largely due to the fact that it was the
country where the Paulite Order was first established. Copies of the image could
be found all over the country, including Budapest and Esztergom.54
According to information from the Liber Miraculorum, or a book listing
supposed miracles at the shrine, the majority of pilgrims between 1396 and 1642
were nobles. They came from Silesia, Bohemia, Lithuania, Moravia, Prussia,
Saxony, Ukraine, Hungary, and even Sweden and England.55 Soon after, Pope
Alexander VI granted apostolic jurisdiction to the Częstochowa monks, allowing
them to grant indulgences, a practice which became one of the major reasons for
undertaking a pilgrimage there. The flow of pilgrims to the shrine was so
numerous that in 1582, Pope Gregory XIII called it the ‘Polish Loretto’.56 By the
seventeenth century, the average number of pilgrims venturing there annually was
53 Jabłonski OSP, “Ruch pielgryzmkowz,” 124-26. 54 Jan Nalaskowski OSPPE and Elżbieta Bilska, “Kult Matki Bożej Jasnogórskiej poza granicami Polski,” in Jasna Góra – światowe centrum pielgrzymkowe, 194. 55 Jabłonski OSP, “Ruch pielgryzmkowz,” 127. 56 Jabłonski OSP, “Ruch pielgryzmkowz,” 127. MLYNARZ: LEGEND, VENERATION, AND NATIONALISM 17
around 100,000. The most important events, particularly the Feast of the Birth of
the Virgin Mary, attracted between 30,000 and 60,000 pilgrims. In 1629, 200,000
pilgrims from Kalisz, Łowicz, Pabianic, and Kraków came to take communion. In
1618, 1800 pilgrims came from Zywca. The 300-year Jubilee of Jasna Góra
attracted around 140,000 pilgrims, while the crowning of the image in 1717 saw
some 200,000 pilgrims gather there.57 The first years of the sanctuary saw tens of
thousands of pilgrims visiting it. According to archival sources from the 16th
century, pilgrims were flocking to the site from more than 200 locations all over
Europe.58
The first permanent foot pilgrimages to Jasna Góra were established in the
seventeenth century, and in 1711, a major foot route was formed from Warsaw.59
Pilgrims to the image in the beginning of the seventeenth century came for
primarily religious reasons, particularly for taking communion. A large group of
confessors lived within a forty to fifty mile radius of the monastery, and during
the sixteenth century, people living a further distance felt obliged to go on a
pilgrimage to Jasna Góra at least once during their lives. During the seventeenth
century, Jasna Góra was the most important Marian shrine in Poland.60
Many pilgrims ventured to Jasna Góra with the intent of seeking forgiveness
for their sins. In 1462, Casimir IV announced that many pilgrims were coming to
57 Jabłonski OSP, “Ruch pielgryzmkowz,” 127-28. 58 Zembik, Polski pielgrzym, 34-37. 59 Ptaszycka-Jackowska, Jasnógórskie pielgrzymki, 18-19. 60 Ptaszycka-Jackowska, Jasnógórskie pielgrzymki, 128-29. 18 Axis Mundi. Vol 2 (2006) the shrine in order to obtain indulgences, and in 1493, Pope Alexander VI, with the primary intent of raising funds, issued an indulgence for the shrine, marking it one of the first instances that pilgrimages to an image resulted in indulgences being granted. Several practices, such as attending liturgies in the church, or private venerations, were recommended for the pilgrim. With the granting of indulgences to Jasna Góra, the shrine was marked out as special in the Catholic world. However, the indulgence grants often did not name the shrine and the image itself. Maniura attributes this to the fact that at the time, such information may have been too obvious a fact to document.61
Miracles and Votive Offerings at Jasna Góra
Witnessing miracles is a major reason why people go on pilgrimages to shrines. There are a series of fifteenth and sixteenth century documented texts of miracles preserved in the monastery. The earliest of these is a single sheet, dating from the 1470s. A 1517 registry contains numerous stories, as do two other volumes also published in the sixteenth century. Maniura describes the provenance and physical attributes of these documents in detail.62 There are 300 miracle stories, in which the image itself is mentioned nine times. Many of these stories concern the fulfillment of a vow; vows, and the fulfillment of them, are often central to medieval miracle stories. Physical activities such as crawling to the image on one’s knees are often signs of the fulfillment of such vows. Many
61 Maniura, Pilgrimage to Images in the Fifteenth Century, 90-94. 62 Maniura, Pilgrimage to Images in the Fifteenth Century, 95-104. MLYNARZ: LEGEND, VENERATION, AND NATIONALISM 19
pilgrims also leave votive offerings. Few original votives survive, but they too are a key part of the fulfillment of a successful pilgrimage.63 The majority of miracles were reported to have occurred within the vicinity of the monastery, while only a few of the described miracles occur in conjunction with the image itself. Among the purported miracles are descriptions of bringing a dead child back to life, restoring the ability to walk to a crippled man, and curing leprosy of another man.
Maniura argues that through the formation of the vow itself, an interpersonal relationship is established between the pilgrim and the holy figure, regardless of place. The power of the saint is not seen to be restricted to one place, as the saint, and not the image itself, is seen as the focus of power.64 In sum, it is not the image itself that works miracles, but the understanding within the pilgrim of the importance of the journey, and the vow and its subsequent fulfillment, upon which a successful pilgrimage, and the working of miracles depends.65
Golonka offers a detailed description of votive offerings at the shrine.
Often, these offerings were in the form of tablets and usually were left for
purposes of thanks or as requests for help. Votives were left both by nobles and
common people. Metal votives from nobility are preserved in the sanctuary.
Offerings may also consist of mementos and documents. Many votives from the
last few centuries are rich in character and come from all over Europe. Many were
63 Maniura, Pilgrimage to Images in the Fifteenth Century, 104-12. 64 Maniura, Pilgrimage to Images in the Fifteenth Century, 112-14. 65 Maniura, Pilgrimage to Images in the Fifteenth Century, 181-83. 20 Axis Mundi. Vol 2 (2006)
also left during the period of Partition in Poland, as well as from visits by Pope
John Paul II.66
The surviving codices and documents list several important votives
offered by individuals early in the shrine’s history. A group of Hungarian soldiers,
in the face of defeat by a group of Turks, made a vow to visit the shrine and, upon
their victory, left a red Turkish hat there. A woman whose child suffocated on a
piece of iron left the iron as an offering to resurrect the child, while another man
left a golden chalice after his son was cured. Other votives have included small
panels and objects from daily use. However, there are no surviving votives from
the early centuries. Eighteenth century offerings that have survived are often
silver plaques, which depict the pilgrim kneeled in prayer. Amongst the many
modern offerings are objects made from less valuable materials, usually showing
body parts or figures. In the sixteenth century, the shrine was covered with
votives, and there are votives that have been placed on the image itself, the
‘robes’ of the image, which primarily consist of metalwork and jewels. Crutches,
as well, are among the votives left at the shrine.67
Pilgrim activities of devotion in the chapel during the nineteenth century are
well documented by Jabłonski. Often, votives, usually left along with a small amount of money, were given by kneeling pilgrims to the Virgin with hopes of
66 Jan Golonka OSPPE, “Zasięg międyznarodowz wotów jasnogórskich,” in Jasna Góra – światowe centrum pielgrzymkowe (Crakow: Institute of Geography of Jagiellonian University, 1996), 119-24. 67 Maniura, Pilgrimage to Images in the Fifteenth Century, 106-12. MLYNARZ: LEGEND, VENERATION, AND NATIONALISM 21
improving their health. The offering of the votive, which provided an opportunity to be close to the image, was one of the most pivotal religious moments for the pilgrim. For many, it was as though they were in personal contact with the Virgin.
Votives were also left at a nearby chapel, the Mother of God of Kodensky.68 For
the period between 1865 and 1911, 1115 votives were left, giving an average of
twenty-four annually. The largest number, 237, was left in 1910. The most
recurring motif among the bequests asked for by pilgrims was for improved
health. Liturgical offerings, such as cups, tables, altar coverings, and bells, were
also left, and pilgrims contributed funds and materials for lighting the chapel.
Pilgrims often purchased religious and devotional paintings from the monastery.69
Such pictures acted as souvenirs of a pilgrimage. In Częstochowa, as well as in
the Marian shrine of Mariazell in Austria, woodcuts of the image were often
sold.70
Modern Day Relevance
The Marian shrine at Jasna Góra played a pivotal role in nationalist history
in Poland, particularly through the years when the country was partitioned, as well
as throughout the twentieth century. One of the goals of this paper has been to
describe the religious and devotional acts that have taken place at the shrine.
However, with the fall of the Iron Curtain and the reassertion of Polish
68 Jabłonski ZP, Jasna Góra Ośrodek, 106-8. 69 Jabłonski ZP, Jasna Góra, 108-20. 70 Peter Burke, Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1978), 179. 22 Axis Mundi. Vol 2 (2006) nationhood, the monastery and devotions to the enigmatic icon have not become obsolete, nor has the Paulite building become an antiquated mediaeval relic. Pope
John Paul II declared the monastery to be the very heart of the nation.71 He paid further visits there in 1983, 1987, 1991, and 1997, hosting the 1991 World Youth
Day at the site. In 1995, over three million people came to the monastery.72 There is a website devoted to the sanctuary, www.jasnagora.pl, which offers information in eight different languages. The visitor can learn a multitude of facts, ranging from a historical outline, including photos of Papal visits and of the armoury, to information on the image, the surrounding area, the Paulites official website,
Radio Jasna Góra, a monthly magazine, and news updates. There are even sound files available of the unveiling of the icon and of the Bogurodzica, as well as information on pilgrim lodgings and mass times.73
The most recent and poignant example of the continued modern relevance of
Jasna Góra was illustrated only weeks before the completion of this work. With the death of the first Polish Pope in history, John Paul II, in early April 2005, a group of 20,000 mourners gathered for a special Mass in his honour within the
Cathedral of the Holy Family in Częstochowa, before proceeding in a procession to Jasna Góra, following along the paths that the Pope himself had during his
1979 visit. Throughout the city people were encouraged to place pictures of the
71 Paweł II, Przemówienia, homilie, 65. 72 Ptaszycka-Jackowska, Jasnógórskie pielgrzymki, 112-14. 73 Jasna Góra, Jasna Góra online. http://www.jasnagora.pl/polski/. Accessed April 11, 2005. MLYNARZ: LEGEND, VENERATION, AND NATIONALISM 23
Pope in their windows in remembrance. One web site user later responded to the article, stating that 100,000, not 20,000 people were present.74
Conclusions
What began as a medieval legend of a magical icon, created by the hand of one of the Apostles and, through divine intervention, finding its way to Poland, has formed the basis of one of the most powerful religious and nationalistic symbols to emerge in the thousand year documented history of the Polish nation.
For centuries, the image performed a deeply religious role, playing a vital part within the deeply Catholic and syncretic world-view of Polish society. Although
the image has since become a symbol for Polish identity and nationalism, this
function is a largely modern one within its 600-year old history. This study has examined the religious and social meanings of the image within the Catholic and
Polish worldview, and has helped to better emphasize the vital importance of the concept of the pilgrimage within this complex historical tradition.
74 Onet.pl, Wiadamosci – Częstochowa: 20 tysięcy wiernych uczestnicy w precesji sladami papieża. http://info.onet.pl/1077901,11,item.html. Accessed April 5 and 18, 2005. 24 Axis Mundi. Vol 2 (2006)
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