A study of the information diffusion process through regular lines of printed communication in English professional SOccer

Paul Foreman

A ¥~ste~'s Dissertation, submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the f~ster of Arts degree of the Loughborough University of TeChnology.

Septem":)er I 1987

Supe:-visor: Alan If.acDougall Senior Assistant Libra!"'ian, Pilking~on Library, Loughborougt University 0: Technology.

~ P.A. Foreman, 1987 I would like to thank Edrnund Coane, Public Relations I'.anager of

Watford F.e.; John Dollimore, r~rketing Manager of Peterborough United F.e.; Alan Bennett. Secretary of Leicester City F,C.: Elaine Howes and lain McCulloch of Notts County F. C.; Dave Y.cVay of the Nottingham "Evening Post"; Paul Mace of the Peterborough "Evening Telegraph"; and Steve Tongue for their kind assistance as interviewees for this study.

I am also in debt to Phil Shaw of "The Independent" I John Litster, editor of- "Programme Monthly", and David Stacey, compiler of the "Football Programme Directory". The insights of Mike Ticher, Adrian

Goldberg, Si mon \\Jright. John Dewhi rst I Cli nt West. Frank Ormston, lan Colley. John Peckharn, and Dave Knight. as "alternativelL magazine editors, were also invaluable.

I am particularly grateful for the generous effor~s. advice and opinions of my supervisor Alan ¥..acDougall. and his inspiring enthusiasm; my typist Anne Yates, whose endeavours were often beyond the call of dut.y. and Moira vlhelan fo:- her considerable practical assistance, support and patience. CONTENTS

1 Background to the study.

4 Methodology

12 "Of"Irr Al." (FOOTBALL CLUB-CONTROLLEr) CBAllNELS OF

IllFQR~H!ON DTFFlJS](1N:

13 The football programme: a potted history.

17 The information role and function of football prograrr~es.

25 The programme as advertising medium.

29 Program.."1le production.

34 Programme distribution medthods.

36 P:-og!'"amme circulation.

40 Football club newspapers.

45 Miscellaneous club based lines of printed corr~unic8tions.

48 Non-print football club cOlIiJlj,u:,~ications.

51 "UN[1l'l'IClAT," CHAllNt::LS OF TNFORM.ATIOlI DIl'l'USIOli: THE PRESS • AND PROFESS ION AL SOCCER:

52 The press and soccer: pre racio and television.

54 The press and soccer: post radio and television.

57 Press relations in soccer. 62 Y..arketing the soccer produc--c: Z! ne\<.' age for soccer ir~:forma.ti:Jn in the press.

64 Specialist information handlers in soccer.

65 Soccer club managers as information sources.

6B The players as press information sources.

74 The press lines of football cOIDlIlunication

74 National press

7(5 Nature and style of press coverage: the national press as educator in the football world.

82 The local press channel of soccer communication.

91 The "Football Special".

95 N.ain:=.t.rea:m soccer magazines: a vital contribution?

u 98 U Al ternati ve footb:::.ll magazines.

106 Archival treatment of football information.

10e Conclusion.

112 Notes

134 Appendices:

135 C.~ues"tionnaire.

141 Football clubs returning completed questionnaire. 143 Personal interviews.

146 Current club newspapers.

145 Current footb~ll 'fanzines'.

151 Bibliography. BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

The inspiration for this study emerged from a deep personal interest in professional football, coupled with a cursory knowledge and awareness of. and consequent inquisitiveness about, the communication processes which have fed this interest from my youth. Sources of football information form a link between the individual soccer fan and a favourite team or the game generally, helping to develop and nourish either a passion, an interest, or merely a passing recognition amongst the public on whom, as an entertainment industry, the professional game desperately relies for support. Kaye, a member of the Football Association staff in 1978 encapsulated the instumental role played by information diffusion for the game when in an article on "Football and Li terature", he articu lated that, "it is fundamental to the preservation of any subject, hobby or interest that there be an abundance in one form or another of available information and knowledge on that given subject .... it would also be fair to assume that the more widely this volume is read, the greater the likelihood of that subject being retained, within society for genera'ticms". (1) :- ..

In its development of public affiliation, commitment and awareness regarding professional football, the nature and extent of contempo:-ary football communications has taken on acute significance in the light of recent trends and events affecting the game. As the historical sections within this study will show (2), the role of the printed media has long been pivotal in promoting both public awareness, and consequentl.y, development of association football, which has been established' for over a century as a national game in Britain., But Football League match attendances have declined steadily since the war having more than halved since the peak of 41.3 million in 1948/49, and during the last decade, despite a marginal increase last season, there has been a 34% fall overall to 17.4 million in the 1986/87 season(3). This disaffection of football supporters has a number of possible cOD'tributory causes, including increased leisure alternatives, televised football, reduced entertainment value and hooliganism.

- 1 - It is in this climate that this study was conceived with particular attention consequently placed upon the potential and perceived utility of infor:mation diffusion within the game as a pub1 j C relatj PPS enhancer and a marketing tool, which when skilfully handled could deepen, sustain, renew, or recruit public interest to the game as a personally experienced, rather than mediated, participatory spectacle. Effective information management within soccer could, it is, suggested, contribute considerably to the survival of the game as an extensive professional sport in Britain.

The specific impact of television's 'live' match broadcasts upon overall attendances is problematic and as a topic is outside the scope of this study, but as a clearer indicator than match attendance levels of the extent of soccer's following, television audiences of 9 million recorded viewers for these 'live' games suggest a formidable market for soccer information. (4) Indeed, football's overall following is substantially greater than that of any other sport in England, reflected in figures produced in the General Household Survey 1983 which show 6% of all men and 1% of all women had watched a game of football over a four week period, a proportion remaining fairly constant across the classes (5). Little statistical information is available on the composition of the football audience but observation alone confirms the summary offered of research findings by New Society that lIa football crowd emerges as predominantly male, younger rather than elderly, and socially mixed, though with an over representation of skilled manual workers". (6)

Considerable .demands are created by the substantial and di verse publ ic clearly attracted to football as an interest, and the responses of the game's key communicating agents in terms of the YDl tUlle, jute} J ectual l..e..Y..e..l., clj yeTsj ty and distributl QD of information constitute the central analytical themes within this study.

In consideration of the limits placed upon this research it was necessary to restrict the paramaters of in-depth investigation primarily to the more conventional printed formats of soccer

- ~ - communication, and in order to sustain a concise analysis, the focus was further refined to the regular sources which constitute the most consistent, penetrative and therefore vital links between the game and its public. However, brief contextual analyses of electronic media communications in the soccer sphere help develop a more complete perspective of both current information practice and future communication potential. A study incorporating detailed analysis of the myriad other aspects of soccer information diffusion would require a work beyond the scope of this project.

For the purposes of analysis the regular lines of printed communication emanating from professional soccer have been distinguished into two broad categories: 1) the OFFICIAL or club-controlled sources of information, namely

match-day magazine$/prQgramm~5, club newspapers and other misce11aneous communicatioDs 2) the UNOFFICIAL channels of public influence and awareness,

outside club jurisdiction, given by the ~, nationally and locally, "football speCials", magaZines and supporter-prodllcpd pub} icati PDS,

A systematic critical analysis based upon this framework, reveals the attitudes, operating constraints, processes and products determining the nature and extent of public acceSSibility to soccer information via each of these sources, concluding with a summary of current practice, the implications and reperCUSSions for the game and its followers, and brief suggestions as to future directions and developments ..

- :3 - METHODOLOGY

The research is primarily concerned with an analysis of the processes and products determining the nature and extent of information diffusion about Engl ish professional football. In order to ensure a balanced representation of current practice, the knowledge, values and opinions of a wide range of key source individuals were collected by methods appropriate to each group; key contacts were perceived as:

- administrative bodies (e.g.Football League, Football Association, Football Writers Association and the

Sports Counci 1) - football club officials - local and national press journalists - magazine editors - knowledgeable programme collecting hobbyists.

Gaining appropriate access to the broad range of relevant sources required adoption of a mu]ti-djmonsional research strategy. enabling data retrieval relevant to the attitudes, processes and products determining information acceSSibility in the professional football environment.

The evidence was gathered by the use of five key research strategies:

(1) a qupstjoDnaire circulated to club officials; (2) in-depth interviews with selected club personnel, journalists and Programme editors; (3) a broad document survey of regular contemporary printed football materials; (4) specific utilisation of correspondence with a range of knowledgeable sources and key contributors to football communications;

(5) a survey Of re],:.ya!'t 1 iteratllre.

- 4 - A description of the rationale and conduct of these research approaches follows:

(1) Questionnaire survey - See Appendix 1

This was incorporated into the study firstly as a means of retrieving broad factual data in relation to the range of information diffusion practices, participating personnel, and the extent of information accessibility; secondly, to reveal an overview of the attitudes and opinions of club officials towards the various strands of football's information network.

A pilot study was undertaken on a limited scale with the assistance of Peterborough United F.C. officials, but as a result of postal difficulties, coupled with the time limitations placed upon this work, the questionnaire was despatched incorporating only the general comments of the "piloted" club into its redesign. The questions were, however, significantly framed around knowledge and responses previously collected from several initial interviews including those with Notts County F.C. officials and football journalist, Dave M.cVay, of the lIottingham "Evening Post". (7)

The structure of the questionnaire reflects the final structure of this study with questions posed relating to both official sources of information, namely Programmes and Club newspapers, and unofficial sources given by the national and local press, supplemented by

perspective~defining questions relating to the utilisation of other media and cu'rrent cl ub ini tiati ves or future plans for communications enhancement.

The questionnaire was circulated to the ninety-two Football League clubs (as of the 1986/87 season) and additionally to Scarborough F.C. who will replace demoted Lincoln City F.C. for the 1987/88 season, the newly elected club constituting a potentially revealing source of comparative data.

- :, - The Club Secretary was specifically chosen as the survey's initial recipient within each football club, due to their central administrative role within the hierarchy and hence their likely awareness of communication practices, though a covering letter proviso stipulated the acceptability of replies from other officials where this was considered to be more appropriate, and to induce promulgation of more pertinent insight.

A response time of fourteen days was allocated in order to allow findings to be collated, though in practice this was extended by ten days as completed questionnaires continued to arrive and local postal industrial action caused considerable delay. Due to time restrictions caused by this delay and the fortuity of a satisfactorily representative level of initial response, the intended follow-up procedure was not implemented, though this would normally be conducted and may have realised a higher response rate.

Nevertheless, thirty-seven completed questionnaires were received, all of which were useable, giving a satisfactory response rate of 40% (8); twenty five respondents were Club Secretaries, ten club officials, namely public relations and commercial personnel, and two were Programme Editors, whose views may not have reflected those of the club; where correspondingly divergent views were made explicit, these have been incorporated ineo the study appropriately.

Verbatim responses and factual data from the questionnaire have been included to.$uggest or support suppositions throughout this study. Where this data is not otherwise known to be generally accessible in the public domain, the promised anonymity of respondents has been respected; thjs accounts for the prevalence of Dpn-referenced evjdence iD parts of this work, though where appropriate summary data has been included in the notes.

- 6 - (2) Inte~yiew Programme - See Appendix 3

The interview strategy was adopted as a means of gathering more in­ depth data on the attitudes, processes and products which determine information flow from football clubs. The intention was, firstly, to complement the broad overview to be ascertained through the questionnaire survey of clubs with a more penetrative focus upon the micro-level of information diffusion, and secondly, to broaden the analysis to incorporate the views of other key individuals in the communication process, namely journalists and Programme editors; hence this element of research was targetted towards three specific groups:-

(a) Club offjcial interyjews (9) Officials from four clubs were interviewed, this constituting a sufficient quota to prm'ide a di versi ty of comment without dupl ici ty of efforts. Also, a four club sample, in theory, allowed the necessary analysis of the contrasting nature and style of information flow emanating from the different scales of operation given loosely by the four divisions and the respective audiences they attract. In practice, this ideal cross section was compromised slightly due to unavailability of desired sources, for ease of local access, and to facilitate the "parallel interviewing" of local football journalists who regularly liaise with officials at two of the respective clubs. Nevertheless a sufficiently diverse range of club practice was analysed, with officials of clubs from all but the Second Division interviewed, and, as shown in AppendiX 3, the general football and specific communication characteristics of the clubs offered an effective sample group, constituting a representative cross-section of the scale of communication undertaken by Football League Glubs and the specific initiatives adopted.

A larger study would ideally consider the communication method utilised by one of the" big five" clubs, Arsenal, Everton, Liverpool, Manchester United or Tottenham Hotspur, all of which in season 1986/87 attracted average home attendances of over 25,000 (10), though for the

- "( - purpose of this study four clubs, with the particular information characteristics noted, proved sufficiently enlightening.

A semi-structural interview policy was pursued, based upon the general framework given by the questionnaire in order to provide continuity and facilitate effective analysis. A flexible interview schedule under the key headings of "official club sources" and "press relations" facilitated probing investigation, particularly in respect of the Programme production process and the nature.of club/press interaction, both key determinants of the extent and nature of information flow from football clubs. In order to preserve requested anonymity. most interview data used has not been referenced. In isolated instances where a referenced quote was considered particularly relevant. permission was appropriately obtained.

(b) JournaJjst jnteryjew$ In order firstly to balance the data gathered relating to information diffusion through the press channel. secondly to gain wider insight into the attitudes and actions of clubs towards communication and thirdly to assess the problems of information dissemination through more diverse channels, selected journalists were interviewed.

The list in Appendjy 3 reveals the range of these semi-structured interviews, the specific knowledge and experience of the various selected interviewees producing instrumental evidence in the following key areas:

(i) Pkogramme productjon - the process of designing, editing, printing and the circulation of football clubs' official communication was elucidated by freelance journalist and prominent programme editor. Golin Benson.

(ii) Club/Local press relatioDs - local journalists assigned to previously "interviewed" clubs were specifically chosen for the value of their comparative insight. and to lend balance to the evidence acquired through club officials.

- 8 - (iii) 11 FOQtbal1 Specials" - insights into the production and distribution of these Saturday evening newspapers were gained from involved journalists.

(iv) Majnstream football magB7ines - detailed comments on the British football magazine culture were proffered by journalists experienced in the field.

(v) Tndependpnt football magazines - the problems involved in compilation and circulation of these small-scale sources was elucidated by Steve Tongue, ex-editor of 'Foul' magazine.

In addition to these personal interviews, a series of telephone interyjews were conducted with: - programme printers and editors; - club officials; - national press sports journalists; - football magazine editors; - newspaper circulations department personnel.

These telephone communications secured both specific factual data and general opinions and views pertinent to the study.

(3) Dorumont Analysjs

A survey was formulated to review the content of printed sources of soccer information. A detailed, structured content analysis was considered outside the scope of this study's multi-faceted approach; thus the survey aimed to focus particular attention upon: - the style and nature of publications; - the market targetted (age and intellect); - the range of information accessible.

Common characteristics, unusual or innovative features and general trends were identified by a survey of the following materials:

- :1 - (a) Prograrnmps/mgtch-day magazines - unable to gain access to a 1986/87 programme for all of the Football League clubs, a cross sectional survey was conducted with the following breakdown:

- 13 First Division Club programmes (59% of total) - 10 Second Division Club programmes (45% of total) - 21 Third Division Club programmes (58% of total) - 13 Fourth Division Club programmes (54% of total)

In all: 57 League Club programmes (62% of total)

Cb) A selection of club newspapers;

Cc) A variety of miscellaneous club-produced materials (e.g. newsletters) ;

(d) Nationa] and loca] newspapers;

(e) A range of football magazines;

et) Fourteen independent (I'alternatiye") footba] 1 rnaga 7 jnes.

(4) Correspondence -

In order to,enhance areaS of the study lacking in specific detail and comment, it 'was considered necessary to utilise correspondence as a specific data gathering element of the research strategy, ; Thus a range of correspondence was exchanged with key source individuals to gather both specific factual data and general opinion, namely with' journalists, programme collecting hobbyists, and football or sports administrators, whose knowledge or advice could potentially enhance the study,

- 10 - The primary and most coherent body of correspondence exchanged was stimulated by a standard letter circulated to the majority of

"independent" football fanzine editors (11), to broadly ascertain: (i) the general state of communications at their local clubs;

(ii) the incentive for, aims of, and impact achieved by, their own publications as information sources.

The "fanzine" editors were considered potentially useful sources due to their obvious keen and active interest in the enhancement of information diffusion in football, and for the specific objective insights they could offer into the state of communications at a range of clubs. Lucid and informative responses were received from ten of twelve editors canvassed.

(5) i,i terature Survey

A survey of literaure pertinent specifically to a study of communications/information diffusion processes in professional football proved difficult, there appearing to be little documentation on this particular aspect of the game, emphasising the innovatory nature of the project. Nevertheless, a broader review of press studies, media-based journals, soccer social histories and general football monographs produced a wealth of relevant, if highly dispersed and fragmented data, complementing and refining the ..study' s broad coverage of. the subject area.

This multi-dimensional methodolgy, given by the five described elements, retrieved factual data, attitudes and opinions expressed by key protagonists, and personal observations of specific processes and general trends, facilitating development of a broadly-based analysis of the factors determining the nature and extent of contemporary football communications through regular printed sources.

- 11 - "OFFICIAL"IFOOTBALL CLUB CONTROLLED

CHANNl'LS OF INFORMATION DT FFUSIDN

- 12 - The traditional, established, and currently universal means of printed communication adopted by Football League clubs is the Programme, or in the contemporary phraseology, Match-day Magazine.

Thp football programme: a pottpd histo~y

The modern soccer programme has almost entirely transcended its initial purpose and proportions as it has developed into a regular communication channel satisfying numerous information needs.

Initially the programme was little more than a single 'team-sheet', as today, commonly issued only on the day of a match, early examples from the late nineteenth century conveying a brief factual introduction to the teams and performing the still elementary function of player and team identification(12), and recording the date and kick-off time. In the embryonic days of the game's development, this basic data provided relevant match-specific references, vital to the development of an awareness of individual playing styles, and facilitative of more preCise after-match discussion, complimenting the introductions and comment available through a burgeoning newspaper coverage.

There are isolated instances of clubs assuming greater communicative responsibilities; Aston Villa F.e., for example, producing an 18 page production in 1906 incorporating, as revealed by Phil Shaw, "a full page photograph of Villa Skipper Howard Spencer; a .report on a cricket match between Villa and Aston Unity; .... a breakdown of gate receipts and wage bilis of all the top clubs; and, intriguingly, fi;xture lists for Villa's neighbours and rivals - Birmingham, Wolves and W.B.A."(13) The benevolence of this latter inclusion contrasts markedly with the competitive publicity seeking that has become a feature of the contemporary football world, whilst the detail carried in the programme presents early 20th century football club communications in far too favourable a light.

- 13 - A wide improvement in programmes following the Filst ~o!ld War symbol ises the semi nal appearance of commercial ism as a theme wi thi n football, for previously, as lIagg postulates, "commercial activity had always been tightly reined in by the game's administrators who consistently set their face against any money-making strategy which smacked to them of American-style vulgarity". (14) In the programme world the growing utilisation of commercial techniques, extending their local advertising function, is manifest in the intermittent production of innovative programmes such as as the "shared" publication of the Merseyside football clubs, Liverpool and Everton, (15), which continued into the 1930's, and Ipswich F.C.'s .24 page effort in 1928 carrying a page of 'Feminine Topics'. (16) The benefits to be derived from more effective public relations activities, in which the club programme could be instrumental, was becoming more apparent to football administrators, though healthily high attendances and the low wages of players between the wars subdued their general inclination to pursue commercial strategies.

Following the Second lIorld liar, wider recognition of a positive programme-role can be gauged from the fact that, as Paul Clarkson comments, "all English League Clubs have issued programmes to cover all their post war matches" (17), and hence football supporters were being offered broad access to "official" match day information. A taste of the more varied programme content to come was signalled by the mould-breaking productions of Arsenal F.C. and Chelsea F.C. in the 1940's, which established the inclusion of regular action photographs from" previous games; now a perennial feature.

Despi te these advances, the club programme scene overall cbntinued to present a haphazard picture; for instance, whilst a 64 page pocket sized handbook was produced in the 1959/60 season by lIalsall F.C. (18), admittedly advertisement-laden, far larger clubs continued to adopt an unenterprising stance, as Clarkson reveals: "Tottenham with gates averaging over 50,000 in 1960/61 and the two major trophies won, waited until their last home game of the season before giving their supporters anything better than a large sheet folded in two". (19)

- 14 - Non-capitilisation upon such playing s~ccess seems alien in todays commercially-oriented football environment, and the seeds of a programme revolution were sown amidst the euphoria following the England national side's victory in a 1966 World Cup enveloped by commercial enterprise. Coventry City F.C. are widely credited with producing the archetypal modern match programme in 1967, as part of a coherent merchandising drive. The 24-page format of articles, photographs and statistics represented a subtle metamorphosis for the traditional programme, as it became a mDre attractive, detailed and diverse llmatch-day magazine",

As Tunstall recDgnised, "successful magazines like films - produce a flock of imitatDrs" (20) and in the narrow wDrld of football programmes, this characteristic led tD the wide adoption of this more detailed magazine format as an established "programme production design mDdel", largely replacing the mDdest notes and team sheets. Recognised as a knDwledge and affinity-building channel of communication between a club and its fDllDwers, the inherently more entertaining cDntent also endowed the programme-magazine with increased money-making potential.

This style of printed communication between club and supporter - commonly sold, though occasionally free with attendance - has become virtually all pervasive in the English League, though in the 1970's, a handful Df clubs introduced newspaper-styled programmes in pursuitDf a more "newsy" image. One such cl ub, Derby County F. C. also pioneered an enhanced distribution system for their tabloid size newspaper-programme, which was available via newsagents throughout the local area and could thus be ordered by nDn-attenders of the match. Though emulated by other clubs, broader distribution systems fDr the match-day magazine are not generally cDmmonplace, reflecting the narrow market for these parochial publicatiDns.

Advances in printing techniques facilitating the professional production of glossy, attractive magazines have generated high public expectatiDns fDr the quality of printed prDducts, and Curtin

- 15 - highlighted the implications of this phenomenon for football clubs when he observed that "as programmes became more in the magazine style, the glossy, colour image was one with which the newspaper could not compete" (21), hence describing the scenario surrounding the disappearance of the newspaper style programme and the present pre­ dominence of the present brochure style productions as the main "official" communication medium produced by English clubs which, in addition to the most basic IIrecord" and "identificationU role attributed to the earliest programmes, may perform other important functions for both the football clubs and football follower.

- 16 - The infofmation foIe 3nd function of football programmes

The observable widespread uniformity of Football League club programmes, at least in terms of content range, facilitates a broad summary of the general nature, and hence, function of what one club official termed the "primary constant official communication" in football.

As an information source the programme caters for diverse demands,

probabl y the most basic of which is given by the souyenj r val ue it represents as a detailed memento of a match attended, a facet which guarantees numerouS sales irrespective of the magazine's inherent quality, particularly in respect of the followers of the "visiting" club, though its commemmorative appeal will be enhanced when comprehensive "match background" details can be gleaned from its pages.

Hence, the traditional referen~e function, both during and after the match, is still a key element of the club's magazine, sustaining the "programme-based" ethos of the original team-sheets, whilst augmenting this with context-defining features and statistics pertinent to the match in hand. Easy identification of players is normally facilitated by the back-page positioning of team-lines, though with early printing deadlines, these details are frequently inaccurate come the day of the match. Nevertheless, this most basic of prograIIl!!!e functions remains as a standard informational element, more vital in the lower divisions where players are not made familiar through broader media exposure.

More detailed.background to the match commonly includes an introduction to the visiting team and its players, with, variably their,record for the season, perhaps a brief history and a breakdown of previous matches between the two sides, supported with photographic reference material in most instances. An established feature of all programmes, the commitment shown to substantially informing supporters about the visiting team, varies considerably. Third Division Rotherham United F .. C.'s "United we stand" magaZine provided only brief twenty-word "pen portraits" of visiting Notts County players, offering little insight or

- 17 - stimulation, whilst, an informative and enlightening account of the same visiting club was featured in "The Spire", Chesterfield F. C.' s match-day magazine, supporters learning of their recent and distant history in a feature laced with evocative quotations referring to Notts County from the books of local author, Alan Sill i toe. (22) Though the extent and detail of programme introductions to the IIvisitors" is clearly variable, this focus on the visiting team, universal to English League club magazines, broadens the supporters football knowledge and lends additional perspective to the appreciation of the encounter.

The "preview" element of the magazine contrasts with the retrospective "Qf'f'jcial record" fup.-tion, often expressed in the title of magazines such as the "Aston Villa News and Record". In all but isolated instances the magaZine accumulates a statistical record of the whole season to date, including informative coverage of the reserve and youth teams, the latter deepening awareness of the clubs' wider playing fortunes, as these teams rarely achieve a high profile in press news sources and are features which acutely emphasise the parochial focus of magazines.

A standardised, double-page, tabulated layout has emerged as the most concise means of recording the facts from each of the previous matches, with dates, venues, competition name, a full list of players, results and attendances normally incorporated, supplemented occasionally by contrast-dra"dng statistics from previous seasons or additional minutiae such as half-time scores and "league position" following each resul t. lIi·th a regular up-to-date league table and collated player appearance and goals records, the programme can build into a comprehensive stage by stage record of the season. However the standard format and coverage of the facts and figures can often give this feature a "tired" and uninspiring look in many programmes, particularly as the programme data merely duplicates that available through other media; as do the match reports, conventionally lacking the humour or knowledgeable inSight that could render them invaluable. Though the "static" record of directors, executives and honours is standard content, the inclusion of a more lively diary narrative is

- 18 - relati vely unusual, but produced by Bol "ton lIanderers F. C., for example, chronologically charting developments at the club for the previous month. Additionally, besides appealing to particularly the young supporters, photographic information, almost entirely replacing the cartoons popular in earlier programmes, consitutes a visual record of events, incidents and personalities. Action photographs from previous matches record those memorable moments, though picture quality may be somewhat unprofessional in many instances, most noticeably some of the less "polished" lower division magazines, photographic screening, particularly of colour shots, being an expensive and therefore often compromised element of the programme production process.

The match-day programme also commonly provides a more historical recprd of the club. Though not a universal element of programme content, "looking back" features are well established within the programme world, frequently constructed as a "5, 10, 20 years ago today" focus on matches and events or general soccer matters. Researched and compiled from past programmes and newspapers, these brief retrospective paragraphs re-kindle discussion amongst supporters of match experiences shared down the years. Such nostalgic recollections may be further evoked by the more lengt"hy and detailed espousal of past season's players and matches which informs of, and unfolds the clubs tradition. A notable example of this entertaining historical analysis was unearthed in the Notts County programme(23) where in each "Soccer Past" feature, Golin Slater recalls the trials and tribulations of following the team through an earlier campaign. Serialised through the season a comprehensiv~ chronicle emerges, though as r.lubs have commonly little more 100 years.of history to document, an alternative angle is frequently sought to enliven these features, perhaps a dosSier on venerable players or managers associated with the club. Less conscientiuos programme producers, however, may merely re-hash an old match-day report from the press or replicate a section from a previously published club history, a disappointing reality in an information diffusion process frequently dogged by apathetic reporting.

- 19 - Continuing the analysis of the parochial emphasis within programmes, one of the more salient and interesting elements of information can be embraced by the term" 1 atest cl ub news". Though the impact of this service is largely up-staged by the news provision in the press, (particularly locally), there remains scope for the inclusion of "behind the scenes" items relating marginally and less dramatic developments at the club, such as "news" of the mascot or of a delegation of match visitors from overseas, the Chinese Coal Board perhaps! (24) More impactful exclusivity is attempted by some clubs who admitted withholding information from the press for inclusion in the programme, despite restrictive early print dates, hence following the philosphy suggested by one programme editor that in order to "make the programme a more marketable product ..... you should give first hit to your own product which you've got to sell". Furthermore, if the programme is to justify its claim to consitute a comprehensive record of club events, a certain degree of "news duplication" of press coverage must occur, though new lines can normally be found on a story, such as a uprofile" of newly signed players. or the manager's view of a recent match. Page-headings such as 11 notice-board" . "club scene" and "city chat" illustrate the all-embracing discursive style of many programme's club-oriented news sections. However, insufficient news items or simply a mis-placed news sense on the part of programme editors can, frequently produce the most banal of features, a poignant illustration being discovered in Carlisle F.C. 's "The Blues" match-day magazine last season, where, commenting on the groundsman's birthday, the programme editor hTi tes "I'm never quite sure whether people born so close to Christmas Day benefit or lose out. Let's hope that in Bill's case, 'it is the former". (25)

Accusations of banality and blandness are widely levelled against match-day magazines, and a particular target are the "player profile" features which have become an institutional element within the football information sphere. Personal insights into a players "favourite food", "likes and dislikes", and "idea of a perfect birthday present", are primarily aimed at the yQunger supporters who are a key focus of club attention. The success of popular magazines like "Shoot" (26)

- 20 - suggests a demand amongst this audience for photographic and personal coverage of their' heroes', though for the discerning adult these features may be trite and dull. lievertheless," junior supporters" pages constitute an additional attempt to appeal to this group of supporters, commonly featuring news of events, such as 'opendays' and

'training sessions' I birthdays of junior supporter's club members, and puzzles which reflect a specific entertainment provision.

These features for the younger supporter represent a growth area in programme content, clubs realising its public relations value in priming their interest and cultivating their affiliation to the club and game.

In wider terms too the programme embraces a vital publirity role of paramount significance to football clubs, depicted by one official who declared that" the primary aim of all the communications tools is to get people to come and watch us play". Besides the comprehensive list of fixtures printed in each programme, details of ticket allocations, "official" travel arrangements and route maps for away matches entice attendance and are a vital information service, whilst a number of clubs such as Middlesborough F.C. for instance, have begun to incorporate a substantial preview of forthcoming away fixtures, including a focus on the opponents stadium layout and architecture which represents at least an attempt at more esoteric material provision.

Besides the specific public relations activities embodied in the information relating to future games, the clubs magazine also develops and promotes the image of the club. Manchester United's "'Review", for instance, depicts supporter and player sharing a handshake of friendship upon the cover, a symbolic design established more than thirty years ago, though the player and supporter have been regularly re-attired to reflect the contemporary fashion, whilst Watford F.C. 's motto of "The Friendly Football Club" is emblazoned across the page of managers notes and picked up on other promotional material.

- 21 - The fact that six clubs nominated the programme as their most significant souce of publicity, despite that as a regular news and information service it cannot hope to compete with the daily local media, notably the press, emphasises this function of the programme. However, due mainly to the limited extent of its distribution, publiCity-impact will be on current rather than potential support.

One function of the programme which lends it advantage over the local press in the publicity process is as a primed channel to promote the "official view" of the football club, for as one First Division club secretary commented "in the programme we can actually get over what we want to say, for, however good your relationships are with the paper, nine times out of ten it's not quite written the way you would have said it if you'd done it yourself".

Use of the programme for official comment can be most valid for those administrators and players who, as one prominent critic John Litster, commented " are forever complaining about being quoted out of context by gutter press or that their mundane, but nonetheless important pronouncements fail to receive media attention". (27) One club official interviewed agreed that the programme was the more ideal medium in which to express criticism or pass comment, but frequently the traditional manager's notes are unfortunately hackneyed, banal and predictable pap, which have a "ghosted" air. The need to gain wider publicity through a high circulation newspaper amd the news-giving this entails, may render the match-day programme an out-of-date news service, buLi t remains a medium through which club officials may pursue the imperative to be accountable to their wages-paying audience, whilst educating supporters by lending insight to the context and constraints against which the club is administered.

A necessary extension to this role is one which potentially affords the match-day magazine increased orientation towards its more discerning adult public by discussion and illumination of the major issues enveloping the game, and their impact upon the club. Attendance trends, racism at football matches, League Management Committees

- 22 - procedures, plastic pitches, ground sharing, the merging of football clubs, and the tactical intricacies of play are just a few of the issues worthy of editorial elucidation in a credible match-day magazine. Some programmes, particularly the feature based publications of larger First Division clubs, do reflect this wider spectrum. (28 Whilst the idiosynchratic programmes that intermittently emerge from the lower divisions may occasionallly display admirable investigative characteristics. Third Division Bury F.C., for instance, in a 11 Shaker' s Review' last season produced an impressive statistical analysis of the "spectre of falling gates" (29) in relation to Third Division clubs, calculating a "support factor" on the basis of average crowds, local population and the concentration of clubs in a given area. This innovative, researched, analytical and revealing type of feature is unfortunately rare in most programmes, due partly to a pervasive attitude, expressed by one official, whereby "the programme is a public relations vehicle for the club and it is the one place where we can be completely biased towards ourselves, and we can say our message, and it is really not our job to be giving a broader or alternative view!!. Consequently, hard issues are not regularly afforded the constructive criticism and open debate-which they warrant, through a communication medium ideally placed to raise awareness amongst the most committed and concerned supporters. Perhaps this latter point reveals the rationale for this convential ommission in programmes. Why bother to refine appreciation of the game in those already converted?

The ideal ro.le and objectives of the programme should be to entertain, educate and inform the different groups of supporters whose binding interest is soccer. The diverse age, intellect, disposable income and, to a limited extent sex, of the football crowd, creates difficulties in targetting the magaZine to cater for a good proportion of these tastes.

Target audience-categories for the programme, not mutually exclusive, include: (1) the programme collecting devoted supporter largely content

- 23 - with "pies and profiles" and an attractive front cover; \ii) the young supporter who, like the "programme coliecto,-", may not be too discerning; (iii) the visiting fan, hoping to take away an attractive souvenir which communicates an impression of, and offers insight into, the visited club; (iv) the discerning adult supporter desiring of more inspirational, revealing and challenging material, entertainingly scribed.

Unfortunately, information diffusion in football programmes, though improving in certain cases, generally fails to perform a satisfactory communicati ve function for this latter group. The patronisingly partisan, and controversy-avoiding attitude, witnessed in magazines, coupled with an apparent lack of editorial time, finance, inclination or freedom, commonly militates against genuine journalistic endeavour in the production of thought-provoking and insightful adult reading, rendering these publications mundane, trivial and bland for a large section of the supporting public, to whom communicative access may consequently be lost.

The less advanced copy, statistics and pictorial content all serve a purpose, but should be complemented with researrhed and more demanding material. Liberally interspersed, this adult reading would enable the programme to reflect the interest I and address the broad information needs, of more of its potential readerShip in a representative and responsible manner.

- 24 - Thp p~ogramm,::, as advertj.::;; ng medj un:

The indirect indefinable and essentially subliminal contribution made to finances by a club's "official" journal, in its capacity as a publicity source encouraging support through information provision, is supplemented by the direct revenue-raising potential it embraces as an advertising mpdillm.

All but a handful of the 92 professional clubs which make up the League are suffering financial difficulties of one kind or another; this has created a highly commercial outlook within the game, shown in the all-pervaSive operation of lotteries. These fund raiSing acti vi ties require publici10y and the match-day magazi ne through featuring winners, often photographed in cheque-receiving poses, has been recognised as an ideal medium to secure exposure for this and other schemes. Furthermore, the games dri ve to attract luerat i ve sponsors is partly assisted by the promise of high-profit exposure in the match-day magaZine. To illustrate, Manchester United's club sponsors receive a cover mention and two pages, of advertising in the programme, whilst on the level of small sponsorship deals, a full page chart duplicated each match, gives details of the supporters who have sponsored individual elements of the players kit. Clearly not the most stimulating of information services, this type of sponsor exposure is rife as a further repetitive and unrewarding element of programmes", especially in the lower di visions.

Emphasising.the present significance of sponsor-inclusion in a club's journal, as 1!lany as five of the 37 respondent clubs rankeq "adequate publicity for club's sponsors" as a more important facet of the programme than provision of "informative club news", and one First Di vision London team stipulated the former as t..b.e. single most important aspect of this "official" communication channel, a fact which reflects the game's current obsession with, and the use of the clubs programme as a powerful ally in, the perennial pursuit of commercial success.

- 25 ------

The sacrificing of programme qualiLy to commercial necessiLY is further illustrated by the adyertisemen~-r;dden character of many programmes. Though a number of clubs proudly profess to operate a "no advertisements" policy in their programme, a commendable attitude indeed, the purists would argue that even these magazines, for example, that of Tottenham Hotspur F.e. still effuse an over­ commercial aura" by carrying the full-page promotion of The Football League's sponsors, the "Today" Newspaper, admittedly an obligation as part of the league sponsorship package, and the customary plugs for the club's own sponsors, Holsten. However, the need to placate these financial beneficiaries is considered central to football's survival, and an over romantic attitude often ignores the financial realities determining the crucial, if aesthetically detracting inclusion of advertising copy in the club's journal. The costs of producing and printing a relatively professional and attractive publication are becoming increasingly prohibitive in a commercial world where professional image and presentation are assuming increasing importance.

This point is borne out by the questionnaire findings that three clubs, 8% of respondents, from the two lower divisions, currently produce unprofitable programmes, despite the claim in one case of an impressive 80% sales ratio relative to average attendance.

Even more revealing is the fact that some eight clubs, 22% of the total respondents, indicated that without advertising revenue their programme would not normally be profitable, and significantly five of these clubs 'were from the Fourth Division where, with circulation as low as 400 in one instance, necessarily small print runs prove relatively costly, so that as Geraint Parry a contributor to the Wrexham programme commented: "as with other lower division clubs, adverts become a necessary evi 1 as every penny counts". (30)

This "necessary evil" commonly contributes between 20% to 40% of copy space, though almost one fifth of respondents admitted to between 40% and 60%. A more detailed survey established probably the most

- 26 - extreme case as the 60% advertising content discovered in Doncaster Rovers twenty-two page magazine, still on sale at an extortionate 60p. (31)

Besides the extent of its inclusion, a further detracting aspect of programme advertising is derived from its non-relevance to the common interest of its readership - football. Whereas advertisements in most other 'special interest' journals tend almost by definition to directly appeal to their buying pUblic,. the comparitive absence of both a coherent target audience in prodqct marketj ng terms, and of a sufficient circulation, means that most programmes attract a range of general "local press" style advertising. Often poorly designed, these theme-less advertisements cannot complement the match-day magazines readability or aesthetic appeal, in a manner achieved, far instance, where either the products advertised relate to the subject or reader interest-group of the magazine, or the advertisements are creatively deigned to be assimilated comfortably within the publication's overall character.

Advertising and communications are inextricably bound up in the contemporary media, and faced with financial hardship, football clubs obviously reflect the wider trend for advertiser-supported publications. But it's the extent and style of this advertising, where information provisio~ appears to be almost an afterthought, which devalues so many soccer programmes as "official" communications, particularly when unstimulating editorial copy re-inforces the impression of a cavalier disregard by the club for its supporters.

However, a small number of clubs do either handle advertising in a less obtrusive manner. or restrict its extent; 30% of survey respondents, two-thirds of these from the First Division and none from the Fourth, stipulating a regular advertising content of less than 20%, a more acceptable level, even allowing for the possible non­ inclusion of sponsor-promotions in these responses.

- 27 - A further pertinent comment on the subject of programme advertising was proffered by one First Division club official who postulated "You could reduce your printing costs, increase the advertising and people would probably still buy it as a "match programme", so in a way we're all a bit daft clubs could make more money by reducing the standard of the programme, but clubs do have a certain pride in their programme as a way of communicating with supporters". Ultimately re­ assuring for the future pursuance of programme quality in its espousal of genuine club commitment to their official organ, this statement initially refers to the commonly perceived absence of supporter discernment when buying programmes. Many supporters are devoted and insatiable and will continue to purchase any documentation about their club, no matter how diluted, a realisation which some clubs irresponsibly and unashamedly capitalise upon.

- 28 - Pro:ramwp Production

The programme production process tends to reflect the Uofficial ll nature of the match-day programme. For instance, the 37 questionnaire responses revealed that apprOXimately 35% of programmes were controlled ecitorially by club oficials, commonly an ubiquitous Club Secretary or Commercial Manager, though occasionally clubs with larger programme circulations :may employ club personnel with a more direct responsi bi 1 ity for programme editorial, for e;{ample, "'acf ord F.C.·s "Executive Editor", who doubles as a Public Relations Manager, and thus acts as an obvious focus for promotional and informational activity at the club.

Club officials however tend to receive considerable assistance from journalists in the vrriting of programmes, be this merely the common "view from the press box type of feature" or more substantial interview and copy work. Furthermore, it appears from the 37 respondents that for almost 40% of programmes, journalists, commonly locally-based freelance operators, assume major responsibility for the edi torial.

The remaining respondents stipulated majority editorial control by ei ther supporters (4 clubs). (proving that. the romantic "labour of love l1 school of programme production still e:·:ists), a "programme edi torU (3 clubs), or an equal 1 y-snared responsi hi 1 i ty between officials and jou~nalists (3 clubs).

l1 In all instances, however, as would be expected- of an l1 of;ficial. j Durnal, club administrators provide some input into, and moreover, it is suggestec, control of the programme content. For, though almost half the respondents expressed the view that their programme was not

l1 merely an organ for espousal of the lI official club line, in reality such an ethos appears to receive minimal recognition. Club officials are on the whole unlikely to print contentious or controversial material, and, a seemingly open attitude alluded to by one club's

- 29 - claiIIl that "contentious material is printed and a balance is provided by the Club Secre~ary" in practice ~ends ~o concern itself with relatively trivial matters, and in effect becomes an innocuous means through which clubs can potentially justify non-controversial actions, publicise schemes (32), or print self-congratulatory statements.

For those programmes under the editorial control of journalists, the latte,'s financial relationship with the club almost guarantees a suitably partisan content, for as one club official bluntly stated "if he I S not honest and posi ti ve. he I s on his bike". Hence, a freelance journalist's quest for job security and a renewed contract serves to suppress even constructive criticism whilst editorial independence may be quashed by interference from sensitive officials, as at one prominent London club where copy is apparently checked and censored pre-printing. Consequently, editors often produce "soft" supportive information reflecting the club and its personnel in a positive light, subsequently manifest in too many match-day magaZines, as patronising and sterile communication.

Besides the obvious constraints placed on the programIIle editor as a result of club sensitivity to criticism, a further restraining factor is given by the economic expediences which determine a limited flexibility in the presentation of information. Pre-season discussions, commonly attended by the editor, printer, Club Secretary, and Commerciai ~~nager, establish, in the words of one official "what's going to go on each page and you have to stick to that as arranged with the printer ..... you can't jumble the pages around too much withou't, increasing your prices". Thus, in addition to the contract-tender determined agreement on the size, price, 'pages and proliferation of full colour in the programme, a fixed format of colour borders or shades, page deSigns, headings and cover features is decided and possibly pre-printed for several games ahead or maybe, as was the case for one club interviewed, for the duration of the season. These palletised pages are then over-printed with the content of each par"icular issue and irrespective of the availability of genuine

"coIll1D.ercial news" or an infortnative llmanagers chat" I these spaces have

- )0 - to be filled, and the standard format duly maintained for cost­ effectiveness in the face of a restrictively low circulation. Most clubs do attempt to build in pages of flexibility by the inclusion of "club notes" sections or perhaps a blank bordered page for the inclusion of more general items, but in reality there tends to be little scope for the broad feature, or 'one-off' articles that could refresh the appearance and readability of a consequently "set-pattern" programme. Format changes between seasons also tend to be insubstantial, as one club secretary attested to, when explaining, "We try to make a conscious effort to change the format from previous seasons, .... but you're so limited by the cost of colour pages and the features you've got to have ... a front cover photo, a manager's page, club comment page, a few action shots, commercial pages, a regular feature on a player, a visitors section, a chat page and your stats" .... a statement revealing the rigidity and conformity governing match-day magazine content decisions.

Working inside these constraints the programme editor is inevitably faced with a relatively short production schedule. A copy deadline of Tuesday or Wednesday- before the" home" Saturday match leaves two to three days in which to prepare up to date news, photographs, reports and records from the previous game for collation with pre-prepared less 'newsy' features. Besides their own Itactive" endeavours, for example, interviewing or editing 'copy' from personalities at the club, in particular the playing-side Manager, perhaps the Commercial

~~nager, and a featured player, and in addition, composing match reports and collating "pigeon:-holed" snippets of news, editors can also glean material from a range of supportive sources. Information on the visiting club, for example, of ten rather limited and'dated "pen­ portrai ts", is commonly exchanged under a reciprocal arrangement or occasionally obtained through agenCies, though in practice up to date and original material may require further research by the editor. It also appears that club statjsticians/historians, fanatical record keeping supporters (given "official" recognition, and, it appears, included on the pay roll at some larger clubs), constitute a fundamental source of historical data and factual trivia, namely

- 31 - player career details and club and player milestones, and aare also a significant archival source compensating somewhat for club deficiencies. Freelance photogrBphers feature as a source at some larger clubs, though local newspapers tend in most cases to supply the majority of photographic material, whilst a whole range of "guest contri butions" from j QUfnal ists, the supporters cl ub with news of travel and events, and jndjyidlla) sU:'PQrter's letters or articles, complete the programme editor's information grapevine,

The extent of utilisation of these sources by programme editors will depend on their own skills, commitment and resources, but also on the clubs circumstances, a perspective elucidated by Litster who commented "writing match-day programmes is relatively easy on a one-off basis, or if there is a fat cheque in prospect; or if the home side is successful and everything about the ground oozes big time, It is another matter entirely when the club is a perennial struggler and budgets are tight to non-existent", (33)

Though deadlines may be elastic to incorporate mid-week matches, or cup replays, the complete copy derived and prepared from these sources occasionally proof read by club officials, though time constraints rarely allow, is then passed on for typesetting and printing for ultimate delivery on the Friday afternoon before, or Saturday morning of. the match, with a similar time schedule for mid-week matches.

It appears that typesetting and printing of football programmes is normally sought locally, both for delivery reasons and the opportunity to secure a'deal with an interested, supportive printer, However, a number of clubs utilise the more specialist services of companies further afield, most notably Hemm1ngs and Capey, a Leicester based company, and Maybank Press, who operate from Ilford, the latter producing programmes for thirteen clubs during the 1986/87 season , (34) Both these design consultants/printing concerns have established reputations in the programme field for quality, glossy and professionally-produced pUblications, Everton F.e. 's official programme, for instance, a Hemmings and Capey production, being voted

- 32 - "Progral1lI!le of the Year" for 1986/87 by the Football League Executive Staff Association. (35) The relationship between football clubs and

¥~ybank Press for instance either consists of the latter acting merely as contract printers, or alternatively a "package deal" by whicb the club is guaranteed a set sum for the season, irrespective of the programme revenue raised (36), but with their printing presses used by a sizeable proportion of clubs, it enables such companies to keep costs do,m for particular programme formats, notably the large-page brochure style prevalent amongst First Division clubs ..

As a result, these programme moguls could be accused of fostering development of a uniform and characterless match-day :magazine scene, but as Maybank's sales executive Alan Ander-son commented "as far as indi vidual i terns are concerned I more often than not we get requests from, say, West Ham for back page team lines like Grimsbys; designs, formats and features which they see, admire and aspire to in other club programmes. Hence, in many cases, the so-called

I sameness I 11 • (37)

Though idiosynchratic progral1lI!les wi th an individual ident ity are produced, more recognisably amongst the lower division clubs, this emulation and imitation activity is discernible as a general characteristic of match-day magazine production in the English Football League. Clubs incorporate duplications of those informational and design elements perceived as successful and attractive ,into their own publications, and hence overall the design quality of programme communications has improved steadily, where finances have allowed, although, generally speaking, this;has been at the expense of genuinely innovative, personalised, and uniquely identifiable match-day magazines.

- 33 - Pro[ran:m«=> dj Sir) b1JtioD msthpoc;

As men~ioned in the earlier potted history of programmes. a number of clubs have occasionally widened distribution of their major official publications beyond that conventionally given by ,he time and place of a match, though such schemes have largely proved impractical and unsuccessful. (38) Thus, the common ti tIe Itma.tch-day magazine" is a self-evident reference to the extent of distribution of a club's official o~gan, and as League or Football Association Cup games are nor-mally played at "home" every other Saturday with regular midweek matches, there is an almost weekly op?ortunity to communicate with the cor-e of suppor-ters through this medium and furthermore, the majority of clubs issue some sort of programme for reserve team matches, normally little more than a photocopied A4 sheet but ocasionally up to four page issues are available, (39)

The llmatch-day" distribution of a football club's journal so well established in the English professional game has only recently

~eveloped as a custom in other European countries. In France it appears that monthly non match-specific maga::ines are !Dore common whilst John Li tster, editor of "Programme ¥tonthl:,", observed "match pr-ogrammes in Italy and Spain are virtually unheard of, despite the huge crowds and fanatical interest genera'ted by football" (40); this ommission being partly determined by the vast proliferation of other informative football publications in these countries (41), though even in Scotland it is only during the last three seasons that all the Scottish League clubs have begun to regularly produce match-day programmes, ('42)

The established English match-day programmes are sold at several significant sales-points around the football stadium essentially in the hour before kick-off, though several clubs have in the past operated a blanket "free programme on at1:endance" scheme, where the price of the programme is included in the cost of admittance to the ground. Clearly a method of maximising circulation to, and hence

- 34 - club communication with, the regular suppo~ters, the essence of this cistribution method has not disappeared entirely from today's football scene. A number of clubs, amongst which are Liverpool and Watford, include a complimentary copy in the price of a seat or as part of packages for executive box holders, a public relations exercise considered by one official to serve a similar function to "shareholders reports, which are seen as part of their investment in the business, ... we give a programme to people with seats and it is almost that relationship between shareholders and the company - it's a "loss leader" thing really". Such schemes which in effect, guarantee "sales" are considered impractical in respect of the terrace supporter as the relative admission price increase would be high for these less expensive areas of the ground and may act as a disincentive to attendance, though a more cynical view might suggest blatant targetting of information and publicity towards a wealthier or more "respectable" clientele of "business" people and families currently keenly pursued by football clubs. However, in respect of those uninformative programmes incorporating extensive advertising copy, up to 60% in some cases, perhaps the only credible alternative is to distribute the magazine free to all at the turnstile with the advertising revenue covering costs, particularly where the "information'l is little more than blatant publicity.

In reality however, the utility of the programme as a contributor to hard-pressed club finances is likely to see the "match-day programme sellerl! remain as the fundamental means of distributing the club's official information link with its supporters. Hence, besides marginal subscription services and programme collecting hobby activities, distribution is essentially match attendance-specific e~phasising the significance of the wider information and publicity provision of the soccer press.

- 35 - programmP GircuJation

The success of this unadventurous, though precisely targetted distribution process can be gauged from an impressively high ratio of programme sales relative to match attendance for the League overall of approximately 49%, deduced from the survey responses. Even allowi ng for the possibility of inflated estimates from some officials this 1:2 programme buying ratio,. with an inevitably higher level of actual reader contact, illustrates the significant potential impact of the club's journal as a source of influence and awareness.

By extrapolation of the sales figures specified by questionnaire respondents for the 1986/87 season, an average Saturday circulation of almost 214,000 was estimated for the programme medium across the League as a whole (43), a sizeable figure, 65% of which were First Division sales. only 6% Fourth Division, statistics which place the scale of programme production into some perspective. To illustrate further, circulation ranged from an average 12,667 for the First Division clubs to only 1,123 for those in the Fourth, whilst the Second and Third Division club programmes averaged 3,420 and 1,952 issues respectively. These mean sales figures, however, conceal more extreme contrasts, one First Division club, for instance, claiming a 32,000 circulation as against the 400 claimed by one Fourth Division oucfit, a comparison bearing testament to the gulf separating the scope of the programme production process in U big-time" and lower League football.

Though average match-day sales ratios appear to vary from approximately 80% to only 23% depending.on supporter attitudes, club success and programme quality, a higher average sales attendance ratio of 63% for the First Division compared to 44% elsewhere in the League might be a reflection of the superior quality of their programme. A greater interest in higher profile clubs and players could also be a cause of this more substantial sales penetration but the notion is further supported by the parallel findings that in order to "break even" clubs from this division require a far higher programme sa1es

- 36 - ratio. an average af 44%, compared to only 31% across the other three divisions; this despite the formers economically more viable larger print runs, an indication of the increased financial outlay on the programme's printing, design and editorial at this higher level.

As with any other magazine, circulation size is instrumental in determining the potentialities of the club's programme. Hence, with average sales O'ler 20,000 per issue and consequently larger print runs, First Division clubs have more freedom to produce high quality, colourful and less standardised publications, as the editor of a programme with much smaller circulation commented, "it would be nice to fill the pages from scratch every week with new material in a normal magazine type production but you need a big print run to give that sort of flexibility in production".

The common financial arrangement for programme production appears to be organised on the basiS of a fixed price for a given print run, with a marginal run-on cost for print additions beyond this standard number; hence, progressively larger circulations cost less to produce per copy and enhance the' programme's revenue e'arili ng capacity.

Thus as revealed in the discussion of "programme advertising", many football clubs outside the First Division profess to making a loss on their match-day programmes, a situation that Hartlepool United F.e. reacted to in the 1983/84 season by reducing the size of their programme to only four pages, indicating how, Coppock related, "as with many smaller clubs the Hartlepool programme reflects the fortunes of the team 'on the field". (44)

Nevertheless, consideration of an apparently thriving non-league programme scene admittedly heavily dependent on the interest of local traders, suggests that football clubs could maybe do more to coax the i nvol vement of, and incl ude comments and i terns by, wi 11 ing supporters in their programme's production, or alternatively secure more favourable deals with local printers, particularly if small concerns 1 ike lIisbech Town Reserves of the Peterborough League can produce a

- 37 - glossy eight-page programme for most home games on 8 print run of only thi,ty to fo,ty copies(45), whilst Guisbo,ough Town Football Club of the Dryborough Northern League Second Division regularly produce a one hundred page A4 size prograIlUlle (46), admittedly profitable due to ninety-two pages of advertisements, but with eight pages of club and league information for twenty five pence, still representing better value than many League programmes. and constituting effective • communication.

Though not advocating the adoption of such a blunt commercial practice as the latter ior Football League clubs, whose status it could be contentiously argued creates higher public expectations of their journal and demands a more professional product, these examples nevertheless illustrate how a concerted, more serious attitude to the programme coupled with increased willingness to sacrifice gloss for informative content, could produce commercially viable, innovative, and more informative magazines even at low levels of circulation.

If advertising proves too detracting then lmler division clubs might consider a collaborati ve venture produci ng a "standard" programme t"o include e:-:tensive features and a general news service in an attractive format to be supplemented locally with club-speCific information pages. the reverse of the "Football League Review" concept (47) and similar to the system operated for Sunday one-day cricket matches (48) . Though obviously individual i ty and 'local' character are essentially lost in such match-day magazines. an acceptable argument against thi~ idea, if individual clubs took sufficient responsibility for their oWn- "news and views" content. as they clearly could with

most periphal programme producing obligations removed, SUCD a venture,

based on an economic print run for a 11 joint" programme could facilitate an improved and profitable information diffusion process for League Clubs with low circulations. Considerable responsibility would thus remain with club officials, but it is unlikely that this, or adequate co-operation between clubs, could be satisfactorily secured to render such a scheme p,actical or acceptable.

- 38 - Howeve:-, overall the questionnaire suggests that approximately 95% of Football League programmes appear to attract sufficient circulation and advertising to register a profit for the club in addition to the publicity and communication benefits derived, despite ground-only distribution and accusations of dull, uniform and patronising publication practices.

- 39 - In an attempt to extend information provision beyond the confines of a matcb-day journal, several clubs have recognised the commercial, communication, or publicity bene:i~s to be potentially derived from publishing their own "official newspaper".

Thou~h.... difficult to ascertain an e~haustive list. it appears.. that at

least six clubs during the 1986/87 season were producing ~heir own newspapers in addition cO a match-day magazine ( 49). lionthly publications at First Division clubs, developed at Newcastle United and West Ham United in 1987, and at Tottenham Hotspur and Chelsea established since 1983, these tabloid size news sheets commonly sell for between 20 to 40 pence, and contain anything from 16 to 28 black and white pages, with a cover splash of the club colours. Notts County F.e. of the Third Division also first experimented with their

IIJllleadow Lane News ll in 1983 whilst the club was enjoying a period of relative success in the First Division, and continued to publish monthly into the 1984/85 season. Possibly illustrative of the impact of "success" and "failure" on demand for. and provision of, soccer information, with the club relegated to the Third Division in the 1985/86 season, the newspaper did not re-appear until March, a delay of almost eight months, the club stating that "it was always our int.ention to cont.inue offering you the "News" because we regard it as an important meanS of communication between the club and supporters. But as you wi 11 understand our commercial department have been under pressure this season .... and the match-day magazines have had to take p!"iority over· the newspaper". (50) Clearly the newspaper tends to constitute a relatively peripheral communication, and more'· recently it has been published irregularly, four or five times per season, subject to availability of information and advertisers, and staff commi tments. (51)

ll Apart froI!l "Palace News • a 24-page reonth1y which claims to be a "magazine for supporters by supporters" of Crystal Palace F.e., it appears that otne!" club newspapers are produced by the co-operative

- 40 - liaison of journalists and officials most common for ~he programme medium, and consequently the style of content generally emanating is in a similar self-publicising vein. Despite the fact that questionnaire respondents ranked the content of their newspaper as a prominent source of up-ta-date news, second overall only to its significance as a provider of "behind the scenes" information, in practice, as less frequent publica~ions than the match-day programme, their genuine news value is limited. Indeed, one club confessed that less than 40% of their newspaper's copy constituted previously unpublished material.

However it appears that most clubs aim for almost entirely original information, and innovative aspects stipulated by clubs were a "more informal approach", and with regard to content, a '~woman' s page" interestingly featured in "Palace News" and claimed to have "brought a good reaction as it's not included in other publications". This conscious marketing attempt to entertain and interest a minority group of football supporters has questionable validity as "football information" and could constitute mere gimmickry, illustrated, for instance, by Walsall's "SaddJers News" p:-ogramme"of-"1971/72 which included a "feminine eye" feature ""rritten by a woman, especially for female followers", adopting IImeet the players' wives" and "women behind the scenes" story angles (52), both of which in reality may be perceived as irrelevant, condescending and potentially offensive as specific female-oriented football topics, marginalising their interest in the game and not addressing the more salient (womens) issues, for example, provision of facilities for women within the grounds, or the development-of their own game. Hence, "women's pages" as part of football information must show a responSibility to the readers they represent if they are to be taken seriously. but the basic separatist approach, ,particularly along stereotypical lines, would provide further evidence of the often misdirected public relations attempts more widely apparent as features of club's official communications.

In essence, the "official" newspapers extend the provision of "behind the scenes" stories and club publicity inherent in the programme. A

- 41 - more in depth concentration on player interviews, profiles and features appears to be the fundamental basis of the information conveyed with additional spotlights on the work of other staff, or the supporting activities and feats of club devotees. Extended descriptive, rather than analytical, match reports and potentially enlightening preview features such as 'The Month Ahead' (53) in "Hammer's News" heighten the shamelessly introverted focus upon the cl ub. and as a contri butor to one of the newspapers c01llll1ented, .. though it's used to put over information it's not sensational stuff, so it's not the sort of thing they're going to put in the press ... it's largely mundane articles they don't need ... and although club supporters want to hear about other issues in the game, home and abroad, editors of newspapers and magazines don't want to know".

Once again these official club publications cater for the "hero­ worship" instinct, particularly of younger supporters, reflected in the high action and portrait photographic content, the prerogative being to develop loyalty to the individual club rather than a broader perspecti ve and awareness about the game itself. In an attempt to capita}ise financially on this devotion, the newspaper serves as a further vehicle for articles' and advertisements promoting membership clubs, the clubs own "weekend holidays" (54) or the wares and memorabilia of the souvenir shop.

This commercial line is further pursued with the inclusion of substantial advertising, commonly it appears around 50%, emulating the feel and appearance of the burgeoning free-sheet local newspapers, particularly in the explicit endorsement often given to advertisers. For instance an edi torian in ·'Hammers News" pleads with its readers to "please continue to support the firms who support your favourite club by answering their advertisements and by telling them where you saw the ad". (55) This unashamed attempt to placate and induce adV8!""tisers confirms the cOlIllI!ercial significance of information provision for football and the mutually supportive role played by advertising as an enabler or, a more cynical view, a catalyst, promoting diffusion of information in soccer.

- 42 - As one Commercial JII~anager commented: "our newspaper contains 50% advertising, with this keeping the cost of the paper down to 20 pence, aimed as low as possible. which promotes sales and means more supporters are kept informed both of general information and club events, and hence gives greater scope for attraction of advertisers. It's not that good a fund-raiser, but the club feels it's a worthwhile publication ..... information is felt to be valid and its seen as good publicity". Furthermore, Queens Park Rangers temporarily introduced a completely advertising funded newspaper in 1983. Called "The Ranger", it operated I ike a conventional freesheet and was distributed to 50,000 homes in Q.P.R. 's catchment area every month, with advertisements worth a claimed ~10,OOO (56).

However, it is suggested that as displayed by the wider trend towards general news free-sheets, entirely funded by advertising. journalistic standards become secondary and the communication process is likely to become tarnished wi tb a 11 gi ve away" image unless the producers, in this case the football clubs, adopt a responsible attitude to editorial standards.

The instrumental significance of advertiser attraction in determining wider avai labi li ty of information was further emphasised by the questionnaire findings which suggest a reluctance amongst clubs to publish their own newspapers because of the "high production costs" involved,· ranked the most significant disincentive overall, most notably by respondent clubs who revealed a past venture into such information. provision. Of these three First Division clubs, Queens Park Rangers. Sheffield 'tIednesday and Aston Villa, the latter two interestingly launched their newspapers to herald their return to the premier division in 1976 and 1984, respectively, though all were subsequently withdrawn within four years due to non-profitability.

In the lower two divisions, however, "adequate coverage of the club in the local press!! was an equally prominent reason given for non­ production of a club newspaper, whilst an official at one club, currently producing its own newspaper, stated that this publication

- 43 - acted specifically as a "foil" for the local press, who were perceived as providing inadequate and unreliable coverage of the club's activities. Paradoxically. however, this same club deny their newspaper its wide potential by prohi bi tively restricting availability to the club shop and promoting sales only through the programme; limited access which cannot broaden communication, particularly to those supporters unable to attend the match, surely a major criteria by which to judge the effectiveness of a club newspaper.

It appears that other football clubs producing such a publication are more aware of this distribution need, urging readers to "place a regular order with your local newsagent" (57) or making the newspaper available on subsc,iption, effectively extending access to information beyond the match attending supporter, and in two cases realising claimed sales of approximately 15,000, a circulation significantly 3,000 greater than the claimed programme sales of one of these First Division sides, possibly a reflection of the specific communication service such newspapers can provide for the large numbers of "exiled" supporters, a particular feature of the big city clubs who, if outside the boundaries of local media coverage and irregular match attenders, may otherwise be deprived of news and information.

The scope for newspaper production by football clubs in the lower divisions, as in the case of programme production, would appear more limited, one Fourth Division official claiming that there is an lIinsufficient catchment area and population"· to support such a venture, but the survival and success of "alternative magazines" produced bi supporters of Third and Fourth Division clubs (58), suggests a demand even here for parochial soccer informattion beyond that available in match-day magazines or the local press.

- 44 - 1fi~cel]aneQJls clJ1b based lines of r:-interi COI!!..TI:ll;ljcaT i op

With only one of the considerable number of "non-newspaper producing" clubs claiming, in the survey, to be reviewing this particular situation, it seems unlikely that communication through club newspapers will take on more prominence in the near future. However, it should be noted that clubs may produce souvenir newspaper-style publications or brochures to commemorate special events or achievements, for example an F.A. Cup Final appearance, or a player's testimonial match, which can constitute a substantial souvenir record, but an essentially irregular communication.

However, several clubs appear to be adopting quasi-newspaper approaches to the dissemination of information on a more restricted scale. Huddersfield F.C., for instance, of the Second Division have issued a free eight page "Patrons Insight" to club members approximately three times per season since July 1985, whilst Fourth Di vision Peterborough United F. C. launched" Lifeline News" in October 1986, an A3 poster-size black and white glossy newsletter mailed to members of the club's lottery subscription scheme.' ... A quarterly edition of an expanded four page newsletter is planned for the 1987/88 season, and will, it is hoped, incorporate playing side features in addition to commercially-oriented copy. A limited, infrequent source, this nevertheless represents a concerted attempt by a relatively small club to inform and co~~unicate with its core support in a less rigid manner.

The" junior supporters newsletter" is another common communication targetted towards a limited element of support. For example, "Junior Fox Club News", distributed free four or five times per season by Leicester City F.C., consists of four A4 pages of blue and white text and photographs, complementing the brief "Junior Fox" column in each match-day programme and particularly utilised to publicise frequent "get-togethers" with the players. Purposely lightweight in content, this communication aims to entertain with competitions, and cultivate the young interest with personalised 'chatty' features by

- 45 - players and personalities at the club; hence, though relatively insubstantial, it again represents a valuable public relations exercise to a precisely targetted group of support, enticing and promoting closer affiliation to, and involvement with, the football club. Inadequate involvement by football clubs with their local community is currently a live issue within the game (59) and a more committed drive to broader information provision in these presently piecemeal ways can partly serve to address this problem, and with greater attention from the football club, the supporter may be more inclined to attend, though the distributional impact of these targetted information sources is clearly restricted.

A more substantial public relations exercise worthy of special note has been conducted in recent years by Watford F.e. prior to each season, reflecting this particular clubs high marketing profile and a non-complacent attitude towards supporter attraction. In order to promote the image of the club, set the scene for the new campaign with fixture lists, give an introduction to the club, and publicise specific admission schemes. travel details, and club memberships. a twentY"page glossy full colour promotional brochure is produced and distributed free to half a million homes in Watford and the surrounding area. It appears to be by far the most pioneering attempt to broaden communication and access to instrumental information by a football club.

This penetrative slick communication presents Watford F.e. as a well organised, .thoughtful and obliging club within the local community and thus actively attracts loyalty and affiliation from its immediate public. Furthermore, application forms enclosed for the,club's

"Junior Hornets" and IIWatford Supporters Clubl! I incorporated a brief market research survey (60) emphasising a recognition amongst this club's officials of the utility of information exchange and supporter feedback as a management resource facilitating effective and informed planning, though this was only a peripheral aim of this primarily promotional distribution of information.

- 46 - Though these broac and specific info:mation initiatives, given by the free-circulated brochures and highly targetted newsletters respectively, may constitute commendable communication attempcs, at least in distribution terms, ultimately it is the match-day magazine which offers the club its most regular. recognised and influential information source.

r

- 47 - NQn-p:-int football club communications

Though printed lines dominate, a number of technological developments in club based communications warrant particular attention, notably video recordings and telecommunication innovations, as indicators of

both the current climate and future trends. Firstly, the ~

I!!FldiUII! has long provided access to recordings of matches at many clubs, from, for example, Everton F.C. in the First Division who "offer supporters a special video service featuring all our home games played at Goodison" (61), available on either Beta or VHS systems, to Fourth Division Northampton Town F.C., who have produced a souvenir video of their successful promotion season in 1986/87, featuring game highlights, goals and, significantly, behind the scenes interviews (62), the latter representing a foray into the realm of video as a soccer information source beyond the present raw "live match" services. Developing from this, a monthly "video magazine" can be enVisaged with sight and sound treatment of typical match-day programme features such as player interviews, game previews, highlights, "behind the scenes" fOCi, and publicity of schemes and events,~building into a serialised record of the season.

The scope of a video version of "the programme is considerable, for instance, a "junior" spot could incorporate visual coaching sessions. capitalising on the medium'S 'see and imitate' educational capabilities, but ultimately, as a form of communication at those clubs large enough to support such a scheme, it would cater for a different information market, not representing the match-specifiC souvenir value of the current match-day magaZines nor substituting for the broad accessibility of the printed soccer lines.

However, the video medium clearly possesses an untapped potential as a communication channel in the professional game, particularly for those clubs with the wealth or support to warrant, for example, becoming

I information providers' on "Prestel" (63), which could be utilised as a broadly distributed, regularly up-dateable, club-controlled textual information service, complementing other sources.

- 48 - Telecommunications constitutes a further non-print channel, utilised by football clubs in the form of a recorded information service for many years, providing aCcess to factual team, ticket, travel, results and fixture news around the clock through a standard telephone answering machine system based at the club. However, during 1986/87, at least nineteen clubs, (64) from the top two divisions adopted Bri tish Telecom's "Clubcall" football information service, which, the promotional literature states, «provides up to the minute information in a high quality editorial package of news from the clubs involved (and) ..... provides clubs with a unique 'voice' with which to communicate with their fans, supplying not just team news but match updates from home and away, commercial news, travel information, ticket availability, postponements, reserve and youth team news, and a range of other information)). (65) Clubcall's data is regularly updated as news breaks, and each participating club incurs no cost or risk, whilst receiving a royalty from the scheme. This is in return for promoting their number in prominent programme positions and other printed media, whilst providing access to playing and managerial staff for 'news items and interviews (66) recorded for inclusion on this three to four minute verbal club magazine. The enterprising "Super Calli' division of British Telecom have sought more detail and undoubtedly enlivened the info:-mation provided through the telecommunications channel, but in essence this 11 spirit of the age" service with calls charged at forty­ six pence per minute at peak hours and twenty-five pence per minute off-peak, r~presents only a minimal extension of the service previously recorded and still produced by some of the participating club's receptionists. Significantly however, Clubcall offers a further commercial straw to grasp for those successful clubs who can command the prospect of sufficient calls to meet British Telecom requirements. As one official of a club intending to take the service explained "clubs do get a rake off, we've been told we'll probably make £3,500 which isn't a fortune, but at bigger clubs when you're getting commission on each call we we~e told you could make up to £50,000".

- 49 - The mu'tua~ inter-dependence between information provision and commercial gain is once more evident in professional soccer, having fos~ered refinement of an interesting, if relatively expensive, channel of access to club news and data, which can make a valid contribution to news and information diffusion for soccer clubs, most notably for those supporters living at a distance from their club.

The telecommunications channel particularly with its rapid update and dissemination capability, and along with video information technology in football, clearly diversify access to information but, it is suggested, these services complement rather than outmode the tangible and enduring, reference and record communication value inherent in conventional match-day magazines and less prolific printed club sources.

Nevertheless these latter channels of soccer information tend to have their own self-imposed limitations, being parochial in content and too infrequent in publication to convey up to date news. For access to broader ar.d more immediate elements of printed football information the clu'b supporter or football follower is forced to look elsewhere.

- 50 - "UNOF"'ICIAL" CHANNELS OF

INFOR~AION DIFFUSTON:

THE PRESS AND PROHSSIONAL SOCC"'R

- 51 - The Press and Soccer: pre radio 3r~ television

The fundamental importance of newspaper coverage in fostering supporter interest for the professional game of soccer and specific clubs is historically undeniable, and has been well chronicled. Ja.mes 'vlalvin, for insta.nce. in his study "Football and the Decline of Britain". states that lithe development and success of modern football - and of a wide range of sport - has been inextricably bound up with the coverage received in the media for more that a century past". (67) The origins of this lasting bond between the press and soccer began to unfold towards the latter part of the nineteenth century with the gradual development of an increasingly educated society, which raised overall literacy levels, producing demand for more reading matter and a consequent profusion of new magaZines and newspapers. These responded to this new thirst for knowledge, in part, by recognising, publicising and promoting the apparent interest sho,m for association football. Even before the game was perceived to merit this coverage the local press office, with its telegraph terminal, was still instrumental in the dissemination of soccer news. by~ displaying match results in its window. (68)

A detailed account of the burgeoning print coverage and its role in the popularisation of football can be gleaned from Tony Mason's meticulously researched study of "Association Football and English SOCiety, 1863-1914" (69) in which the author charts the growth of football intormation provision from, initially, a generalised sporting press, through to specialised football journals, including magaZines, boy's comics and the regional" football specials", and ult±mately the realisation of a publishing climate whereby. as Mason contends, "no newspaper could ignore professional football by 1915". (70)

The rapid expansion of this press accompaniement to the game was greatly aided by the technical development of communication devices such as the telegraph and telephone, and also printing machine improvements, which particularly enabled rapid p,oduction of the

- 52 - Sa-:u::-day evening football papers, still a feature of soccer reporting today, and indicative, therefore, of the enduring interest in the game.

As the sports page gained in public acceptance, the w,iting advanced from the elementary reporting of match results to more elaborate and stylised descriptions incorporating the now customary digest of match reports, comments on performances, club features, brief news and humorous anecdotes, which have become standard content in the sporting press. Such output was typified by probably the most significant of the early publications, "Athletic News", which by 1900 was impressively available in over 25 !Iorthern towns and cities. (71) A particularly noteworthy aspect of this newspaper's style is that it

suggests, as ~~son observed from a study of numerous extracts, having been put together by men of some literacy aspiration who had drunk fairly deeply of the Greek Classics and Shakespeare whom they were particularly fond of quoting. (72) This assertion of lofty journalistic ideals finds, arguably, a limited stylistic parallel in the football reporting of todays "quality" press, whilst the less­ thought p:-ovoking stories· in the contemporary "popu lar" press may pass as a modern imitation of the approach adopted around 1900 by "Football Chat", a weekly newspaper which Mason quotes as assuring its readers that "no space will be foune. for long wearying reports of un­ interesting events". (73) for which the reade:- should consult some other source.

Thus, in te.rms of content and style, many of the fundamental characteristcs of present day soccer reporting were in essence already es,ablished by the early part of this century, the press providing a broad range of local and national, daily and weekly, and specialist sources of information for the growing number of soccer enthuSiasts, who the publications aimed to stimulate and profit from.

- 53 - The press ane Soc:""e .... ; T'Qst radip anC te)pvlsi ou

Though the relationship between the press and professional soccer today is based on many of the notions and principles prevalent in this early coverage, developments both within the game and in media technology have interacted to bring subtle adjustments to the game's press treatment. The technologies of initially radio and later television eclipsed the prominence of the printed press as sources of information, and in the soccer environment their.provision of news shorts, game previews and broadcasts, personality interviews and post­ event analyses, based largely on the style of approach characteristic of newspapers, was available instantly and all from the comfort of the home. In order to compete with the immediacy of the new media, and to stretch soccer coverage across the whole week, the press was forced to seek a more diverse and attractive brand of soccer story. Broadly speaking, the press response has brought a concentration on 'human interest' soccer copy, a development which mirrors the trend for greater proportions of such material throughout the press generally. Tunstall recognised this phenomenon in his survey of liThe Media in Brtta'in", stating that lithe trend towards more' human interest' became strong in the late 1930's because readership surveys revealed reader's preferences for light materials", (74)

This trend has manifest itself within the football press as a more fervent exposition of stories not connected with the actual game, exploring instead off-the-field matters in great detail and producing a profusion.Df personality-based stories. In relinquishing their traditional soccer scoreboard role, the press thus recognised the potential for more inquisitive reporti'ng. However, this realisation has been productive of only a limited conversion to appropriately cynical reporting. Instead, particularly in the "popular" press, blatant sensationalism predominates as the mainstay of soccer communication, its capability to attract readers being recognised and nurtured by the print journalists.

- 54 - The electronic journalists through radio and television have made soccer available to a wider audience, though the interest intensity of the newly recruited groups is problematic. Radio, though skilfully arousing audience excitement in its live broadcasts of soccer matches, cannot act as a generally acceptable substitute for the' real thing'. Hence, by broadcasting other soccer information, notably the Saturday afternoon preview, results and round-up magazine, and the more recent and regular local-radio soccer services, radio has tended to re­ inforce interest in the game, and not create a marked disincentive to at.tend. Television, on the other hand, has domesticated the soccer appreCiation process, particularly with its live match coverage, to an extent where one author, Stephen ~agg, contentiously postulated that "by most criteria the main significance of football in contemorary British Society is as a television show". (75)

The questionable validity of this statement is not a concern of this paper, with its liiniormation provision" focus, but the prominence it intimates for the role of television in the soccer world is highly relevant. For television's impact upon the demand for printed matter may have positive implications for the extent"'of soccer's press coverage as witnessed by the coverage now given darts and snooker, for instance, almost entirely stimulated by extensive television exposure.

In addition such re-inforcement of the complimentary information role for the printed media by television is currently enhanced in soccer's case by the latter's minimal transmission of soccer news and information. Besides the "raw information" of live game broadcasts and match liighlights, with their accompanying, though uninformative, self-styled panel of experts, and the rapid but succinct\results and reports services, the television soccer service consists of two, largely duplicating, half hour preview, round-up and highlight slots on Saturdays, (76) an irregular, fragmented and regionalised news and feature service by local stations, and a very occasional documentary progranune. Discursive items offering genuine perspective and insight are rare amidst a television service that is 1 imi ted in both breadth and depth.

- 55 - Hence, the popularity of regular press coverage of soccer ::-e:mains with a life of its own independent of television, attested to by the considerable pages devoted to the game in the "popular" and increasingly. the "quality" press. The enduring involvement of the press in soccer, as in other sports, was pertinently observed by Smith and Valeriote when they stated "a blend of reporting styles now exists but there is still a greater emphasis on hero-making. 'Whatever the r.J.ixture, newspapers seem to have found the right combination, and have successfully nsintained a key role in sports coverage against the powerful competition of the electronic medial!. (77)

Final recognition of the vital role still played by the press, despite alternative media provisions, was given by football club officials themselves. In response to the questionnaire only three out of a total thirty seven respondents ranked the information provision of television above that of either the local or national press as a source of club publicity; a fact which highlights the fundamental significance of the press as an information source within today's media coverage of professional soccer.

- 56 - The ultimate significance of p~ess exposure for sport in today's cO!!llllercially-oriented world is bluntly encapsulated by the words of an

American sports ~iter, Schecter, who, commenting on another popular spectator sport, profferred the philosophical assessment: lino press, no in"terest, no baseball". (78) This clearly emphasises the perc.eived power of the press to make or break a particular sport, a long­

~ecognised facet in the soccer world, at least on the part of journalists, who are more than willing to elucidate upon the positive publicity service their activities provide. During the 1968/69 season, for instance, Bob Findlay, as sports editor of the 'Daily Sketch', made the following self-congratulatory espousal of the press' phi lanthropy: «Soccer is in the fortunate position of having the multi-million newspaper (sic) industry geared to serve it FREE .... we titivate reader's interest in the game, build up personalities and events and put in high powered publicity that is the envy of the entertainment industry. Daily we enthusiastically inject "dope" into our :-eaders veins to make them addicts and increase gates ... all ior the glory of our national game - even if we do sell a few extra papers.») (79)

However. the willingness of soccer clubs to reciprocate, par'ticularly with the national press, by offering access to information is not always evident, even on the part of the mo:-e·fashionable clubs who might capitalise most from positive interaction. Hence, a freelance journalist, and the programme editor of one prominent LondQn side, made the follo'tling observations about the "information provision" at his employing club: «Ii\\.r:"lat 'information provision'? Public relations at tllis club is a very bad joke as it is generally throughout English football. Both press and public are treated in a way that would never be

tolerated in. say, America or Canada. Ove~ there. sports clubs happily co-operate with the media to help sell their games to

- 57 - the fans. Over here. the clubs attitude is: football is ~ game - and the press and public have no part in i tu. ))

Both this view and the earlier journalists exposition clearly represent vast generalisations of press-soccer club interactions at the national level, though they serve to illustrate the opposing poles from which the two sides may approach the interaction process: the latter, narrow-minded actitude having particularly negative repercussions for information flow.

Insularity on the part of soccer clubs is a notorious aspect within the game. and the roots of this phenomenon may be derived from a broader national insularity characterised by the Football Association's abstinence from the world administrative body, F.I.F.A. in the inter-war years, and by the fact that England loftily declined to compete in three World Cup Finals during the 1930's, reflecting a basic belief within the game at the time that, as the creators and teachers of aSSOCiation football, world supremacy consequently was self-evident. (80)

Such arrogance appears to linger in many soccer quarters, haYin5 fil~ered its way through to club officials and manifesting itself in a

COIillIion atti tude. descri bed by one interviewee, where 11 managers assume an air of importance which is a little bit too high for themselves. and look down upon e. journalist as someone below their stature". It is obviously unlikely that journalists viewed in such a light will be confided in.by the club, and information flow through the press channel would be consequently restricted.

A further circumstance of the limited respect shown to soccer journalists is revealed by a recent survey undertaken by the Football

~riters ASSOCiation. which discovered a general dissatisfaction with the facilities offered to reporters by clubs. (81) Arrangements for the press at Stamford Bridge. home of Chelsea. for instance, were cited on several occaSions as typically inadequate. The press occupy a ganery on the opposite side of the ground to the players encrance

- 58 - and dressing roams, and require an escort to move any nearer, Such inhibitive conditions have prompted the F, 'l.A. to seek negotiations with the Football League in an attempt to forge uniform improvements in working conditions on four main fronts: (1) cramped press boxes; (2) poor interview facilities; (3) poo:- post-match meeting facilities; (4) lack of availability of players and officials. (82)

That such inadequa~e procedures are adopted at one of the country's premier soccer clubs is indicative of the poorly developed public relations practice within English soccer, an observation supported by the fact that, of the First Division clubs from whom a response was received, less than half found it proprietous to hold press conferences any more than a mere once a month confirming the parallel finding made by Tunstall in a 1971 survey of national press news organisations that "football specialists average under two press conferences or briefings a month (and) .... only a minority of football specialists see their sources as positive" which highlights the perennial nature of the problem. (83) l'~ny soccer clubs do not seem geared up to the positive information diffusion that could be realised through a cultivation and nurturing of·-t'bose members within the p!""ess core who merely seek to repo:-t the club in a realistic light. Many soccer stadiums were constructed in Victorian times and Victorian information attitudes allied to these facilities still exist, as wit.nessed by the 'head in the sand' attitude of one club who expressed that only the club's own programme represented a valid publicity source, being the sole channel of information ~otally under the control of ~he club.

Attitudes of non-disclosure and non-eo-operation practisen by many soccer clubs clearly impede the press' access to, and transmission of, vibrant news and comment. Though clubs would counter with evidence of press misuse and abuse of disclosed information, the reluctance of club officials to communicate adequately may itself induce a more speculative state of soccer reporting, for as Ward suggests in his st.udy of Barnsley Football Club, "censorship of information could be one source of myths, (as)." rumours gather and spread qUickly, these

- 59 - ;-UIDaurs are based on incomplete information". (84) Hence, whe~e the journalists receive constant rebu:fs or resentful treatment from a club "the information which they rely on "to refresh their story-"telling ingenuity, and which the supporter also thriT~Tes on, will need to be nBnufactured and concocted or obtained through the 'back door', normally to the dislike of the club.

However, though one journalist claimed that "all soccer reporters ask is the facility to ask questions and receive sensible answers from those engaged in the game" (85) I unfortunately this quite clearly is

~ exclusively what all soccer reporters ask for or wish to print, and this remains the crux of the problem. The scenario presented to me by a number of club officials was summed up by Colin Benson, e:{­ club secretary and currently a freelance journalist when he stated that "they (clubs and press) don't understand each other and in this respect the gutter press have spoiled it for everybody, like the Charlie Nicholas boo=e stories when he joined Arsenal were just unnecessary. It was an easy story, it's easy to get a story out of muck, but it doesn't do the club, game or journalist any good in the long run". (86) The reticience of club officials to co-operate with such journalists or newspapers is understandable, and furthermore, as part of the p~blicity process itself, club personnel, specifically at the major clubs, are sordidly induced by the press to comment negatively on other teams which undermines the image of the game, reduces interest in it, and re-iniorces the negative publicity stance of nany individual sources. (87)

The "idea1" role o~ the Press

Emerging from this potted consideration of the attitudes of key protagonists in soccer's information flow process via the press, is an occasional mutually distrustful and disrespectful interaction, based on either misunderstanding, unawareness, or a blatant inconsideration of the demands and constraints of the other's work. Soccer is at times too sensitive to the annoying inaccuracies and embarrassing

- 60 - revelat:ions that are p:-inted, comments which, firstly, may be seen as part of the price to be paid for the service given the game by the press, and, secondly, must be recognised as not part of the intentions of most journalists. The press in soccer, as in other areas, should not be merely propandists for the game, divulging only inane information, and clubs must not be immune from constructive criticism that lends integrity to the reporting process, But in order to foster a more positive approach by club officials, the football press

has a basic responsibility to be in~estigative rather than speculative and factually informative rather than merely rumour-based, providing copy that is entertaining and nourishing but also educational, frank and fair,

The mutually supportive club-press communication that could produce a healthy availability and distribution of news and comment was encapsulated by Cliff Morgan when he summarised lithe role of the media in spar tU as follows: «it is an obligation on the part of the media to show compassion and understanding and even more important, to avoid sneering and hand-wringing', And, in return, the-'sportsmen and women, and the administrators of sport have a responsibility to the media, and to the public, actually to give a little, as well as, in some cases, taking so much. Honesty and decency on both sides will produce a rich, satisfying and rewarding relationship, and the winner must be sport» (88)

- 61 - jI'.p?'kpting the SQccer product· a ne",' age fO; 50ccp r

The g~ip of commercialism upon sport in general, and socce~ in particular, has widespread implications for the notion of "information provision", as a key factor in the all-important publicity process. For in respect of the financial lifeline cast to the game by the extra cash raised through sponsorship and advertising, concerted information management by soccer clubs is a more vi tal concern when an underlying precursor of the continued financial input from the business world is a high-profile and favourable product image for the game and its clubs. It is perhaps disappointing that a greater recognition of the significance of information was not borne out of a less selfish and profit-mo~ivated desire, but nevertheless the long term impact of the competitive commercial world upon soccer's attitude to the press has been evident for some time, a point recognised by Wagg, who observed that, even by the 1960's, the inevitability of publicity made clubs realise "that they could no longer afford the high-handed attitude towards the press in which they had previously indulged themse 1 ves" . (89)

Following the deaths at Heysel Stadium before the European Cup Final, in which Liverpool F.e. were participating,and those in the fire a~ Bradford City F.e. in 1985, and after a tirade of 'bad press' associated with hooliganism reported at soccer matches, the game is facing an i~ge crisis and must further renew the challenge to restore itself as an attractive product, ensuring continued respect as a promotional"vehicle for business products.

Thus, as part of a positive marketing strategy, the game's governing bodies and individual clubs must utilise the powerful potential of effective information flow, particularly through the penetrative press channel, in order to foster a more balanced, sensitive and open reflection of soccer, and develop a realistic sales pitch.

- 62 - An equally important aspect of such a strategy, however, is

recognition of the need of supporters for more than just trose-tin~ed' information, and the game must consequently be willing to endure more frequent inquisitions as part of a process to develop more genuine concern and open discussion about the direction soccer is taking.

A greater willingness to exchange rather than merely give information about the game is essential in soccer's drive to maintain and increase support. A two-way communication process, partly hosted by the national press can go some way to redressing the current imbalance as perceived by the present Aston Villa Hanager, Graham Taylor, whereby "the football profession can sometimes be arrogant and resent the fact that the man on the terrace has a right to say what he wants to see". (90)

This enlightening statement, expressed by Graham Taylor whilst he was manager at Watford F. C., is indicative of the general approach adopted at that club towards communication, notably as part of a wider and more market-oriented information-brief that is the prototype of an

approach beginning ~o advance in wider soccer circles. This was epitomised by Tottenham hotspur F.C. 's 1983 L100,OOO television campaign, designed by Saatchi and Saatchi, to display a family atmosphere at Ylhi te Hart Lane I which featured the copyline "Be One of the Fa!!iilytl (91), reflecting the contemporary concern with safety at soccer grounds. The club's commercial manager, Mike Lewis, justified the media campaign by saying "We have to look at new ways of attracting people into the ground. You have to hype the event because football is theatre. There has been a tendency for clubs to assume rather arrogantly that everyone knows when they are playing" (92). Though this is clearly taking information as publicity beyond the realm of the press, it illustrates a positive attitude towards the need for, and potential of, broader information diffusion, a policy highlighted at this club with the employment of two specific public relations oriented staff.

- 6.3 - Similar:!..y, the previously-mentioned :marketing strategy at Vatford F.C .. the first club to appoint a marketing lll3.nager- in 1983, (93) includes the activities of a I public !"elations manager I , J-fJ'. Ed Coan, whose duties embrace press liaison and co-ordination of a whole gamut of communication channels. Coan summed up the rationale for his specialist information post as follows: lI\rle1ve got a very good relationship with the national press. I think part of the reason for that is the fact that the people employed behind the scenes at this club like the marketing manager, the commercial manager and myself came from industrial backgrounds, not a footballing background - a relevant P. R. -business background is far more important". (94) As will be revealed, most football clubs do not employ staff with specific communication skills, though Vatford F. C. with their highly geared publicity machine have consequently been able to make a positive publicity coup in the national press, most notably in the wide dissemination of information that has ensued for the family oriented "Vatford \lay" of addressing the hooliganism problem. Koreover, once a high profile is gained within national press circles, the channel may remain primed for the communication of other news, and contact with the public may be strengthened through this link~'

Specialist information bsnGlprs in socce~

The development of a more modern attitude towards information utility wi thin soccer is suggested by the fact that thirteen out of thirty­ seven respondent clubs indicated employment of personnel with specific informational responsibilities. Not surprisingly, this ratio was considerably larger in the higher echelons of the Football League, where five out of eleven First Division, as opposed to only two of ten Fourth Division clubs, expressed a specific personnel commitment to press or public relations. Clearly, however, the appointment of merely titled, or appropriately skilled, staff will not in itself pre­ determine improved information management by the football club, a point specifically referred to by one journalist who stated "if they do have F.R.O.'s in most cases its just a front as they're not given

- 64 -

------any information anyway, so it's not done on a professional oasis .... There should be free information, but they're scared to disclose things and be straight with the media people". The wisdom inherent in this cautionary addendum, regarding the impact of press relations officers, receives support from the recruitment malaise witnessed at many clubs where the appointment of ex-players, without the relevant skills, belies the responsibility of the post. Also, paradoxically, when the strings of a wily professional information handler are pulled by an over secretive club hierarchy, communication may agai!1 be stilted.

Nevertheless a positive role i.a perceived at some of the larger clubs where their scale of operation both demands an 'information specialist', and can support it. Watford F.C., for example, with a total of thirty-five non-playing staff, employ a quota of fifteen marketing staff. (95) The size of this enterprise contrasts markedly with that of most Football League clubs and the club secretary of one small Fourth Di\'ision outfit, employing only six full-time and five part-time non-playing staff, stated "you will see therefore that one cannot have professional staff specifically related to press coverage when the press themselves only want to speak to the top people".

SQcrer C Jllb managers as i nTorw+ j DD SQur'-es "

The "top people" in information terms within professional soccer and not only in the lower divisions, still tend to be the club managers. Contact with· these individuals consitutes the traditional communications conduit for, as Tunstall observed, "football clubs are hierarchically organised with managers in possession of much of the key information". (96) Even at clubs with P.R.D.'s the personal comments and insights of the manager are still demanded by the press, specifically in respect of team selections and transfer and injury news (or speculation) that forms the bulk of substantive soccer news copy in the newspapers.

- 65 - In suppor~ of the managerial responsibilities for information, most clubs without F.R.D. IS expressed a specific informational role for an administ~ative employee, commonly the club secretary or commercial manager, and normally in respect of information conce~ning non-playing issues, namely the clubls finances, commercial projects, and general policies. The club secrecary, in particular, tends to be an ubiauitous employee within football, and though rarely an ideal incumbent of the press-liaison position. at least a limited degree of press awareness and familiarity with information skills may be expected from such individuals.

On the other hand, many of the shortfalls of soccer club-press liaison may be derived from the limited skill and experience possessed by managers for their considerable interactions with the press. As qualified coaches, commonly ex-players. and with a host of other demands competing for their attention, football clubs managers may be rarely blessed with the skills or the time that make for effective press liaison and beneficial communication; a considerable cause for concern when, as one Fourth Division official commented for his own club" only the manager talks to the press".

The diplomatic skills of the journalist and the personal skills and

attitude of the manager are conse~uently fundamental determinants of

the press I access to information, particularly less concrete items such as news of players who nearly sign for, or leave, the club, news no"t. always freely given that makes for attractive copy and interesting discussion,amongst the gamels followers.

Many soccer club managers, however, aware of the press' news criteria and need to fill copy space, are well capable of manipulating the press tD gain considerable publicity advantages, both personally and for the club. Active use of the printed media may manifest itself as consciously-conscructed ego boosts for the team and specific players during a poor run of results, or as a more subtle enhancement of the

manager's o~~ status; bence, one journalist, who worked closely with a prominent though notoriously awkward manager, revealed that IIhe uses

- 66 - the media when he wants to, when he wants more money on his contract, for instance. He's very shrewd". An ability to capitalise on the press' natural news searching instinct in this way, particularly in the national newspapers, requires widely acknowledged charisma or an established reputation for controversy, attributes somewhat devoid in themselves of genuine informational significance, but characteristics which as publicity magnets may bolster a manager's employment p~ospects in an insecure caree~ where the sports press wields considerable power.

Additionally. the competitive news sense of the national press welcomes being used as a "players for transfer" notice board by managers. knowing that the discussion this sparks among the soccer­ interested public promotes circulation. Transfer news and speculation is one of the most fundamental elements of information to soccer's press, though the production of the transfer news snippets is based only loosely on a desire to genuinely inform the public, resembling an "Exchange and Mart" service for the game's managers. Club officials and journalists alike confirmed the prevalence of this practice, one expounding that "a lot of··'managers do use the media .... they will leak a story of a big offer for a player, or of a player that wants away, simply because they want to sell him. Or, if. for instance. Il m a club's manager and I want a Nottingham Forest player, I leak a story that Arsenal are interested in him. Suddenly that player gets a bit restless, unsectled, plays badly, then I can put in a lower offer for him. The manager releases a story and you take it on good fai.th as a reporter".

The mutual benefit to be derived from the press' willingness to act as a sounding board by conveying such "transfer information", extends beyond itls direct assistance to a manager's transfer dealings and its contribition to newspaper sales. Brian Dalton, as Chief Executive and Financial Director of Fulham F.C. in 1985, made the wider role explicit when in a detailed analysis of the remedies available to individual clubs to increase their financial viability. he recommended that clubs specifically use "speculation on the purchase of a key

- 67 - playe~ which would result in increased at~endances and increased turnover". (97) Once again the contemporary dominant role for football information as an instrumental ally in the game's commercial drive is highlighted.

Information provision through the press by manager.s can be a maj or publicity boon, enhancing financial viability by establishing, re­ aw~kening or intensifying public interest. In the skilful, or at least competent, information ha.nds of soccer managers, a lively, if somewhat contrived. diffusion of knowledge via the press, can act as a catalyst. promoting the discussion about soccer that is so vital in the public domain for interest re-inforcement; the importance of discussion, largely whipped up by the press, was alluded to by one club which volunteered "word of mouth" as the club's most significant channel of publicity.

The players as press jnfoTmatioD sources

Next to the manager, or other assigned officials, it is football players who are in possession of much of the gossip and news fr-om h'hich the press can sculpture stimulating. informative or sensational soccer copy. The "on-show" artisans of the game. players themselves are the most obvious and in-demand subjects of football discussion, but besides the abundant supply of quotes about their own fortunes and feelings, ~~ayers will be party to a myriad of anecdotes, rumours and news concerning other players, personalities and activities within the club and wider game. Specifically as 'back door' sources to otherwise restricted information, players constitute a potentially \'ital avenue of communication to be carefully cultivated as a synaptic element of the more revelation-seeking or investigative journalist's information network. Gossip about discontented players. training ground punch-ups. boardroom ructions and dressing room rancour from a cc-operative player make for attractive. banner-headlined stories and feed considerable supporter debate. The national press, notably the

- 68 - tabloids, thr-ive on such copy to fill tb.e reporting voids between match days, and the IIpopular" slant of the news-gathering process in those newspapers focuses its attention for audience goal reasons on the more successful players who tend to play for the leading "fashionable" clubs, the latter being partly determined by the media's own relative concentration upon them.

Recognition that players are key source individuals in press circles came from the football clubs themselves, who revealed considerable concern for player-journalist interactions in survey responses. Reflecting the revelation-thirsty approaches of national soccer journalists in particular, it was clubs in the higher-profile First Division who indicated broader concern, with 64% of respondents there, as opposed to only 44% in the other three divisions, issuing some sort of rule or guidance concerning player contact with the press. The verbatim lucidations of the club's anxieties ranged from the blunt rationale that "we can't have everyone talking to the pressll declared by one offieal to the woolly "all information given to the press must not represent unfair criticism of the club or its staff" given by another. The obsession on the part of many clubs to avoid

ll 11 controversial", 11 detrimental" or " irresponsi bIe coverage in the press was made apparent from other replies, whilst the obvious, trusting lIuse tact" style of gUidance contrasts with the more COTIl..'1l0n, dictatorial influence sought at other clubs where "players must have the manager's permission to speak to the press" or "only the manager and secretary may liaise with the press unless otherwise authorised".

The apparen~ severity of these comments will in many cases belie a less Sinister, paternalistic concern by some club managerk to protect players, and their match performances, from the pressures of an inquisitive press. Nevertheless such practices, when dogmatically pursued, may engender a fruitful reporting lifeline lost, and more unusual data unavailable, though, as one journalist expounded, there is a considerable underground 'information grapevine' to call upon in professional football, from ex-players, and the friends and even family of current players, to a club's receptionist who may be "often

- 69 - willing tc impart gems when she considers them pertinent, but this normally leads to a sudden 'information clampdown' and broader censorShip at the club",

Clearly, players are not irreplaceable as sources of more revealing soccer news and insight, but their attempted "gagging" by clubs has long been considered a necessary and legitimate, if commonly unsuccessful, means of mitigating against soccer reporters' interference in private, unsavoury or illicit club matters. Hence, Hopcraft, almost twenty years ago, in his analysiS of the club director, revealed that one club chairman, offended by the press' accrimonicus football stories; resorted to an approach whereby "Burnley's players have been forbidden, on payment of club fines, to talk to the Press without club approval. This has not prevented stories about discontent in the club from appearing in newspapers". (98)

Many clubs still place intermittent bans upon players talking to the press, one recent instance which recei ved mixed comment last season occurring in the bUild-up to the garnets showpiece occasion. the'" Football Association Cup Final, when "Coventry City players were

ll banned from speaking to anyone, no matter hov; large the cheque , as S1:epnen Bierley(99) commented in lIThe Guardian's off-beat IIfootball diary", Such a ban obviously seemed proprietous to the club's management in the light of the frenetic news-mongering activity this match inevitably attracts, though Bierley made an equally valid and perceptive case for the good sense inherent in the decision, when he continued contemptously, "What a relief. When I am dictator I shall make sure football players and managers are never allowed\to speak unless they have something interesting to say". <100)

This comment alludes to a more specific facet of the use, made by the press and wider media, of players as information sources, making reference to the notoriously cliche-ridden, often illiterate, and rarely enlightening comments that have become the hallmark of the contemporary 11 football personal i t Y i nterview" , To be fair, the staid

- 70 - quality of comment that emanates is often as much the fault of the media person's deterministic, one-dimensional interviewing approach to which it is difficult to reply in anything other than cl,che and self- evident truths. The meaningless exchange of programmed questions and answers is a feature of the information-retrieval process throughout the sporting world, though it seems to have been honed to excruciating perfection in the over-exposure granted players in football. The ease with which player (and manager) quotes fill copy space, present an illusion of, investigative reporting, and penetrate the interests of football followers, unfortunately militates the wide use of player comment as a supposedly ilumunating story-addition. However I the obfuscation and general information disservice consequently achieved can be gathered from the succinct co~~ents of an American Footballer, Dwight White of the Pittsburgh Steelers, who described the routine interview~ in his sport using the following vivid sy:mbal:.sm: «I got me a media mask ..... I put the mask on .... it's got a computer in it. I push a button and the answers come out. !' m telling the truth as much as they (the media) want to know it and as much as I want them to know it» (01)

This encapsulation of the phoney reporting practice heightens realisatio~ that in the sport environment, the press as information purveyors are commonly more concerned with the uwholl rather than the IIwhat" of the communication process; genuine information-hunting has become subservient to personality-hunting in the sports press I assessment of newsworthiness.

The intrepiiHty and integrity of soccer reporter's endeavour in the use of player-interviews is clearly questionable, and their profession's credibility is further damaged by the cheque-book journalism practised at many top clubs, where star players, reminded of their own money-making potential, and prompted by pernicious agents, are lured to divulge their pearls of wisdom for substantial fees. The journalists interviewed for this survey admit such practice is rife in the national press, manifesting itself in the often factuall y bare, but provocative "ghosted" story descri bed by one

- 71 - ~iournalist thus: lithe trend in the nationals is for half-page stories which appear that they are written by the footballers themselves, but the paper will go through the players agent, put words into the player's mouth and for £500 demand a good story that is hard- hiLting .... the bigger the name the more likely it is to happen, the reporter taking notes, writing them up in his own style and passing them of as by the 'name'''. Appealing for their controversial value alone, such revelations invariably fail to refine information provision to soccer's public.

A further covert influence of the player-agent partnerships at the higher levels of the game was unveiled by Ken Jones of "The Independent", who stated "agents are blamed for the placing of stories in the Fleet Street tabloids in order to inform other clubs that players are unsettled and available. , In return for the exclusive tale, an essentiai element in the circulation war, they are guaranteed large sums for subsequent revelation". (102) The nature of this transaction in itself promotes story fabrication and blatant sensationalism, and reflects reporting irresponsibility towards the game, and-·can only tarnish hopes of increased mutual understandi ng between football people and soccer's press. It fosters a sordid information climate and, in heightening both club wariness and player's money grabbing potential, a likelihood of more restricted communications ensues. Hence, several Chelsea players, for instance, have even refused to communicate with the producers of the club·s own newspaper, uBrid.ge News", due to the absence of remuneration. (103) an acute illustration of the commercial value of information in the game, and reflect'ing the other side of club's failure to stipulate player's press responsibilities.

Hence, the contractual approach adopted at clubs such as Watford F.e., as part of broader "community-oriented" policies whereby the club's players have to live within a ten-mile radius of the ground(104), for instance, may ensure more regular availability of information for both press and supporter nourishment, as given by the observation that "Watford is among the minority of clubs which write it in the player's

- 72 - co~~racts that several hours each week are given to public relations wo:-k" (105), including attending public meetings, visiting schools and availabillty for the press as required. Far from restricting in:ormation flow, the imposition of contractual obligations by a cl~b's management may actually achieve, firstly, realisation of one club's declared aim to "make all club personnel as accessible as possible", whilst, secondly, promoting less speculative and more responsible press reporting, particularly in the often 'cold­ sh=·uldered' national newspapers, at least for those more prominent cl~~s who merit or command a high-national profile.

- 73 - The Prpss lines of football cot:lIt',;njcatiOT;

Having analysed the key sources, attitudes, and interactions which determine soccer information availability to the press, the study will now focus upon the extent, nature and style of information flow to the publ ic that it produces through a press which commonly acts as what McQuail termed "a detailed and specialist source by which the most active and interested keep in contact with matters". (106) The corollary of this for the press as communicators is that football followers constitute a sales-relevant-readership as one of the major information-seeking interest groups,

The earlier historical section underlined the instrumental role of the press in promoting the game, its clubs and supporter-interest, the endurance of the latter serving to sustain the presently considerable football information service conveyed through the United Kingdom's national and provincial newspapers,

National Pr-ps'=!

However, the U,K. press' comprehensive inclusion of soccer within its general news publications, a characteristic derived by the country's relatively compact nature. infact represents a surprisingly unusual style of sporting press activity for, as Lever commented, "a daily paper devoted" to. regional or national sporting news, with minimal coverage in, the general newspapers, has long been the tradition in nations with developed sport systems". (107) The inclusion of \ football as a standard news item in Britain is significant for it widens distribution of soccer information in this country beyond that limited section of the public which has a sufficient interest in the game to purchase a specific sport or soccer daily, either as their sole, or complimentary, regular news-intake.

- 74 - The proposed move of the double-entendre titled "Sunday Sport" into the daily market (108) with its creditability-lacking sex, scandal and non-sport-oriented photographic bias, potentially offers a negligible impact upon this unusual characteristic inherent in Britain's sports publishing climate. Thus, the traditionally wide influence of the national press soccer coverage is well established. In England, detailed football information is available in eleven major daily newspapers and ten major . Sundays' . A combined circulation of almost 15 million in the case of the major daily national newspapers and approximately 18 million for the "Sundays" (109) clearly indicates the potential penetration of this medium's football news and information service, whilst the overwhelming status of daily newspapers as primarily a morning medium further enhances their circulation significance above provincial newspapers, often noon or evening publications, as the staple general news source for the majority of the public. Thus, as the key news provider for football as a whole, the national press is, in conjunction with television's less detailed, but complimentary, soccer service, the most important agent shaping the nation's image of, and attitude towards teams, players and the game generally.

Individual newspapers' devotion to soccer ranges from approximately a half page in some of the daily broad sheets to as much as nine or ten pages in the wider-circulating tablOids, notably the "Sunday People"

and "Sunday Mj rror", though the extent of the more factuall y-based soccer coverage in practice varies only marginally across the field for a given day, revolving around the fundamental provision "of fixtures, often in a pools guide format, cup competition draws, and results (accompanied by random diffusion of details suchlas goal scorers, goal times, half-time scorces and attendances). In addition to this most baSic of news summaries, the daily dissemination of soccer stories concentrates on match reports. transfer news and:" rumour, player injury up-dates, state of the game features, 'star' interviews, managerial arrivals and departures. profiles, previews and broad prognostications, and it is in the selection and style of these

- 75 - elements of their provision that national newspapers cultivate and inform a particular football-interested readership.

The digest of soccer topics that emerges is commonly the most voluble element within the sports news section, customarily located in the rear pages of the newspaper. Far from reflecting a lesser significance for its news value, the positioning of "sports" in these distinct, easily located pages is directly attributable to the fact that, as Whannel suggests, "for many people the lead headline on the back page is the main story of the day", (110) and, furthermore, the football stories, particularly, in the tabloid newspapers may command more copy space than any other single subject within the publication.

Besides the fundamental data of fixtures, pools, and results, universally provided across the League, though in differing formats, the popular focus of national soccer coverage tends towards the top dozen clubs in the Football League based on the premise that the largest concentration of football supporters watch the game at this pinnacle of its professional status. The natural concentration upon the more successful teams is further supported, and reflected, by television's choice of the same clubs for its live match broadcasts. In the 1984/85 season, for example, no fewer than eight out of ten live games involved either Liverpool or Manchester United, (111) clubs whose average match attendances for that season of 35,854 and 45,074 respectively were the highest in the Football League. (112) The continuing television emphasis upon these major clubs firstly promotes their publi.c profile and hence their general newsworthiness, and secondly, provides a host of specific incidents and players for the national press to highlight and analyse in previews and p~stscripts.

The national press are thus concerned with reporting the 'national game' as it materialises through the activities of the country's leading teams and players, a bias also translated onto another national news medium, that given by the teletext provision of 'Ceefax' and 'Oracle', which are widely accessible and immediate electronic sources of factual rather than discursive football material.

- 76 - However, clubs may secure intermittent access to this conduit of national attention by meeting a number of the press' narrow "newsworthy" cri teria. A charismatic, naturally abrasive, or manipulative managerial personality may appeal to the popular newspapers, as will the generally adopted news angles inherent in stories of revelation or scandal, whilst the one-dimensional news criteria of "success or failure", prevalent as a feature of football reporting, may periodically catapult "unfashionable" clubs into the national press limelight; hence financial crises, promotion or relegation IIfights", knockout cup success or the "novelty-valuell presence of a club in an unusually 'high' or 'low' Division, for their 'status', may purchase access.

Additionally, though the regionalised nature of soccer reporting, based loosely on the news-gathering centres of London, Birmingham and Hanchester, should in theory improve access for smaller clubs, this "editionising" tends merely to fragment the dominant national bias, rather than noticeably deepening coverage in regional terms beyond the more successful clubs. Hence, as the club secretary of one consequently less fashionable First Division club commented, .... We're stuck on a limb here, we're covered by the Birmingham-based nationals, ... but we've got to do something a little bit extraordinary to make their pages".

Thus, the reality for most Football League clubs is national press obscurity, with the hope of only intermittent attention from national sports editors. The survey responses serve to futher emphasise the impact of su~h coverage upon information diffusion within the Football League. For whilst seven of eleven First Division respon~ents ranked the national press as either the foremost or second-most significant contributor to club publicity, the respondents from each of the other three divisions ranked this channel only ahead of magazines for its publicity value to them. Thus, as a source of regular information, national newspapers only provide access to the followers of a select range of clubs, though significantly it is these larger clubs which can normally boast large numbers of supporters who have moved from the

- 77 - immediate vicinity of the club, and for whom the national press may act as a somewhat limited substitute for the more detailed press coverage available in the local area. These clubs additionally receive a generally higher profile in the collective consciousness of the wider football-interested public.

This polarisation of football coverage is significant in its creation of a skewed distribution of knowledge about the game, reinforcing and amplifying the perceived success or relative obscurity of professional League clubs. Research suggests that less than 50% of people interested in football actually attend matches. (113) Hence, the majority of followers of the game, without either first hand experiential awareness of, or regular access to Itofficial ll printed information about, professional football rely largely on television and the press to feed and refine their interest. ~ith its vast circulation, the national press is consequently a primary inculcator of general knowledge, values and attitudes concerning the game. By focussing upon the decadent excesses of exorbitant transfer fees and wages, and the relative glamour and glory, at the higher level, national newspapers can present a distorted and confusing image of professional soccer, particularly when in reality many clubs are experiencing severe financial difficulties. Nevertheless, the national press undoubtedly promotes a high profile for soccer, with its extensive diffusion of information even though this publicity focus, as a dominant determinant of mood in the football world, does not essenti~lly represent the'game,

Nature and style of Press coyerogej the D&tioDBl pres~ as pducator jn the football worJd

The scope of this study is not sufficient to allow for a detailed content analysis of the national press' soccer reporting. but in order to illuminate the potential impact of this source, a brief consideration of the nature and style of the information transmitted

- 78 - will be useful, though not definitive in its analysis. As with general news provision in the national press, two broad styles of soccer "news" reporting can be identified, both of which have implications for appreciation of the game, and these will now receive attention.

The Sunday national newspapers constitute a central element of soccer information, reporting the key day of the footballing week to a keen reading audience seeking knowledge-expansion and evidence to support or refine their opinions and predictions. A more retrospective, and in theory at least, considered array of match reports appears in the Monday daily press, whilst mid-week matches also receive coverage. Besides factual fixture and results data, match accounts are the most basic aspect of soccer reporting, though the incident-descriptive, rather than broad and evocative style of most reporting conveys a limited degree of specific information. A condensed account of isolated frames of the contest, tends to be supplemented by token, essentially unenlightening quotes from managers and players. Written in a non-analytical manner, to make for easy reading in the house style employed elsewhere in the newspaper, this appears to be the common formula, particularly in the "popular" press. Hence the jargonised, sensationalist copy that often emerges, supported by banner headlines, with an inherent emphasis upon personalities hinders an understanding of the game's finer pOints, for example, tactical nuances, the aesthetics of individual skills, or playing styles and patterns. The same lack of concern for eloquent description and educational insight permeates throughout the upopular" press' wider soccer cover,age, a concentration on personalities and hyperbole mediating the game's significance into narrow channels of expected demand and producing a simple, one-dimensional (114) and unnecessarily impoverished appreciation. There is an apparent lack of recognition by many journalists that a range of feelings and expectations could be satisfied by a deeper, textural and technically enlightening elucidation of match descriptions, and football's broader issues and debates, a point alluded to by A.C. H. Smith in an analysis of "Your Sunday Paper" in 1967, when he postulated:

- 79 -

Nevertheless, the" popular" press still constitutes a fundamental so":-ce of soccer information, if not education, with its dai ly digest of :eatures and news, the latter largely compiled from the vital co~unication link given by the news agencies, Exchange Telegraph and thE> Press Association, one national journalist explaining that" we rely on their word. Their snippets of information are taken as gospel .... it is they who contact the clubs and pass on information to -:he press". The news agencies provide basic facts and ordinary, non-sensational reporting of stories filtered through from soccer cl~~s, perhaps via a local press agency peddling its iniormation­ wares, and in particular represent an avenue for potential national press recognition of otherwise obscure or lowly League clubs.

The "quality newspapers" also utilise this invaluable 'news shorts' ser-.-ice, but it is in their storY" follow-up' or generation of wider fea::ure material that those sources offer a balance to the e:{tensive "so,,"? opera" style of the tabloid's soccer copy. As Brian Gla::ville's column in "The Times" has been worth reading for some ti4~. so other quality newspapers are now producing soccer critiCism, co~nt and perspective of a refreshingly discursive, insightful and ar~ioulate nature, also occasionally adding satire and elements of hu=:-ous en·tertainment to spice up their reporting, for instance the less conventional comment in "The Guardian's" off-beat Saturday

'Fo~tball Diary'.

Generous coverage of soccer in these broad sheets appears to be an increasing concern of their sports editors pOSSibly as a reaction to the game's acute commercialisation and the broader interest base, if not necessarily attendance, this has arguably fostered. For ins-:3nce, the newest of the "qualities", "The Independent" (116), with an impressive staff of sports and soccer journalists has begun to make

- 80 - a particularly worthwhile contribution of regular, considered and fresh perceptions about the game, fundamental to the interest nourishment of discerning followers,

In respect of sport's contemporary high profile as an interest in an acutely "leisure consciousll society. newspapers need to reject the safe "emulation" route to journalistic survival in the sports field, portrayed by the lack of inventiveness in the Sunday press' informational presentation and context; the most recent addition of the "News on Sunday", for example, disappointingly offering no digression from the tired and basic reports and results service existing elsewhere despite the clear scope in this particular medium for a comprehensive, lively or attractive source.

Commitment to more diverse and innovative news and feature dissemination is discernible in the "quality field", but "Sunday Sport", for instance, with a total of only ten journalists (117), amply illustrates the disturbing observation made by Walsh in respect of the general status of sports coverage, that "there seems to be an unwillingness on the part of journalistic organisations, both'esteemed and unesteemed, to devote the people, time and money necessary to take stands on controversial issues" (118) or, it is further suggested. risk new approaches.

- 81 - Ihe local prpss; channel of soccpr infQrr~tiQn

The local newspapers have traditionally represented a key infor=tion source for soccer supporters. the links between the press and local football clubs developing in much the same way as a co~~unity-based organ's relationship with other local institutions, facilitating publicity and information transfer. As the earlier historical account (119) stressed, in the absence of local radio and television services the parochial press was acutely instrumental in the development of community knmlledge and identities, customarily whetting the appetite of local folk to follow the town's team(s) in an unashamedly self-interested manner. The historical significance of this attitude was summarised by \/alvin, who stated, "the passion of football supporters was shaped and informed by local origins and loyalties, .... in all this the press was crucial for it skilfully played open the passions of football fans .... placing great emphasis upon the minutiae of local teams and their players". (120)

Post televison and radiO broadcast services,.

Recognition of the value of the local press as a communication link with the core of a clubs primarily localised support emerged from the 37 questionnaire responsesi 89% of respondents agreeing that their soccer coverage delivered good publicity, and 62% of offic~als specifying local newspapers as the most significant source of publicity for the club, even over and above their own club programme, whilst only five clubs, all First Division as would be antiCipated, ranked the national press as a more significant publicity agent. Furthermore. in contrast to the reticence displayed towards national press interactions, 84% of football clubs confirmed a duty to give the local press broad access to news and information as fulfilment of a

- 82 - responsibility to supporters, one journalist emphasising the potential extent of this club co-operation, when he commented, lithe manager is free with information because he knows what we want; he gives it to us and a lot of the time the information is cultivated to look good in the newspapers, it might not strictly speaking be true, but it looks good in the paper and the manager understands that".

In return for bountiful access to information, however, soccer journalists within the local media, in day to day contact with their sources, may be required to sacrifice aspects of a more credible reporting approach. In broad terms, a local journalist faces considerable pressures stemming from the situational ties of the publication to its local community, demanding responsibilities to institutions, prominent local citizens - significant as primary news sources, and to advertisers - vital for their financial input. Hence, a number of studies of the British local press (121) have shown, as McQuail summarised, "the local press rather actively avoids '1 controversial matters which might upset members of the local elite or damage co-operative arrangements between journalists and their sources, without any commensurate addi tioD to sales or other revenue". (122) The tendency of the local press to veer towards the good aspects of local life has repercussions for their role as the main ":lon- official" channel of communication between local institutions,

~f which the soccer club may be considered one, and its local reading public, who may consequently receive a paucity of probing comment or news, nor be offered an effective channel of protest, should this not -De part of the outlook of in the first instance, the newspaper in the second, the sports editor and in the third, the specific reporter.

The conflicting demands placed upon a soccer journalist were concisely summarised in an analysis of "ethics in sports journalism" by Smith and Valeriote: «the sports journalist has dichotomous responsibilities, if he performs up to expectations for one group he automatically disappoints another group. On the one hand, he is supposed to be objectively reporting sports news to the public, on the other

- 83 - hand, he is expected to glorify a particular sport for the benefic of a promoter. Uusually these two functions are in direct opposi t i on to one another.» (123)

Additionally, football correspondents may be subject to considerable editorial pressures from within local news organisations to write in a particular style or develop a particular relationship with a club. Hence, the outlook and attitude of each local journalist regarding their interaction >lith willing or unwilling club officials determines the nature of information flow through the local press channel. A credible football journalist, in an attempt to perform an ideal role of supplying information, commentating an current issues, entertaining and educating the public, needs to maintain a degree of independence from the club and its officials, whilst nurturing acceptance of the mutual benefit of regular interaction. In the process of offering a publicity channel to the club on a regular basis, and gaining daily access to "inside information". the local soccer reporter. taken into the clubs confidence, may begin to feel that it is owed only favourable publicity in order to sustain a favourable relationship.

For, as Steve Tongue commented in 1972, because of~the net of self- i nteres"t which surrounds the game. "i f a journalist writes an offensive piece aboue .... a club, he will be refused a place in the press bo:<, and any facilities he may have for gleaning news about the team will be withdra.m: for a local journalist this is suicide". (124) It is far easier for local journalists to perform the role given by the common adage of "fans with typewriters". The mutual interdependence which potentially emerges whereby clubs gain publicity, and journalists are correspondingly allowed to fulfill a limited reporting obligation, militates against the latters ability to expose injustices, raise controversial issues, or lead local soccer opinion in respect of constructive campaigns, potentially restricting enhancement of broad public awareness beyond basic team news and

U official" news releases.

It appears that many clubllocal press interactions are suggestive of the widespread symbiosis postulated in the above section. A stark

- 84 - indication of the reciprocity comonly exisitng between the club and local press was given by Graham Taylor, who in his own programme notes when manager of Viatford F.e., stated, "the club tries to give you the true facts as quickly as possible, and you will get them locally rather than nationally. This is another way of us trying to retain our own identity. and dealing with people whom we trust and who we know care for the club and its well-being, and yet at the same time retain a right and prerogative to criticise". (125) This unequivocal lIofficial" blessing of the local press as a source of information highlights the positive attempt made by some soccer clubs to establish effective communication channels with supporters, and is particularly significant in Viatford's case due to the club's location merely on the periphery of local radio station catchment areas. The reci proci ty inherent in the use made by the club of the local weekly newspapers, the" Watford Observer". and to a lesser e:{tent its free counterparts, as aids to communication and image enhancement, is further given by these newspapers' extensive editorial and photographic collaboration on the match-day programme and other club publications (126). This intimate level of explicit mutual support is not a universal characteristic of club newspaper interactions at the local level, but it illustrates the attitudes and processes which appear to govern information flow through the local press channel in most instances, and confirmed by one off icial who admitted, "because of the relationship between the sports editor there and the club it's really in many ways, although they are an outside organisation, a publicity tool for us". Under such Circumstances, there is likely to be a voluble flow of news and information from the club to its public, but this takes on· an "official" nature, and may lack the investigative objectivity emanating from a more removed reporting platfdrm. Hence, local soccer reporting practice lays itself open to criticism of the kind levelled by Hike Langley, of the 'Sunday People', that instead of putting the reader before the club, "in practice, many local newspapers choose the quiet life and decline to publish news that might offend the club; when such stories appear in the national press, the local man hastens to deny them or writes a piece from the club's angle". (127)

- 85 - Though such a statement is difficult to prove categorically, as a general pOint it would appear to be justified, particularly at lower division clubs, where as one official con:mented, "with a small club the press usually are personal friends and one has very close contact all the timeu. Under such circumstances it is not surprising to discover that 70% of Fourth Division clubs ranked the local press as their most significant publicity asset, and Stockport County F.C. exemplify the extent of co-operation prevalent at this level by a sponsorship alliance with Stockport Messenger Newspapers (128), which will undoubtedly maximise favourable publicity and the transmission of reliable, albeit mainly positive club news.

A wider regionalised distribution of information can be secured through the network offered by local freesheets, particularly when these advertising~supported newspapers often claim double the circulation figures of their' paid-for' counterparts. (129) Hence, communication links with local free-sheets, including those of 'satellite' towns, enables wider dispersal of information and publicity and potential penetration of a larger radius beyond the club's immediate locality. In this respect, Notts County F. C., for example, are fortunate to have a direct link with the' Nottingham Trader' given by the freelance activities of their own programme editor, Terry Bowles. Though he maintained that these uone-offu weekly reports were something of a token gesture due to the free newspaper's copy space constraints, and a deadline too far forward to allow bona fide news reporting, the summary, feature and preview style of these shGrt club foci may still be significant in information and publicity distribution terms, despite the apparent journalistic shortfalls.

Realisation of the potential inherent in such wide distribution of information, and the advantages accruing through formal and informal mutually supportive relationships, was confirmed by eleven of thirty seven respondents who felt their respective clubs did not warrant more coverage from the local press. However, with more clubs (fourteen) conversely claiming a need for increased attention from these sources

- 86 - a dissatisfaction emerges which, it is suggested, may be based on the belief encapsulated by one official who complained, "I think their desire to sell newspapers overrides everything else .... there are things that we want printed that don't sell newspapers. Then you've got problems .... we don't get the co-operation on the space we receive for certain promotional things", More than one club expressed this as a potential basis for disagreement with the local press, though it seems that even in this respect. informal advertising agreements may evolve, allowing restricted inclusion of blatantly promotional material within the main body of the text, lending it greater impact than if it were side-lined as a distinct advertisement separated from the soccer copy. Provision of details, regarding, for example, match-day ticket arrangements or the 'sale' of season-tickets is considered by clubs to constitute a public service obligation on the part of newspapers, which may carry such items free of charge in return for access to information or a reCiprocal advertisement in the club's Programme. Such soccer reporting obviously falls on the publicity side of the narrow dividing line separating it from genuine journalism, but it nevertheless serves to reinforce the local press as the chief outlet for up-to-date club news and information of paramount significance to the regular attender and "floating fan" alike.

However, not all football clubs can claim such favourable treatment by, or relationships with, the local press, a fact borne out by just over one-fifth of respondents who claimed local press insensitivity in the treatment of club affairs. Indeed one club interviewed confessed to being loathe to disseminate information to their assigned local journalists, - grounded on the premise that" not all publicity is good publicity and if no news is given then it cannot be maniputated". It appears that football clubs distrust of the local press is more likely to arise in multi- club cities, where clubs may not automatically be guaranteed copy space 'as of right', or from another perspective the local soccer journalists are under less pressure to delicately nurture a regular information flow from specific clubs. The conventional one-ta-one relationship shared between the club and an assigned reporter may, it appears, be supplemented with a more sophisticated

- 87 - information retrieval p~ocess by the relatively aloof big city newspapers reminiscent of a. stereo1:.ypical Uhard/softU interrogation approach. One club official, for instance, recalled the Birmingham Evening Hail's news-gathering act where" there was more than one writer working on football, probably three or four, so one writer would have a go at you, sometimes justifiably, but he wouldn't be the writer who then came on to the club for information .... we knew what they were doi ng, but it worked".

In many respects a relationship based on this greater independence, though still with a local affiliation, may represent a more credible journalistic interaction. However, with the soccer club unable to monopolise the sports desk's football attentions the football follower may be deprived of the extent of regular "behind the scenes" trivia, and coverage of non-playing activities, customary elsewhere.

Realistically, however, only a limited quotient of this standard local press soccer copy constitutes vital news communication even for the committed supporter, but the task of the local journalist still remains to find a daily (or weekly) smattering of soccer copy.

Hence, the manufacture or concentration of u news" items is commonplace, stories being fabricated from the passing comments of players to satisfy certain selective principles built into the calculated decisions made by soccer journalists. Pre-conceived notions thus produce the customary concentration upon 'human interest' story lines, supported by the comments of players and officials, whilst one ·journalist referred to the blatant stimulation of interest perenially achieved through the "popular" letters page, where "letters are manufactured, we put a pen name to them, stating something on a controversial view pOint to gee up readers to write to the paper."

Nevertheless, the prominence of the local press as a "vi tal 'and invaluable source of reliable news for supporters", a statement accepted by 86% of the 37 respondent clubs, stems from the apparently common recognition that the local newspaper should be the first organisation within the media to be informed or given access to, as

- 88 - one o:ficial stated, "exclusive items of club news", This fundamental access affords the local newspaper its primary significance as a soccer information source, whilst the anodyne and trivial features commonly used as a day-to-day "filler" serve to establish a continuity of club coverage, necessary for development of a committed buying habit amongst the soccer-interested local public, It is suggested that this habit is futher reinforced, rather than reduced, by the presence of local radio news sources, for as one journalist realistically commented, "we give them a better service than the radio station, the written word is still a lot more powerful than the spoken word, but even if you hear an important item on the radio news you would still need to pick up an evening paper to actually look at it in black and white and see and digest all the details" ,

To enhance this detail in their reports, in addition to information gleaned from soccer club sources, journalists will normally have at their disposal the newspaper's library cuttings service and collection of club ephemera, the major archive of football club information in most cases (J30) , and·-their own factual records and personal programme file. Hence, perspectives and background details may be produced to enliven the regular compendium of parochial previews, transfer and injury news, progress reports, results, match descriptions and 'behind the scenes' trivia, This local football service is commonly supplemented by a press agency-fed national 'news-shorts' provision to lend the newspapers' soccer reporting the comprehensive coverage vital to maintain .. broad sales impact.

However it is as the wide disseminator of club-specific information in the local setting that the local newspaper clearly constitutes a source of conspicious soccer information, its ultimate impact and relative indispensibility for most clubs illustrated by the agreement of 73% of the 37 respondents that without the coverage given by this source an expansion and improvement of their own "official" methods of communication would be required, The extensive publicity service performed by the local soccer press is thus largely undisguised by

- 89 - clubs and its commonly partisan nature has been proven. Throughout the week and. significantly. during the close season when supporter­ club contact is at its lowest. a high profile is generally maintained amongst the majority of regular casual and potential club supporters. and the wider football interested public. all of whom have regular access to a voluble, if at times, trivial and subservient source of football club information.

- 90 - The 11 ,:;'QIi"';;ba 1} Spec; a 1"

Within local football reporting, the Saturday evening "football special" has long been establishec as an esoteric and highly significant source of soccer information. As early as the nineteenth century, some of the city newspapers began to produce special publications or editions featu~ing sport, especially football, as a stimulating accompaniment to the growth and importance of the game, until as I'..ason reveals, "by the 1890' s few to\>ms of any size in England were without their football special. It was as much part of the cultural scene as the gas lamp and the fish and chip shop". (131) In the early years, these newspapers were estahlished as the sole source of results and comment on the matches of the day. Despite the indispensability and broad relevance of this service seemingly being eclipsed by the more immediate electronia media, the rapid turnover of classified results and up to date League tables embodied in these printed sources, frequently 'on the streets' within an astonishing thirty minutes ef Saturday's 'final whistle', still consitute an invaluable news service. Digestible at leisure they sustain the day's football excitement by enabling rapid assessment and speculative discussion of the implications of results and incidents, pre-empting the compa:-itively dated Sunday press provision.

This basic factual news data is supplemented with incident by incident descriptions of the matches involving local league clubs, voluble accounts of .~nything up .to· 1,500 words. However, prone to a local bias in both content, choice and tone and delivered in a printed running commentary style these frantically produced match reports are relatively valueless for the student of football, for as Ledbrooke and

u Turner cOIIllD.ented in their description of IISoccer from the Press Box , "there is little time for revision, and precious little for those second thoughts which are proverbially best". (132) Nevertheless, for those supporters unable to attend, particularly when the local club plays "away" from home the decriptive match report at least gives a limited insight into team and individual performances.

- 91 - These rapidly-produced "news" and report aspects constitute the football special's most fundamental contribution to communications in professional soccer. However, comprehensive parochial soccer coverage frequently extends to embrace the local non-League football scene, varied commitment being shown to the provision of an invaluable digest of reports, results and League tables for an often overlooked sphere of soccer (133), and consequently facilitating sales attraction beyond that given merely by a specific int'erest in professional sides.

Additional soccer copy in these extensive Saturday "extras" includes pre-written club and player features, summary items of the previous sporting week, publicity and schedules for the forthcoming period, and comment and criticism on the conduct of local clubs and broader developments in the game, an impressively wide soccer perspective. Nevertheless, there appears to be an increasing recognition of the need to provide for a broader sporting audience, meeting the demand for information stimulated by television's increasingly diversified sports coverage.

This need for greater diversification was specifically expressed by David Hurray, Harket Research Executive of the Liverpool "Daily Post" and UEcho!!. A Saturday "Football Echo" is also produced which in 1986/87 included relatively minimal coverage of the wider sports scene. (134) An unbroken decline in Saturday evening sales from approximately 66,000 in 1978/79 to 48,000 for 1986/87, a 27% fall, in spite of the relative success of the city's two major clubs in this period, ha& induced fieldwork to be undertaken to establish the causes behind such a sharp decline. (135) Besides an obvious correlation with a general fall-off in soccer attendances, initial da~a captured apprarently suggests the need to incorporate more of other popular local sports particularly snooker, boxing and horse racing (136), in order to appeal to a broader audience.

This has long been the approach of the Birmingham Evening Hail's "Sports Argus", which appears to be the country's only specifically sports-based newspaper produced by a separate editorial team acting

- 92 - independently of an associated daily newspaper. Broad sports coverage is provided, and this may be partially instrumental in the "Argus'" "steady but slight" increase in circulation figures (137) despite drastically falling attendances at the major local clubs, though a more active distribution policy, invoking direct delivery.

franchising and heavy canvassing, as y~. Holland, Director of the

Birmingham Evening Y~il's Circulations Department described, may be more instrumental in the production of this trend and constitute methods worth consideration elsewhere.

However, it appears that falling circulations amongst Saturday evening sports publications are prevalent, and Nottingham's "Football Post", in spite of regular coverage of local ice-hockey, boXing, greyhounds, horse-racing, basketball, snooker, golf and rugby union matters, has experienced a 45% drop in sales from a circulation of 36,586 in 1981 to only 20,228 in 1986 (138) giving further cause for concern about the future fortunes of these valuable soccer information sources.

In other cities, Leicester, for example. with its "Mercury Sport .. a diverse range of sport copy is combined with general news items "lifted" from the standard Saturday issue. Though supposedly determined by the limited availability of sufficient sport topics, this style of Saturday evening special may come to dominate, if soccer copy alone appears to represent an increasingly limited sales value, correlating with a decline in general match attendance figures, this representing the most committed section of football's following.

The most nota'ble absentee from a list (139) of the large urban areas supporting football specials, is London, particularly iro~ic when this city at one time boasted three such publications. (140) The short lived "London Daily News" took initial steps to rectify this situation by tentatively experimenting with a Saturday "Evening Sport", towards the end of the 1986/87 season, producing in particular a limited trial 20,000 run on the day of the Cup Final (141). However, Steve Tongue, "London Daily News" soccer reporter emphasised that though these trial attempts were "sell-outs", the difficulties involved in the

- 93 - discribution of a Saturday evening newspaper in the capital, particularly to outlying suburbs are considerable, a problem universally dogging these newspapers which lack the fundamental post work sales pick-up of standard evening publications, Though a definite demand may exist, the substantial costs involved in distribution of narrow interest news-sheets to sufficient outlying sales points coupled with limited advertiser appeal and necessarily staff-intensive production methods, apparently nullifies any existing profit potential for a London 'soccer special',

Thus, club access to this key avenue of publicity, information diffusion and interest-stimulation, will be determined by a precise set of geographical factors, Hence, whereas the First Division's Tottenham Hotspur F,C., Arsenal F,C, and Vatford F,C., for example, do not receive this detailed coverage, Mansfield Town F.e, through the Nottingham "Football Post" reporting net, and the Chester and Tranmere Rovers Clubs through the Liverpool "Football Echo", all from the lower two divisions, can command access to the 'I football special ll conduit, which, as a significant element of the local soccer reporting scene possess a clear self-interest in promoting the success of, and loyalty to, its dependent clubs through extensive information diffusion,

- 94 - Y;.J.instrpam Soccer lr!ag::"'ines· a vital contribution?

Specialist soccer magazines represent another source of information for professional soccer followers, though their relatively minimal impact in the English game was discernible from the questionnaire responses of officials in all four divisions who ranked the maga::ine as the least significant channel of club publicity. (142) Hence, this study ,,;ill make only a cursory analysis of football magazine pcovision, whilst recognising the lack of in-depth analysis of this market and its potential audience, within the field of information studies.

The soccer magazine scene in this country is largely determined by the proliferate informa.tion provision embodied in newspaper sources, in particular the aforementioned quirk (143) which sees soccer news material incorporated into the national press' general news service, as opposed to the distinct sporting press, common for example, on the Continent, where Italy, Spain and France all support daily national sports titles, the latter l s "LI Equipelt publ.ication averaging between 190,000 and 300,000 sales. (144) Emphasising the range of provision.

~hese general sports titles are commonly complemented by weekly and monthly soccer ma.gazines (145), an extensive and penetrative football cove.raoe which contrasts markedly with the Bri tish soccer magazine scene, where the mass market, it could be suggested. is saturated by

~~e voluble dose of regular soccer news. features and trivia accessed

~hrough a r~gular national and provincial press. The magazine-style

"sports extra~" incorporated into Saturday national newspapers and carrying a sizeable football content (146), emphasise the,dominant role played by the British press and the consequent relative apathy in

~he specialist soccer periodical market.

u The magazine with widest circulation in the United Kingdom is "Shoot • with weekly sales of 133,016 (147), which, with the similarly styled

"Jf~tch Weekly" (48) provides coverage of the game specifically

~argetted towacds the younger supporter, actively promoting interest

- 95 - :n and awareness of the game from an early age, with copy dominated by

~~e ghosted columns of 'star' soccer personalities and features and pervasive photographs of the leading teams and players, a bias which nerely reflects the wider soccer information culture as portrayed 1:trough other media. (149) Consequently, club and supporter access to

~~ese communication channels. and resulting reader awareness of soccer, is restricted, for as one interviewee stated, "as a First Division club we did pretty well in the magaZines, because they have a

?~licy to'tick-off' each club.in turn making sure they have covered everybody fairly well, but in the Second Division we won't get covered

"t.:J the same extent". Despite this customary bias, these magazines do

~ke one significant contribution to the diffusion of soccer knowledge, constituting the only sources to incorporate exhaustive c:s1Oings of team line-ups for all League and cup matches, a ?""ticularly pertinent reference item for followers of under exposed 18wer division soccer.

Y.~nthly magazines include a 'more of the same', though slightly more

1. :Jwer di vision oriented. 11 Foot ball Konthly" and two smaller c:rculation international soccer oriented publications (150) which c=:e~ a valid and more intelligent assessment of professional soccer, t:; ,aising awareness of the wo,ld game and addressing the problem of ?",ochialism widely observable in most British soccer communications, ",nd a state of affairs given only token attention by the coverage of 1:::? British players exported to European clubs. However, valuable t~8ugh a broader international perspective undeniably is to an

~~derstanding and appreciation of the domestic game, these highly de'tailed an~limited appeal magaZines merely divert attention from the l::ng standing paucity of adult targetted periodical material concerned w:1Oh English soccer and its textual issues. However I a more d:scursive football magazine was launched in Y~rch 1987; also a =n1Ohly, "Football Today" claiming a print run of 60,000 and a readership of 200,000 (151) seeks to impart a diversity of information a~~ views from a broad range of levels within the game. Standard i~eres include for example, an Irish Football feature; divisional and n::::>-league round-ups; an in depth, eight page, "talk of your town"

- 96 - focus on football in a specific area, "Fourth Division" Northampton being a notable early inclusion, an accompanying "where to wine and dine" guide (152) revealing the upmarket sta"tus of part of this magazine's intended audience. Recognition of schools soccer, coaching and fitness matters and women's football as worthy regular material further highlight this magazine's breadth of soccer coverage representing an attempt to plug the gap in the market for more considered material. However, it is this piecemeal, seemingly desperate pursuit of an all embracing content appealing to disparate markets of players and followers of the game alike coupled with occasionally platitudinous and patronising expression which may militate against this monthly becoming the analytical investigative, stimulating and up-to-date journal British football so desperately needs to stimulate a more refined, concerned and satisfying awareness and appreciation. The dominant tabloid press have educated much of the football audience to expect short and undemanding soccer news and feature reporting. and a severely limited promulgation of more stimulating soccer comment through the quality press would appear to leave an apparent market for national soccer information which specialist magaZines seem currently unable to··fill or satisfactorily address. Hence. as Geoff Wicken summarised, IIdevotees of other sports may disagree but it seems to me that the only major one which lacks a broad-based, informative journal is football, Football reagazines are either pitched at teenage boys or go into too much detail for many but the most dedicated fan" (153).

- 97 - 11 AJ te;-nati veU f cotball magazines

"ith the mainstream soccer market either unable or unwilling to cater for a neglected adult soccer readership. an alternative style of magazine has re-emerged during the 1980's in recognition. as voiced by Mike Ticher, editor of "When Saturday Comes", of the IIneed to express some of the things that a lot of football fans were thinking at the time. but which weren't being e:{pressed anywhere .... a kind of self- e:{orcism of the things we were thinking". (154) Together wi th "Off The Ball". and other less prominent magazines. these alternative sources represent a valuable addition to the style and nature of information availability concerning the English professional game. (155)

The forerunner of these magazines. though it seems to have had little

impact upon their origins. was uFoul ll magazine, a self proclaimed "AI ternati ve Football Paper" produced duri ng the 1970' s (156) to meet. as editor Steve Tongue co:mmented in issue one. Uthe need for a radical alter:nqtive to the existing football press. an adult magazine >lhich is.. neither a statisticians supplement nor the propaganda sheet of a ruling body". (157) Initially capitalising upon the amenable atmosphere offered in the University City of Cambridge, the paper began to develop as part of an alternative reading culture which at that time included "Private Eye". "Time OutU and uSpare Rib". Critical football book reviews typified "Foul'" s pioneering. more

intellectu~~ approach. based on a discursive treatment of a range of football jssues. as opposed to the statistical. match report. and

personality~interview style of football's conventional magaZine culture. Written in a rewarding literary. and sharply satirical style. "Foul". as summarised by Wagg. "took stories which Fleet Street editors would not print; it opposed what it saw as cynical play on the field and devious manoeuvre and commercial excesses of it" (158) and thus represented a sincere. forthright addition to soccer information diffusion.

- 98 - The magazine ultimately achieved a claimed circulation of almost 12,000. (59) Sales of the magazine were achieved mainly through Maore-Harness, recognised lIalternative distributors" at that time, but an inability to secure deals through the major outlets W.H. Smith and Menzies, because of the magazines "limited appeal" to a more demanding audience, determined a limited public awareness of the magazine's existence and, as Steve Tongue confirmed, though "distribution was nationwide, the magazine was muddling along with regular losses and not the big leap required to make ita going concern at this level". (160) Associated difficulties of attracting advertisers without an adequately definable readership, physically coping with 2,000 subscriptions on limited staff resources, and an inability to pay quality contributors, were also cited (161) as reasons for the eventual demise of this challenging publication in 1976, seemingly the first to contribute sustained, considered commentary on the English professional game, and hence provide access to a source which could reflect and refine the interest of a more discerning follower.

This style of publication has re-emerged in the 1980's, similar topics and aims and an irreverent approach being pursued by-a' new wave of alternative football fanzines defined in one as "supporters' publications that are written and published by the fans themselves. The fanzine is thus an independent publication produced from below offering an alternative review and forum for opinions and comments about the football world". (162) As fanzines many of these football publications appear to have gained inspiration from a thriving 'underground' magazines scene revolving around rock music, rather than being originally influenced by 'Foul', for as Adrian Goldberg, editor of "Off The Ball" explained, "music fanzines showed us initially that it could be done .... you don't have to be a trained journalist or anything". (163) The music world influence can be detected in magazine titles and headlines and, furthermore, record shops are seen as. effective outlets for these alternative products. Though most of these cannot aspire to the literary and imaginative standards of 'Foul', a similar adult readership is again catered for, most notably by "Off the Ball" and ""'hen Saturday Comes", the latter's stance

- 99 - depicted in the commenLS of editor M.ike Ticher tha"t "in some ways it· 5 our duty to be as rude as possible, to try and make up for all the years of being patronised and insulted by people on T. V. and in the press". (164)

Besides espousing a radical philosphy towards aspects of the game itself, these general football issue-based magazines also represent a radical attempt to foster information exchange by offering an alternative review and forum for intelligent debate about the football world. Subjects including football club mergers, plastic pitches, inadequate facilities, controversial membership schemes, hooliganism and football are all "live" issues often suppressed as discussion topics in other football media.

Raising the profile of these issues by printing supporter's arguments in a positive way, the independent magaZines are in the vanguard of a campaign to achieve, in the words of Adrian Goldberg, "formal recognition of supporters financial and ~ contributions to professional football". (165) As part of this pressure group activity, they-are co-operating with and promoting The Football Supporters Asociation, an organisation formed in 1985 to gain representation for ordinary supporters on football's ruling bodies. With regional boards around the country, this organisation is significant in terms of this study for its concern to develop, through regular meetings. a greater exchange of information between supporters, club officials, and the police, hence cultivating increased u.nderstanding and prOViding supporters with a communication channel into football's decision making process - information flow consequently enhancing democracy in the game.

The alternative magaZines adopt an earnest stance on these issues which may, however, in its abrasiveness towards football authorities, hinder liaison and foster further entrenchment. Additional to their relevance for investigative discussion, rather than as news or reference material, these information sources are enriched as adult reading material by an entertaining, sardonic and off-beat

- 100 - presentation, which may po~entially endear them to a wider audience than "political" posturing alone.

However, like 'Foul' the magazines are beset by the problems of distribution and limited public awareness of the product. With circulation figures currently no more than 3,000 per issue (166) impact on the football scene is relatively derisory, access for supporters limited to a handful of retail outlets around the country, most notably through a specialist sports bookshop in London and through a subscription system, with this method's inherent time consuming problems for the magazine producers. The reasons for limited market access to independently produced communications were suitably illustrated by Raymond Williams in his analysis of "The Existing Alternatives in Communications" in 1962, when he challenged, "try starting a magazine and getting a national distribution for it. Just try getting it on bookstalls throughout the country, so that people could buy it if they felt like it - that old commercial or democratic idea. I assure you that it will be a very chastening experience indeed. Because the ordinary kind of distributor we now have is not interested in selling below a certain quantity,.... a:nd until that quant i ty' s there, you usually can't even try". (167)

The absence of an alternative distribution network for independent publications, which so hindered 'Foul's development, appears to be a continuing problem, and could ultimately see these valuable additions to broad soccer reading material either falter in the same way, or remain marginal publications, not through lack of demand, 'but through lack of purchase on a potentially receptive market. Thus it is unlikely that these innovative publications will be able to make the required transition from their small circulation, alternative appeal to meet the demand for a broadly based informative adult soccer magazine carrying considered material to a mass audience. --

- 101 - These two magazines currently act as the flag ships for a burgeoning self styled lIalter natjve fOQtball joforootiop network", which also embraces numerous club based IIfootball fanzines". Commonly produced by collective supporter activity on limited resources, the contributions of fans are sought as vital input if the magazines are to achieve serious recognition by clubs. ,The magazines have grown out of either general information needs or speCific communication breakdowns at their clubs. For example, official supporters club- based magazines such as Leeds United's 11 Cross how" have evolved as communication vehicles within branches whilst "London Owl", the Sheffield Wednesday London Supporters Club NeWSletter, in the words of this organisation's secretary "is primarily a newsletter containing information on S.W.F.C. for members who do not have regular access to the South Yorkshire Press, thereby stimulating interest and supporting the cl ub" . (168) A further information need aCknowledged by these magazines was given by Frank Ormston, editor of the long running York Ci ty fanzine who revealed, "Terrace Talk" began as a response to the programme City had at that time (1981) which contained no information whatsoever .... York City never inform anybody of anything". (169) The poor public re'l:a1:"ions practice at football clubs was a recurrent theme of the correspondence received from alternative magaZine editors, though as part of a growing disillusionment with football authorities, and the media, and an alienation from their clubs it appears that most of the magaZines have subsequently transcended their basic communication and information role in order to become mouthpieces for the opinions of supporters, particularly to protest against and practically respond to the lack of intelligent discussion about club 'matters, for, as Clint West, editor of Ipswich Town F.C. 's "Townfolk" elucidated "the local press very much echos whatever the club is saying and never Seems to question club policy. I feel the football supporter is taken far too much for granted and their loyalty exploited". (170)

Due to reSource limitations, however, these essentially non-profit making magazines contain a limited level of researched material, producing a concentration on topicality and freshness delivered in a

- 102 - commonly chatty and open style. Nevertheless content is broad and commonly provides more extensive reading matter than the average programme, incorporating opinionated match reports, scathing, humorous and informative letters, new angles on club history from supporters, forthright editorial, detailed information and previews relevant to forthcoming matches and broad football comment, raising the profile of national soccer issues at the local level. Ranging from A4 photo- copied newsletters to A5 typeset and printed publications, the production quality of the magazines is patchy, with practical and imaginative rather than professional and· glossy designs dominating, which prompted one club programme editor to make a pertinent remark on the fanzi ne market that "a lot of them get good sales and a good response because people accept them as another amateur production and they buy them as that", but, it is suggested that such a comment under-estimates how the alternative magazines' fundamental recognition of humour, imagination and the fans own intelligent voice have in some cases apparently generated wider , if less regular, circulations than the club programme. (171) In striking a balance between the serious and light-hearted sides of football, the "fan-speak" magaZines promulgate entertaining reading material whicli constitutes a livelY··­ source, free of the shackles which often induce the banality and uninspiring rhetoric in much of the wider soccer media.

Despite the apparent challenge, the alternative magazines are not widely considered to be in direct competition with the match-day programme, the latter still valid as the official communication of the club. Match-day magaZine content is largely complemented, not duplicated, by fanzine comment so that as Clint West, editor of

Ipswich's tlTownsfolk" summarised "we do not see aurselves~ as an alternative to the club programme (an important source of revenue) but as an addition to it". (172)

Consequently some football fanzines, essentially the less abrasive Supporters Club based communications appear to have forged co­ operati ve relationships with their clubs whereby, for example "the club have given us e,'ery encouragement, supplying information and

- 103 - permission to reproduce articles as required and giving us use of the club crest, and basically telling us they don't mind what we print". (173) In other cases it appears that liaison with football club staff in the magazine's production is specifically not sought as a means of maintaining editorial independence, though in instances where the magazine producers pledge sales profits to the club, assistance with distribution may be offered, as with the Notts County supporter's uPie" fanzine which "after serious discussion .... is now available from the Club's Programme Shop. This is a tremendous boost, it makes the "Pie" more accessible - guaranteeing a larger circulation and therefore more money for the club". (174)

Nevertheless, several clubs display greater reticence towards the

independent magazines, II resigned tolerance" being expressed by one club official, whilst York City F.C. have banned sales on club property (175) their prerogative under the 1986/87 Football League official ground regulations which state "only persons specifically authorised in writing by the clu'o are permitted to distribute without charge or offer for sale in the Ground any Newspapers, Periodicals, or

_. I""· any other articles U (176 )

This ruling represents a valid precaution in restricting distribution of the right wing literature which has been prominent at football grounds in the past (177), though seems less prioprietous when enforced to dampen the communication efforts of dedicated supporters, who apart from the membership-oriented Supporters Club publications largely rely on Stadium sales to promote their product. Publicity in the national and local newspapers and a variety of magazines (178), in addition to the programme plugs given by some supportive. clubs, has produced circulations of between 500 and 2,000 copies (179), clearly indicating the existence of a market for the sincere, lively and non­ glossy adult football communication, particularly when national sales are apparently being realised for essentially club-oriented productions. However, the clear limitations upon their accessibility for club supporters and their operation on an essentially fragile

production base is encapsulated by the comments of 11 Crossbar'su John

- 104- - Peckham who states" there are no plans to sell the magazine via publ ic outlets at present, as too rapid an increase in demand could be difficul t to cope with in the short term". (180)

The impact of the independent supporters magazines upon the football scene as a whole appears to be currently restricted to approximately thirteen League Clubs scattered through the divisions (181), though with at least five of these launched during the 1986/57 season, perhaps this signals the development of a more established network of invigorating publications which reflect and communicate some of the genuine joy and misery of following the game, and re-vitalise the soccer communication process within the local professional football environment.

- 105 - Ar("'hiva l treatment of football infQrmat~on

As ephemeral material, regular printed football info,mation appears from a cursory inspection to command a relatively low priority in terms of archival treatment, which, if more comprehensively proven, could provide further evidence of the low sta.tus commonly assigned to communications in the game.

An archivist is not included amongst the range of ancillary staff at football clubs, though club statisticians may act as a source of histo,ical data, whilst scattered Programme collectors constitute dispersed and relatively inaccessible holdings of the club's printed ma"terials. It would appear that in the past decade many clubs have become more conscious of the need to record the club's heritage with printed achives as a matter of basic pride; for example by maintaining bound volumes of programmes, or, as at one club interViewed, hiring the services of a newspaper cuttings service. However, such schemes essentially emanate from the flimsy commitment given by the personal inclinations of individual officials_rather than as part of a coherent club policy which recognises the inherent historical reference value of the ephemera. Hence. as ~.ason observed in 1981. "even tho.se semi- professional and professional clubs which have had a more or less continuous existence for one hundred years or so cannot be relied upon for exemplary record keeping". (182)

Outside the .,cl ubs, local newspaper.l i braries with their reporter­ supportive information services constitute potentially the most thorough archival source, though again are equally depend~nt on the personal diligence or interest of soccer reporters and newspaper lihrarians past and present. (183)

Public libraries may provide broader public access to the newspaper version of the club's history, and may hold a varie"ty of ephemera, but, it appears, are unlikely to develop the coherent system of regular retrieval and storage of club Programmes that might befit both

- 106 - local studies collections and the value inherent in the materials as sources of local social and footballing history.

In still broader terms the professional game's major administrative organistion, the Football League, appears to perceive little role for itself as a repository for coherent archives reflecting the game's development in finite detail (184), ultimate evidence perhaps of professional football's pre-occupation with often superficial, immediately impactful and publicity oriented communications rather than a more meaningful, lasting and interest sustaining information diffusion.

More thorough research into the archival treatment of football ephemera was not within the remit of this particular work, but is an area clearly worthy of detailed analysis in the field of information studies, particularly regarding the role and practice of public library local studies collections.

- 107 - The study has given a discursive rather than definitive critical account of the climate prevailing in soccer's printed communications with its public. By also presenting an analysis of historical developments and non-print soccer media a broad perspective has been expounded of the production attitudes, constraints, processes, and demands determining the accessibility of soccer information through regular official and non-official channels.

The most frequent and impactful official source, the match-day progra~~p, produced by all Football League clubs. is accessible to the regular attenders and thus, most committed supporters. Primarily, it seems, aimed at the younger fan, these magazines nevertheless constitute a potentially vital, if commonly under utilised, source of

U offiCial" comment on more important football issues. A valid match souvenir and cumUlative record of club news and events, the constraints given by the schedule and scale of production, sensitive club control and the more immediate news impact of the pre~s and wider media seem to dictate the limited depth, style and informative quality of programmes and likewise c1ub newspapers, though the latter may represent an encouragable attempt to form broader communication links with the public beyond those given by match attendance. The less common and infrequent newsletters also potentially diversify regular soccer club communications, although their restricted distribution to specific sections of the more committed support, as a public relations exercise, provides little enhancement of Wider, more penetrative information diffusion, an aspect addressed, to a limited extent, by \ the regularly up-dated "Club Call" data retrieval system available to the supporters of many top clubs.

As a means of reaching the broader football-interested public on a regular, non match-speCific basis, the symbiotic interdependence that exists between the clubs, in their quest for publiCity, and the local press, in their need for soccer copy, is a perpetually instrumental,

- 108 - if at times abused, asset invoking a more widely circulated and incessant conduit of awareness and publicity. Press dissemination of football news items and features is considerable in daily and weekly, national and local, general newspapers, whilst "football specials" and soccer magazines provide the more committed follower with specialist interest sources, the latter again tending to be targetted towards a teenage market, whilst "football specials" are only accessible in limited pockets of the country.

The nature of the information conveyed by this range of sources is largely given by the dominant attitudes amongst the game's officials. With other leisure pursuits competing for public attention and a steady decline in attendances. cOmmprcial attitudes dominate within the professional game typified by the comment of Derek Dougan, ex­ Chairman of the Professional Footballers Association, that "football is an art and a craft combining commercial exploitation .... we have a product to sell and should go out and sell it" (185). Hence, the tenor of communications in professional football is primarily, in the all-pervasive phrase, to "sel1 11 the game or club to the public, as opposed to the prioritising of educative and informative functions.-~ The match-day magazines and club newspapers consequently tend to convey partisan and positive copy, whilst the general proximity between local journalists and officials, given by their regular interactions, facilitates a healthy flow of "soft" news and features, but may constitute a significant impediment to responSible soccer reporting.

At the national level the "popular" press' narrow definition of soccer newsworthiness, combined with a concentration upon sensationalism, undeniably sustains a high profile for the game, but with its banalities and disingenuousness translates merely the simplicity and none of the concomitant beauty and diverse attraction of the game into soccer copy.

The primary factor engendering restricted accessibility to objective and enlightening soccer reading matter is further given by an

- 109 - undemanding sports reporting process, described succinctly by Charnofsky, whereby "their interactions (sports people and public) either direct or through the media, have traditionally been an interchange of non-committal words. Learning about professional sport has been a haphazard procedure for outsiders". (186)

This complacency and disregard, in particular towards the information needs of the discerning adult reader, constitutes an underlying theme in this study which has shown both journalists and club officials often neglecting their responsibilities to broaden awareness and deepen appreciation of the game beyond a highly significant and relevant, but uninspiring compendium of soccer news and reports. However, in isolated settings recognition has emerged of the market for a richer 1 iterature, though, in elements of the "quality" press, for example, only on the limited scale that can be achieved in a general news source. This tentative shift to more considered comment and analysis of the context of the game may not be widely diffused, but the spasmodic attempts, given also by the "alternatjye" magazines' innovative efforts. may ease the sports or soccer pages, in Shaw's contemptuous words, "away from its traditional image"'as the toy department of the daily newspaper - a sandbox peopled by the idiot chi Idren of journalism'" (187)

The "alternative" magazines. with their independent and inventive approaches, undoubtedly extend the parameters of what constitutes "information" in the football world and have injected genuine vigour into the soccer communications process, but 'though the club-based independent'magazines may be significant in local distribution terms, the IInational" fanzines' distribution and public awareness difficulties, coupled with occasionally dogmatic, grinding issue stances, may hinder their transition into the broadly accessible and comprehensive specialist source that could bolster soccer's extensive, but largely unrefined information culture.

This culture is pervaded by broader football club commercial practices than the self-publicity inherent in much of the programme content and

- 110 - newspaper copy, manifesting itself in the mutual supportive alliance between advertising and information diffusion in the game. As Wagg observed, Ufootball's future, the consensus is, lies in the generation of extraneous income, and most especially with more and better impression management" (188), and in both these respects the professional game's information diffusion processes generally reflect, and are instrumental for the achievement of, this broad predisposi tion.

- 111 - Background to the study

1. Michael Kaye. "Football and Lil:erature" F A. TOday (Jan. 1975) P. 298.

2. In particular, refer to the passage in this study titled

ll liThe press and soccer: pre-radio and television •

3. Pla?.fajr ~QQtba'l Annual, 1987/88. P. Dunk, ed.

(London: r~cDDnald Queen Anne Press, 1987) P. 108.

4. Geoff Wicken. Media Week <10.1.86) P. 6

5. Gene Ta 1 Household Sl'ryey, 1983 (London: Hr.sO, 1983) These figures compare with only 1% for Rugby, Horse Racing and Motor Racing, for example.

6. "Football - our most popular sport". New Sqcipty (23.10.80) P.171.

7. Details of these interviews are given in AppendiY 3.

8. For a full list of respondent clubs, refer to App~ndix 2.

9. For a full list of interviewees. refer to AppeDdj~ 3.

10. Playfai T "ootba" Anpual, 1987/88 (London: MacDonald Queen Anne Press, 1987), P. 109.

- 112 - 11, A list ef these magazines is produced in A;pt=>nG.i7 5,

Thp football programme: a potted h"istory

12. Phil Shaw. Collecting Football Programmps (London: Granada, 1980) pp 8/9. A programme is featu,ed for a match between Queen's Park and Wanaerers on 9th October 1975,from which Ilas players did not wear numbers, they were identified by t.he colour of their socks or the kind of cap they 'rmre".

13. Shaw. Co) lecting Football Programmes P. 15

14. Stephen Wagg, The FOQtba ll World: A Contempqrary Social History (Brighton: Harvester Press, 1954). P. 36

15. "The only programme published by the authority of the Everton and Liverpool clubs", as stated on its covers, was produced from 1904 to 1937/38.

16. The Ipswich Town F. C. 11 official Programme" for the League game versus Bristol Rove!"'s (October 1st 1938) also offers the £ollowing reflection on its cover: "¥.an is rewarded for the success he attains: he should also be judged by the quality of his endeavoer", reflecting a valid recognition of the need to deeDen appreciation of the game beyond the narrow "win/lose means success/failure" criteria which abounds in soccer today.

17. Paul Clarkson. A Pictorjal History of Soccer PrQgram~es • (Brigg: Match-day Programmes 198?) P. 119

18. Clarkson, A Pi ctorial Hi story of Soccer prograljIIDPs P. 4.

19. Clarkson, A Picto;-ial His+p""y of SOI-ce r Programmes P. 4.

- 113 - 20. J ere:ny Tunst,'3.~ l.

(London: Consta~le, 1931) ? 89.

21. Maurice Curti:l. Corrp.sPQDdpDCe (1~.e.e7) Curtin is the editor of the "Derby County Programme Collectors Revie'rl" CFeb 1ge7 - ).

22. Details taken from IIFn; ted We Stand" (Rotherham F. C. v Notts

County F.C. 21.3.87) and "T~e Spi~e" lChesteriield F.C. v Notts County F.e. (27.9.86).

23. Notts County's programme'for the game against Middlesborough (7.12.86), ior instance, reminisces on season 1977/78, describing JD.anagerial changes, the circumstances of a fruitless "away trip"

to an abandoned match, and the contrasting fortunes of othe~ local sides in the same period.

24. In IIj:Qre-=.t", official match-day programme of Nottingham Forest

F.C., (v. Aston Villa 29.12.84). Of insubstantial concrete news value, these regular "We welcome :rom abroad ... 1I notices supposedly re!lect the club's international recognition and status.

25. 'On tbp. BY-union Bp.xt.1I in. liThe Blup;.:;", Carlisle F.e.ls match-day magazine Cv. Notts County 21.12.87).

26. For cOIDID-=nt on IIShoot" magazine, refer to section on "Y..ainstream soccer magazines: a vi tal contribution?".

27. John Litster-. IIEditor Talking". ";Irogramml=l Monthly. 74 O'.ay 1987) P.7.

- 114 - 28. For exaz:.ple, in the "Che 1 s.::l"; ]:;.c. r"'~~~eial ?[Qgra"'ljTIe" (\t. Q.P.R. F.e. 1.1.87>, the editor, not a club off!cial, produced a

scaLting ~rticle about plastic pitches, pa:-ticulariy pe:-tinent as that day's opponents have one at their home ground. Const:-uctive criLicism and open debate such as this are vital ingredienLs in the cultivation of any healthy interest.

29. In "Shakp ..... 's E'evipw", the programme of Bu:-y F.e.

,s advert; .si n';;" mo=>d j "p "

30. Geraint Parry. FrOg-faMe> Monthly 67 (DeL. 1986) P. 22

31. Doncaster Rover's Programme (v. llotts County 7.3.87).

?ro.rammo=> p,....oduction

32. Vlattor-c: F.C., for instance, in a p:-ogra:m..'"D.e last season (v. Vlest

Ham United F.e. 4.10.86) published a letter of minor complaint ~o enable them to justify entry prices and e:-:plain the club's travel packages with the local bus companies.

John Litster. 72 Obrch 19E·7) P. 7

34. Cliff Houlder. IelephQDP interview 28.8.87. Moulder is Production Manager for Maybank Press.

35. The Football League Executive Staff ASSOCiation, organises an annual programme competition when the League clubs are invited to send in three programmes for judging by Commercial Managers. programme collectors and journalists with points awarded out of ten for five categories: value for money. editorial content, colour. layout/design, and (lack of) advertisements. The

- 115 - subjective nature of the compe"'::ition, howeve:-, is revealec. by "the comn:or..ly different results from the other major awards: The \'i:-ral P:-ogramrne Club awards and "Prog:-am.'1l'= JtI.. onthly" ¥..agazine awards.

36. Col in Benson p~rs?o;; 1 i nte!..-} ew <4.6.57). Kr. Benson is editor

of two program.i118s p:-oduced by ¥.aybank ?ress ~Chelsea F. C..

~est Ham United F.C.).

lT h1 37. Alan Anderson. "Inside Jllaybank • P;-ogrammn WQ n t y 39 UL:ne 1984) P. 9.

38. Derby County F.e. produced a newspaper format programme during the 1970's, and after switching to a magazine style in 1979/80, reve:-ted to tabloid size due to falling sales in outlying areas t.hrough the newsagent.s. But a magazine style is nOh' produced, "tbe n8wspape:- una'81e to compete with its glossinesE, and compac"tness, on matchdays. (Cur-tin. Correspondence 13.8.87),

39. Research has revealed that Char-Iton F.e. I Crystal Palace F.C., Norwich F.C., Scunthorpe F.C. and wat.ford F.C. produced four page reserve match programmes during 1986/87.

40. John Litster. "Ec.itor Talking" Programmp Monthly 74 (l';ay 1987) P. 7.

41. Refer to the study's section on "Mainstream soccer magazines".

42. Prog~ammp "Qothly 76 (July 1987) P. 10 A list of Scottish clubs producing programmes since the cessation of the Second \.Torld war- re·.reals that until season 1984/85, several Scottish League clubs c.ic. not issue regular match programmes.

- 116 - 43. By taking an average of the individual programme sales. stipulated by clubs in the questionnaire, and e:·:trapola'ting this figure to produce a total sum for programme sales in each of the four divisions, an average circulation for the match-day programme on a "'typical" Saturday was estimated at 213,859 issues.

44. Richa"d Coppocl:. "The Histo"y of Hartlepool United Programmes. 1970 - 1933". programma "ontbly 73 (April 1937) PP 35 - 40.

45. Peter Burrin. P+Qgra~mp Xonth'y 70 (Jan. 1987) P.37

46. Colin Diball. D,'ly Mirror <19.2.86).

47. During the 1970·s. tbe Football League published its own journal.

the 11 Football League Review". Unavailable in newsagents, this

house magaZine was inserted into the Prog~an~es of the majority of League clubs, (80 out of 92 subscribed in 1968), the editor, Har:-y Brown, claiming that "as the official journal of the League,

i t8 sole conce:-n is the irdlge of the profes5ional game" (Football League Review 3 (6) (1968) P. 4). Dealing with soccer issues, trends and personalities in a positive way and answering c:-itcisms levelled at the professional game it gave the League a widely diffused voice (sales of 520,000 were claimed in August 1968), and it enhanced the detail and e:·:tent of c.iscussion in Programmes. though not with the parochial bias demanded by many supporters. resulting in its eventual demise. Independent imitations have since been produced. titles including'

u IICentrespot , a Maybank production in the 1980's, and the liOn Target" and "Programme Plusu supplements in the late 1970' s, but as one club official commented "you put the price of the prog:-amme up, included the insert which was very cheap and justified the price increase by the extra 20 pages or Whatever,

U but you got letters complaining"! don'l want to read that I and when we dropped it, there was definitely no comeback from

- 117 - suppo~~ers, because a~ awful lot of peo?le f~ankly ~eve~ read it as it wasn't about thei:- club".

48. During 1986. Rarnscroft, a company in Woolhampton, Berkshire, p:-oduced a 16 page publication for John Player League cricket

matches. inclucing a page of news and co~ent by most of the

pa:-ticipa~ing clubs.

49. Refer to list given in Apr~Ddix 4.

H 50. H M.eadow Lane News \Jf.arch 1986) P. 1.

51. Elaine Howes. Personal interview 12.5.87. Howes is Marketing Jf.anager of Notts County F.C.

52. Football League Review [?) 1971 P. 10.

5:3. H;:uIlmO;-s News, 1 (2) Ol.arcn 1987) P. 4

This "Month Ahead" feature in \1est Ham Uni~ed F.C. 's club newspaper, however, is retrospl3ctive rather than scene-se'tting.

54. H~~m~rs News. 1(2) (March 1987) P. 9.

55. H'mmo~s Nows, 1(2) (March 1987) P. 3.

56. Bria.n 011 ver. "Soccer's Sales Pi tch". If.arketjDg 14 (1~) (15.9.83) P. 28.

57. H"~!!I°rs Nows, 1(2) (Jf.arch 1987) P. 3.

58. Refer to this study's section on IIAlter-native mgazines", and see

Append iv 5 for full lis~.

- 118 - 59. The E:port.s Counci~ backed. a "Football and t':1e CO!llIIIunity Prograrr:me ll p:-oject in 197e, following. for instance, informed opinion that IIclubs should take steps 'to irn.?rove their lines of communica-rion wi th the public". [Crowd Behaviou. at Football I'.atches, Report of

'the \forking Par-ry: Ch!t.• "1: Sir John Lang CLondon: Hl'.£O, 1969, paras. 44 - 47).].

60. y,1ot f o:d: tbp fr; endl y fOQtball ('lub CPre-season promotional brochure, 1986). The brief questionnaires 8'ttempt to ascertain

a snapshot \~iew 01 supporting habits. and the reasons for- them.

Nop-print fpotball club cQ~munir~tions

61. "Evertonll Official P:-ograrnme (v. Leicester City F.C., 28.12.86).

62. Footb?11 Today, 1 (3) (!I..ay1987) P.IB.

63. As'ton Villa F.e. is one club known to have expe:'"imented 't'lith renting frames on frestel during the 1ge5/86 season for ticket news and general club information.

64. Ascertained from Programme research and British Telecom's "Club Call" promoti,onal pack.

65. British Te1pcCID. "Club CallI! promotional literature.

66. Revealed during inte~views with club officials.

- 119 - 67. James Walvin. FOQtball and the Derline of Britain (Basingstoke: MacMillan Press, 1986) P. 82.

t 68. James Walvin. liThe Role of Media in Sport '.

Jou-nal of Biosocia' Sr~ence, SUP? 7 (1981), P. 31

69. Tony J!I.ason. Association Poctb,,}' and Eng'ish Sqr,ipty 1863-19] 4 (Brighton: Harvester Press, 1981) pp 187 - 195.

70. Kason, ASSQ~iatiQn FOQtb~ll and EngJisb Socjety. P 195

71. Ibid. P. 189.

72. Ibid. P. 189.

73. Ibid. P. 195

The Pr~ss and SQCCP~: rost-raCiq and television

74. Jeremy Tunstall. The M~C.:a -iD B~ita~D (London: Constable, 1983) P. 118.

75. Stephen Vagg. Tbe Football World: a Contemporary Social History (Brighton: Harvester Press, 1984) P. 121.

76. The post noon, half-hour, soccer 'magazine' is an established· format on both major television channels. Currently presented

by ex-professional footballers, Bob vlilson's IIFootball Focusll (B.B.C. 'Grandstand') adopts a more formal presentation than the jocular, and often banal, double-act that is the "Saint and Greavsie" show Cl. T. V. ), though both tend to skirt discussion of the game's issues in favour of a collage of 'star' inter'itiews,

- 120 - highlight5 of recent goals and incide~ts, and sho:-t previews of the day's main matches. SCDpe exist.s for a more in-depth investigati ve anc al ternati ve :format soccer television programme - perhaps in mid-week on Channel 4-as an esoteric 'gap-filler'.

77. Garry J. Smith and Terry A. Valeriote. "Ethics in Sports

Journalism!! h ..... en.:. f~eyi ew. 7(2) (1ge3) p, 10.

7e., L. Schecter .:...n. R. Poe liThe Writing of Sports" Esquir~ Oct., 1974 P. 175.

79. Bob Findlay. "Platfor~'. ;QQtba 11 Teagu~ Review 3 (20) (1968) P. 4

80. Paul Smith. A Sociological Investigation into the Reasons for

the Decline in Football League Attendances. UnpubH.. sheci B. h.

Thps; s (Dept. of Communication Studies, Trent Polytechnic, fia_y 1984) P. 19.

81. Jirn Mossop Te1~rhQDP IT'!tpy-vjClv; (11.6.87) M:'. Mossop, a joernalist with the "Sunday b:press", has co-ordinated a survey, by questionnaire, of members of the Football Writers Association to ascertain their :feelings about press facilities at football grounds. Collated results were unavailable. but an outline of the findings was communicated. and they are to be used in support of the F.W.A. 's case in talks with the Football League aimed at improving general working conditions for soccer journalists at stadiums.

82. Jirn Mossop. Ibid.

83. Tunstall, The MCldja in Brjtain (London: Constable, 1983) P. 183.

- 121 - 84. A!1cre",' W.3.!"'C. "Socialisation into Professiona.l Football in the 1950's: A Case Study of Ba:-nsley Foo"toa.ll Club" i.n. Alan

Tomlinson (ec..) ;;''''p1orat;i 0""<=, in ;'-oQtb'd' Culturt=l (Proceedings

of a Workshop of B.S.A./Leisure Stuc.ies Association on Leisure and Recreation, Sheffield City Poly, 4.6.82)

55. Findlay. Foothq'l P. 4

86. Colir. Benson. ?e ..... -=;"r::.;:l l;;'iprvieh' (4.6.87). Jo'I _ Benson is a

freelance journa.list, ex-football club $e~retary, and editor of two Umatchday magazine.s".

87. See. in particula:-, this s~ucy' s sections on the oonager and playe:-s as info!"'mation sources.

Tbe "idt=l,]" rqlp of thp press

88_ Cliff Morga:l. "The Role of Y.ecia in Sport" Supp 7 (1981) P. 24.

89. Stephen WagE. (Brighton: Harvester Press, 1984) P. 126.

90. Graham Taylor. D;:ily Mail (2.10.85).

91. Br-ian Oliver. "Soccer's Sales !litchI!. Ma~kpting 14(11) (16.9.83), P. 27

92. ¥.ike Le\"lis. in. B:-ian 01i ver

93. B.ian Olive.. Y~rkpting P. 27_

- 122 - 94. Edrnund Coan. (It.. 6. 87).

Sperialist informtion hanClers in soccer

95. Watford F.C. Offica' Hapdbook 1ge~(87.

96. JereI:lY Tunstall. Journqlist-=; at 1l0r1; (London: Constable, 1971) P. 161.

97. Brian Dal ton . U The Financial Management of a Professional Football Clubu , Acco'Jrtants Fo.;orQ 65(4/85). P. 5

The playors as press i nformatj on SQurcps

98. Arthu:- Hopcraft. The Football ¥-fHl: People and Par.:sjQDS_ jn~QCCF':­ (London: Callins, 1968) P. 150

99. Stephen Bierley "Football DiaryH Tho Guardian (4.4.57) P. 16.

100. Stephen Bie~ley. Ibid.

101. Dwight White in John A. Walsh "Sports: Yledia Created -Images Vs Reality" National Forum 62(1) (1982) P. 3.

102. Ken Jones. HFootball's Agents of FortuneH The Indpp"'ndent (25.7.87). P. 30.

103. PI='T"sonal and t.elephone interviews confirmed this rumour, whilst an independent publication by the Chelsea Independent Supporters Association co:rnmented ",then 'Bridge News' was ini"tially launched,

it urovided an interesting read wit~ articulate interviews and

- 123 - feB"tures. b~t ever since the p:!.a:{er-s boycott the paper has declinec".

104. ¥.argot Law:-ence. liThe Club with a cure for soccer \'iolence" <14.3.85),

105. Jf.argo"t La~Tence. Ibid.

The press sourrps

106. Denis McQuail. F'pviE'h' of sQcjologica 1 wrjtiDb" OD top prpss

107. Janet Lever. Socrer M.adness (London: Univ. Chicago. 1983). P. 2

108. l"iD.rta Whorle. "Flir-ting with respectability". Sunday Tjmps (9.8.57) P. 45

109. AEe Jan-June 1987 - Figures reproduced in "the IISunday Timps" (Aug. 9. 1987) P. 45.

110. Garry v,1hannel. IIFootball, C!"oh'd Behaviot.:r anc the Press" Media Cp'ture and foriety, 1 (1979). P. 330.

111. Gecff Wicken. Mp~ja Wep); (10.1.86) P. 6.

112. P1 ayfa i rFoQtba11 A.DDlIal. 1086/87 (London: Queen Anne Press, 1986) P. 128.

113. Nottingham" Evening Post"

football. From a sample oi 527 inte~views conducted within a

25 mile radius of liottingham. it was ascertained that only 43% of

- 124 - respondents had attended a leae::.ue match in the pasl. year.

N;;ture and style o

114. The one-dimensional nature of much of the "popular" press! football coverage is given by the obsession with narrow "success! failure u issues as the dominant newswort.hy copyline emerging from match reports, rather than an analysis of the stylistiC, aesthetiC! tactical or interactional qualities of a particular match! or as broader characteristics of the game.

115. A.C.H. Smith. IISporting Gesturesll in Your Sllnday Paper (ed) Richard Hoggart (London: Univ. London Press, 1967) P. 177.

116. liThe Independentll! launched in 1986, has a wealth of sports/

soccer writing talent at its disposal, ~,ith recognised reporters including Phil Shaw, Ken JaDes and Patrick Barclay discussing topics ranging from apartheid to agents in relation to soccer.

117. ~~rta Whorle. Sunday TiI:.=os (9.8.87) P. 45.

118. John A. Walsh. "Sports: Media Created Images Vs Reality". National t

The loca] pres~ cbaDD~l of soccer jnfQ~rnatjQD

119. Refer to passage on uThe Press and soccer: pre-radio and

ll television •

120. Jarnes vlalvin. ""oat ba 1 ' 3 T1 d tOP Dpcline of t.'!'"it3'in" (Basingstoke: MacMillan Press, 1986) P. 82.

- 125 - 121. See, fo:- exam?le, 1. jackson, Thp P ...... nvinc~a.l p .... ~.-:= g'1r t""'P Cnr;.."!!;Jnity (JII.ancneste:- Unive:-sity P:-ess, 1971) fa!"' a discussion on the influence exerted on local newspaper content by local institutional leaders.

122. Denis McQuail. ReyiehT a-+" soriologira1 w-:=iting OD the presc::

123. Garry J. Smith and Terry Valeriote. "Ethtcs in sports journalism"

fiPn3 Rpyiew 7(2) (1983) I P. 7.

124. Steve Tongue. .. The Press we deserve?" E.oJ..:l 1 (Oct. 1972) P. 7.

125. Gr-aham Taylor "Rumours and. Facts" Watford 1=0 C. P,ograr;U'po=l (v. Luton Tot-m F.C., 21.4.87) P. 5.

126. For example. OliveI' Phillips of the UWatford Observer"

cont=-ibutes a historical feature and sta~istical analyses to the programme .. \'Ini 1st also compil ing a serial ised history of the club for inclusion in the club's official handbook.

127. f.ike Langley. CQrre~poDdpncp (9.6.57) Langley is a sports writer with the nSunday Peoplen and was voted 1986/87 'Spor'ts vlriter of the Year' by the National Federation of Football Supporters Clubs.

128. The Stockport County F. C. "Official Programme" (v. Scunthorpe Uniced F.e., 13.4.87) graphically depicts, with familiar handshaking symbolism across a football, the collaboration of

ll "two great teams , the club and the newspaper.

129. The "Nottingham Trader", for example. a weekly free-sheet, claimed on its cove, a distribution of 180,000 (29.7.87), compared to a daily average circulaCion of 133,247 for the No'ti:ingham "Evening Post" lABel Willings ?ress Guide, 1987).

- 126 - 130. Refer to section on "Archival 'trea~m'2nt 8f printed soccer

u infor:rrl.3.tion •

131. Tony Y~son. AssQ~jatjQn ~QQtbal] enr English Society. ,. ~1",8",6""3,-,=-....,,,,q,,,1...L'" (Brighton: Harvester Press, 19(3) P. 192.

132. A. Ledbrooke & E. Turner. Snf"cp .... +"!""Q!"l tho :>ress boy (London: S?ortsman's Book Club, 1955) P. 166.

133. There is, however, currently a boom in non-League soccer information diffusion through specialist magazines in response

to poo~ natio~al press coverage. Besides the national fixtures, results and tables source provided for seven seasons

u by the Bureau of Non-League Football, 11 Groundhopper magazine caters for a large band of nomadic non-League su??orters, "Pyramid" IIl.3gazine gives a League by League analysis, and the recently launched monthly "Club Soccer" complements these with features and historical articles.

134. A recent 24 page edition of the Liverpool IIPootball Echo"

(Sat. Aug. 29, 1987), for exam?1e, included a half ~age each of cricket, racing and rugby league news, the copy space other\'lise dominated by p:"'oiessional and amateur football topics.

135. David Murray. TelephQne -interyjew (3.9.87). Hurray is Market Research Executive for the Liverpool UDaily Post" and "Daily Echo".

136. David Hurray. Telephone iDt~ryi~w (3.9.87) Complete collated data was unavailable.

137. Mr. Holland. TelephQn~ interyjew (4.9.87) Holland is Director

of Circulation for the Birmingham "Evening ¥~il" and "Sports Argus".

- 127 - 133. ~illings Press Guide, 1982 - 1987.

139. As IIfootball specials" tend not. to be listed separat.ely from their parent papers in standard press guides. it is difficult to compile a comprehensive list, though areas known to be specifically covered by som.::! sort of Saturday evening sports publication include: \'olverhampton. Nottingham, Norwich,

Ipswich, Leicester, Liverpool and ¥~nchester.

140. At the "turn of the cent.ury. for example. London was served by the IIEvening Star", "Football Sun" and UFootball Evening News".

(Mason, AS50ciat-iop Football "nC Fn~'ish SqciPty, P. 193),

141. Steve Tongue. Personal Inte~yipw (19.6.87). Tongue was a soccer journalist on the "London Daily New2.".

~3in$tream SQcrer ma~a~jDes: a vital cQDt~~butjqn? "

142. Average rankings calculated irom questionnaire responses.

143. Refer to the "NB_tional press" section of this study.

144. Geofi Wicken. "Sport: jeu:: sans frontieres" Media Wec:>k 101 (6.2.87) P. 26.

Wicken analyses U.K. sports magazine p~ovision in relation to the United States and European markets. and reveals two dailies in Italy: "Gazzetto Dello Sport" and IICorriere dello Sport". with a joint circulation of almost 800,000; four daily sports

ti tles in Spain: the Jf&adrid based 11 A. S." and "JI'..arca", and Barcelona based "Sport" and "El Kundo Deportivo"; and in France:

ll "L'Equipe , an entertaining and informative adult magaZine. All these publications include a sizeable proportion of football copy.

- 128 - 145. France, for example, has the monthly"Onze" and ":r.'.undial ll in addition to a weekly uFrance Football".

146. The IIToday" newspaper p:-oduced an eight page "Sports Extra"

during the 1986/87 season, whilst the "Daily Mirrorll currently incorporates IISports Mirror", an eight page "weekend extra", both carrying soccer features.

147. ABC circulation figures (July - Dec. 1986). Including overseas sales, total circulation for the same period was 158,617. "Shoot" magaZine (I.P.C. MagaZines Ltd) appears on Fridays, and was established in 1969 CWillings Pres2, Guide 1987) .

148. Average circulation for the wednesday issued 1IJ.'l.8tch Weekly" (E.M.A.P. Pursuit Publishing Ltd) was 71,116. The magaZine was launched in 1979 (Willings Press Guide 1987).

149. The content style and "elite" bias is illustrated by the

Aug. 22nd issue of 11 Shoot" , which in a "bumper 64 pages" featured a two page IInovelty" iten: on Scarborough F.C., prolIloted to the Fourth Division from the non-League, and filled the rest of its pages with features along the First Division­ International axis of football.

150. "Soccer In''ternational'' and "\forla Soccer" are monthly publicacions, the latter with a circulation of 22,538 (ABC, Jan - Dec. 1986).

151. "Football Today" (P. R. Publications Ltd) The magaZine was launched in February 1987. Circulation figures were supplied by Eric Partridge, Publishing Director of the magaZine. Telephone jntp.ryip'o'. (4.9.87)

152. "potRa]1 Today 1 (3) (May 1987) P. 17.

- 129 - 153. Geoif wickeD "Sport: j eux sans front ieres" Media W~er- 101 \6.2.87) P. 27.

154. Mick Ticher. Radio int~ryi~ (IISunday Live", Radio 1, 2.S.e7: interviewed by Tony Fletcher). Ticher is editor of "when Saturday Comes", a general iootball fanzine.

155. For a 1 ist of 11 a1 ternati ve" soccer magazi nes, refer to Appendix 5.

156. "Foul" magazine. (London: Foul Publications Ltd) A monthly/bi-monthly publication "Foul" was produced in 35 issues between October 1972 and August 1976.

157. Steve Tongue. "Foul Mouth". E.o.!.il1 COct. 1972) P.7

158. Stephen Wagg. The "ootb?] 1 'In-la: A Contemporary So,-jal History (Brighton: Harveste'r Press, 19B4) P. 153

159. Steve Tongue. Persona] int~ryiew (19.6,87). Tongue is ex-editor

of Foul and at the time of the interview "taS football correspondent with the' London Daily News'.

160. Tongue. ?ersona 1 Inter-view (19.6,87)

161. Tongue. Persona] lnt~ryjew (19.6.87)

162. 'CityGent', 10 (Feb. 1986) P.13 "Ci ty Gent" is an independent publ ication covering Bradford City Football Club.

lt 163. Adrian Goldberg, Radio intpryipw (USunday Live • Radio 1, 2.5.87; interviewed by Tony Fletcher). Goldberg is editor of

- 130 - "Oi: The Ball". an independent football fanzine dealing with general issues.

164. Mike Ticher. Co .... responde'"'cQ (15,7.87).

165, Ac.rian Galdberg. Cc; .... espnn,.;""nre (26.4.87).

166. One magazine editor specified a 3,000 p~int run, but askec to remain anonymous.

167, Raymond \\1illiams. The P;de.t~ng A1tprnatiyes in (,ommunications (Lancon: The Fabian Society. 1962) (Fabian Tract 337) P. 1Q,

16B. lan COlley. ror-psppndpnre (6.7,87) Colley is Secretary of the Sheffield Wednesday Loncion Supporters Club, who produce the .. London Owl" fanzine/nevlsletter.

169. Frank Ormston. CQrrespondence (22,7.87)

Dl'mston is co-editor of "Ter::-ace Talk", the York City F. C. ianzine.

170. Clint lIes't. ·Cprre~pondpnce (15.0.B7) West is editor of "Townsfolkll, an Ipswich To",'11 F. C .. magazine.

171. Ci::-culation figures given by clubs were compared with those claimed by fanzine editors. At least one independent club-based magazine, a bi-monthly publication, showed higher sales than the respective club Programme.

172. Clint West. Cprresponden.;;e (15.6.87).

173. ran Colley. Cpr~esppndpnce (6.7.87).

174. liThe pip". Issue 3, P. 2 liThe Pie" is an alternative Notts County F.e. magazine.

- 131 - 176. RlIlps and RegJllations of the Football Lea~ue. 198,0,/87 Ofiicial Ground Regulations, item 7 These rules are commonly posted outside Football League Grounds.

177. Provocative literature including "Bulldogll and IIPhoeni:-:" have

in~ermittently been distributed at Football Grounds in recruitment drives by right wing groups such as the National Front and British J'ttovement.

178. The 11 Guardianll, "Independent!!, IINews on Sunday" and "Observer" newspapers have all recently given publicity to football

ll fanzines, as have rock music newspapers "NME" and "Sounds , indicating the range and type of audience appeal the magazines may have.

179. Pigures promulgated in various Correspondence with fanzine edi "tors.

180. John Peckham. CorresPQpdence {16.6.87)

?eckharn is Ch~irrnan of Leeds United Supporter's Club, Griffin Branch, who p:-oduce "Crossbar-II magazine,

181, See AppendiX 5 for a list of kno'f'm lIalternativell magazines,

Arr~iy31 treatm~n+ of fOQtbaJ 1 information

182, Tony ¥~son. Associati OD t'potbe. 1 l and Rn:' ish SQciety

(Brighton: Harvest~r Press. 1981) P. 6.

183, Only in the past three seasons has the Nottingham "Evening

Post" I for example I begun to develop an archive of the local club's Programmes. Reliant on supply by the respective club's

- 132 - re?8:-ters, the archi ve is, howeve:-, i nsoIt?le-:e, whi 1st the

negligen~ atti~ude of previous lib~arians towards sports information holding in general led to the disposal of virtually all ea,lier materials.

184, The Football League holds extensive records of players careers,

.,- and a rando~ selection of club histories and yearbooks, but adopts no coherent archiv31 policy in respect of regular

published information about the game, (}fus Whiteside,

Tp 1 p!,1.on p ; nTo::r.ry; PW, 2.6.87 - !'flrs Whi teside admi nisters the Football League's p,inted material holdings).

Conr1"siou

185. Derek Dougan ill F. Inglis, The nama. of the game' Sport and society (London: Heinemann, 1977) P. 155. The comment was made in a letter to the author.

186. H. Charnofsky. "The Major League Baseball player:.se1f conception versus the popular image".

Internationql Reyiew of Sport SQr;Qlo~y 13 (1968) P.9S,

187. D. Shaw. "Spo:-ts Page: Looy., Yi.a, No Decimal Point", Los

Angeles Times. Sports Section, Feb. 7, 1975 ~ Garry J. Smith

and Cynthia Blackman. Spa'-! in the Mos:- Mpdia (Universit:y of Calgary, [197 -). (C. A. H. P. E. R. Sociology of Sport Monograph Series).

188, c·tephen y.1agg. Thp Fpotbal' ;lprld: a cpntemporary spria' history (Brighton: Harvester Press, 1984) P. 273.

- 133 - APPEJiDICES

1. Questionnaire and covering letter.

2. Football clubs ret~~ning cOIDple~ed questionnaire.

3. Personal interviews.

4. Cu~::-ent club ne .....'spapers.

5. Current footoall 'fanzines'.

- 134 - APPENDIX 1: The Questionnaire- PAUL FOREMAN· TEL:(0602) 472715 184 ROLLESTON DRIVE LENTON NOTTM. NG7 1LA 29/6/87

Dear Club Secretary, your club's assistance would be welcomed for. an innovative piece of research which may highlight issues of particular RELEVANCE TO YOUR OWN WORK, and I would be most willing to send you a summary o~ the results, should you require.

The research study is concerned with" informat.ion provision through printed lines of communication in soccer clubs ", a subject which, as an avid football follower I believe is of importance because: (1) information plays a crucial role in developing soccers image and creating a positive attraction for the game; (2) as a central element of a broader marketing strategy, effective information provision can improve the prospects of soccer clubs. The co-operation of numerous clubs has already been secured, and your assistance would further enhance development of both an informed and informative study, which, as my ,submission for a Masters degree at Loughborough University of Technology, could ultimately help me in gaining employment.

Hence your response to this questionnaire will be enthusiastically received, and will: REMAIN ANONYlf,OUS, TAKE NO MORE THAN 10 MINUTES, REQUIRE MAINLY "TICK ONLY" REPLIES.

The questionnaire has been sent to you, as Club Secretary,. for the knowledge and professional insight which you can offer. However, should you feel that one of your colleagues at the club would be a more appropriate respondent, please forward these survey documents to them.

Finally, as I have a strict time limit placed upon my research, could I suggest return of the completed questionnaire (in the stamped addressed envelope provided) by July 15 ··in order to collate the findings and despatch the results.

In anticipation of your. assistance,

Yours Sincerely,

-1.">5 - l. ?.

Info£mat1on Provision by Professional Football Clubs 3. Do supporters mak~ any written contribution to the Club ~ES ProgralDllle1 If~. phsse explain: Th£ough Printed Unes of Communication NO B

A QUESTIONNAIRE

You£ iofoClJH:d r~sponst: to these straightforward Questions will be both EXTREMELY USU'UL and GRAl'!::FULL~ RI::C£IVEO.

The qU"titlonnair~ should take NO MORE TIIAN 10 HINS.

Your replit:s will renaln CONFIDENTIAL.

HETUOD 0 ... COHPLI::T lON : Are all the views expreued 1n your Progralllllle those officially hdd by the club itself? YES I. PhaSE: TICI( RELEVANT BOX(ES), NO Whue GIVE B 2. inJi<::atl;

Hage: Position (1 f other than Club Secretary):

Would you Uke lo rect-ive a sUllllllary of the results of the Study? YES 8 NO

Section I: The Progra.lll.llle 5. What were your avera e Programme sale8 per issue for League ~ in the 1986 8 seasoo? 1. Pleape gtv/'! the following brief details about the Club Progratwlle:

6. What was your Club's average League mstch attendance 10 b. Plue!:: (1986/87): the 1986/87. season?

c. USUAL NUMBER Of PACES/ ISSUE:

INDICATE Approx. what percentage of the progra.lll.llle editorial is PERCENTAG~ 2. 7. On average, what proportion of Programllle space 18 allocated provlJl;

c. Supporter(ti) ______~ 21 - 40% ______;--­

Other (please stste nod give relationship to Club) ______L-l d. 41 - 60% ------~ Hore than 60% ______...... J 3. 4-.

Section 2: Club Hewspaper 8. Do~.s tht: I-'rograUHQI;! for an average league match make 8 prot it 1 Does your Club currently produce its own newspaper (other YESB 12. than the !IrogrammeH YES NO NO If 'YES', «:xcluJJng advertising revenue, ,",ould the Progralllllle 8 stIll lDak~ a peoUt? ..sO If 'NO', please go straight to question 19 NO 0 If ~,phase give the following brief detalls:

9. What ProgramlllE sales are ce:qulred per match to break even? a. TITLE:

b. MONTH FIRST ISSUED: 19

10. PI"""se rank from 1-9 the following elements of Programme content c. FREQUENCY OF PUBLICATION: ISSUES PER SEASON. in what you beltevt: to be thde order of importance: d. PRICE PER ISSUE: (I. mOIiC ImportlJnt. 9. least important) RANK - .. AVERAGE NUMBER OF PAGES PER ISSUE; a. Cood pretit'ntatio nand layout - f. AVERAGE SALES PER ISSUE; b. Etfeclivt: use of ~ - INDICATE c. elt.ac cOlllillunicat ion of Club's commercial activities P£H.CENTAGf - 13. Approximately what percentage of Club newspaper editorial d. AdLquate publici ty '0' Club sponsors - ia pr.ovided by the following people: e. Thoughtful E-dito etal conl eot and features - a. CLUB OFFICIAL(S) ______I- f. Up-ta-date, camp rt:hens I ve facts and figures - b. JOURNALIST(S) ______I-- SUPPOHTER(S) ______g. Informdtive, cIu b news - c. h. AbunJant, clear ~hoto8ra~hs d. OTHER (Please atate and give relatiOnship to Club) ______(eg. Publ1shu) 1', Comprehensive, 1 nfotmative visitors 5 cc t 1 on '-- -~------~---- J. Any other Jmpol"tant elements,plE-ase specify and indicate on a scale of 1-9: 14. Plt:8se rank from 1-5 the following functions of the club RANK newapapE:r in what you bel1eve to be their order of importance: (1 ... most important. S - least important) a. to 'publicise the Club and its commercial events ______I_, b. to raise revenue for the club from advertisers ------11---; 11. Do you comdder tht:re to be any particularly innovative or YES unusualitt:llls in your Club's progl"dlDlllea?(eg. women's pages, et c) c. to provide up-ta-date news for supporters ------.r--l NO B If ',([S',please gtve dHails: d. to provide 'behind the scenes' information for supporters __ _

e. to compensate for poor local presa coverage of the Club ___ ,--

Any othl:r function. please specify: 5. b.

15. On avecagt., tJOW much of tht: .1 nformation J n the Club newspaper has E£!. been publ1sllt:d anywllt~re ~lse before?

0- 15% ______r-- 19. Has your Club produced 1ts own newspaper 1n the past? YES 16 - 'O% ______r-- NO DON'T KNOW If 'YES',please sive tbe followins details: ,1 - 60% ______r-- a. 61 - B5% ______r-- b. Fr~uency of publication: ______Jsaut-s per season. 86 - 100%~~--~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~------16. 1)01::1> lhe Club 6pt:cifically hold back lnionaation from tht- B'-- c. Please state the main reason(s) for discontlnuif\8 publicatIon; vr~ss toe inclusion in lh~ Club newspaper? YES NO

17. Uo you cOlIsid(;-c there to blE any particularly innovative or 20. Below are six possibh explanations for the Club not curr(:ncly unubudl itt.lns in your CluL's newspaper? YES producing its own nEwlipaper. Pleallle rank. tbelie from 1-6 In order RANK NO of significance: (1" most significant, 6 - least Significant) It 'YeS', pleusl: 8ive dt:talls: B a. sufficient coverage of Club in nat10nal press __'- ______r- b. sufficient coveragl! of Club 1n local press ______r-

c. production costa too hiSh ______r--

d. inliufficient interest from business 8S advut1secs ______r-

e. lnauff1clent demand/interest anticipated from supporters -----f--

f. insufficient information to support both Programme and Club __ >-­ newspaper. lB. Please indicate the 1Dt::I.thodS by which the Club newspaper 16 TICK ANY distrJbultd: q REI.EVANT BOX Any other reasons, please specify snd indicate their significance on a scale of 1-6: r- Aval1abl(;- trem the Club sh op(s) at the ground r- Available from programme s e} 1 ers at the ground r-- Aval1ablt: at the Supporter s Club

Available at local Dlwsage nto 21. Dot:s the Club havf:. any plans' to produce 1 ts own newspaper 1 n Available on subscription r-- the near future? ns NO Dibpstched free to Club mm bers or season ticket holders B If 'YES'. pleaSE: specUy reason and stve details of publJcation: Other method; plf:olls(; f:;tate: I. 8".

26. Does the Club issue press releases7 YES Sectioll l: Club-l'n:ss Relations NO If ''{£S',approximately how often? El 22. l'lt:ase indicate whether your Club has any of the following YES NO ptcsonnrd: Iwt:ek or ____-'I"."o"n"t!!h or Iseason

a. Publicity Officer

b. l'cess Rdattons Officer

c. Any olhH t:!lIployee prllllarlly 27. Please indicate the extent of your agreement with the follow1ng statements: (plt:ust: give title:) TICK ONE BOX PER STATEMENT St roogl Agree Nd ther DIsagree Strongly Aaree Agree no' Dlsauret- DisagreE: 23. !lot:s tht Club eVH lSbUt: rules or guidelines to personnd concerning' thtir Cootdct witll the prt:ss1 (eg. as part of players contl"8c[) a. Your football club'," activtties YES should warrane far more coverage and sttention NO frail B the local press. It ',{I::.!:i',~It:iI.b:e give dt:taUs: b. local erese coverage provides sood l!:ubl1citl for tilt: club and its activitles.

c. The local pre8& form a vital and invuluable source of rel1able ~ for supporters of the club.

d. Bead ng in mind the nature and 24. flas the Club dt:vf:loped any formal or informal agreements with all11s of thdr work, thE: local the local prt:ss, rt:ganhng thctr acct:-sa to, and use of. presB show due 8ens1t1vlq~ In 1niorlll8t1001 YES their reportl~ of the football club. NO If 'YES'.ple;)se spEcIfy the nature of the agreaaent: 8 , e. Without the coverage given by the local press your club ·would need to expand and improve its own methods of neWB and information provision.

£. In order to fulfil Ita ruponslbil1ty to supporters. a football club has a duty to give the local ~rcss broad access to , nt:ws and information. 25. !lOtS the Club tvt:. hold official pr~ss conferences1 YES NO If 'YES'.approxlmatdy how oftt:-n? B 0' /month 0' /season 9. 10.

S"ct ion 4: Hlscellant:ous

20. PleiJ!;(- rilnk the Ihtt-d media from 1-6 in terms of tilde RANK 31. Haa the club undflrtaken any research into the attitudes of contribution [0 club publicity. supportt:rli to tbe club prograllUDe or other information channels? YESB (I a ~oSl significant. 6 • It:ast significant) NO r- If 'YES', when and how was this undertaken? CJub pl'ugrammes/ nt:wspaper& I-

Local pet:ss C-

NalLo n.l pn:ss

1 nes

Tt:lt'v l:110n A sUIlUllary of the findings or 8 digest of answers would be 1II0st apprec1uted.

Kadio Any oebtor publlcJty lDt:dla,please spt:ctfy and indicate signJtlcanct: on a scale of 1-6:

29. For the periods shown, ph-ast: indicate if tht: club has produced, or will bt: producins. any of the listed pubUcatlons: TICK ANY RELEVANT BOXES 32. Art: there any othtr cOllUDents you would like to make on "intormatlon proviSion" at your club, or In football generally! Duct ng pertod FOI" the For Next 1981/82-85/86 1986/87 Season Season

Handbook/ y ta cbook

Club Diary

Club history

Special Souvt:nirs (ie celebrations)

Club facts and flguru guide

Other publications (specify below)

30. I.)o~s the club have any plans or ideas to reorganise or rt:style It~ curr~nt information provision? YES Thank you very much for your time and profeSSional opinion. Your responses NO a are greatly appreciated. and will remain confidential. It 'YI-:S'. plt=

Paul Foruaan 184 Rolleston Drive Lenton Nottingham l-j(;7 ILA T.l, (0602) 472715 FOOTBALL CLUBS RFTJ1RNING COl';PLEFD QUESTIONNAIRES

(Club Secretary unless otherwise stated),

First Division - 11 respondents: Arsenal F.C. (Programme Editor) Aston Villa F. C. (Commercial Manager) Chelsea F.C. Leicester City F.C.

¥~nchester United F.C. Oxford United F.C. Queens Pa,-k Rangers F.C. (Public Relations Officer) Sheffield Wednesday F.C. Tottenham Hotspur F.C. Watford F.C. (Public Relations Officer) Wimbledon". C. (Col1llllercial Manager)

Secone Division - 6 respondents: Barnsley P.C. Bradford City ".C. C,-ystal Palace F.C. Huddersfield Town F.C. Ipswich Town F. C. (Sales and Promoticns If.anager) West Bromwich Albion F.C.

(Letters of apology received from Sunderland F.C. and Millwall F.C.)

Third Division - 9 respondents: Blackpool F. C. Brent:ord F.C. Brist.ol Rovers F.e. Cheste,- City F.C. Chesterfield F.C. Darlington F. C.

- 141 - !{iddlesborough F. C. (Co=m<::r-ci&l }t..3.nager)

rieh'})::Jr"t County?'. C. {Assistant Secreta.ry)

Fourth Divisio~ - 10 :-espondents: Cardiff City F.C. Colchester United P,C. Har-:lepool United F. C. (Commercial Secr-eta:-y) Hereford United. F.C. (Co:nrnercial 'Manager) Peterborough United F. C. O'.arketing I'.anager) ScunthoTpe United F. C. Stockport County F.C. Swansea City F.e. Tor-quay United F.C. vlre::-:ham F, C,

Non-League: Scar-borough F.C. {G. !f.. Vau::hall Conference Cha:ffipions, 1986/e7, Elected to the Football League for season 1987Iee),

(i.e. all Football League Clubs plus non-League Scar-bo:rough F.C. - 1986/87).

- 142 - A: Footb::a1l Club reF ...... es~ntatiye::::

El a; ne BQI.·{~-=: 1"..arketi ng ¥..anager.

/,,;- , Tan ~rCul)qrb: Public Relations Officer. NOTTS COUNTY FOOTBALL CLUB (Football League Division 3) Da,e: 12 May 1987 Venue: County Ground, Meadow Lane, Nottingham.

- Third T!iVisiOD club. who only four seasons ago were a First Division side.

- Aver-age League attendance_ 1986/87: ~-¥

Sp~cifir fpatures relevant to this study:

- The club produce their own Qffic~al newspap~~; - Supporters produce an inrlependent maRa:jnp;

- Parallel access was securec to the club's , p,;a 1 p-e'-s. reporte ......

2. 1<;,1"'. John nol'im!""lfe: M.arketing M.anager. PETERBOROUGH UNITED FOOTBALL CLUB (Football League Division 4) Da,e: 28 Kay 1987 Venue: London Road Ground. Peterborough.

- O:;pprth Diyision club

- Average League attendance, 1986/87: ~.

Sppcjfi~ fe~tu1"'~s relevant to this study: - Small scale information provision;

- The club produce a npW$'p+t~r for members; - Parallel access was secured to the club's lqca' rress

- 143 - LEICESTEE CITY FOOTBALL CLUB (Foo:ball Le3.8ue Di~;ision One) Date: 16 June 1987

Venue: City S~adiumf Filbert Street, Leices~er. Gpnprpl rh';'TectO'!'""1Sjirs:

- First Division club, relegated at the end of ~he 1986/87 season

- Average League attendance, 1986/87: 11,60 7 t

SpQcifir fpature~ relevant to this study:

- The club produce a now::.]J:ltter- for "junior supporters.

4. MT. Ed Coan: Public Relations M.anager. WATFORD ASSOCIATIOR FOOTBALL CLUB (Football League Divisio:1 One)

Venue: Vicarage Road Stadium, Watford.

Gene~al cbaractori~tic~:

- First D~visjOD club

~ Average League attendance, 1986/87: 1~ 7Qa •

SpPCific rh3rartor1~tics:

- Early rese3.:-c~ revealed the clu:-, wer-e \-,'idel:; acknowledged as

one of the mCJre aware League c h.:bs i Tl cO~TJJ.unicat. ions/ pu bl ie relations terms. This 'fI'as- illustrated stril-;:insly by their

p:"oduction of 500. QnO rr<=>-soa.snn p"'om.""lti Dna l ;'ro'chUTes distributed free throughout the area.

~ Playfair Football Annual. 1987/88

- 144 - !. pr CQlin Bpn~Qu; freelance journalist. ex-Club Secretary of Pe,erborough United F.e. and Cambridge United F.e.; present

edi to:- of Chelsea F, C .• E and lJest Ham Uui T.ed F. C, . s match-day programmes; contributor to I1Harnmers News", 'the club newspaper

of West Ham United F,e.; ane ex-editor of a ~anse of de=ised football magazines. Date: 4 June 1987

Venue: ¥.r. Senson' 5 home in Cambridgeshire,

e. JourD9.1 i sts:

1. V: .... Llave J!jrVay: Nottingham "Evening Pos't" ane "Football ?ost" Reporter covering Notts County F.C,

Date: 15 fflliy 1987 Venue: lfottingham Evening Post offices.

2, Yr. 'DqU i "l3CP: ?eterboY'ough "Evening Telegraph".

Reporte~ covering Peterborough United F.C,

ua'te: 25th ~[ay 1987 Venue: ::'eter':)orough "EV8:ling Telegraph" offices.

3. y.... S~.::>vp tOpg-IIP: "London Dai 1:; News" Ex-euito!"" of "Foul" magazine. spo::-ts broadcaster with L.B.C. Radio. and current football correspondent on the "London Daily News" (the newspaper folded in July. 1987). Date: 19 June 1987 Venue: London.

- 145 - APP1:1[T)lY 4

CU;::RENT CLUB NEWS"foP"RS

D~yisiQn One

1. Chelsea F.C.: lI;:'ridge Ne\-,'s" (12 issues/season. 40 penc:e, 20 ?ages, established June 1953).

2. Newcas"tle United. F.C.: "~nited" (Monthly, 20 pence, 16 pages, established 1987).

3. Tottenham Hotspur ~.C.: IIS?urs Nev:s ll (12 issues/sea.son, 30 pence, 20 pages, established September 1983).

4. West Ham Uni tee F. C.: IIHam.rners ~[ev,1sl1 O:ont:tly, 20 pence, 28 pages.

establishec Feb~uary 1987).

Cl ubs kuo\'m to na\'e produced a newspaper of some form in the past

include: Aston Villa r.e. (The "Villa Times"), ~znchester United F,C,

(The ~~uarterly IIF{ed Devil"), Queens ?erk Rangers F,e, and Sheffield Wednesday ?,C,

In acdition, ~~nchester United F,C" for example, produced three SUp?8rte:-:=- club newslette:-s du:-ing the 1986/87 season; pre-season 'Yearbook', 'Christmas' and 'Easter' ecitions,

D~ yi si OD T"tO

1, Crystal Palace p,e.: "Palace News" (2 issues/season. 50 pence, 24 pages, established April 1987),

2. Huddersfield To-rm F,e,: "Patrons Insight" (3 issues/season, free to patrons, established July 1985).

- 146 - :). Leeds Unit.ec. F.C.: (a free newspaper).

TH yjsion Ih-ree

1. Notts County F. C.: "J.I~eado\"; Lane News" {4 or 5 issues/season, 20 pence. 16 pages. establishec. I\ay 1933).

Diyision ~Ol1""

No clubs in this division would appear to produce newspapers, though Peterborough United F. C. produced "Lifeline News" during 1986/87 (mailed free t.Q club members). and Orient F.e., when they were a Second Di vi si on cl ub, produced thei r own newspaper in seasons 1955-57.

- 147 - CURRENT EOOTBA',!, 'FAN7!NE0'

A. Gpoeral football comment:

1, 'Off the Ball' Editor: Adrian Goldberg P,O, Box 851, Selly Oak, Birmingham Monthly issue; established January 1986.

2. '~hen Saturday Comes' Editor: Hike Ticher 12 Sutton Row, London Ei-monthly issue; established March 1986,

3, 'Hardaker Rides Again' Editor: Kick Allpress

35 ~atermead House, Kingsmead Estate, HaCkney, London,

4. 'The Absolute Game' (Scottish football) P. O. Box 99, 43 Candlemaker Row, Edinburgh.

5. 'The Py,.-amid' (Non-League football) Monthly.

B. Cl ph-or; p:lteC magazines:

Division One:

1. • Valiants Viewpoint' (Charlton Athletic F,C, supporter's publication) 93 Vaylands, Swanley, Kent Bi-monthly; established August 1986,

2. 'Dons Outlook' (Wimbledon E, C, suppo,.-ter's publication) 34 Alexandra Road, Vimbledon, London,

- 148 - 3. I L:Jndon 0\'..-1 I

(Sheifiel~ Vednesday London Su??orte~s Club pu~lication) Bi -monthl y.

4. 'The Chelsea. Indepencient' (Chelsea F. C. Independent Supporters A::,sociation publication) Monthly; established Nay 1937.

5. lA Kick Up The 'R's'

(Queens Pa.rk f~angers F. C. E.upporter' E· publ icationl Established 1987.

Division Two:

1. 'Crossbar'

2. 'To ...:nsfolk ' ?C. (Ipswich Town F.C. supporter's publication)

19 ~sdelle S'treet, Nor""icn

Bi-mon~hly; established 1987.

2·, 'Ci~y Gentl (Brac.ford City F.C. supporter's publication) 33 Tol1e:- Grove, Heaton, Bradford Bi-monthly; established Occober 1984.

4. 'Fi nger-post I (Vest Brom\':icn Al bion F, C. Supporters Club ,magazine) 19 Ashville Drive, Halesowen, west Midlands Established 1982.

- 149 - 1. 'The Pie'

(NGtts Coun~y F.e. suppor~er's publica~ion)

61 Sr.ratford F~oad, y,J es1: Bridgford, Not.~ingharn B'::'-monthly (appro:·:.); established January 19b7.

2. 'Terrace Talk'

(York City F.C. suppor~er's publica~ion) 41 Roche Avenue, York Monthly; established 1981.

Division Four:

1. 'Orientear'

(Orien~ F.C. supporter's publication) 1 York Rosd, Leyton, London Monthly; established Augus't 1956.

2. 'Wanderers vlorldwicie'

(Bel ton ~iande!"er5 F. C. Supporters Club publication)

62 Queensg3te, Bol~on Estab2.ished 1985.

- 150 - TI'lis bibliog:-aphy does no-: :r..clude a cOTI:?renensive list of the m'Jltliarious source document.s scanned, namely t.he m.:ltch-day p:-ograr.me:s, club nev,'spape:-s, ioot:b:::.ll magazines, IIfootball specials", and gene~al newspape~s. Specific citat.ions iroTI t:~ese sources are given a detailed reference in ~he app:-opriate ~otes.

PibliQV'!""3:--}ip 7.6'1 ?S~TI~"'QIQ~ip GP--=; ;:':p"",.rt-=-,. Eundesirr:i"tut fur SpaTt.swissenschaft. 1972-

CQlP,JjltJD i ca t j pus bO ..... t "'arts, 1970- !-1oQtO.:ll - a lis-:; of references supplied by The Sports Council':=. IniorTIlBtion Cent.re, London, 1987. i,j brat? end Tnfo1'"'ID3tj OD Se-ionro Arstra,-<;s, 1970 -

Belfast, Queens U~ive!'"sity, 1971-.

London: Library Association, 1977. Ottay,a: Sport lniorrt:l.tion Resource Cer.tre, 1972-. Sport and t.he Kass M:edia: An anno-:atec. bioi iog:--ap!:l.y. The SlRLS

Dal,abase, Unive.rsity of v,Tate:-loo ill SQc';:~lQq"y Q.f Rport JQ'lj"ue. 1 1 (1934) pp 288 - 294.

Spar, P, i b1 iography. Champaign. Illinois: Human Kinetic Publishers, 1981-. London: Sports Co .• 1979

SPO-IS nQ'-umpD;-a~-:QD lfiYT1,th 1 y 3u 11pt i n. University of Birmingham 1971-,

Anderson, Alan.

- 151 - 3:~:-ley, Stephen. It!<'oo"tball Diary!!, Th~ Gl1 ?!""'djar Ap:-il 1987.

C:.3.:-nofsky, H. .. The ~laj or League Baseball Player: sel f conception

versus the popular image" , SOCiO;07V 13, 1968. C2.:=.rkson, Paul.

3rigs: r~a"tch-day proEraIIllIles, 198 -. CC??Dck, Richard. "The History 0: Hart lepool United Programmes,

1970-1983". P~Q[raUlmp MQ~~hly. 73, Ap:-il 1987 D.s.:::on. Erian. "The Financial Jf.:.anagement of Foo"t'tlall Clubs!!,

A\~r'ountaT'\t~ Re;-o'!'"d 65: 4, 1985. b -'iEe~t of Spo!""'t Stati~+ics, ed. E. Duffield et al, Sports Council !TI:torIll.3.tion Series, No, 7, London: Sports Co., 1987. D::'..:g3.TI, Derek. "Ho..., not to run football" Wolverhampton: All Seasons, 1981.

"Platfor~', Football league Rey~pw 3: 20, 1968

?c::-:.ball League. Qf-ficiaJ g .... Qunci 'l"'lllCl1~ ane. rCllgulaiioDs, 192.7,

G:::-c;l~1' HOJJ<=.:.b.Qld Sury.:>y. 1983, Lonc.cn: HI(SO, 1983

London: Collins, 1968.

!ic!:.sart, Ricnard (ea). You- SurCay ';\:6pCl~, London: Universi"Cv of London Press, 1967. lr.!.lis, ?red. in.:> D?me of the o-am=-: S?O;-t and socce~.

~ondon: Heinemann ,1977.

J c. :!:son, 1. The [,-QV; Dci a': press ane' ~h.::. co;m"""" ty, r.anchester: Y.anchester Uni versi ty Press, 1971. Jc::.es, Ken. "Football's Agents of Fortune", The Indepl'>ndent ju:'y 25, 1987.

La·.. ~ence, ¥..argot. "The club with a cure for soccer violence",

Le:"::;:-ooke, Archibald 'vi. and Turner, Edga:-. Saec.:>r -from top pres:: bo""',

London: Spor~smanls Club, 1955,

Le-:2r, Ja:1et, fioer.::.! MadDPSS London: Uni versi ty of C:tica30, 1983.

L::.=.t.er, john. "Editor Talking", ?;-og'';"!'!!!P 1II;.oDjb 1 y 74, Jf-cy 1987

- 152 - Commission on the Press, Worl:::ing pa?e~ No. 2. London: Hr.SO, 1976.

JIi.ason, Tony. ASSQr-ia~iQr FOQtball arC ~ng1ish Sorie"'y. 'B63-1Q14.

~,:-ighton: Ha!"vester Pr-ess, 1981.

tt Y.Or-g3:l., Cliff. "The Role of the JI'.ec.ia in Sport , JO'.jrn,l of ~,i.psnria1

Srienc~. SUp? 7, 1981.

New SQ,-j~ty "Football - our most popular sport". Octobe~ 23. 1980.

NGt.tingham Eveni ng Pos-: . .!f..arke't Rese3rch Dep3rtmen't. ~QQthal1 ST,ur:iy. Oct.ober e, 1.982.

Olive~, B~ian. ··Soccer·s sales pitch", Mar~e+ing 14:11, 5ept 16, 1983. Poe, R. "The writing of Sports", Esquire October 1974.

R=po~~ Of +~~ Wnr~in~ Party on C-owd B=bavipur at Football Matche~

(Chai~man: Sir John Laing) Loncon: Hr'.. SD, 1969.

(Chairman: :Frank McElbone, l';.. P.) Scottish Education Depart.ment. Edinburgh: HY30 1977.

Shaw, Phil. Collecting Foo+ball Prograrnm~s. London: Granada, 1980. Smi th, Garry J. and Blackman Cynthia. f:part in thp Mass Mpdi a. CAHPER Sociology 0: sport monograph series. Vanier Ci'ty: OntariO, 1970.

S~ith, Garry J. and Valeriote, Terry. "Ethics in spor'ts journalis~'.

p~~na Revi~w 7: 2, 1983.

Unpublis~ed E.A. thesis.

De?:.. of CO!iL1iunication S1:udies, 'T:-ent ?o::'ytecnnic, ~ay 1984.

Sputa:; TiII!~S. "Victors of the paperchase". August 9, 1987.

Su'therland, John and Stewart, Gerry. "Pro~essional Football!> I

L~jsllro MapageII!e:>nt 6: 12, Dec. 1986. Tomlinson, Alan (ed). of a workshop of the British Sociological Association/Leisure Studies Association on Leisure and Recreation held at Sheffield

City Polytec~nic 4 June 1982. Tongue. Steve. "Foul Mouth", Eo..ul 1, Octobe:- 1972.

Tunstall. J ere:m? iptl .... np,i is"!,:::; at Wo:-k. London: Constable, 1971.

Tuns'tall, jererny. ¥~="':-ia in Br~~e.~n. LDndon: Constable, 19e.1.

Brig!l"ton: Ha:-vester ?ress, 1984.

- 153 - walsh. JOnT] A. "Spo:-ts: !"lec.ia Cre3.t.ec Irn.::_ges Vs Reali"ty".

Easingstoke: ~acf.il1an Press, 1986. W'ard, And:-ew. Socialisatian into P:-cfessional Football in the 1950· s: a Case Study of Barnsley Football Club in. Tomlinson (edl

Whanne!. G3.r:-y. Football, Cro ....'d Behe-viou!" ane "the Press.

"1::.c!!,;. Ct,;l tl;r~ ape. Sqr 1e'ty 1, 1979.

T,lhorle, ~arta. IIFlirti:).£; with respectabilit.y", Sunday Tines August 9 19B7. vli<::ken, Geaii. "Sport: jeu:·: san=- :froTI"tieres?lI, Ne-ria W~elf 101, Feb:-uary 6 1987. "licken, Geo::. \rnlY :football \·,·ot.:ld be as sick as a parrot ....·i thout t. v."

~.:?d j a Yl~p.k January 10, 1986.

\{illiams, Raymond. IhF- ~>istjnQ" ~.lTp.:rn,~tive<::; "iT' CQm:nIJT'!;rat i ODS. Fabian Tract 337. London: The Fabia!', Society. 1962.

Wil1~n~-::; PT"~$;;_ Guirie., 1932 - 1987.

- 154 - I j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j