PAUL KURTZ: WHO IS A JEW?
THE INTERNATIONAL SECULAR HUMANIST MAGAZINE Free Incziir3/' CLONING HUMANS
Why it scares religions and intrigues humanists
Morality Requires God ...Or Does It? Exposed: James Dobson's War on America Can Science Prove That Prayer Works?
PLUS: THE REAL LESSONS OF HALE-BOPP MADNESS 2> MARTIN GARDNER ■ RICHARD DAWKINS ■ ALBERT ELLIS REINCARNATION • TALES OF ATHEISM • CHURCH & STATE HUMANISM & THE ARTS ■ AND MORE .. 7 5274 74957 7 Statement of Purpose
The aim of FREE INQUIRY is to promote and nurture the good life—life guided by reason and science, freed from the dogmas of god and state, inspired by compassion for fellow humans, and driven by the ideals of human freedom, happiness, and understanding.
FREE INQUIRY is dedicated to seeing that one day all members of the human family thrive by embracing basic humanist principles. These include:
• Our best guide to truth is free and rational inquiry; we should therefore not be bound by the dictates of arbitrary authority, comfortable superstition, stifling tradi- tion, or suffocating orthodoxy. We should defer to nó dogma—neither religious nor secular—and never be afraid to ask "How do you know?"
• We should be concerned with the here and now, with solving human problems with the best resources of human minds and hearts. If there is to be meaning in our lives, we must supply it ourselves, relying on our own powers, observation, and compas- sion. It is irrational and ultimately harmful to hang our hopes on gods, the super- natural, and the hidden, which arise out of imagination and wishful thinking. It is pointless—and often dangerous—to push aside human intelligence to reach for some flimsy veil of alleged truths.
• We must be committed to moral principles, which are derived from critical intelli- gence and human experience, and we must pursue positiVe ideals. We should there- fore observe the common moral decencies: integrity, humanitarianism, truthful- ness, trustworthiness, fairness, and responsibility. This means caring for one another, being tolerant of differences, and striving to overcome divisive parochial loyalties based on race, religion, gender, ethnicity, nationality, sexual orientation, creed, or class.
• Constitutional democracy is the best known means for protecting the rights of all peo- ple to form worldviews and liVe out their commitments in a free and mutually respect- ful way. Governments should promote open societies, ensure universal human rights, and be secular, having no bias against any religious or non-religious group.
• Secular humanism aims to bring out the best in people so that all can achieve full- ness in life. Thus we must strive to realize personal potential, maximize creative tal- ents and artistic expression, and choose joy and hope oVer despair, guilt, and sin.
... Reason and free inquiry are the only effectual agents against error. —Thomas Jefferson (Notes on the State of Virginia, vol. 8, p. 400) CONTENTS
SUMMER 1997 VOL.17, NO. 3 ISSN 0272-0701
Bi06114I45 PANEL 0N CtoNING
EDITORIAL FEATURES 35 Why I Am a Secular Humanist Interview with Albert Ellis 5 The Need to Reach Out CLONING HUMANS 37 When Humanists Embrace Paul Kurtz 10 Introduction the Arts Timothy J. Madigan Touching the sublime while down to earth 11 Declaration in Defense of James Herrick DEPARTMENTS Cloning and the Integrity 40 What's Wrong with of Scientific Research 6 Frontlines The International Academy Relativism of Humanism Why postmodernism's most 9 Letters radical doctrine is dead in the 13 Thinking Clearly About Clones water Great Minds How dogma and ignorance get in the way Lewis Vaughn 45 Richard Dawkins Absurdities of the Gods 43 Secularists, Rise Up— Taboos Without a Clue Robert G. Ingersoll 15 Sizing up religious objections and Celebrate! Let's take ownership of the rites 49 God on Trial to cloning Ronald A. Lindsay of passage God for a Day! Roger E. Greeley Michael Martin 18 No Fear How a humanist faces science's 65 Humanism at Large new creation Richard T. Hull BOOK REVIEWS Matt Cherry 21 Exposing the Religious Right's `Secret' Weapon 54 Who Is a Jew? by Paul-Kurtz Pay attention to that man behind the curtain 58 Reincarnation Undressed • Gil Alexander-Moegerle by Martin Gardner 27 Can Science Prove that Prayer Works? 61 The Tragic Consequences The real story behind the hype of Faith Hector Avalos by David Mackmiller 32 Morality Requires God .. . 62 Humanist Poetry for the Ages or Does It? by Rob Boston Bad news for fundamentalists and Jean-Paul Sartre 63 Imaginative Atheism Theodore Schick, Jr. by Finngeir Hiorth
Summer 1997 3 Comíng Up
in the next issue of Editor-in-Chief Paul Kurtz Free Inceiry Editor Timothy J. Madigan Executive Editor Lewis Vaughn • Sex and Secular Managing Editor Humanism Andrea Szalanski Senior Editors The Real Meaning of Vern Bullough, Richard Dawkins, Thomas W. Flynn, Martin Gardner, James Haught, Sexual FreedOm R. Joseph Hoffmann, Gerald A. Larne, Taslima Nasrin Contributing Editors Feminism and Pornography Robed S. Alley, Joe E. Barnhart, David Berman, H. James Birx, Jo Ann Boydston, Paul Edwards, Albert Ellis, Roy P. Fairfield, Antony Flew, Levi Fragell, Adolf Grünbaum, The Rights of Prostitutes Marvin Kohl, Thelma Lavine, Ronald A. Lindsay, Tibor Machan, Michael Martin, Delos B. McKown, Lee Nisbet, John Novak, Skipp Porteous, Howard Radest, Robert Rimmer, HOmosexual Marriages Michael Rockier, J. J. C. Smart, Svetozar Stojanovié, Thomas Szasz, Richard Taylor, Rob Tielman Associate Editors • Can Faith Make You Molleen Matsumura, Lois Porter Editorial Associates Healthy? Roger Greeley, Steven L. Mitchell, Warren Allen Smith • Charles Templeton Says Cartoonist: Don Addis Farewell to God Council for Secular Humanism • 'Why I Am a Secular Chairman: Paul Kurtz Board of Directors Humanist' by Nobel laureate Vern Bullough, David Henehan, Jonathan Kurtz, Joseph Levee, Kenneth Marsalek, Wole Soyinka Jean Millholland, Lee Nisbet, Robert Worsford Chief Operating Officer: Timothy J. Madigan • A Declaration of Women's Executive Director: Matt Cherry Chief Development Officer: James Kimberly Rights in the Islamic World Associate Director of Development: Anthony Battaglia Public Relations Director: Norm R. Allen, Jr. • Freethinkers, Fundamentalists, Librarian: Timothy Binga Chief Data Officer: Richard Seymour and Fake Quotes Fulfillment Manager: Michael Cione Typesetting: Paul E. Loynes, Sr. • `Comstockery': What Graphic Designer: Jacqueline Cooke Audio Technician: Vance Vigrass Happens When the Religious Web Page Designer: David Noelle Right Wins Staff: Linda Heller, Georgeia Locurcio, Anthony Nigro, Etienne Ríos, Ranjit Sandhu Executive Director Emeritus: Jean Millholland
Photo of Richard Dawkins by Lisa Lloyd. "Fleas" and "But the Daisies Will Not Be Deceived by the Gods" have been Plus reprinted with permission from New and Selected Poems 1956-1996 by Philip Appleman. Order from the University of Arkansas Press, Mcllroy House, 201 Ozark Avenue, Fayetteville, AK 72701 ($38.00 cloth, $22.00 paper; and ship- Book Reviews ping charges of $4.00 for first volume and $.50 each additional volume. Arkansas residents add 4.5% sales tax). FREE INQUIRY (ISSN 0272-0701) is published quarterly by the Council for Secular Humanism, a nonprofit corpora- tion, P.O. Box 664, Amherst, NY 14226-0664. Phone (716) 636-7571. Fax (716) 636-1733. Copyright 01997 by the Frontlines Council for Secular Humanism. Second-class postage paid at Amherst, N.Y., and at additional mailing offices. National distribution by International Periodicals Distributors, Solana Beach, California. FREE INQUIRY is available Letters from University Microfilms and is indexed in Philosophers' Index. Printed in the United States. Subscription rates: $28.50 for one year, $47.50 for two years, $64.50 for three years. $6.95 for single issues. Address Great Minds subscription orders, changes of address, and advertising to FREE INQUIRY, P.O. Box 664, Amherst, NY 14226-0664. Postmaster: Send address changes to FREE INQUIRY, P.O. Box 664, Amherst, NY 14226-0664. God on Trial Manuscripts, letters, and editorial inquiries should be addressed to The Editor, FREE INQUIRY, P.O. Box 664, Amherst, NY 14226-0664. Editorial submissions must be on disk (PC: 3-1/2" or Mac: 3-1/2" only) and accompanied by a dou- ble-spaced hardcopy and a stamped, self-addressed envelope. Acceptable file formats include any PC or Mac word Humanism at Large processor, RTF, and ASCII. Opinions expressed do not necessarily reflect the views of the editors or publisher. No one speaks on behalf of the and more. Council for Secular Humanism unless expressly stated. Council for Secular Humanism World Wide Web Page, HTTP://www.sECULARHUMAMSM.oac. E-mail address: 11M
4 FREE INQUIRY EDITORIAL
The Need to Reach Out
f you've been a long-time subscriber to FREE INQUIRY, you already know that secular humanism offers more than just a rational critique of religious, transcendental, and paranormal myths. Secular humanism entails positive ethical values that humankind desperately needs; it promotes reason and science as ways of solving human problems. You already know that the unexamined life is not worth living and that the fully examined life of humanism can be meaningful and good. You have already seen the empty cup proffered by dogma, prayer, and gods—and understand the full- ness of human experience that comes with a life of reason, courage, and caring. But what about others? What about new generations who—now more than ever—also need to Timothy J. Madigan understand the humanist alternative? I submit that FREE INQUIRY should be their magazine too. It should help to both nurture the sec- ular humanist perspective among veteran subscribers and introduce it to a new generation of read- ers. I believe that doing both gives the magazine its best chance to expand its readership and increase its influence. To this end, beginning with this issue, FREE INQUIRY will be undergoing some important editorial and design improvements. You'll notice incremental changes from now through the Winter 1997/98 issue and beyond. The magazine will continue to provide the best articles, commentary, news, and reviews on secular humanist issues and concerns—and will offer numerous editorial features to nour- ish new readers. You'll see some new departments (like "Frontlines," "Great Minds," and "God on Trial" in this issue) and a new emphasis on writing that is accessible to a wider audience. You prob- Lewis Vaughn ably have already noticed that the look of the magazine has been enhanced. More design improve- ments will follow.
or a long time, I have been involved in the day-to-day publishing of FREE INQUIRY. Serving with- Fout any compensation, I have found it to be a labor of great satisfaction—which I have been glad to exert in order to build a strong secular humanist movement. It is time, however, that I begin passing the torch to others. With this issue of FREE INQUIRY, I have become Editor-in-Chief. Timothy J. Madigan, who has served as Executive Editor for many years with distinction, will replace me as Editor. And I am pleased to say that we have appointed Lewis "Luke" Vaughn as Executive Editor of FREE INQUIRY. His task will be to improve the quality of the magazine Richard Dawkins and increase its circulation. I will still be involved with the overall direction of FREE INQUIRY. But in being "kicked upstairs," I will leave the details of getting out the magazine to others. We are also pleased to announce that distinguished authors Richard Dawkins and Martin Gardner and activist Taslima Nasrin have been appointed Senior Editors of FREE INQUIRY. Lewis Vaughn is a veteran publishing professional, the author or editor of several how-to books, and the coauthor (with Theodore Schick) of two college textbooks on philosophy. He's thoroughly committed to expanding the magazine's influence throughout the world. "For 17 years FREE INQUIRY has published some of the finest commentary and reporting by some of the best scientists, philosophers, and thinkers in the world," he says. "But many Americans have probably never heard of the magazine. I'm eager to help change that. I want FREE INQUIRY to con- Martin Gardner tinue to feature the best minds and most distinguished voices in humanism and to strive to be among the best written journals available." Hear! Hear! With hard work, and the continued support of friends and subscribers, FREE INQUIRY's small voice of reason should soon be a great deal louder.
Paul Kurtz Taslima Nasrin
Summer 1997 5 FRONTLINES Alan Hale On Hale-Bopp Madness The following is adapted from a state- was killed in the blast. Another victory ment by Alan Hale on the Heaven's for ignorance and superstition. Hale-Bopp and Gate mass suicide delivered at a press And now in Rancho Santa Fe, conference in Cloudcroft, New California, 39 individuals committed a Heaven's Gate Mexico, March 28, 1997. mass suicide, apparently so that their "inner beings" could rendezvous with n early 1996, the astronomer Alan The last book Carl Sagan wrote before another group of "beings" on an alien IHale submitted an article to FREE he died was entitled The Demon- spacecraft traveling alongside Comet INQUIRY dealing with the comet he had Haunted World and subtitled Science Hale-Bopp. Score another victory for recently co-discovered with Thomas as a Candle in the Dark. He quotes ignorance and superstition. Bopp. Although there was no way to be from a pamphlet entitled "A Candle in A lot of this ignorance and supersti sure at that time if the comet would be as the Dark" written about 350 years ago: tion has been focused upon these spectacular as it proved to be, Hale felt celestial objects we call "comets." If that there was a need to counteract the .. the Nations [will] perish for lack we put ourselves into the shoes of already-large number of people making of knowledge .... Avoidable human those who lived 500 years ago, it isn't supernatural claims about the import of misery is more often caused not so all that difficult to understand why. this discovery. Some were claiming that much by stupidity as by ignorance, The people then were familiar with the the comet had been predicted by particularly our ignorance about our- selves. I worry that, especially as the stars and with the motions of the plan- Nostradamus, others that it was a portent Millennium edges nearer, pseudo- of the end times as described in the Book ets. But every once in a while one of science and superstition will seem these comets, which can really be quite of Revelation, and a few even claimed year by year more tempting, the siren that an alien spaceship was hiding behind song of unreason more sonorous and impressive in the sky, would appear the comet, ready to strike Earth and attractive. Where have we heard it from out of nowhere, hang around for enslave it. before? Whenever our ethnic or a couple of weeks or so, and then Hale's article "The Unlimited national prejudices are aroused, in essentially disappear back into times of scarcity, during challenges Cosmos—A Personal Odyssey" ap- nowhere. It was all too easy to connec to national self-esteem or nerve, peared in the Summer 1996 issue of when we agonize about our dimin- these objects in the sky with whatever FREE INQUIRY and was one of the first ished cosmic place and purposes, or bad events were occurring here or articles not only to alert the general pub- when fanaticism is bubbling up Earth, and as a result the comet: lic to the existence of Comet Hale- around us—then, habits of thought acquired a reputation as being harbin Bopp, but also to criticize those who familiar from ages past reach for the gers of doom and portents of disaster. controls." cheapened the appearance of this mag- The candle flame gutters. Its little Folks, this isn't 500 years ago; we've nificent astronomical body by insisting pool of light trembles. Darkness learned quite a bit about these objects it that it was not important in and of itself, gathers. The demons begin to stir. the years that have elapsed since then but was only significant because of its Back at the turn of the eighteenth cen• supernatural or paranormal implica- Recently, Tom Bopp and I had the tury, Edmond Halley showed that tions. Hale said that Comet Hale-Bopp illustrious honor of being the "people comets are members of the solar systerr would present an unprecedented oppor- of the week" on ABC's "World News and are subject to the same laws of tunity to increase scientific literacy and Tonight." I watched the broadcast in physics as everything else. Earlier this show that one could appreciate the order to see how much of me the ABC century Fred Whipple hypothesized that beauty of this "heavenly body" on its editors threw onto the cutting-room comets could be described as "dirt) own terms. In light of this, FREE INQUIRY sponsored a conference in floor. Before that segment of the snowballs," and all the scientific evi- Tucson, Arizona, on February 14-16, broadcast was reached there was a dence we've gathered since then sup- entitled "Myth and Magic in the Sky," report from Tel Aviv, where what was ports this. That's all a comet is: a dirty in which Hale reiterated his naturalistic apparently an Islamic extremist, if I snowball. They are no more portents of views on astronomy. remember the details correctly, went doom than are the snowballs that my The suicide in March of 39 members into a restaurant with some dynamite sons and I throw at each other after the of the "Heaven's Gate" cult, followed by strapped to himself, and then detonated snowstorms we get here in Cloudcroft. the copycat suicide of one former mem- it. I watched the various images of the But ignorance and superstition still ber and the unsuccessful attempt by bloodied and bleeding bodies, and one exist, even now, as we are approach- another in early May, give a macabre image which really struck me was that ing the dawn of a new century, and a vindication of Hale's fears that bizarre of a screaming young baby, who now new millennium. religious interpretations of comets were will have to live with the experience of Some of this ignorance and supersti- by no means a thing of the past. growing up without her mother, who tion is retaining its old form. I've had
6 FREE INQUIRY FRONTLINES people tell me that Hale-Bopp is "an finally decide that we are going to use instead enjoy the beauty of the angel from God," and I even had one the candle of science, and the reason- comet for its own sake. person say that Hale-Bopp is God. I've ing skills that we have, to take back I really meant that last sentence. I seen lots of discussion referring to the darkness from the ignorance and want everyone to take a look at this Hale-Bopp as one of the "signs of the superstition that is enveloping us? comet. It's a beautiful object. It's end times" and claims that it is a fulfill- I hate to sound like I'm saying "I lovely. It's one of the most magnifi- ment of the prophecies in Revelation or told you so," but I'd like to read the last cent celestial objects you will ever see. the prophecies of Nostradamus, or paragraph of the explanation I posted But for all its beauty, its magnificence, other such prophecies. to the Web last fall. I remind you that its splendor, all it is is a dirty snowball I guess it's been about 30 years this is dated November 16, 1996: that's orbiting the sun. Nothing more. now, since Bob Dylan asked the ques- It has no influence on earthly events. It tion "How many deaths will it take 'til There are many "fringe" people who has no power to affect anything that we know, that too many people have are trying to attach apocalyptic sig- happens here on Earth. died?" How many more Tel Avivs? nificance to Comet Hale-Bopp, and It has no power, but we do. We have incidents like this one ... are sure to the power to build a world for the How many more Rancho Santa Fes increase as we get closer to the are we going to have before we finally comet's perihelion. I ask readers to third millennium that is free of the say "Enough!" to ignorance and trcat all these irresponsible reports ignorance and superstition that is so superstition? How many before we with the disdain they deserve, and rampant in our society today.
tence across 80 years seems remark- surprisingly casual way to randomize Faith Steady Among able. But how reliable is it? subjects for a rigorous scientific study. Scientists — Or Is It? For historical reasons, Larson and Larson and Witham also failed to Witham replicated Leuba's study mention in Nature that their replica of The two-page commentary in Nature almost exactly, though admitting that Leuba's survey instrument was only half (April 1997, pp. 435-436) triggered a "[clompared to the technology used in of a larger questionnaire that included media frenzy. University of Georgia modern surveys, Leuba's effort was another, entirely separate series of ques- science historian Edward J. Larson and quaint." They, too, polled 1,000 biolo- tions about creation and evolution. Washington Times reporter Larry gists, mathematicians, astronomers, Witham reported the results of that study Witham had surveyed U.S. scientists and physicists drawn from a current himself in a bylined April 11 Washing- and found that they were no less reli- edition of the same reference work ton Times story. There, he admitted the gious in 1996 than in 1916. Pundits Leuba had used. They followed evolution study had been performed as were surprised that belief had not lost Leuba's distribution of specialties, "a separate but parallel study to one more ground. Conservatives suggested polling only biologists, mathemati- reported ... in Nature." Interestingly, he the secularization of America was los- cians, physicists, and astronomers. In failed to disclose that he was its co- ing steam. Nature, Larson and Witham were author, naming Larson and an anony- That verdict may be premature. forthright about these design limita- mous "reporter for The Washington In a famous 1916 study, psychologist tions. But media accounts often over- Times" as architects of the survey. James Leuba polled 1,000 biologists, looked them, giving the erroneous Finally, the whole of Larson and mathematicians, astronomers, and impression that faith among today's Witham's data doesn't paint a consistent physicists about their religious beliefs. scientists had been measured under picture of abiding faith among scien- Contemporaries were astonished that contemporary standards of rigor. tists. The desire for immortality (inde- only 40% believed in God or an after- There are further grounds for skepti- pendent of a respondent's belief in it) life. Leuba, a humanist, predicted that cism that Larson and Witham did not has declined precipitously since 1916. with expanding scientific knowledge discuss in Nature. Since they surveyed Larson and Witham described "a signif- religion would continue to decline. a smaller percentage of listed profes- icant shift in views held by the ... pro- Larson and Witham's results appear sionals than Leuba (science has fessions surveyed," with physicists and to contradict Leuba's optimism. At first expanded), their survey is open to ran- astronomers replacing biologists as the blush, their figures showed no change domization errors that Leuba didn't most skeptical. Their tag-along evolu- in core religious attitudes: about 40% need to worry about. Witham told FREE tion study offered further signs that of respondents still believed in God or INQUIRY that subject names were unbelief remains strong among scien- the afterlife. Among unbelievers, even drawn on an every nth name basis. That tists. More than half said humans arose the proportion of firm skeptics to may be random enough for political over millions of years without God's agnostics was the same. That persis- polling or marketing research, but it's a involvement, compared to just 9% of
Summer 1997 7 FRONTLINES
the general public in a 1992 Gallup poll parents is between sending their child with humanists at the forefront, orga- of parallel design. Almost half of the to a sectarian school and having their nized resistance to the pope's political public said humans were created in their child remain in the troubled Cleveland program. In 1996 a secularist govern- current form less than 10,000 years ago; City School District," wrote Judge ment was elected with a strong parlia- only 5% of scientists agreed. (One won- John C. Young. "Such a choice can mentary majority. The new government ders who they are.) Of course, media hardly be characterized as `genuine set out to reverse the "Catholicization" focused on another finding: that 40% of and independent."' of the Polish state. Instead it promoted scientists surveyed held the hybrid posi- Ohio Governor George Voinovich an open society that protected the rights tion that God guided evolution. supports the program and expects to and beliefs of all its citizens, whether Whatever its weaknesses, Larson take the appeal process all the way to religious or not. and Witham's work does suggest that, the U.S. Supreme Court. In the mean- The new government's secular contrary to Leuba, scientific erudition time in Wisconsin, a state judge has humanist sympathies were shown by alone cannot extinguish the religious nixed expanding that state's voucher its warm welcome for an international impulse. Millions cannot resist the emo- program to include religious schools. humanist conference held in the Polish tional suction of supernatural belief. If capital of Warsaw, in September 1996 science dulls traditional Christianity, (see FREE INQUIRY, Winter 1996/97.) many will turn to alternative creeds Poles Defy the Pope Several leading Polish politicians before embracing the perceived aridity Pope John Paul II's spring visit to his attended the meeting, and Prime of secular humanism. To encourage homeland produced an unintended Minister Wlodimierz Cimoszewicz more people to live without religion, consequence: it hastened the adoption sent a message of strong support: humanists must offer an alternative that of a secular constitution for Poland. A is not only scientifically informed, but referendum that approved Poland's It was with great satisfaction that I emotionally robust as well. learnt of the program of your confer- first post-communist constitution was ence—both the subjects of the partic- held at the end of May just six days ular sessions and the participation of before the pope visited his native coun- eminent intellectuals from numerous Pupil + Voucher ~ try. The government apparently chose countries convince me that the idea an early referendum date to avoid of humanism attracts all those who St. Mary's do not agree to the stubbornly re- papal interference. peated efforts to enslave society on Ohio parents more likely to pray that The new constitution establishes doctrinal or denominational grounds. vouchers will get their children into the Poland as a secular state, guarantees The purpose of the Federation of schools of their choice will be the ones equal rights for the non-religious, and Polish Humanist Associations . . . least likely to be able to use them. explicitly recognizes that Polish patrio- concerning "defending universal The first state in the Union to allow humanist values, secular state, free- tism and ethical behavior do not require dom of life-stance and real equality religious schools to be destinations for religious faith. Regrettably, the constitu- of citizens regardless of their beliefs" voucher-carrying students has had its tion does make some concessions to reli- is particularly close to me. own highest court slap its hands. The gious pressure. For example, it starts by program is no go because it "provides invoking "God," and outlaws gay mar- FREE INQUIRY Editor-in-Chief Paul direct and substantial non-neutral gov- riage. But, despite Catholic demands, Kurtz, who was a keynote speaker at ernment aid to sectarian schools" there are no constitutional assertions of the Warsaw conference, commented, wrote the Ohio District Court of "Catholic values" and "natural law," and "FREE INQUIRY has been very active in Appeals in a unanimous decision. no ban on abortion. advancing secular humanist principles Last fall, vouchers worth $2,500 Poland's secular constitution is a in Eastern Europe. For example, we became available to low-income par- remarkable achievement for the coun- help finance the excellent Polish mag- ents in the Cleveland City School try that Pope John Paul II has tried to azine Bez Dogmatu [Without Dogma.] District who wanted to send their chil- turn into the world's most dogmatic We are delighted that Poland has now dren to one of the 53 area private Catholic state. In the early 1990s, a firmly embraced the ideal of a free and schools. Some 2,000 kindergartners series of government measures im- secular society. We will continue to through third-graders shifted schools posed Catholic creed on all Poles. support humanist projects in Eastern as a result, at a cost of $5.5 million. Doctrinaire laws included a total ban Europe in the hope that all countries in But 80% of those private schools on abortion, and a requirement for all the region will follow the Polish lead." were religious, giving taxpayers and school pupils to receive instruction in teachers' unions grounds to object. the Catholic faith. —Matt Cherry, Tom Flynn, Timothy J. "The only real choice available to most The Polish secularist movement, Madigan, and Andrea Szalanski
8 FREE INQUIRY attitudes toward sexuality than by LETTERS Children as Victims instantly trusting the uncorroborated and Victimizers accusations of children.
Re: Hans Sebald's article ("Witch- John L. Indo Children—Then and Now," FI, Spring Bellaire, Tex. Taking Stock 1997): The Three Amiraults of Fells It is good to know that Paul Kurtz Acre Day Care, a few miles from Salem, ("Surviving Bypass and Enjoying the have been in jail a dozen years without Phillips Stevens, Jr., in "Children, Exuberant Life," FI, Spring 1997) will parole because they claim their inno- Witches, Demons, and Cultural be continuing the work of trying to cence. The two women recently won the Relativism" (FI, Spring 1997) almost wake up people to the values of right to an appeal but the Supreme accuses Hans Sebald, author of Witch- humanism. During my recovery period Judicial Court of our Commonwealth, Children: From Salem Witch-Hunts to I, too, did a lot of thinking about life, by a 2-1 vote, concluded that, although Modern Courtrooms, of libel, yet the and I concluded that as a humanist I they hadn't been faced by their accusers, description he claims for an anthropol- was on the right track. I realized how justice had been done. ogist's job is more like a slander of that important it is for those of us who have I am ashamed that Massachusetts is profession. had a good life to give of ourselves to the only state that continues to give The pure descriptivist idea advo- try to bring a better life to those less credence to such guff (e.g., where is cated by Stevens may be good from a fortunate. My way of doing this has the "network of tunnels" by which the scientific point of view, but certainly been to work with Special Olympics at children were supposedly transported not from an ethical point of view. To least two days a week, our local between buildings, and why were there say that "the vast majority of the Conflict Resolution Center (we medi- no adults to support the claims of the world's peoples today don't judge ate all sorts of conflicts in the commu- children being tied to a publicly placed `reality' by Sebald's standards," even if nity in order to have a better place for tree?). gt*anted as true, does not mean that people to live), and the local chapter of Jonathan Macy witches really ever did fly. If Stevens the National Coalition Building Boston, Mass. would look to himself to make judg- Institute. I make it very well known in ments, he would come to the paradoxi- connection with these activities that I cal realization that the world also does am a secular humanist so people will Having worked in the mental health not hold to Stevens's standards. While see that it is not necessary to believe in profession for several years, I am Stevens grants relative truth to the a Supreme Being to lead a "good" life. acutely aware of the sophistry surround- witch hunters, the witch hunters gave ing many cases of alleged pedophilia. no such latitude to the accused witches. Irwin Ottenberg Developmental psychologists have long What accused was allowed to say "my Soquel, Calif. since known that pre-adolescent chil- reality doesn't include witchcraft," and dren are frequently unable to think escape with his or her life? solely in the abstract. This means that I do not know what to make of Congratulations to my good friend such children neither comprehend the Stevens's statement "the bases for Paul Kurtz on his recovery from open- significance of a solemnized oath nor their[mythomaniacal children's] elabo- heart surgery! I had the same proce- test notions of reality by theoretical rations are facts that they were directly dure following a coronary episode at means. This does not necessarily dis- taught." Elephants being slaughtered in the 1992 International Humanist and pose them to telling lies. But it defi- classrooms are not facts, whether Ethical Union Conference in Amster- nitely will indispose them to under- directly taught or not. dam. (Maybe there is something stress- standing the truth in many instances. Stevens goes on to state the obvious ful about humanist conferences?) Hence, the uncorroborated testimony of reasons that children are believed: Like Paul, I am a type-A personal- children cannot be trusted on the wit- "because they are children, and appar- ity. And like Paul, who is my senior by ness stand, especially in emotionally ently threatened, and because the five years to the day, I have no inten- charged cases of child molestation. defense and protection of children is tion of retiring from the good fight, I do not suggest that we should instinctive in all animalian species." So working to make our society more remain insouciant in such cases. A what else is new? The goal of the ethi- humanistic and friendly to humanist society sporting humanist values cer- cal and rational mind is to counteract values. tainly cannot tolerate the sexual instinct when instinct leads to harm. Edd Doerr, President exploitation of children—nor anyone Who would defend eating a high-fat American Humanist else for that matter. But I do suggest diet on the basis that we instinctively Association that we are more likely to rid ourselves Amherst, N.Y. of this problem by cultivating rational (Continued on p. 64)
Summer 1997 9 Elata Fear and loathing among religions, fascination and hope among humanists Introduction
he world was stunned by the news in late February Israelite Abraham laughed at the suggestion that he at one 1997 that a British embryologist named Ian Wilmut hundred and his wife at ninety could produce a child. She did it by a miracle or divine favor, in the Genesis story, but nowa- T and his research team had successfully cloned a lamb days, as we shall see, it could be managed in a number of dif- named Dolly from an adult sheep. Dolly was created by ferent ways, without any supernatural assists. Even though replacing the DNA of one sheep's egg with the DNA of some of this new capability is not yet in the clinic, the mere another sheep's udder. While plants and lower forms of ani- knowledge of it irreversibly alters our feelings, attitudes, and mal life have been successfully cloned for many years now, meanings. [pp. 10-11] before Wilmut's announcement it had been thought by many to be unlikely that such a procedure could be performed on In light of the equally stunning recent announcement that a higher mammals. The world media was immediately filled 63-year old woman, utilizing state-of-the-art scientific pro- with heated discussions and pronouncements—many by rep- cedures, has given birth, Fletcher's reflections are particu- resentatives from religious bodies—about the ethical impli- larly prescient. cations of cloning, especially since the real possibility of It is fitting that the International Academy of Humanism cloning humans was now on the table. As Gustav Niebuhr, (of which Fletcher was a member), a distinguished body of religion writer for the New York Times, wrote shortly after scientists, philosophers, artists, and social activists who Wilmut's announcement: "The cloning of an adult mammal share the humanist perspective, has issued a statement offers a striking example of how technology can outpace the defending the need to continue research in cloning, in moral and social thinking that would guide it, setting off a response to both governmental and religious objections. debate among ethicists, psychologists and theologians over While there is still much that needs to be reflected upon how this new science might change the world." regarding the impact of Wilmut's breakthrough, attempts to Such a public debate is both healthy and necessary. halt all research due to theological caveats or political expe- Significantly, the secular humanist voice has not been heard, diency should be strongly opposed. As the famed biologist yet humanists have been pondering the import of cloning for and Humanist Laureate Richard Dawkins points out in his several decades. Joseph Fletcher (1905-1991), one of FREE article in this issue of FREE INQUIRY, cloning is sure to have INQUIRY'S founding editors and a pioneer in the field of bio- both good and bad consequences, but reflexive hysteria and medical ethics, had foreseen the ethical dilemmas that would dogmatic religious restrictions are unlikely to further the arise once cloning of higher mammals became truly feasible. needed discussion. Unlike the tenets of many religious teachings, which hold Unlike those who look upon cloning with fear and trem- that it is wrong to tinker with nature, humanism holds that bling, humanists are interested in exploring how Wilmut's acts should be judged according to how they affect either startling innovation might benefit humankind. In the debate positively or negatively the general welfare of the commu- over ethics, one should not forget to credit Wilmut and his nity. In his 1988 book The Ethics of Genetic Control team for their outstanding contribution to scientific knowl- (Prometheus Books), a collection of essays originally written edge. The following articles (including some excerpts from in the early 1970s, Fletcher wrote that: Fletcher's work), are offered as a response from the human- ist community to this important topic. We now understand how to produce by "cloning" a new indi- vidual from a body cell—either male or female. The ancient —Timothy J. Madigan
10 FREE INQUIRY CLONING HUMANS
Declaration in Defense of Cloning and the Integrity of Scientific Research
e, the undersigned, welcome announcements of religions teach that human beings are fundamentally differ- major advances in the cloning of higher animals. ent from other mammals—that humans have been imbued WThroughout this century, the physical, biological, with immortal souls by a deity, giving them a value that and behavioral sciences have placed important new capabil- cannot be compared to that of other living things. Human ities within human reach. On balance, these advances have nature is held to be unique and sacred. Scientific advances contributed to enormous improvements in human welfare. that pose a perceived risk of altering this "nature" are Where novel technologies have raised legitimate ethical angrily opposed. questions, the human community has in general demon- Deeply rooted as such ideas may be in dogma, we ques- strated its willingness to confront those questions openly and tion whether these should be used to decide whether human to seek answers that enhance the general welfare. beings will be permitted to benefit from new biotechnology. The cloning of higher animals raises ethical concerns. As far as the scientific enterprise can determine, Homo sapi- Appropriate guidelines need to be developed that will pre- ens is a member of the animal kingdom. Human capabilities vent abuses, while making the benefits of cloning maximally appear to differ in degree, not in kind, from those found available. Such guidelines should respect to the greatest among the higher animals. Humankind's rich repertoire of extent possible the autonomy and choice of each individual thoughts, feelings, aspirations, and hopes seems to arise from human being. Every effort should be made not to block the electrochemical brain processes, not from an immaterial soul freedom and integrity of scientific research. that operates in ways no instrument can discover. No one has demonstrated a present capability to clone The immediate question raised by the current debate over humans. Yet the very possibility that contemporary achieve- cloning is, therefore, do advocates of supernatural or spiri- ments may open a path toward cloning has sparked a hail of tual agendas have truly meaningful qualifications to con- protests. We view with concern the widespread calls to delay, tribute to that debate? Surely everyone has the right to be defund, or discontinue cloning research which have come heard. But we believe that there is a very real danger that from sources as disparate as President Bill Clinton in the research with enormous potential benefits may be suppressed United States, President Jacques Chirac of France, former solely because it conflicts with some people's religious Prime Minister John Major of Great Britain, and the Vatican beliefs. It is important to recognize that similar religious in Rome. objections were once raised against autopsies, anesthesia, We believe that reason is humanity's most powerful tool artificial insemination, and the entire genetic revolution of for untangling the problems that it encounters. But reasoned our day—yet enormous benefits have accrued from each of argument has been a scarce commodity in the recent flood of these developments. A view of human nature rooted in attacks on cloning. Critics have delighted in drawing paral- humanity's mythical past ought not to be our primary crite- lels to the myth of Icarus and Mary Shelley's Frankenstein, rion for making moral decisions about cloning. predicting terrible consequences if researchers dare to press We see no inherent ethical dilemmas in cloning nonhu- on with questions whose answers "man was not meant to man higher animals. Nor is it clear to us that future develop- know." Behind the most vituperative critiques seems to lie ments in cloning human tissues or even cloning human the assumption that human cloning would raise moral issues beings will create moral predicaments beyond the capacity of more profound than those faced in connection with any pre- human reason to resolve. The moral issues raised by cloning vious scientific or technological development. are neither larger nor more profound than the questions What moral issues would human cloning raise? Some human beings have already faced in regards to such tech-
Summer 1997 11 nologies as nuclear energy, recombinant DNA, and computer that it would be a tragedy if ancient theological scruples encryption. They are simply new. should lead to a Luddite rejection of cloning. We call for Historically, the Luddite option, which seeks to turn back continued, responsible development of cloning technologies, the clock and limit or prohibit the application of already and for a broad-based commitment to ensuring that tradi- existing technologies, has never proven realistic or produc- tionalist and obscurantist views do not irrelevantly obstruct tive. The potential benefits of cloning may be so immense beneficial scientific developments.
The signers of the Declaration are Humanist Laureates of the International Academy of Humanism:
Pieter Admiraal, Medical Doctor, The Netherlands Alberto Hidalgo Tuñón, President, Sociedad Ruben Ardila, psychologist, National University Asturiana de Filosofía, Spain of Colombia, Colombia Sergei Kapitza, Chair, Moscow Institute of Sir Isaiah Berlin, Professor Emeritus of Physics and Technology, Russia Philosophy, Oxford University, U.K. Paul Kurtz, Professor Emeritus of Philosophy, Sir Hermann Bondi, Fellow of the Royal Society, State University of New York at Buffalo, Past Master, Churchill College, Cambridge U.S.A. University, U.K. Gerald A. Larue, Professor Emeritus of Vern Bullough, Visiting Professor of Nursing, Archeology and Biblical Studies, University of California State University at Northridge, U.S.A. Southern California at Los Angeles, U.S.A. Mario Bunge, Professor of Philosophy of Science, Thelma Z. Lavine, Professor of Philosophy, McGill University, Canada George Mason University, U.S.A. Bernard Crick, Professor Emeritus of Politics, Jose Leite Lopes, Director, Centro Brasiliero de Birkbeck College, University of London, U.K. Pesquisas Fisicas, Brazil Francis Crick, Nobel Laureate in Physiology, Taslima Nasrin, Author, Physician, Social Critic, Salk Institute, U.S.A. Bangladesh Richard Dawkins, Charles Simionyi Professor of Indumati Parikh, Reformer and Activist, India Public Understanding of Science, Oxford Jean-Claude Pecker, Professor Emeritus of University, U.K. Astrophysics, Collège de France, Academy of José Delgado, Director, Centro de Estudios Sciences, France Neurobiologicos, Spain W. V. Quine, Professor Emeritus of Philosophy, Paul Edwards, Professor of Philosophy, New Harvard University, U.S.A. School for Social Research, U.S.A. J. J. C. Smart, Professor of Philosophy, Antony Flew, Professor Emeritus of Philosophy, University of Adelaide, Australia Reading University, U.K. V. M. Tarkunde, Reformer and Activist, India Johan Galtung, Professor of Sociology, Richard Taylor, Professor Emeritus of Philosophy, University of Oslo, Norway University of Rochester, U.S.A. Adolf Grünbaum, Professor of Philosophy, Simone Veil, Former President, European University of Pittsburgh, U.S.A. Parliament, France Herbert Hauptman, Nobel Laureate, Professor of Kurt Vonnegut, Novelist, U.S.A. Biophysical Science, State University of New Edward O. Wilson, Professor Emeritus of York at Buffalo, U.S.A. Sociobiology, Harvard University, U.S.A.
Affiliations listed for identification only.
12 FREE INQUIRY CLONING HUMANS
Thinking Clearly About Clones How dogma and ignorance get in the way
Richard Dawkins
loning already happens by accident; not particularly aged to outlaw general, free-for-all cloning of just anybody often, but often enough that we all know examples. who could afford it. How might we then decide whom we'd CIdentical twins are true clones of each other, with the like to clone? Nobody has come up with a good solution to same genes. So the new discovery just announced from the "playing God" problem (which arises, say, when there's Edinburgh can't be all that radical in its moral and ethical a shortage of kidney machines, and doctors are accused of implications. Heaven's foundations don't quiver every time a playing God when they have to choose whose is the most pair of identical twins is born. worthy life to save). Would cloning dilemmas lead us inex- Nevertheless, two bees seem to be buzzing around in pub- orably to yet another committee of the great and the good? lic bonnets. First, the new technique makes baby duplicates I think we must beware of a reflex and unthinking antipa- of an existing adult. We might, as it were, clone Stephen thy to everything "unnatural." Certainly cloning is unnatural. Hawking or Mother Teresa, and this is not the same thing as We haven't bred without sex for perhaps a thousand million twins of the same age. Second, the specter is raised of multi- years. But unnatural isn't a necessary synonym for bad. It's ple clones, regiments of identical individuals marching by unnatural to read books, or travel faster than we can run, or the thousand, in lockstep to a Brave New Millennium. scuba-dive, or fly. It's unnatural to wear clothes, but we do. Looked at in certain ways, both these notions can be made to seem But do you whisper to yourself a secret unpleasant. Phalanxes of identical lit- tle Hitlers, goosestepping to the same confession? Wouldn't you love to be cloned? genetic drum, is a thought so horrify- ing as to overshadow any lingering curiosity we might have Indeed, the people most likely to be scandalized at the over the final solution to the "nature or nurture" problem. prospect of human cloning are the very people most outraged But do you whisper to yourself a secret confession? by a lack of human clothing. Wouldn't you love to be cloned? I've never admitted it Cloning may be good, and it may be bad. Probably it's a before, but I think I would. This has nothing to do with van- bit of both. The question must not be greeted with reflex hys- ity, with thinking that the world would be a better place if teria but decided quietly, soberly, and on its merits. We need there was another one of me going on after I'm dead. It is less emotion and more thought. pure curiosity. I know how I turned out having been born in the 1940s, schooled in the 1950s, come of age in the 1960s, and so on. I find it a personally riveting thought that I could Dumbing Down the Debate watch a small copy of myself, 50 years younger and wearing Much discussion in the media, however, comes from those a baseball hat instead of a solar toupee, nurtured through the guaranteed to offer very little thought. early decades of the twenty-first century. Mightn't it feel What has intrigued me is the process by which invited almost like turning back your personal clock 50 years? And contributors to broadcast debates on such delicate matters are mightn't it be wonderful to advise your junior copy on where chosen. Some of them are experts in the field, as you would you went wrong and how to do it better? expect and as is right and proper. Others are distinguished Such self-indulgent fantasies aside, cloning obviously scholars of moral or legal philosophy, which is equally brings with it some difficult questions. Suppose society man- appropriate. Both these categories of person have been invited in their own right because of their expert knowledge Richard Dawkins is the Charles Simionyi Professor of the or their proven ability to think intelligently and express Public Understanding of Science at Oxford University. He is themselves clearly. The arguments they have with each other the author of The Selfish Gene, The Blind Watchmaker, and are usually illuminating and rewarding. Climbing Mount Improbable. But there is another category of obligatory guest. There is
Summer 1997 13 the inevitable "representative" of the so-and-so "commu- When one of the scientists mildly suggested that he might nity"; and, of course, we mustn't forget the "voice" from the be hurting the feelings of identical twins, he said that identi- such-and-such "tradition." Not to mince words, the religious cal twins were a quite different case. Why? Because they lobby. Lobbies in the plural, I should say, because all the reli- occur naturally, rather than under artificial conditions. Once gions have their point of view, and they all have to be repre- again, no disagreement about that. But weren't we talking sented lest their respective "communities" feel slighted. about "individuality"? This has the incidental effect of multiplying the sheer This religious spokesman seemed simpy unable to grasp number of people in the studio, with consequent consump- the two separate arguments: first, whether clones are tion, if not waste, of time. It also often has the effect of low- autonomous individuals (in which case the analogy with iden- ering the level of expertise and intelligence. This is only to tical twins is inescapable and his fear groundless); and sec- be expected, given that these spokesmen are chosen not ond, whether there is something objectionable about artificial because of their own qualifications in the field, or as interference in the natural processes of reproduction (in which thinkers, but because they represent a particular group. case other arguments should be deployed). I respectfully sub- Recently I have experienced public discussions of cloning mit to the producers who put together these panels that merely with several prominent religious leaders, and it has not been being a spokesman for a particular "tradition" or "commu- edifying. One of the most eminent of these, someone recently nity" may not be enough. Isn't a certain minimal qualification elevated to the House of Lords, got off to a flying start by refus- in the IQ department desirable, too? ing to shake hands with the women in the studio, apparently for On a different panel, this time on radio, yet another reli- fear that they might be menstruating or otherwise "unclean." gious leader was similarly perplexed by identical twins. He too had theological grounds for fearing that a clone would not be a separate individual and l have experienced public discussions of would therefore lack "dignity." He was swiftly informed of the undisputed scientific cloning with several prominent religious fact that identical twins are clones of each leaders, and it has not been edifying. other with the same genes, exactly like Dolly the sheep except that Dolly's clone is older. Did he really mean to say that identical twins They took the insult graciously and with the "respect" lack the dignity of separate individuality? His reason for always bestowed on religious prejudice (but no other kind of denying the relevance of the twin analogy was even odder prejudice). The spokesman then, when asked what harm than the previous one and transparently self-contradictory. cloning might do, answered that atomic bombs were harm- He had great faith, he informed us, in the power of nurture ful. No disagreement there, but the discussion was in fact over nature. Nurture is why identical twins are really different supposed to be about cloning. individuals. When you get to know a pair of twins, he pointed Perhaps he knew more about physics than about biology? out triumphantly, they even look a bit different. But, no, having delivered himself of the daring falsehood that Er, quite so. And if a pair of clones were separated by 50 Einstein split the atom, he switched with confidence to geo- years, wouldn't their respective nurtures be even more dif- logical history. He made the telling point that, since God ferent? Haven't you just shot yourself in your theological labored six days and then rested on the seventh, scientists, foot? He just didn't get it—but, after all, he hadn't been cho- too, ought to know when to call a halt. sen for his ability to follow an argument. Now, either he really believed that the world was made in Religious lobbies, spokespersons of "traditions" and six days, in which case his ignorance alone disqualifies him "communities," enjoy privileged access not only to the from being taken seriously. Or, as the presenter charitably media but to influential committees of the great and the suggested, he intended the point purely as an allegory—in good. Their views are regularly sought and heard with exag- which case it was a lousy allegory. gerated "respect." Religious spokespersons enjoy an inside Sometimes in life it is a good idea to stop. The trick is to track to influence and power that others have to earn through decide when. The allegory of God resting cannot, in itself, their own ability or expertise. tell us whether we have reached the right point to stop in What is the justification for this? Maybe there is a good some particular case. As allegory, the six-day creation story reason, and I'm ready to be persuaded. But shouldn't wit- is empty. As history, it is false. So why bring it up? nesses expect to be chosen for their knowledge and accom- plishments as individuals rather than because they represent some group or class of person? In the light of worries about Holy Ignorance lack of individuality among clones, isn't there a touch of The representative of a rival religion on the same panel was irony here or a useful allegory? Ah, now, you're talking! FI frankly confused. He feared that a human clone would lack individuality. It would not be a whole, separate human being Adapted from materials published in The Independent and the London but a mere soulless automaton. Evening Standard.
14 FREE INQUIRY CLONING HUMANS
Taboos Without a Clue Sizing up religious objections to cloning
Ronald A. Lindsay
he furor following the announcement of recent exper- impartial, rational counsel, it would seem remarkable if anyone iments in cloning, including the cloning of the sheep paid any attention to them. [See Richard Dawkins's "Thinking TDolly, has prompted representatives of various reli- Clearly About Clones."] However, not only do these authorities gious groups to inform us of God's views on cloning. Thus, have an audience, but their advice is sought out by the media the Reverend Albert Moraczewski of the National and government representatives. Indeed, President Clinton's Conference of Catholic Bishops has announced that cloning National Bioethics Advisory Commission devoted an entire is "intrinsically morally wrong" as it is an attempt to "play day to hearing testimony from various theologians. God" and "exceed the limits of the delegated dominion given to the human race." Moreover, according to Reverend QUESTIONABLE ETHICS Moraczewski, cloning improperly robs people of their uniqueness. Dr. Abdulaziz Sachedina, an Islamic scholar at The theologians' honored position reflects our culture's con- the University of Virginia, has declared that cloning would tinuing conviction that there is a necessary connection violate Islam's teachings about family heritage and eliminate between religion and morality. Most Americans receive the traditional role of fathers in creating children. Gilbert instruction in morality, if at all, in the context of religious Meilander, a Protestant scholar at Valparaiso University in belief. As a result, they cannot imagine morality apart from Indiana, has stated that cloning is wrong because the point of religion, and when confronted by doubts about the morality the clone's existence "would be grounded in our will and desires" and The call by many of the religious for an cloning severs "the tie that united procre- ation with the sexual relations of a man absolute ban on cloning experiments is a and woman." On the other hand, Moshe Tendler, a professor of medical ethics at tacit admission that their theological Yeshiva University, has concluded that principles are not sufficiently powerful and there is religious authority for cloning, pointing out that respect for "sanctity of adaptable to guide us through this life would encourage us to use cloning if only for one individual . .. to prevent the challenging future. loss of genetic line." This is what we have come to expect from religious of new developments in the sciences—such as cloning—they authorities: dogmatic pronouncements without any support invariably turn to their sacred writings or to their religious external to a particular religious tradition, self-justifying leaders for guidance. Dr. Ebbie Smith, a professor at appeals to a sect's teachings, and metaphor masquerading as Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary, spoke for many reasoned argument. And, of course, the interpreters of God's Americans when he insisted that the Bible was relevant to the will invariably fail to agree among themselves as to precisely cloning debate because "the Bible contains God's revelation what actions God would approve. about what we ought to be and do, if we can understand it." Given that these authorities have so little to offer by way of But the attempt to extrapolate a coherent, rationally justi- fiable morality from religious dogma is a deeply misguided Ronald A. Lindsay is by training both a lawyer and a project. [See Theodore Schick's "Morality Requires God .. . philosopher, with a law degree from the University of or Does It?") To begin, as a matter of logic, we must first Virginia and a Ph.D. in philosophy from Georgetown determine what is moral before we decided what "God" is University. His work in philosophy focuses on bioethics. telling us. As Plato pointed out, we cannot deduce ethics
Summer 1997 15 from "divine" revelation until we first determine which of authorities, but apparently not. In any event, the "natural" the many competing revelations are authentic. To do that, we argument is no less question-begging in the context of repro- must establish which revelations make moral sense. Morality duction without sex than it is in the context of sex without is logically prior to religion. reproduction. "Natural" most often functions as an approba- Moreover, most religious traditions were developed mil- tive and indefinable adjective; it is a superficially impressive lennia ago, in far different social and cultural circumstances. way of saying, "This is good, I approve." Without some argu- While some religious precepts retain their validity because ment as to why something is "natural" and "good" or "unnat- they reflect perennial problems of the human condition (for ural" or "bad," all we have is noise. example, no human community can maintain itself unless basic rules against murder and stealing are followed), others Cloning robs persons of their God-given uniqueness and lack contemporary relevance. The world of the biblical patri- dignity. Why? Persons are more than the product of their archs is not our world. Rules prohibiting the consumption of genes. Persons also reflect their experiences and relation- certain foods or prescribing limited, subordinate roles for ships. Furthermore, this argument actually demeans human women might have some justification in societies lacking beings. It implies that we are like paintings or prints: the proper hygiene or requiring physical strength for survival. more copies that are produced, the less each is worth. To the But they no longer have any utility and persist only as irra- contrary, each clone will presumably be valued as much by tional taboos. In addition, given the limits of the world of the their friends, lovers, and spouses as individuals who are pro- Bible and the Koran, their authors simply had no occasion to duced and born in the traditional manner and not genetically address some of the problems that confront us, such as the duplicated. ethics of in vitro fertilization, genetic engineering, or cloning. To pretend otherwise, and to try to apply religious precepts by extension and analogy to these novel problems is BEYOND THEOLOGY an act of pernicious self-delusion. All the foregoing objections assume that cloning could suc- To underscore these points, let us consider some of the cessfully be applied to human beings. It is worth noting that more common objections to cloning that have been voiced by this issue is not entirely free from doubt since Dolly was various religious leaders: produced only after hundreds of attempts. And although in principle the same techniques should work in humans, bio- Cloning is playing god. This is the most common religious logical experiments cannot always be repeated across differ- objection, and its appearance in the cloning debate was pre- ent species. ceded by its appearance in the debate over birth control, the Of course, if some of the religious have their way, the gen- debate over organ transplants, the debate over assisted dying, eral public may never know whether cloning would work in humans, as research into applications of cloning to human beings could be out- What we require is a secular morality based lawed or driven underground. This would on our needs and interests and the needs be an unfortunate development. Quite apart from the obvious, arguably benefi- and interests of other sentient beings. cial, uses of cloning, such as asexual reproduction for those incapable of hav- etc. Any attempt by human beings to control and shape their ing children through sex, there are potential spinoffs from lives in ways not countenanced by some religious tradition cloning research that could prove extremely valuable. will encounter the objection that we are "playing God." To Doctors, for example, could develop techniques to take skin say that the objection is uninformative is to be charitable. cells from someone with liver disease, reconfigure them to The objection tells us nothing and obscures much. It cannot function as liver cells, clone them, and then transplant them distinguish between interferences with biological process back into the patient. Such a procedure would avoid the some- that are commonly regarded as permissible (for example, use times-fatal complications that accompany genetically non- of analgesics or antibiotics) and those that remain controver- identical transplants as well as problems caused by the sial. Why is cloning an impermissible usurpation of God's chronic shortage of available organs for transplant. authority, but not the use of tetracycline? This is not to discount the potential for harm and abuse that would result from the development of cloning technology, Cloning is unnatural because it separates reproduction especially if we also master techniques for manipulating DNA. from human sexual activity. This is the flip side of the If we are able to modify a human being's genetic composition familiar religious objection to birth control. Birth control is to achieve a predetermined end and can then create clones immoral because it severs sex from reproduction. Cloning is from the modified genetic structure, we could, theoretically, immoral because it severs reproduction from sex. One would create a humanlike order of animals that would be more intel- think that allowing reproduction to occur without all that ligent than other animals but less intelligent and more docile nasty, sweaty carnal activity might appeal to some religious than (other?) human beings. Sort of ready-made slaves. i6 FREE INQUIRY But religious precepts are neither necessary nor sufficient tors that would have to be considered in assessing the many for avoiding such dangers. What we require is a secular other ways—some of them now unimaginable—in which morality based on our needs and interests and the needs and cloning technology might be applied. My point here is that interests of other sentient beings. In considering the example we have a capacity to address these moral problems as they just given, it is apparent that harmful consequences to nor- arise in a rational and deliberate manner if we rely on secu- mal human beings could result from the creation of these lar ethical principles. The call by many of the religious for an humanoid slaves, as many could be deprived of a means of absolute ban on cloning experiments is a tacit admission that earning their livelihood. It would also lead to an enormous their theological principles are not sufficiently powerful and and dangerous concentration of power in the hands of those adaptable to guide us through this challenging future. who controlled these humanoids. And, although in the I want to make clear that I am not saying we should turn abstract we cannot decide what rights these humanoids a deaf ear to those who offer us moral advice on cloning would have, it is probable that, as sentient beings with at merely because they are religious. Many bioethicists who least rudimentary intelligence, they would have a right to be happen to have deep religious convictions have made signif- protected from ruthless exploitation and, therefore, we could icant, valuable contributions to this field of moral inquiry. not morally permit them to be treated as slaves. Even domes- They have done so, however, by offering secular and objec- ticated animals have a right to be protected from cruel and tive grounds for their arguments. Just as an ethicist's reli- capricious treatment. gious background does not entitle her to a special deference, Obviously, I have not listed all the factors that would have so too her religious background does not warrant her exclu- to be considered in evaluating the moral implications of my sion from the debate, provided she appeals to reason and not thought experiment. I have not even tried to list all the fac- supernatural revelation. FI
Summer 1997 17 CLONING HUMANS
No Fear How a humanist faces science's new creation
Richard T. Hull
y typical reaction to noteworthy scientific to generate an individual human being. We have yet to hear advances is amazement and joy: amazement at the from the theologians on this point, but my guess is that the M complexity of scientific knowledge and its rate of status of the fertilized ovum in such circles is going to have expansion, joy at living in a time when there is so much to be fundamentally rethought as a result of this advance. promise offered by science for having a major impact on Once again, when science and faith have been put to the test, human destiny. As a humanist, I see the ability of my species beliefs generated by faith have not survived. The production to manage its own evolution to be one of its most wonderful of Dolly is on a par with Galileo pointing his telescope at the emerging properties, an ability that distinguishes humans moon and seeing mountains and craters. from every other species. So I am deeply suspicious of Nor do I view kindly the efforts of the Clinton adminis- attempts to impose bans on specific efforts to extend to tration to block the extension of this technology to humans. I humans new technologies achieved in animal models. hope the intent was a temporary moratorium to permit the The modern biological journey we are on, viewed President's Commission on Bioethics time to assemble the unclouded by irrational fears and sweeping theological gen- testimony of a variety of experts and commentators to quiet eralizations, is truly extraordinary. The recent cloning of a the fears fanned by the media's sensationalism. But I fear female sheep in Scotland stands as testimony to the power of that the result may be a chilling effect on our most advanced the scientific method. Again and again, things we seem to researchers in this field. know are overturned by the scientific testing of those knowl- The similar knee-jerk reaction of the British government in ending the grant to Dr. Ian As a humanist, I see the ability of my species to Wilmut under which Dolly was brought about was alarming. It manage its own evolution to be one of its most is implausible to say that the aims of the grant have been wonderful emerging properties. completed when the experiment produced but a single sheep out edge claims. The cloning of Dolly from nucleus material of several hundred attempts. Such a success is but a first indi- taken from a cell of her progenitor's udder and inserted into cator of possibilities, not the perfection of a technology. an unfertilized egg (sans nucleus) was stunning. It refuted the Withdrawal of funding in the face of the initial reports of the widely held belief that the specialization of cells that goes on media must give any scientist in this field serious doubts through the development and maintenance of an organism is about continuing investigations, even on the remaining ques- an irreversible, linear process. tions to be answered in animal models. Such a belief underlies the distinction many held between a fertilized ovum and a body cell. People found it tempting UNDETERRED INQUIRY to call the former an individual human being, the latter merely an individual human cell because of the supposed dif- Those remaining questions, of course, should be answered ference in potential. But now we know that most of our cells before proceeding to human applications. They include the have the potential, if situated and manipulated appropriately, question of whether the DNA of an adult animal 's cells has "aged." We know that errors of transcription in the DNA of Richard T Hull is Professor of Philosophy at the State specialized body cells accumulate as those cells divide and University of New York at Buffalo. He has lectured, con- are replaced during the animal's life. Such mutations come sulted, and written on medical ethics issues, including repro- from environmental factors (radiation, exposure to chemi- duction and genetics, for 25 years. cals) that produce genetic breakage and from errors caused
18 FREE INQUIRY by imperfect replication. And there seems to be a theoretical media sensationalism, special interest groups, and polls. limit in humans of about 50 cell divisions, after which divi- sion of a line of cells ceases and the cells simply age and die. The question these facts pose, then, is whether the DNA of FALSE ALARMS Dolly's progenitor cell, taken from a six-year-old adult ewe's Contrast the humanistic view of cloning with some of the udder, carries with it such signs of aging. We simply don't more irrational concerns raised about Dolly and the prospect know whether Dolly was born "six years old" or whether she of cloning humans. faces the prospect of a life as lengthy as that of a sheep pro- duced sexually. And we don't know whether Dolly will con- Handicapped infants will surely be the unavoidable result tract earlier the kinds of cancers and other age-related dis- of early cloning attempts. If the standard of producing no eases that sheep produced sexually will. damaged, handicapped infant were the litmus test of a Moreover, Dolly was the only ewe born of several hun- method of human reproduction, the species should have dred attempts at the same procedure. Why the procedure stopped sexual reproduction long ago since it is the chief worked in roughly 0.3% of the cases and none of the others source of such unfortunates! needs to be understood. The technology of cloning must be improved before it is commercially viable in animal hus- Cloning humans will contravene nature's wisdom in con- bandry, let alone appropriate to try in humans. stantly mixing the human gene pool. The claim here is that So while I think the technology should continue to be having children genetically identical with their parents and developed, it would not be appropriate to try it yet on a grandparents and great-grandparents will eventually weaken human. No serious scientist would attempt to do so without human diversity and and deny future generations the benefits the above risks being substantially reduced and without the of what in the plant world is called "hybrid vigor." I have success rate substantially improved. mentioned the two questions that are related to the genetic Should such matters be controlled by governmental panels? health and longevity of cloned individuals, and they must Governmental panels are poor substitutes for the good sense surely be answered before we proceed to introduce the tech- and open communications of scientists working towards the nology into human reproduction. But just as the presence of same goal. What possible expertise does a congressman or carrots in the human diet doesn't mean we will necessarily senator have that is relevant to the question of whether the all turn yellow from overindulgence in carotene-bearing technology is good enough to try on a human? Such foods, so the presence of cloning in medicine's arsenal does- "solons"—wise lawgivers—are not dedicated to the rational n't mean that at some future date all humans will be clones advance of scientific questions—at least, not as their prime of past generations. As an expensive medical therapy, mission. They are, for the most part, motivated to reflect the cloning will have a small number of takers. And the worry interests of the strongest contributors among the groups they associated with its development is no greater than the worries represent. And the presidency is also subject to pressures of associated with the development of in vitro fertilization, or
B1oETNi«, PANEL ON CLoNING
Summer 1997 19 artificial inseminations, and probably considerably less than those associated with surrogacy. Joseph Fletcher on Egomaniacal individuals will have themselves cloned to achieve a kind of immortality. We already know enough Clones, Drones, about the interaction between heredity and environment to know that it's impossible to reproduce all the influences that go into the making of an individual. Big egos may seize upon and Virgin Births cloning as a kind of narcissistic self-recreation just as indi- On the issue of cloning, the eminent philosopher Joseph viduals now seize upon sexual reproduction as a kind of nar- Fletcher was ahead of his time. Here's a sample of what cissistic self-recreation. When people do have children for he had to say on the subject in 1988: narcissistic reasons, they are usually disappointed that the children don't turn out as their parents did. Because of the Nuclear transplants or what is called "renucleation" or cloning runs into a lot of objections.... [A] scare cry essentially unreproducible nature of environmental influ- is that cloned individuals are dead ends biologically. ences, cloning won't be any more successful at producing The fact is, of course, that cloned people can reproduce copies of their progenitors than sexual reproduction is. Yet sexually as well as by another cloning, and if it is done another disappointment for big egos! sexually their partners too can be either cloned or of sexual origin. Cloning is a particular mode of repro- Cloning will be used to create embryos that can be frozen, duction for particular cases; it can alternate with sexual then thawed and gestated as organ farms for their prog- reproduction as need suggests, in one generation or enitors to harvest when facing major organ failure. This another.... It has even been declared in a bizarre kind of psy- interesting worry—interesting because it may have some chology that the cloned individual will have no "free basis—deserves serious reflection. Given the way the fact of will," no independent will of his own. The objectionists cloning transforms the question of the special status of the draw a picture of him in the Caliban image, Prospero's fertilized ovum, we may be on the verge of rethinking the beastlike slave in Shakespeare's Tempest, combined whole question of what abortion is. If even the most conser- with Aldous Huxley's imaginary delta and epsilon. This too will hardly win friends or find acceptance vative positions must now reopen the question of when the among identical twins or among those who know and individual human begins, we may come to see harvesting love them. And it simply is not true anyway, if that is a fetal organs to be more like taking specialized cells from a consideration in the discussion... . culture than like taking organs from a baby. Another comparable objection is that body cells But the more interesting possibility is that the development could be stolen or bootlegged by a cutting stealthily snipped from somebody's arm, so that envious neigh- of cloning technology will be accompanied by mastery of the bors could gain a genotype which is ours and to which genetic code by which genes are turned on or off to sequence they have no right. We are already familiar with this specialization. It may be possible in the future to clone indi- kind of trickery; it is done all the time, using the ordi- vidual organs without having to employ the medium of the nary natural mode of reproduction. Perpetrating such fetus. Such a process should be faster than a nine-month ges- tricks by artificial means would in fact be far more complicated and harder to get away with, as well as tation, and the availability of artificial womb technology (or easier to detect; several medical functionaries would some equivalent suitable for organ cloning) would make pos- have to be involved. . sible enormously important advances in organ transplantation There is, furthermore, a peculiar religious block to that would be free of the complications of immune system be recognized. It arises with pious people when any suppression necessary for transplanting genetically non-iden- mention is made of monogenesis—i.e., of virgin birth. They do not like any mention of virgin birth either in tical organs. So while there are potential moral problems and its natural forms or when it is induced artificially by temptations along the way, we should not recoil from them. cloning. Prospectively there will also be what Rostand As is nearly always the case with scientific advances, the once called "solitary generation," i.e., monogenesis by likely potential benefits vastly outweigh the possible risks. activation of egg or sperm without the manipulation of Those with religious scruples concerning cloning and nuclei required in cloning body cells. It is objected that we are undermining the faith of believers in the other future biomedical technologies need not employ them. Christian doctrine of the Virgin Birth when we point Plenty of existing children need adoption; a more rational out that virgin birth is not at all unique and when we routine retrieval practice for transplantable organs would talk of enacting it at will. To the nonpious and non- increase the supply; real wombs, whether owned or rented, orthodox, on the other hand, this seems to be just one more religious idea that has to be revised or discarded will continue to provide an ample supply of human babies. as human knowledge grows, even though so much Those of us who see the future of humankind in evolving dogma and controversy and persecution have been greater and greater control over our destinies, who see invested in it. human strivings and human achievements as the source of humanity's value, say this: cancel the executive orders, From The Ethics of Genetic Control: Ending Reproductive Roulette, by Joseph Fletcher (Amherst, Prometheus Books, unchain our science, minimize its regulation, and let us 1988). rejoice in its fruits. FI
20 FREE INQUIRY Exposing the Religious Right's `Secret' Weapon Pay attention to that man behind the curtain
Gil Alexander-Moegerle
hatever your opinion of the politics of Jerry lar powerhouse within the religious right is that no one inside Falwell, Pat Robertson, or Ralph Reed, generally his organization has ever spoken out in this way before. W they have done their political activism in plain Remarkably, mine is the first published critique of the view of the citizenry whose personal lives their policies, if behind-the-scenes James Dobson in his more than 20 years in enacted, would alter dramatically. Not so with James public life. And it comes to you from a somewhat unlikely Dobson. This year is the twentieth anniversary of the found- source, a former devoted fan. ing of his giant political action organization known as Focus Allow me to take you, rapid fire, through the observations on the Family, and yet most people would say, "James who?" That is because of two important factors. I believe James Dobson's declaration of war is James Dobson lobbies Washington more powerfully than a reflection of his own temperament and any individual or organization disposition. He is a man at war because within the religious right. As a quick reference point, in December he is a man of war. of 1996 the second most influential leader of the religious right, Ralph Reed of the Christian of numerous professionals regarding the question of Jim's Coalition, announced excitedly that 1996 donations to his influence. For example, in a lengthy profile of Dobson, Tim coalition had reached a lofty $26 million—a 38% increase Stafford observes: over the previous year's contributions.' In contrast, Dobson's organization, Focus on the Family, plus his Washington lob- [Dobson] is heard on more radio stations than anyone but bying arm, the Family Research Council, raised approxi- Paul Harvey. But while Paul Harvey offers news and cracker- barrel philosophy, James Dobson asks his listeners to take mately $125 million during the same period. But Dobson action: to organize against pornography in their communi- does his lobbying without answering to the mainstream pub- ties, to write to Washington. And they do. Few organizations lic for his positions. He consciously avoids contact with the anywhere can mobilize the supporters that Dobson can. national press and shuns the media talk-show circuit. He In early 1987, angered that government officials had deliberately eschews the public spotlight, choosing instead to silenced Joanne Gaspar [a member of Reagan's domestic policy staff] for her anti-abortion decisions, Dobson inspired do his political scheming in private so as not to be questioned 100,000 letters to the White House. Gaspar was restored to or challenged. When he is queried about the size and nature power. Largely because of such public clout, Dobson has of his political agenda, he responds with calculated decep- developed considerable influence in Washington.' tion, indicating that any activism on his part or his organiza- tion's is so minor as to be of no real consequence. In the fall of 1995 ABC television did a prime-time pro- The other reason people know so little about this particu- file of Jim that included this opening statement by "Day One" anchor Forrest Sawyer followed by the second obser- Gil Alexander-Moegerle has 2O years of experience in radio vation by ABC reporter John Hockenberry: and television production and is now a manager at Edison International. He was associated with James Dobson's orga- He is one of the powerful men in the country, and yet few nization Focus on the Family for 1O years, as a co-founder, people even know his name. fund-raising consultant, radio talk-show host, and magazine On Capitol Hill he's treated like some kind of powerful editor. lobbyist. You've probably never heard of him but James
Summer 1997 21 Dobson is one of the most influential leaders of the religious who reach listeners coast to coast...." "Radio's most suc- right. Dobson's vision to transform America is known to cessful talking heads," he called them. According to Turner, every member of the House and Senate and he's been deliv- the five most listened-to radio personalities are Rush ering his message to the White House in person for years.' Limbaugh, Dr. Laura Schlesinger, Howard Stern, Don Imus, and Dr. James Dobson.' In advance of the August 1996 Republican Convention, When Dobson opposes or supports legislation and calls on Barry Lynn, executive director of Americans United for the his followers to join him in pressuring Washington, it is quite Separation of Church and State, observed in an ABC televi- common for 500,000 to 1 million phone calls and letters to sion interview, rain down on the capital within hours. All five candidates for In many ways James Dobson is the ultimate stealth cam- the 1996 Republican presidential nomination traveled to paigner. He is a person who likes power, who likes to be a Colorado to seek Dobson's endorsement, some as many as king maker. I think you could make a strong case that if you four times. Time magazine was right. This is an American had a deadlocked Republican convention, if you were a can- king maker. And he warrants our close scrutiny for a number didate you'd be more interested in getting the support of James Dobson than the support of Jerry Falwell and Pat of disturbing reasons. Robertson combined.' DOBSON'S CIVIL WAR I met James Dobson for the first time in late 1976, and agreed to produce for him the very first "Focus on the The first time some of us heard that the religious right, or those cultural conservatives who have They were stunned that this "doctor" would a religious component to their political activism, had actually declared "war" say to an ABC News reporter that he believes on the rest of us was probably during Pat Buchanan's infamous speech at the participation in university women's study 1992 Republican National Conven- programs leads to lesbianism. tion. He spoke combatively, in terms that chilled many listeners, of a reli- gious war in America, something few Family" radio broadcast for airing in March of 1977 on a thought possible. His eerie words brought home to millions small network of stations our agency signed up for his fledg- of us the repulsive feelings associated with holier-than-thou ling nonprofit corporation by the same name. moralists who presume to have a corner on right and wrong I worked closely with Jim for the next decade, first in an and who seem to be itching to fight about it. agency-client relationship and then inside Focus on the Two years earlier a secretive but increasingly powerful Family as a voting member of the board of directors as well political organizer, psychologist, radio talk-show host, mil- as the corporation's senior vice-president for creative ser- lionaire businessman, and author by the name of James vices. In that role my staff and I had responsibility for creat- Dobson had spoken even more bluntly of hostilities within ing the core elements of the Focus on the Family communi- our society—not differences or debates, but war. Dobson cations enterprise—Dobson's internationally distributed wrote his particular declaration of war, his manifesto of con- radio, television, and print media products, the contents of tention, in a book titled Children at Risk that was published which focused on either family life or politics. If you were a in 1990. In it he spoke of a "Second Great Civil War": consumer of psychologist James Dobson's best-selling prod- Nothing short of a great Civil War of Values rages today ucts, you might think of him a religious version of Dr. throughout North America. Two sides with vastly differing Benjamin Spock or Dr. Joyce Brothers. If you were a con- and incompatible worldviews are locked in a bitter conflict sumer of Dobson's political fare, you might regard him as a that permeates every level of society. Bloody battles are being fought on a thousand fronts.... Open any daily newspaper religious version of Pat Buchanan. and you'll find accounts of the latest Gettysburg, Waterloo, The enormous scope of the communications empire we Normandy, or Stalingrad ... someday soon, I believe, a win- were able to build will explain why James Dobson has such ner will emerge and the loser will fade from memory.' influence; why, for example, Dobson was selected by the staff of Time magazine to be a semi-finalist for its June 1996 On reflection one wonders what it is in a man that causes list of the 25 most influential people in America. The daily him to see in the faces of all around him only the enemy; half-hour radio talk-show our Chicago agency launched in what it is in his spirit that causes to be reflected back to his 1977 is now carried by over 1,500 stations in North America gaze only images of conflict, hostility, and war, struggles to and 3,400 stations worldwide, with an estimated audience of the death where there must be a winner and a loser whose well over five million loyal listeners. Richard Turner of memory is obliterated from the earth. I believe James Newsweek magazine reported in the December 16, 1996, Dobson's declaration of war is a reflection of his own tem- issue on what he called "The Inescapable Voices of perament and disposition. He is a man at war because he is a America." He referred to "A handful of radio personalities man of war. An outsider might speculate in reading Dobson's
22 FREE INQUIRY assessment above that either he sees a real threat or he's more values are incessantly mocked by the media, children are than a little paranoid, prone to hyperbole, believes in con- corrupted by TV, obscenity abounds, and the government is spiracy theories, and is given to doom-and-gloom prognosti- encroaching upon his constitutional freedoms. Humanistic cations. But I was an insider. No speculation needed here. values dominate in the power centers of society, in Jim's The answer is the latter—it is not that he sees a problem, he view. They have outstripped Judeo-Christian precepts in the is a problem. news media, the entertainment industry, the judiciary, busi- If our children came home talking like Dobson we'd take ness, medicine, psychology, law, the arts, and the halls of them directly to a psychiatrist because these ruminations of Congress. To Jim's way of thinking, unlimited resources are death and bloody conflict are not the outlooks of the healthy, available to the incredibly well-organized secular humanists balanced psyche we wish for them, one that would enable among us for their expansive agenda and for their calculated them to be productive members of society. We would worry attack on him and his values. Dobson believes that his oppo- for their well-being. It is no less worrisome a worldview in nents are highly motivated and armed to the teeth, but that the grown man and self-proclaimed moral leader whose many on his side are unaware that they are even under attack. declared intention it is to reshape America's public policy to He then goes on to tell us that warfare is dangerous, exhaust- his own ultraconservative religious liking. ing, and expensive, but that he cannot remain uninvolved. In Children at Risk, Dobson goes on to explain that on one As you hear these opinions and try to picture the mind and side of the enormous chasm dividing Americas are those peo- temperament behind them, allow me to apprise you of the ple of traditional beliefs which he describes as rooted in the following: When Jim says that Judeo-Christian precepts have Bible, the Ten Commandments, the New Testament, and the been outstripped by those of secular humanism you have, in gospel of Jesus Christ. Dobson believes that Christian, bibli- my view, one of the central reasons why James Dobson has cal understandings underlie almost every moral issue of the declared war on virtually every sector of society. He per- day. What we hear in this assessment is that traditionalists ceives that his belief is losing ground and he's angry about and conservatives, those who vote with Dobson, do so because they are oriented toward the New Testament According to Jim all manner of evil, such as and Christianity. What Jim means here is that if you are a conservative abortion, infanticide, and euthanasia, flows Jew or a traditionalist who is also an from these godless Americans. atheist, you have political beliefs that are Christian. You just don't realize it. In other words, polit- that. He's a poor loser. The idea of holding the minority opin- ical values like Jim's—lower taxes, smaller government, ion in America, the minority value system, minority power, larger defense, the elimination of the Department of or minority control of any situation is anathema to James Education and the National Endowment for the Arts, the bar- Dobson. ring of women and homosexuals from military service—rep- resent Christian politics, right politics. Dobson claims that until thirty years ago the basic values CHAMPION OF UNREASON and beliefs in the West, which Congress and the judicial sys- Southern religious traditions bequeathed to Dobson a non- tem reflected, were biblically based concepts. If you're won- scientific approach to his work. Conservative American dering about the time our "biblically based" Congress and Protestantism has struggled for centuries with an anti-intel- judiciary determined in their "biblically based" wisdom that lectual bias that one sees reflected in Jim's style. Science has blacks were personal property and slavery was moral and it been suspect to this group. It is often viewed as an effort to was irreligious for women to vote, I'm not sure what chapter replace faith with reason and to replace God with man. You and verse of the Bible Jim would point to for an explanation. find within some sectors of this community a fear of science, But if you gave him sufficient time, I'm confident he could even a scorn for thinking. For example, you can still find offer some reason for his sweeping generalization. churches, here on the eve of the twenty-first century, where Dobson then describes the other side of the rift dividing sentiments out of the Dark Ages are repeated: "Beware the society, those with whom he sees himself locked in a bitter, university. Beware higher education. Beware of sending your bloody moral struggle for the very soul of America. They are sons and daughters to these godless places." the secular humanists, people for whom "God isn't," and for At issue here is the constant tug of war between faith and whom right is determined by whatever seems right at the reason, between the seen and the unseen. In Dobson's tradi- time. According to Jim all manner of evil, such as abortion, tion, seeing is not believing. In fact, his people would say infanticide, and euthanasia, flows from these godless with excitement, "Believing is seeing." So Jim is caught Americans. Because of them "everything emanating from the between two worlds: the science of human behavior, which, Creator was jettisoned, including reverence for Scripture or like any science, needs to examine, to hypothesize, to test, any of the transcendent, universal truths."' and then to announce truth, and that of religion, which Dobson goes on, in Children at Risk, to lament that his announces truth that is already revealed in the Bible and
Summer 1997 23 needs no testing. Unfortunately for Jim's integrity, he programs have that flavor to it. declares citizenship in the world of science but functions Hockenberry: But can it cause lesbianism? almost entirely in the world of religion. His presentation of Dobson: I think it can encourage it, yeah.' himself would be stronger if he decided on which side he wanted to function. RELIGIOUS HOMOPHOBIA It was faith and his view of biblical sexuality that led Jim to claim Ted Bundy as Exhibit A in his fight against pornog- Still another reason James Dobson, public policy maker, con- cerns me is the evidence I saw of his homophobia, his preju- raphy. (Dobson conducted the notorious execution-eve inter- view with the serial killer in February 1989.) The scientific dice against gays and lesbians. fact that Bundy was a pathological liar and therefore could His homophobia arises, in part, from ultra-orthodox Christianity. Of all the behaviors that my ultra-conservative not, by definition, serve as the foundation for any theory, did religious background trained me to judge harshly, the top of not dissuade Jim. When ABC News reporter John the list, A-1 candidate for condemnation was any sexual con- Hockenberry brought up the Bundy incident in a broadcast duct other than sex between a married man and woman. profile, Jim said as much: Sex before marriage? How dare you! Subscribe to Hockenberry to viewers: Paranoia about being lured into Playboy? My God! Rent R-rated videos? You poor soul, it some dark sexual world was also the theme of this unusual won't surprise me when they lock you up for molestation! instructional video about pornography, the final death row Sleeping around? I can only pray for you, except that's hard interview with serial killer Ted Bundy the day before he was because your lifestyle disgusts me! Adultery? I can't believe it! electrocuted. If sexual conduct triggers the greatest levels of judgmental ism In many ways James Dobson is the ultimate within the ultra-conservative, then the specific sexual practice that heads stealth campaigner. He is a person who likes that category of wrong conduct is homosexual behavior. How com- power, who likes to be a king maker. pletely foul, I would say to myself, that a person would have sex with Video excerpt, Dobson to Bundy: You really feel that someone of his or her own gender. And this overwhelming hard core pornography and the doorway to it, soft core emotional reaction against people engaged in homosexuality pornography, is doing untold damage. short-circuits the capacity not only for friendship but even Bundy to Dobson: Pornography can reach out and snatch a kid out of any house.... for whatever rationality the ultra-orthodox person may be Hockenberry to Dobson: Why should we believe Ted capable of. To demonstrate, allow me to simulate an inter- Bundy? view with a person of Dobson's persuasion, with a little sar- Dobson to Hockenberry: Why not? I'm tell you, John, casm thrown in if you don't mind. My main point here is the we get mail in here every day from women whose husbands lack of logic in the stereotypical responses I've heard from are addicted to that stuff. They have lost interest in marital sex, they want their wives to do the kinds of crazy stuff they Jim and members of his religious community. see on video. That stuff is a curse and Ted Bundy knew it. Hockenberry to viewers: Nevertheless, after he was crit- Question: I notice you don't have any friends who are homo- icized publicly for capitalizing on a serial killer, Dobson sexuals. Do they make you uncomfortable? How do you feel gave away the proceeds from the video [almost one million when you meet a homosexual? dollars] and no longer distributes it. Answer: Their conduct is aberrant. I become sick to my stomach when I think about that lifestyle. I can't stand to be near them. Observers could not believe that a trained psychologist, a Q: Really? I can easily understand someone having a dif- Ph.D. from the University of Southern California, would ference of opinion with someone else regarding their sexual latch onto Ted Bundy as a case study to prove a theory of choices, but I'm not sure I understand why you would pornography—Dobson's "slippery slope" theory of morality. become sick to your stomach. And they were stunned that this "doctor" would say to the A: Everyone knows what those people do. It's unnatural. It is disgusting. same ABC News reporter that he believes participation in Q: Perhaps a simple solution is for you to avoid becom- university women's study programs leads to lesbianism. ing a homosexual because the lifestyle disgusts you. But why do you have such difficulty allowing others to be and to do Hockenberry to viewers: Some of Dobson's political ideas as they please? are ... bizarre. Like his warnings to mothers in this recent A: Because their choices threaten our society and our fund-raising letter that their college-age daughters may go children. They're depraved and corrupting. And they know it. away to school and come home with lesbian lovers. Homosexuals could choose the straight life. They just refuse The implication in the literature was that university edu- to do so. cation causes girls to become lesbians. Q: You're a heterosexual telling homosexuals what their Dobson to Hockenberry: I said it once, let me say it innermost thoughts and feelings are, what their desires and again. I didn't say university education, I said women's study motives are. Isn't that a little absurd, not to mention judg-
24 FREE INQUIRY mental? Homosexuals say that they don't voluntarily choose are bad people who just don't care—about America, about to feel homosexual, to find their own gender sexually attrac- children, about families, about God. tive rather than the opposite sex. They say they "discover" If you are a communicator like Dobson, it certainly sim- these feelings within themselves; perhaps even fight against them for a long time before recognizing them as their iden- plifies your work load if everyone in your society can be tity, usually at a great personal price. They say that they are described as either good or bad, for you or against you, and no more destructive to themselves and their partners than are if you know the difference simply by where they stand on any two heterosexuals who fall in love and live together. certain select political issues. No gray areas here. No "on the They argue that heterosexual Americans are not exclusively one hand ... but on other other hand." This is litmus-test pol- responsible for America's strengths. Both groups have stable and unstable partnerships, they would say. Both groups itics at its best. In fact I recall a conversation between include irresponsibly promiscuous members. Both groups Dobson and a friend in which the friend was trying to help contain members who weaken and destroy other people's Jim understand a shockingly simple political reality: there partnerships by encouraging unfaithfulness. There is enough are devout followers of Christ who are pro-choice. If you can sexual sin in America, they would argue, to keep every het- imagine the scene, Dobson refused throughout the discussion erosexual and homosexual American humble about who's to blame. to agree to that elementary argument. He held tenaciously to A: We're talking about my personal beliefs. That's all. I believe that God's The largest problem Jim represents is that, plan is for men to be with women and women with men. in his heart, he intends for his America to be Q: That I understand. You have reli- gious convictions. And convictions a Christian nation. should be respected. Fair enough. But homosexuals have convictions. Do they warrant your respect, just as you demand theirs? We come the position that a true Christian cannot, by definition, be back to your first reaction. Why do your powerful negative pro-choice. Finally, when the friend's debating skills began reactions against the beliefs of others cause you to avoid them, to make no friends among them? If the subject is the to overtake Jim's position, the friend was able to gain the fol- challenge America faces managing sexuality in a positive lowing massive yet amazing concession. One could almost and constructive way, don't you think some of those chal- hear a mighty redwood fall as Dobson murmured, "All right, lenges are yours? a person could be a Christian and be pro-choice but we're talking about a Christian who is misinformed and mis- My point in offering you a conversation that could have guided." easily taken place between Jim and me is not to suggest that There is no monolithic organization on the right or on the resolving society's sexual issues is as simple as respecting left. James Dobson is barely on speaking terms with Ralph everyone's individual viewpoints. The pathway to resolving Reed, and Reed is in the same religious camp. Dan Rather of differences of opinion and building consensus on this or any CBS News does not consult with Planned Parenthood exec- issue does not pass through contempt and deception. We're utives or Harvard liberals before deciding how to read the going to have to proceed on the basis of dialogue and civil- evening news to us. There are, however, fear mongers in both ity. And we're going to have to be friends or the journey will camps who provide their troops with phony political intelli- not be possible. Toward that end, I'm afraid we'll receive no gence, often for the purpose of raising money to support their help from James Dobson. campaign against their imagined monolithic foe—people like Dobson, who, in his radio broadcasts, magazine articles, books, and monthly fund-raising letters, overwhelms his CONSPIRACIES AND DEMONS EVERYWHERE constituents with statements like the following: There is a vast quantity of conspiratorial language in Dobson's work by which he describes a world where evil Two sides with vastly differing and incompatible world views are locked in a bitter conflict. I believe a winner will coalitions of enemies meet regularly and conspire to create emerge and the loser will fade from memory. an orchestrated, unified attack on ideas Jim holds dear. Actually, Jim's conspiratorial thinking goes beyond the Secular humanists easily embrace abortion, infanticide and bizarre into the truly humorous. According to him, there euthanasia when convenience demands. exists a large and powerful association of liberals who are The resources available to secular humanists throughout united in their position on the various social issues of the day society are almost unlimited in scope, and they are breaking and who are funded in such massive proportions that they new ground every day. can do whatever they please, whenever they please: hire staff, distribute mass mailings, purchase print and electronic The beleaguered, exhausted, oppressed, and overtaxed fam- ads, lobby Congress, and "buy" legislators with campaign ily now stands unprotected against a mighty foe. contributions. Their pockets give new definition to the word I will not take the time here to list or describe the specific "deep." Furthermore, this corrupt cabal is united in the evil attempts by secular humanists to weaken the institution of that permeates their hearts and motivates their actions. These the family and the church, but they are legion.
Summer 1997 25 Our opponents are highly motivated, well-funded, deeply enced by Christian values? Always. But a Christian nation? committed, and armed to the teeth. Never, in my view, unless Jim should prevail. Jim is angry about the degree to which his particular religion is not openly Many Christians have ... bought the notion, propagated by the secular press and their liberal friends, that it violates the revered as the fountainhead of public policy. He is upset with separation of church and state for believers to take a position those who, in his opinion, are causing the country to be on controversial social concerns. something other than distinctly Christian. Rather than being content to be a Christian American and valuing the contribu- We are ordinary people trying to deal with incredibly power- tions that Christians like him are making to American soci- ful and dangerous institutions. We are often outgunned and undermanned. ety; rather than wanting simply to be a person who con- tributes to the presence of Christian faith and perspective in We are witnessing an unprecedented campaign to secularize society, seasoning the stew of a diverse democracy, Jim's our society and demoralize our institutions from the top passions run in the direction of controlling society in such a down. Having turned the culture upside-down, the secularists manner that we have a Christian government. That is his appear now to have agreed upon three specific mechanisms to complete the task of immobilizing and silencing conserv- most dangerous mistake. ative Christians: deny America's Judeo-Christian roots, label During his November 25, 1996, radio broadcast, Dobson politically active Christians as violating church-state separa- dissected the results of the recent general election with the tion, and ultimately silence politically active Christians. help of Gary Bauer. Listening to the precise words they used to characterize what they believed to be the good and bad And closely akin to lumping together all one's perceived news from that election, I was struck once again by the aware- foes into a giant conspiracy is the psychologically dysfunc- ness that Jim is encouraging the creation of a distinctly tion so prevalent in Jim's work of demonizing that foe's Christian rather than a nonsectarian government. For exam- ple, he said, with Bauer's enthusiastic support, "Some of those new guys The resources available to secular [speaking of successful candidates for humanists throughout society are almost the Senate and the House] are really gong to be outstanding. John Thune is a unlimited in scope, and they are breaking new Republican, pro-life, pro-family, a strong Christian. Jim Ryun, a new ground every day.' Republican from Kansas, has been on this radio program. He's a wonderful intentions: jumping to the most extreme and negative con- Christian man; great family values. There's one [new clusions possible about the hidden motives behind another Congressman] right after another like that." person's conduct. Jim has perfected this form of warped That crosses the line. It sounds suspiciously like a man ruminating. Here again is a sampling from his broadcasting whose political goals include creating a Christian govern- and print materials: ment rather than supporting America's traditional view that Once again, the majority of our congressmen have made it we are best served, to borrow from a phrase from Dennis clear that they couldn't care less about mothers at home. Prager, by "a government that is completely secular and per- mits complete religious freedom for the individual."9 Our representatives ignored their constituencies and voted The answer to extremism is moderation and balance. The with the special-interest groups. But whoever said the answer to church and state is a reasonable wall. And the Congress was fair? answer to Jim and his type is no. FI Dan Rather, Tom Brokaw, and CNN will not tell you this story. Notes
We have seen a concerted effort to distort the truth about what 1.Christian Coalition Press Releases displayed on the coalition's home this legislation does to church-based child-care facilities. page, www.cc.org, December 1996. 2. Tim Stafford, "His Father's Son," Christianity Today, March 1988. The anti-family, anti-religious politicians and bureaucrats in 3. "Day One," ABC Television News, October 18, 1995. this country have become bolder and far more aggressive in 4. Ibid. recent years. 5. Richard Turner "The Inescapable Voice of America," Newsweek, December 16, 1996, p. 25. (Dallas, Tex.: Word, Inc., 1990), pp. This transformation is occurring by the will of our elected 6. James Dobson, Children at Risk 19, 20. representatives and by liberal judges who seem determined 7. Ibid., p. 21. to recast society in their own image. 8. "Day One." 9. Dennis Prager, Think a Second Time (New York: Regan Books, 1995), The largest problem Jim represents is that, in his heart, he pp. 159-65. intends for his America to be a Christian nation. Will we be This article was adapted from James Dobson's War on America by Gil a nation whose public-policy consensus is strongly influ- Alexander-Moegerle (Prometheus Books, 1997).
26 FREE INQUIRY Can Science Prove that Prayer Works? The real story behind the hype
Hector Avalos
rayer has become a new cottage industry. Within the are fatal flaws with the so-called scientific experiments used last five years the New York Times has listed as best- by supporters of prayer, and there are even greater philo- sellers at least a half-dozen books extolling the value sophical and theological problems with verifying scientifi- of prayer in some form.' Cover stories have appeared in pop- cally that the Christian god answers prayers.' ular magazines like Newsweek, and television programs such as "Dateline NBC" have devoted entire shows to this sub- ject.' In particular, physician Larry Dossey in his Prayer Is IMPOSSIBLE EXPERIMENTS Good Medicine: How to Reap the Healing Benefits of Prayer Probably the experiment cited most often by advocates of (1996) and Healing Words: The Power of Prayer and the prayer is the one performed by Byrd, a cardiologist at San Practice of Medicine (1993) has popularized the notion that Francisco General Medical Center. According to his report, there is scientific evidence that prayer does work.3 he studied 393 patients between August 1982 and May 1983. While Dossey sometimes denies that he would impose his He divided the group into 192 patients who were prayed for, spiritual beliefs on his patients, his favoritism toward the and 201 who were not prayed for.' He reported that, among supposed efficacy of prayer in the Judeo-Christian traditions other things, the people who were prayed for were five times is evident.4 Another physician, Randolph C. Byrd, has con- less likely to develop pulmonary edema. None required ducted a celebrated study that he believes supports the con- endotracheal intubation, and fewer patients died. The problem with this and any so-called controlled experiment regarding prayer is I must conclude that there are fatal flaws that there can be no such thing as a con- trolled experiment concerning prayer. You with the so-called scientific experiments can never divide people into groups that used by supporters of prayer. received prayer and those that did not. The main reason is that there is no way to know that someone did not receive prayer. How clusion that "intercessory prayer to the Judeo-Christian God would anyone know that some distant relative was not pray- has a beneficial therapeutic effect" in the population he stud- ing for a member of the group that Byrd had identified as ied.' having received no prayer? How does one control for prayers But is there scientific evidence that prayer really works? said on behalf of all the sick people in the world? How does Can you ever know that a prayer was answered by the one assess the degree of faith in patients that are too sick to Christian god? Does even the notion of prayer make sense? I be interviewed or in the persons performing the prayers? approach these questions as a professional biblical scholar, as Even Byrd acknowledges these problems and admits that an anthropologist trained in scientific methodologies, and as "`pure' groups were not attained in this study."8 Since con- a former Pentecostal faith-healer. I must conclude that there trol groups are not possible, such purported scientific exper- iments are not possible. Hector Avalos is Assistant Professor of Religious Studies at As noted by Gary P. Posner (FREE INQUIRY, "God in the Iowa State University and Executive Director of the CCU?" Spring 1990), the empirical results reported by Byrd Committee for the Scientific Examination of Religion. A for- do not inspire much confidence either. For example, 13 mer faith-healer, he has written previously on miracles and patients (7%) in the prayed-for group died, compared with 17 faith-healing for FREE INQUIRY, including "Mary at (8.5%) in the control group. Even Dossey admits that these Medjugorge: A Critical Inquiry" (FI, Spring 1994), "Who Is and other differences between the two groups of Byrd's Morris Cerullo?" (FI, Winter 1993/94), and "The Jehovah's patients were statistically insignificant, and concludes: "Do Witness and the Watchtower Society" (FI, Spring 1992). we know any more about the possible effects of prayer from
Summer 1997 27 this experiment? I am afraid the answer may be no."9 that such an infinite being exists. For example, in order to To avoid the problems inherent in experiments on human know that there is a being who is everywhere at the universe beings, Dossey turns to experiments on nonhuman subjects at the same time we would have to be everywhere in the uni- to support his idea of the efficacy of prayer. Dossey, in fact, verse at the same time. In order to know that there is a being sees experiments on bacteria and mice as even more con- who is eternal, we would have to be eternal. A supposed rev- vincing because he believes that psychological factors of elation from a supposedly infinite God will not overcome patients are thereby eliminated. He cites a catalog of experi- this problem.'2 ments performed on, among other things, bacteria, yeast, and In order to know that any event we witnessed in the world crystals. Such experiments were published in the American was caused by a particular being, we first have to know that Journal for Psychical Research, the Journal of Para- such a being exists. For example, it would be absurd to say: psychology, Research in Parapsychology, and other journals "I know my prayer was answered by an invisible Martian, Dossey considers to have "peer review standards as rigorous but I do not know if invisible Martians exist." The reason this as many medical journals."10 statement is logically absurd is that it attributes an action to Yet experiments on nonhuman subjects will not help a being not known to exist. Dossey because these experiments can encounter the same Likewise, in order to know that any event (e.g., an answered prayer or any other supposed extraordinary event) was caused by an infi- Belief in prayer also opens the door for nite being, we first have to know that an infi- nite being exists. Since we can never know those who prey on the fragile hopes of that an infinite being such as the Christian vulnerable patients. god exists, we can never know that any event we witness was caused by this being. theological and scientific obstacles that plague experiments In sum, knowing scientifically that an infinite God answered on human subjects. For example, there are people praying for a prayer is logically impossible. the well-being of all life on Earth, and so you would not be able to divide bacteria, fungus, mice, or any other living Pointless prayer Prayer would be unnecessary if there were thing into prayed-for and nonprayed-for groups. an all-knowing, all-good, and all-powerful God. Let's sup- None of these experiments (human and nonhuman) have pose that the most gifted doctor in the world happens to be been replicated by those who are generally skeptical of sci- your friend. This doctor has the ability to cure any sickness entific studies of prayer. In general, such experiments will known to modern medicine. Let's also suppose that this doc- probably not inspire confidence until they are at least per- tor is living with your family, which includes a six-month- formed by teams of scientists that include both skeptics and old baby. supporters of the efficacy of prayer. Now if this infant were to become violently ill in the pres- ence of this super-doctor, what would you expect from him? DEEPER TROUBLES If the baby is choking, for example, you would expect him to use techniques that will relieve the baby's problem. You But there are worse problems for the prayer hypothesis than would not expect him to ask you first if you believed that he a total lack of convincing data. There are profound philo- could cure your child before he was willing to help the child. sophical and theological difficulties in the notion of prayer, You would not expect him to require you to show how much especially prayer to the Christian god. faith you had in him before he would help your child. What you would expect is for this super-doctor to act as soon as he Prayer and the infinite For Christian believers, answered sees the child choking. prayers qualify as a type of miracle. According to Charles Let's also suppose that this doctor has the ability to pre- Hodge, the famous American fundamentalist theologian: "A vent cancer in all children anywhere in the world even before miracle, therefore, may be defined to be an event, in the it occurs. Undoubtedly, you would expect that if he had this external world, brought about by the immediate efficiency, or ability then he would use it, if he really fits our definition of simple volition, of God." The problem with verifying sci- "good." But if the doctor has this ability, and does use it, then entifically that miracles as defined above ever occur is that you would not expect there to be any cases of infantile can- the Christian god is supposed to have infinite characteristics, cer in the world. If this super-doctor has this ability, then he and we can never know whether a prayer has been answered should not wait for anyone to ask him to prevent the suffer- by a being that is said to be infinite. ing of children with cancer. We would expect him to act Let me explain. One of the infinite characteristics of the immediately out of pure goodness. Christian god is omnipresence—that is, this being is said to Similarly, an all-good God would not want anyone to suf- be everywhere in the universe at the same time. The fer. An all-knowing God would know who would suffer Christian god is also said to be eternal, all-powerful, and all- ahead of time, and an all-powerful God could prevent suffer- knowing. Yet, we, as finite human beings, could never know ing before it happens. Thus, if there were an all-good, all-
28 FREE INQUIRY knowing, and all-powerful God, then there would be no need so do not seem to realize that even the Judeo-Christian scrip- for prayer in the first place, especially if the prayer is used to tures severely undermine the possibility of controlled scien- alleviate illnesses or any other type of suffering. tific experiments of prayer. For example, there are many pas- sages that indicate that the Hebrew god will not listen to Other gods Even if someone prayed to the Christian god for prayer when he is angry with a whole nation or significant healing and that person was healed, it would not prove that portions of nation's institutions. Thus, in Isaiah 1:15, the the healing was done by the Christian god. All religions Hebrew god says: claim to have answered prayers. For example, according to the Bhagavad-Gita, part of the sacred scriptures of When you stretch out your hands, I will hide my eyes from Hinduism, the god Krishna claims that it does not matter you; even though you make many prayers, I will not listen; your hands are full of blood. which god human beings worship; it is Krishna who answers their prayer." Thus, it would not be scientifically possible to show that it is the Christian god who answered a prayer even According to Jeremiah 11:14 the Hebrew god even admon- if such a prayer was answered. ishes some not to pray. As for you, do not pray for this people, Supernatural ignorance Even if we saw an extraordinary or lift up a cry or prayer on their behalf, healing occur (e.g., a severed leg grow back instanta- for I will not listen when they call to me in the time of neously), we would not be able to prove scientifically that it their trouble. was a supernatural occurrence. To say that something is supernatural is to say that something is not natural. But to say In the case of nonhuman objects of prayer, consider the that something is not natural, one would have to be practi- reasons for poor plant growth discussed in Haggai 1:9-10: cally omniscient because that would be tantamount to saying that we know all the natural factors that could possibly be You have looked for much, and, lo, responsible for an event, and are claiming to know that none it came to little; and when you brought it home, 1 blew it away. Why? says the LORD of hosts. of the factors was responsible. No one has the kind of knowl- Because my house lies in ruins, while all of you edge, and so consequently no one could ever call anything hurry off to your own houses. non-natural. Therefore the heavens above you have withheld the dew, The most we could say about an event whose cause is and the earth has withheld its produce. unknown is that the cause is unknown. As already noted, we would be less justified in attributing an extraordinary event Thus, no matter how much people prayed in this case, it to an infinite being. would not help plant growth until a temple was built. So how would a so-called controlled study of prayer man- Bible problems Byrd, Dossey, and many other similarly age all of the possible factors (e.g. the building of a temple, minded scientists usually are uninformed about the Bible and anger towards a nation, geographical location of the objects Albert Ellis on Prayer Is prayer really psychologically good for people? those of Wilhelm Reich. Remember? He told people to sit "Prayer is good," famed clinical psychologist Albert in the center of an orgone box and the orgones from their Ellis recently told FREE INQUIRY, "but in a peculiar way bodies would bombard the lead in the box and come back that people who pray don't face. Anything you believe in to them and get them better. The federal government can be helpful. Suppose you devoutly believe in the devil, stopped that kind of devout `therapy.' that he's on your side, that he's favoring you, helping you "Anyway, if you really believe in prayer, then your to make a million dollars and be happy. Now that's a crazy outlook may improve because you feel empowered. But if belief, right? But it can help you, especially if you are born you believe that God's on your side and he let's you with depressive tendencies that have been cultivated all down, then you become disillusioned and sicker. Or take your life. Any belief—nationalism, Hitlerism—if it gives belief in the devil. Suppose the devil doesn't come people joy, does that mean it's good? through. So all those beliefs can be dangerous and "If you believe devoutly that prayer will help you, then depressing when they lead to disappointments. But why it may help because that's the nature of humans, to do people believe them even if they're false? Because believe devoutly in something, even when it's nonsense. they hope against hope for a magical benefit. They don't That's why most psychotherapy helps people—because have to work to help themselves if they can imagine a they believe in the therapist, they believe he or she is cor- miracle cure. Millions of people are allergic to working to rect, and they believe that the principles taught to them change themselves by hard work—which they can do. So are good. A lot of therapy teachings are garbage, like they seek miracles—which don't exist."
Summer 1997 29 of prayer, etc.) that might lead the so-called Judeo-Christian tions. Thus exaggerated numbers of reported healings can god to listen to some prayers but not others? Clearly, Dossey, multiply rapidly in these environments. Byrd, and their ideological colleagues do not realize that the The psychology of the petitioner is also a contributing many factors mentioned in the Bible for the selective answer factor. If the evangelist, for example, asks patients if God has of prayers render any thought of a controlled scientific study healed them, they are very likely to say "Yes," even if their absolutely meaningless. symptoms say the opposite." The reason is that many patients are embarrassed to say that God has not healed them because this appears to insult God. Many times, patients will WHY PEOPLE BELIEVE IN PRAYER say that they have been healed because they really believe For most of my young and adolescent life, I was a faith that eventually God will heal them, not because their symp- healer in a Pentecostal tradition. I witnessed what I then toms have disappeared. Cases where patients say that they thought were resurrections, spontaneous growth of short have not been healed are attributed to a lack of faith on their limbs, cures from cancer, and many other types of diseases. part or on the will of God. In retrospect, I have learned much about why people believe Other reports of divine healing are precipitated by the in answered prayers even when there is evidence to the con- erroneous assumption that doctors cannot be wrong. For trary or even when it is logically absurd. Every single case of example, there are many cases in which a doctor might tell a a supposedly answered prayer that I witnessed can be patient that he or she has an incurable illness from which explained by one or more of the following factors: (1) false death will occur within a short period of time. At the end of assumptions, (2) erroneous information, and (3) wishful this period, the patient is not only alive, but much better. This thinking. turn of events will usually be attributed to a divine healing. For example, many people with high blood pressure Yet the patient may overlook the fact that the doctor's diag- would call me to pray for them when their blood pressure nosis may have been wrong in the first place. The fact is that errors by physicians are more common than most people think, If there were an all good, all-knowing, and which is reflected by the great number of all-powerful God, then there would be no lawsuits against physicians today. Not all doctors have the same training or experi- need for prayer in the first place, especially ence, or even achieve the same grades in medical school. Again, all these factors if the prayer is used to alleviate illnesses or make it very simplistic to call a miracle any other type of suffering. what is more likely the result of human error about a prognosis or a diagnosis. rose. I would come and pray, and afterwards the blood pres- I, myself, have experienced a mistaken prediction of sure would fall. This would be regarded by me and the death. In late 1978, and more dramatically in 1979, I began patient as an answered prayer. Yet most blood pressure fre- to develop a disease called Wegener's Granulomatosis, but it quently does rise and fall on its own because our bodies have was frequently misdiagnosed by doctors until 1980. The systems that function like the thermostat in our homes. Many cause of the illness is unknown, but it appears that the body's other "sick conditions" also get better on their own because immune system begins to attack its own tissues as though the body has mechanisms to relieve itself (for example, they were foreign implants. In 1986, one doctor told me that fevers, colds, many types of aches and pains). I would not live past 1988 without major surgery. Although I Another reason for the widespread belief in divine healing am not 100% healthy, I am still alive, and the doctor has among Christians, especially Pentecostals, is the dynamic of admitted that he was wrong. the services in which healings are said to occur. In many Many improvements in medical conditions are called mir- instances a great quantity of healings are reported by travel- acles because there is still much to learn about the natural ing evangelists. Usually the evangelist asks the patient what recuperative abilities of the body. For example, even until the problem is. recently cancer was thought by many to be incurable. Yet Many may say, for instance, that they had a "kidney prob- today it is known that there are hundreds of types of cancer, lem" when they have a backache. The evangelist usually and not all of them are incurable.'' Now it is known that the does not verify if the patient is indeed suffering from kidney body has many substances that provide greater resistance problems and is not usually familiar with the patient's med- against cancer in some persons, and in some cases these sub- ical history. Yet he might announce that the patient was stances even result in the reversal of cancerous conditions healed of "kidney problems" to the entire audience. The that were previously thought to have been incurable in every evangelist also might assume that the persons who case. There are differences in biochemical abilities of per- approached the altar were healed, and so he may report that sons to resist disease. This is why some people can smoke multitudes of persons were healed in his previous stop. every day of their lives yet live until 90 years of age without Indeed, the evangelist rarely performs follow-up examina- major problems, while most people might die at a younger
30 FREE INQUIRY age from smoking. Many researchers argue that stress or Benefits of Prayer (New York: HarperCollins, 1996). other emotional states can affect the ability of the body to 4. For example, many arguments (e.g. Healing Words, pp. 68-69) con- cerning the efficacy and benefits of prayer quote Luke 18:1, Romans 12:12, fight or recuperate from disease.' and other passages of the Christian Bible. But even if you recovered from a potentially deadly ill- 5. Randolph C. Byrd, "Positive Therapeutic Effects of Intercessory ness in some unexpected manner, you still cannot know if it Prayer in a Coronary Care Unit Population," Southern Medical Journal 81 (July 7, 1988): 826-829. was an act of God. The most we could say is that the recov- 6.1 shall focus on discussing the claim that one can show that prayer ery was accomplished through an unknown process. Many works because it is being answered by a supernatural being, rather than the recuperations that may appear supernaturally miraculous relatively more plausible claim that belief in prayer in some instances might produce positive emotional states that can affect a patient's ability to fight or may be due to very natural processes which have not been recuperate from illness. recognized or studied previously. Indeed, one can draw up a 7. "Positive Therapeutic Effects," pp., 826-29. long list of phenomena that were unknown 100 years ago but 8. "Positive Therapeutic Effects," p. 829. 9. Healing Words, p. 185. are deemed perfectly natural today. In fact, most believers in 10. Healing Words, pp. 211-12. prayer have received conventional medical treatment, and so 11. Charles Hodge, Systematic Theology; 3 vols. (Grand Rapids: Mich.: one cannot eliminate the possibility that it was the medical Eerdmans, 1973 [Reprint]), 1:618. 12. For example, even if an infinite being appears to us and tell us he is treatment, not the prayer, that actually had a beneficial effect, infinite, we would have no means to verify that the being in front of us was even when such an effect might be unexpected. infinite. Even 2 Corinthians 11:14 warns Christians that the Devil can dis- In all of this we must not forget that there is a dark side to prayer. I've seen There can be no such thing as a controlled people die or suffer unnecessarily because they waited too long for their experiment concerning prayer. god to answer a prayer. Belief in prayer also opens the door for those who prey on the fragile hopes guise himself as an angel of light. of vulnerable patients. Dossey, Byrd, and other likeminded 13. Winthrop Sargeant translates this passage as follows: "He, who, endowed with this faith, desires to propitiate this (God), receives from "physicians" should focus on helping people manage med- thence his desires because those desires are decreed by me." The Bahgavad- ical problems with real medical solutions, and help people Gita (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1979) p. 352. 14. Such behavior has been reported by E. Mansell Pattison, a medical confront reality when there are no medical solutions. FI doctor. He studied 71 reports of divine healings in the Seattle, Washington, area in his article "Ideological Support for the Middle Class: Faith Healing Notes and Glossolalia," In Irving I. Zaretsky and Mark P. Leone, Religious Movements in Contemporary America (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University All quotations of the Bible are from the New Revised Standard Version Press, 1974), pp. 418-55. According to his analysis, many patients reported (National Council of Churches of Christ in the United States of America; healing even when their symptoms had not disappeared. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1989). 15. See John Rennie and Ricki Rusting, "Making Headway Against 1. Some of these books include: Andrew Weil, Spontaneous Healing Cancer," Scientific American 275 (September 3, 1996): 56-59. (New York: Knopf, 1995); Deepak Chopra, Creating Health: How to Wake 16. For a review of such studies, see Theodore Melnechuk, "Emotions, Up the Body's Intelligence (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1995). Brain, Immunity, and Health: A Review," In M. Clynes and J. Panksepp, eds. 2. Most recently on December 24, 1996. Emotions and Psychopathology (New York: Plenum Press, 1988), pp. 3. Larry Dossey, Prayer Is Good Medicine: How to Reap the Healing 181-247.
ANNOUNCING THE CENTER FOR INQUIRY INSTITUTE SUMMER COURSE OFFERINGS Oi 1.1 July 10-13, 1997 • Center for Inquiry, Amherst, New York 'The History and Philosophy of Humanism' This workshop is a critical examination of such alleged miracles as the Shroud of Turin, weeping stat-
Instructors: Paul Kurtz, editor-in-chief, FREE INQUIRY ues, faith healings, and claims of revelation. • and H. James Birx, professor of anthropology, Canisius College. Costs: The History and Philosophy of Humanism: This course explores the origins of humanism from $285.00 (3 credit hours) ancient Greece and its development through the Examining Miraculous Claims: $190.00 (2 credit hours) Renaissance and Enlightenment to modern times. It Take both courses for $435.00 (10% discount) E I also examines such fundamental philosophical con- Friday banquet: $20.00 cerns as naturalism, materialism, and living a good life ER through reliance on reason rather than supernatural 4 daily lunches @ $10.00 each: $40.00 or religious foundations. Dinner-theater/bus-trip to Niagara-on-the-Lake to see The Seagull on Saturday, July 12: $75.00 and
MM 'Examining Miraculous Claims' To register, call 1-800-458-1366 Instructor: Joe Nickell, Associate Dean of the Center for Inquiry Institute or 716-636-7571
Summer 1997 31 Morality Requires God. . . or Does It? Bad news for fundamentalists and Jean-Paul Sartre
Theodore Schick, Jr.
(though Plato demonstrated the logical independence which God is the true God, being told that one must do as of God and morality over 2,000 years ago in the God commands will not help one solve any moral dilemmas. Authyphro, the belief that morality requires God What is not so obvious is that theists should find this theory remains a widely held moral maxim. In particular, it serves suspect, too, for it is inconsistent with a belief in God. The as the basic assumption of the Christian fundamentalist's upshot is that both the fundamentalists and the existentialists social theory. Fundamentalists claim that all of society's are mistaken about what morality requires. ills—everything from AIDS to out-of-wedlock pregnan- cies—are the result of a breakdown in morality and that this THE ARBITRARY LAWGIVER breakdown is due to a decline in the belief of God. Although many fundamentalists trace the beginning of this decline to To better understand the import of the Divine Command the publication of Charles Darwin's The Origin of Species in Theory, consider the following tale. It seems that, when 1859, others trace it to the Supreme Court's 1963 decision Moses came down from the mountain with the tablets con- taining the Ten Commandments, his followers asked him what they Nothing is right or wrong unless God makes it revealed about how they should so. Whatever God says goes. So if God had live their lives. Moses told them, "I have some good news and some decreed that adultery was permissible, then bad news." adultery would be permissible. "Give us the good news first," they said. banning prayer in the classroom. In an attempt to neutralize "Well, the good news," Moses these purported sources of moral decay, fundamentalists responded, "is that he kept the number of commandments across America are seeking to restore belief in God by pro- down to ten." moting the teaching of creationism and school prayer. "Okay, what's the bad news?" they inquired. The belief that morality requires God is not limited to the- "The bad news," Moses replied, "is that he kept the one ists, however. Many atheists subscribe to it as well. The exis- about adultery in there." The point is that, according to tentialist Jean-Paul Sartre, for example, says that "If God is Divine Command Theory, nothing is right or wrong unless dead, everything is permitted." In other words, if there is no God makes it so. Whatever God says goes. So if God had supreme being to lay down the moral law, each individual is decreed that adultery was permissible, then adultery would free to do as he or she pleases. Without a divine lawgiver, be permissible. there can be no universal moral law. Let's take this line of reasoning to its logical conclusion. If The view that God creates the moral law is often called the Divine Command Theory were true, then the Ten the "Divine Command Theory of Ethics." According to this Commandments could have gone something like this: "Thou view, what makes an action right is that God wills it to be shalt kill everyone you dislike. Thou shalt rape every woman done. That an agnostic should find this theory suspect is you desire. Thou shalt steal everything you covet. Thou shalt obvious, for, if one doesn't believe in God or if one is unsure torture innocent children in your spare time...." The reason that this is possible is that killing, raping, stealing, and tortur- Theodore Schick, Jr., is Professor of Philosophy at ing were not wrong before God made them so. Since God is Muhlenberg College and is the co-author (with Lewis free to establish whatever set of moral principles he chooses, Vaughn) of How to Think about Weird Things: Critical he could just as well have chosen this set as any other. Thinking for a New Age (Mayfield Publishing, 1995). Many would consider this a reductio ad absurdum of the
32 FREE INQUIRY Divine Command Theory, for it is absurd to think that such something good and hence does not increase our understand- wanton killing, raping, stealing, and torturing could be ing of the nature of morality. morally permissible. Moreover, to believe that God could A Divine Command theorist might try to avoid this circu- have commanded these things is to destroy whatever grounds larity by denying that goodness is a defining attribute of God. one might have for praising or worshiping him. Leibniz, in But this would take him from the frying pan into the fire, for his Discourse on Metaphysics, explains: if goodness is not an essential property of God, then there is no guarantee that what he wills will be good. Even if God is In saying, therefore, that things are not good according to any all-powerful and all-knowing, it does not follow that he is standard of goodness, but simply by the will of God, it seems all-good, for, as the story of Satan is supposed to teach us, to me that one destroys, without realizing it, all the love of God and all his glory; for why praise him for what he has one can be powerful and intelligent without being good. done, if he would be equally praiseworthy in doing the con- Thus the Divine Command Theory faces a dilemma: if good- trary? Where will be his justice and his wisdom if he has only ness is a defining attribute of God, the theory is circular, but a certain despotic power, if arbitrary will takes the place of if it is not a defining attribute, the theory is false. In either reasonableness, and if in accord with the definition of case, the Divine Command Theory cannot be considered a tyrants, justice consists in that which is pleasing to the most powerful? Besides it seems that every act of willing supposes viable theory of morality. some reason for the willing and this reason, of course, must The foregoing considerations indicate that it is unreason- precede the act. The threat of divine punishment cannot impose a Leibniz's point is that, if things are neither right nor moral obligation, for might does not make right. wrong independently of God's will, then God cannot Threats extort; they do not create a moral duty. choose one thing over another because it is right. Thus, if he does choose one over able to believe that an action is right because God wills it to another, his choice must be arbitrary. But a being whose deci- be done. One can plausibly believe that God wills an action sions are arbitrary is not a being worthy of worship. to be done because it is right, but to believe this is to believe The fact that Leibniz rejects the Divine Command Theory that the rightness of an action is independent of God. In any is significant, for he is one of the most committed theists in event, the view that the moral law requires a divine lawgiver the Western intellectual tradition. He argues at great length is untenable. that there must be an all-powerful, all-knowing, and all-good God and consequently that this must be the best of all possi- ble worlds, for such a God could create nothing less. Ever GOD THE ENFORCER since Voltaire lampooned this view in Candide, it has been There are those who maintain, however, that even if God is difficult to espouse with a straight face. Nevertheless, what not required as the author of the moral law, he is nevertheless Leibniz demonstrates is that, far from being disrespectful or required as the enforcer of it, for without the threat of divine heretical, the view that morality is independent of God is an punishment, people will not act morally. But this position is eminently sensible and loyal one for a theist to hold. no more plausible than the Divine Command Theory itself. In the first place, as an empirical hypothesis about the psychology of human beings, it is questionable. There is no AN EMPTY THEORY unambiguous evidence that theists are more moral than non- To avoid the charge of absurdity, a Divine Command theorist theists. Not only have psychological studies failed to find a might try to deny that the situation described above is possi- significant correlation between frequency of religious wor- ble. He might argue, for example, that God would never con- ship and moral conduct, but convicted criminals are much done such killing, raping, stealing, and torturing, for God is more likely to be theists than atheists. all-good. But to make such a claim is to render the theory Second, the threat of divine punishment cannot impose a vacuous. The Divine Command Theory is a theory of the moral obligation, for might does not make right. Threats nature of morality. As such, it tells us what makes something extort; they do not create a moral duty. Thus, if our only rea- good by offering a definition of morality. But if goodness is son for obeying God is the fear of punishment if we do not, a defining attribute of God, then God cannot be used to then, from a moral point of view, God has no more claim to define goodness, for, in that case, the definition would be cir- our allegiance than Hitler or Stalin. cular—the concept being defined would be doing the defin- Moreover, since self-interest is not an adequate basis for ing—and such a definition would be uninformative. If being morality, there is reason to believe that heaven and hell can- all-good is an essential property of God, then all the Divine not perform the regulative function often attributed to them. Command Theory tells us is that good actions would be Heaven and hell are often construed as the carrot and stick willed by a supremely good being. While this is certainly that God uses to make us toe the line. Heaven is the reward true, it is unenlightening. For it does not tell us what makes that good people get for being good, and hell is the punish-
Summer 1997 33 ment that bad people get for being bad. But consider this. cern with either heaven or hell should actually lessen one's Good people do good because they want to do good—not chances for salvation rather than increase them. because they will personally benefit from it or because some- Fundamentalists correctly perceive that universal moral one has forced them to do it. People who do good solely for standards are required for the proper functioning of society. personal gain or to avoid personal harm are not good people. But they erroneously believe that God is the only possible Someone who saves a drowning child, for example, only source of such standards. Philosophers as diverse as Plato, because he was offered a reward or was physically threat- Immanuel Kant, John Stuart Mill, George Edward Moore, ened does not deserve our praise. Thus, if your only reason and John Rawls have demonstrated that it is possible to have for performing good actions is your desire to go to heaven or a universal morality without God. Contrary to what the fun- your fear of going to hell—if all your other-regarding actions damentalists would have us believe, then, what our society are motivated purely by self-interest—then you should go to really needs is not more religion but a richer notion of the hell because you are not a good person. An obsessive con- nature of morality. FI
Fleas
I form the light, and create darkness: half the bishops in Brazil I make peace, and create evil: and share the good Lord's Final Answer I the Lord do all these things. with clots and cholera and cancer—
ISAIAH 45:7 for God concocted pox to mock us, staph and syph and streptococcus: poems are made by bards or hacks, I think that I shall never see but only God makes cardiacs. a poem as ugly as a flea, a flea whose hungry mouth is pressed against a buttock or a breast, I think that I shall never smell a flea that spreads disease all day a poem as pungent as a hell, and lifts its little claws to prey: where grinning devils turn the screws poems are made by you and me, on saintly Sikhs and upright Jews, but only God can make a flea. giving them the holy scorcher, timeless, transcendental torture: poems can make you want to yell, I think that no one ever made but only God can give you hell. a poem as powerful as AIDS, or plagues that may in summer kill — Philip Appleman
34 FREE INQUIRY Why I Am a Secular Humanist An interview with Albert Ellis
Albert Ellis is a long-time FI: You have said before that you thought most religion Contributing Editor of FREE most of the time does harm. What exactly is the harm? INQUIRY and is one of this cen- ELLIS: Religion usually entails belief in a god who sets up tury's leading figures in psychol- certain rules that are to be obeyed. If not, terrible things will ogy. He is the originator of ratio- happen—you will roast in hell for eternity or will be ostracized. nal emotive behavior therapy, Instead of saying "Thou had better not steal, murder, and which seeks the personal devel- commit adultery, etc., Moses wrote, "Thou shalt not ..." opment of the individual in har- Under no conditions and at no time shall thou murder. Such mony with society without absolutist rules are unworkable and unrealistic. The worst of recourse to supernatural aids. the lot is the Seventh Commandment—"Thou shalt not covet Ellis is President of the thy neighbor's wife." It's human nature to want what we Albert Ellis Institute for can't have. Now you could say, if you wanted to—but even Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy and and the author of that would be silly—that it is preferable not to lust after your many books, including A Guide to Rational Living and neighbor's wife because you may get into trouble. Reason and Emotion in Psychotherapy. Recently, he talked Most people wrongly think that religions create moral rules. with FI Executive Editor Lewis Vaughn about the profes- Actually, religions just take moral rules from different cultures sional and personal principles that guide his work and life and dogmatize them. The Ten Commandments are a very good and the reasons behind his secular humanism. example of this. Obviously, Moses didn't go up the mountain and speak to God. How did he create the Commandments? He IZEE INQUIRY: What do you think of the line of took the mores of his time and rewrote them. He took some of research into the connection between faith and health the laws and the customs that he thought were the best and put F and the contention that religion has physical and them in the Ten Commandments. mental benefits? Morality is usually cultural. Atheists have the same basic ALBERT ELLIS: First, practically all these studies of reli- morality as religionists. No group has ever existed, so far as gion are biased and done by people who want to prove that I know, without morality. If it did, it would probably go out religion is good. Second, many religious people are prone to of existence because its members would kill each other. lie about their emotional health. They are not to be trusted in FI: You have also talked about the psychological harm that respect. that religion does. For example, the Burgess Locke test of marital happiness ELLIS: People largely make themselves neurotic by taking was used 50 years ago with different kinds of subjects. It was their preferences and making them mandatory. For a person to found, as I would have expected, that people who are reli- say, "I'd like to do well financially," is O.K. But to say, "I gious are more happily married than those who are not. But have to do well" or "I have to make a million dollars" or "I that's most dubious. Religious people tend to be defensive, have to be loved" is foolish, because there's no law of the uni- and don't even admit to themselves to unhappy marriages or verse that says you have to. Being sorry, regretful, frustrated, emotional disturbances. or annoyed when you fail and get rejected can be healthy neg- FI: The surveys seem to be the bulk of the scientific sup- ative feelings because they drive you back to adversity to try port for the contention that faith is good for you. to change it. But as soon as you say "I have to do well" or "I ELLIS: Yes, but these surveys are, first, a setup—the sur- have to be loved" you're in trouble psychologically. Name a veyor is usually a religious person who is determined to prove religion that doesn't encourage those kinds of "musts." that religion is good. Second, the conservative, religious, and Among the religions that handle this better are Buddhism reactionary people who are surveyed are most probably and the religion of Native Americans. What's more, in some greater liars than atheists or skeptics. When religious people religions or philosophies you accept the sinner but reject the are asked if they are happy or unhappy, what are they going sin. But atheists can also have those philosophies, so they are to say—to both themselves and to their questioners? not specifically religious.
Summer 1997 35 FI: You have said that religion diverts you from better There is no cosmic meaning, the universe doesn't care—it's psychological pathways. What do you mean? neither for you nor against you, but is indifferent, impartial. ails: Much therapy is either iatrogenic, a disease caused Therefore, humans better creatively—you could say existen- by the therapist, or is palliative. In Rogerian therapy the client tially—create a meaning for themselves. likes the therapist, who is nice to him or her, and therefore You show yourself, "My goal is to stay alive and be happy feels better, but often gets sicker because he or she comes to doing X, Y, and Z and not doing A, B, and C." You create a need the therapist's love. Much therapy actually abets human meaning for yourself. It really has to be personal; you can't disturbance in the final analysis. It temporarily, as I said years be given it. Religions give you a meaning and usually say ago, helps make people feel better, but they really get more that's the Right Meaning. If you don't follow it, then you're needy of success and approval—and hence get worse. no good. Rational emotive behavior therapy is almost the only ther- You devise a meaning and you steadily look at it, not every apy that goes for the elegant solution and helps people get day, and decide whether it is still good in your time, under better because they accept themselves whether or not the your conditions, for you. That is one of the essences of secu- therapist likes them. lar humanism. Well, the devout religionist can't very well do Now religion is much like bad therapy. Religion helps you that because whatever religion he or she picks has its own feel better because, presumably, Jesus, God, or Allah or some intrinsic meaning that he or she is supposed to follow forever, other deity loves you. Therefore, you feel (a) there is a without deviation. Now that's, to say the least, restrictive, not God—which almost certainly there isn't—and that (b) God is to mention undemocratic. Religions are anti-individualistic. on your side, will take care of you, love you, give you the FI: Twelve years ago, in an article you wrote for FREE right rules to live by, etc. INQUIRY ["Two Forms of Humanistic Psychology," Fall Now let's suppose it works. You're depressed and you say, 1985] you said that your life was full of meaning and you listed all of the elements. Do you still feel the My life is full of meaning because I am same? What are those things that give your life mainly interested in helping people have meaning and purpose today? ELLIS: My life is full of meaning because more practical, workable philosophies. I am mainly interested in helping people figure out more practical, workable philosophies for "I'm an alcoholic and I believe in God. God will take the bot- themselves. People usually make themselves disturbed by tle out of my hands." That works to some degree, but are you following some crazy philosophy. They become dogma- really sensible and sane? Religion prevents you from getting tists—what I call "Musturbaters"—and that, you could say, is the ultimate solution, which is that, despite that fact that the the religion of most people, even atheists. My main goal in universe has no supernatural meaning whatsoever—there's life for a good many years has been to devise a system that no God, no devil, no fairies, no nymphs you can still take will work better for more people most of the time, so that care of yourself The world is often very rotten just read the they can create the kind of philosophy, outlook, and attitude newspapers! But you never have to upset yourself or make that will help them live longer and better. yourself anxious or depressed about its evils. You can make Humans are innate constructivists—they are born to prob- yourself instead feel healthily sorry. And you can do the best lem-solve. But they also have dysfunctional, self-defeating to change what you can and accept what you cannot change. tendencies, a fact that many therapists are unwilling to Now what religion tells you that? acknowledge. They have strong biological tendencies to turn FI: You have also talked about your own life and the fact their healthy goals and preferences into absolutistic musts. that secular humanism offers a way to find purpose and They therefore often drive themselves to become dogmati- meaning. A lot of people say that, if you reject religion, then cally religious, to be nationalistic, to create bigotry and war- you give up the idea of purpose and meaning. fare. I spend much of life trying to help people to use their ELLIs: If Victor Frankl and other existentialists are cor- potentially constructive tendencies, instead of indulging in rect in saying that humans had better have a purpose and their proclivities. I do that by therapy, by writing, by work- meaning in order to survive happily, you can definitely cre- shops. I recently came back from Taiwan, where I spread the ate such goals or purposes. Thus almost all humans have the gospel according to St. Albert to the Taiwanese. goals of staying alive and being happy by yourself and with Other than that, I have several other major goals and pur- other people, vocationally, recreationally. But if you con- poses, such as writing songs. I enjoy myself in various ways, struct a big ongoing purpose—what I call a vital, absorbing especially by still keeping myself always very busy although interest—this helps you not only survive but to be happier. I'm now 83. Part of my goals and purposes I take from the But the only way you can get such a vital purpose is by culture, but I also created them personally and I implement devising it; the universe doesn't just give it to you. them in my own fashion. So that's my personal meaning, and Now just about all the religions say that the universe does I work at it many more hours than most people do, from 9 in give you meaning and purpose, and even Frankl finally the morning until 11 at night. The "Lord's Day" is my day for invented a cosmic meaning. But, that's obviously illusion. extra work and enjoyment. FI
36 FREE INQUIRY When Humanists Embrace the Arts Touching the sublime while down to earth
James Herrick
he definition of a secular humanist as one whose explaining the importance of art to a humanist. foundations for living are reason and science can con- T jure visions of cold, emotionless intellectuals inca- ART BONDS US pable of responding to art, much less creating it. But human- ists are human, after all, and can lay as much claim to the The second marker is that much art either creates or pertains creative sphere as their birthright as anyone else. to a sense of communality. Even in reading a book in solitude Art, the ultimate expression of creativity, touches all our one is joining with the legion of other readers who have or lives. But, for humanists, it does even more. The very things will read it, and with whom one may discuss it. Humanists that art accomplishes, when done well, are of extreme impor- believe in the civic virtues and the communality of human tance to humanists. beings. There is delight in art that links us together with joint—and sometimes elevating—experiences. The theatrical arts may have their origins in religious rit- The Window to Insight ual in ancient Greece, but they essentially concern human "A book should be an ice-axe to-break the frozen sea within beings as individuals or groups in the face of a vast unknown us." Kafka let drop this aphorism in his notebooks. It is universe. D. H. Lawrence, in his 1920 book Mornings in revealing, not just for Kafka, but for the whole of literature, Mexico, describes the dance of the sprouting corn of the abo- indeed, perhaps for all art. riginal Indians. He describes how "the mystery of germina- I take it from Kafka's words that art is not comfortable nor comfort- ing. "I tell you naught for your com- Art in society is not just the frosting on the fort," said Chesterton. The phrase is top of the cake, it is an essential ingredient— not appropriate for his own rather comfortable writing, but could be put the currants or the nuts. It goes to the depths above the door of a library of world literature. Art can delve deeply into of the citizen and to the heart of a culture. our personal psyches and into the psyche of society (if you can accept such a metaphor). That tion, not procreation, but putting forth resurrection, life is one of its functions that humanists, who prefer a question- springing within the seed, is accomplished. The sky has its ing, questing approach to life, value. fire, its waters, its stars, its wandering electricity, its winds, This is not utilitarian in the normal use of the word: art is its fingers of cold." Lawrence comments that, when the cycle not just a tool of the schoolroom of life. Its value and impor- is complete, the corn becomes bread and is eaten "man tance cannot be determined by the felicific calculus, for you recovers all he once set forth and partakes again of the ener- cannot calculate the searing insight which comes from, say, gies he called to the corn, from out of the wide universe." Primo Levi's account of his life in a concentration camp, If While we reject a religious interpretation of such a proto- This Is a Man (1958). Kafka's ice-axe is my first marker in artistic event, we can experience the power of the symbols expressed. It is to give us a sense of "the wide universe" that James Herrick is Editor of the New Humanist and Inter- art exists. national Humanist News. He has written books on the history Art in society is not just the frosting on the top of the cake, of humanism. it is an essential ingredient—the currants or the nuts. It goes
Summer 1997 37 to the depths of the citizen and to the heart of a culture. When sleep in this joy and labour, this perception that disposed art is stifled—as it was in Nazi Germany or Stalinist Man, possessor of the most awakened consciousness, to uni- Russia—the art and the society become distorted. Of course, versal sympathy. art can act as a focus for dissidence ( a point to which I shall return). But essentially any society without art would be a This universal sympathy is a perhaps not common but barren society. A country in which art is not supported is an nevertheless essential part of the value of art to the humanist. impoverished society. ART REVEALS WRONGS CAN HUMANISM HAVE MYSTICISM? A third aspect of art of interest to humanists is the way in I write as someone who sings regularly in a local choir. With which it can act as a focus against oppression and injustice. the experience of singing Verdi's Requiem or Handel's The plea of the novelist Ben Okri on behalf of the executed Messiah, I certainly partake of that communal experience I Nigerian Ken Saro-Wiwa is an example. When he argues that have described. Much of the music we sing is religious, but the status of writers are the barometers of a nation's health, this does not worry me in the least. Apart from the fact that he is making an important point. Many writers have acted in many of the composers who wrote religious works had no this way, from Solzhenitsyn to Taslima Nasrin, from George orthodox religious belief themselves (for example, Verdi), I Orwell to Wole Soyinka. However, I do not think it is pri- marily the task of an artist to be a polemicist. In rare cases the special plea rises to become a work of art—for Reason is of inestimable value in many instance with Solzhenitsyn's The spheres, but there are other spheres. The Gulag Archipelago (1973) and Primo Levi's If This Is a Man emotional, the mysterious touch humanists as (1958). Two important writers today are all members of the human race. Salman Rushdie and Seamus Heaney (the poet who in 1996 am happy to partake in what I see as myth and allegory. received the Nobel Prize for literature). They both speak of I find it somewhat curious that two major works that are their experience of the process of literature in ways that are crucial to me are profoundly religious: Bach's St. Matthew's cogent for a humanist. Rushdie did not foresee the conse- Passion and T. S. Eliot's Four Quartets. The "Passion" par- quences of The Satanic Verses (1988). He has written of the takes of all the human emotions in recounting what I see as experience: a mythical tale; I can relate to the anguish, the sorrow, the Do I feel regret? Of course I do: regret that such offense has drama of Bach's masterpiece. With the Four Quartets, I find been taken against my work when it was not intended—when I can relate even to the mystical aspects: while not accepting dispute was intended, dissent, and even, at times satire, and that those intense moments relate to a deity, I can accept that criticism of intolerance, and the like. but not the thing of such lasting, deep human moments exist. Is there such a which I'm most often accused, not "filth," not "insult," not thing as humanist mysticism? "abuse." Please understand, however; I make no complaint. I am a The notion may be related to an awareness of "otherness" writer. I do not accept my condition. I will strive to change it, of that which is not ourselves or even those people and things but I inhabit it, I am trying to learn from it. familiar to us. In reading about other people, or viewing por- traits, we gain by an imaginative sympathy a glimpse of that Heaney talks about the value of poetry in less social which is not ourselves. Our solipsistic natures make it diffi- terms. According to him, it furthers the range of the mind's cult for us to do this. The arts can enlarge and enrich our and body's pleasure and helps a reader to "know thyself." In knowledge of the diversity of humanity, of the human world. The Redress of Poetry (1995), he quotes Sydney's famous They can enable us to cross boundaries of nation, of race, of Defence of Poetry, where he writes of "the forcibleness or time. Energia (as the Greeks called it) of the writer" and suggests In this function, the arts can perhaps be best used to cre- that it is this original forcibleness, this clear water springing ate a climate for a global ethic and even to acquire what through the sand, "that makes poetry so valuable and guar- Thomas Mann called "universal sympathy." In Confessions antees its safe passage through the world of accusing ideolo- of Felix Krull Confidence Man (1954), a naturalist is talking gies and impugned ideals." to the confidence trickster of the progress of humanity from Rushdie and Heaney in their distinct ways point to the its natural raw material to a self-conscious creature: imperatives of art. Art can also give voice and understanding to a whole variety of minority groups—and this is another Being was not Well-Being, it was joy and labour, and all value. E. M. Forster, who lived in a time that made it diffi- Being in space-time, all matter, partook if only in deepest cult for him to be totally true to himself as a homosexual,
38 FREE INQUIRY nevertheless wrote one of the first classic humane novels the door in the dark: it is the forger who beats real iron out. about homosexuality in Maurice. It was a pioneering work, He is implying that the craft and the art that lie behind the even if he faltered in leaving it to be published posthu- door provide the creativity that keeps us going. mously. THE CONNECTION TO IMAGINATION GUIDING OUR SEARCH FOR MEANING The final value of art, for the humanist and, indeed, every- I am often asked, as a humanist, how can you find any mean- one, is that it unleashes the power of the human imagination. ing for your life without God? Art does not give us meaning The power of the imagination is as integral to the scientist, on a plate, but can help us in the search for meaning in our the teacher, and the politician as it is to the artist. lives. It can enlarge our experience. It can also present pat- Imagination, which can spiral to dizzy heights, needs steady- terns of existence that help us work out our own beliefs. ing by reason and realism, integrity, and truth. It is the I have mentioned how T. S. Eliot affects me; in a con- humanist's commitment to truth as he or she sees it, that trasting way another poet (and novelist), Thomas Hardy, has leads to a criticism of religion. It is no accident that the words played a part in my coming to terms with life. His bleak, pes- carved in Conway Hall, the home of the South Place Ethical simistic view of the universe seems to me accurate, but the Society in London, are "To thine own self be true." This is a prescience of nature that he depicts with such detail provides key phrase for artists and those engaging with art. a source and balance with which to endure it. In his poem Salman Rushdie uses an image from Saul Bellow to illu- "The Darkling Thrush," Hardy describes how in the darkness minate the task of an artist: and bleakness and cold the bird's song rises up as a voice of hope. An artist must be true to the truth and report the bleak- The central character of a Bellow novel hears a dog barking wildly. He imagines that the barking is the dog's protest ness of life, but also he or she often has the power to against the limit of dog experience. "For God's sake," the enlighten and uplift. dog is saying, "open the universe a little more!" ... I have I also find George Eliot's novels rich with material that the feeling that the dog's rage, and its desire, is also mine, helps us forge our own sense of direction. To her, too, truth ours, everyone's. "For God's sake, open the universe a little is essential. As a great novelist, who shocked Victorian more." England by her life and beliefs, she wrote, in her first full- length novel, Adam Bede: I don't know whether the phrase "For God's sake" is an expletive or an invocation, but I do know that I hope that art So I am content to tell my simple story, without trying to will open the universe a little bit more. FI make things seem better than they were; dreading nothing indeed, but falsity which, in spite of one's best efforts, there But the Daisies Will Not Be Deceived by the Gods is reason to dread. Falsehood is so easy, truth so difficult. ... Examine your words well and you will find that even Seductions as countless as crosses, when you have no motive to be false, it is a very hard thing as icons, none of it ever to say the exact truth, even about your own immediate feel- surprising, not even ings — much harder than to say something fine about them the stare of the sky which is not the exact truth. keeping score. The prize for yielding, for giving in to paradise, I do not mean to say that literature should be full of moral is laying down the awful burden homilies. It is the diversity of people and ideas, the imagina- of mind: surrender rings from the steeples and calls tive extension, the artistic and philosophical undercurrents from the minarets and temples. that give us jigsaw pieces to sort out our own puzzlement. But challenges sing For a humanist, art is not a substitute for religion. in the sway of treetops, Aesthetics is not a branch of metaphysics. Nevertheless, art in the flutter of sparrows, leads us into the very important non-rational aspect of being in chirring and stalking, human. As a rationalist I do not believe in reason triumphant; in waking and ripening—let reason is of inestimable value in many spheres, but there are there be light enough, and everywhere backbone stiffens in saplings and clover. Praises, then, other spheres. The emotional, the other, the mysterious touch to sunfish and squirrels, humanists as all members of the human race. I hesitate to use blessings to bugs. Turning our backs the word spiritual, with which I am uneasy despite recogniz- on the bloody altars, ing the area it covers. Heaney wrote, in a quite literal open- we cherish each other, living here ing to a poem entitled "The Forge": "All I know is the door in this brave world into the dark." The Enlightenment charge to know, change, with our neighbors, the earthworms, and control everything had its place, but can no longer be and our old friends, the ferns seen as the whole story. The postmodern challenge to the and the daisies. humanist may be right in this. Heaney knows what's beyond —Philip Appleman
Summer 1997 39 What's Wrong with Relativism Why postmodernism's most radical doctrine Ls dead in the water
Lewis Vaughn
n that vast, peculiar terrain known as postmodernist rights. It is no surprise that among nations, the most vocal thought, there are several deep holes. One of them has proponents of social relativism have been the most flagrant swallowed up some academics, a lot of New Agers, violators of human rights. and—apparently—a whole generation of college students. Relativism can also profoundly affect someone's view of Philosophers call it "relativism." In its most radical form it's reality. One concern, for example, is relativism's connection the doctrine that truth depends—not on the way things are— with pseudoscience. Basically, for someone who accepts one but solely on what someone believes, or on what someone's of the common forms of relativism just mentioned, there is society or culture believes, or on a particular "conceptual no such thing as pseudoscience in the normal sense. We gen- scheme." Truth, in other words, is relative. erally think of pseudoscience as a belief or endeavor that pre- And, many would ask, what's wrong with that? Who tends, or aspires to be, objectively correct but fails in some could deny that this kind of relativism is true after consider- fundamental way. But the relativist says that there is no such ing the pluralism of perspectives in the world, the multiplic- thing as being objectively correct, for there is no such thing ity of views, the fact of disagreement? Who could look in the as objective truth. So there is no pseudoscience. There is just fractured mirror and think there's any such thing as objective a variety of views that happen to be equally true. The rela- truth? One way that the world is? Those who have fallen in tivist must regard any belief—including those labeled pseu- doscientific by pointy-headed objec- tivists—as true, provided it is sincerely The trouble is, there's a lot wrong with believed by an individual or society or is relativism. It is philosophically untenable. properly based on a conceptual scheme. Being a pointy-headed objectivist, I think that there is such a thing as pseudoscience. the hole cry out: Let us now free ourselves from the old I also recognize that relativism isn't necessary for the exis- bugaboo of objective truth. tence of pseudoscience. People can have pseudoscientific The trouble is, there's a lot wrong with this radical rela- beliefs without accepting relativism. But relativism does tivism (which I'll call simply relativism from here on). It is seem to make acquiring pseudoscientific beliefs much easier. philosophically untenable. Even more striking is the fact that For, generally, relativism implies that any sincerely held we seldom hear exactly what the problems are. This, despite belief will do. Whether the belief has any appropriate con- how easily relativism can be shown to be unfounded. nection to the way things are is a misguided concern of those What's more, it matters. Whether one adopts a relativist burdened by the fantasy of objective truth. (Just how much view matters, for example, in morality. According to social relativism has contributed to the rise of pseudoscience lately relativism, what's true is whatever one's society says is true. is hard to say. Some would say plenty.) For the relativist who If a society agrees that something is true, it's true. This thinks that truth is relative to individuals, for example, means that, if during World War II the German people agreed acquiring true beliefs is a cinch. For him, if he sincerely with the Nazis that the Jews should be exterminated, then the believes that the Earth is 6,000 years, the Earth is 6,000 years Holocaust was justified. The Nazis were just doing what old. And he need not be concerned for one moment that oth- society said was right. And if a society says an act is right, ers may disagree and have reasons for disagreeing. He need it's right—even if another society disagrees. To embrace not worry about the possibility that there is a way the world social relativism is to reject the notion of universal human is that doesn't happen to fit with his belief. Should he inves- tigate his belief? What's to investigate? He sincerely believes Lewis Vaughn is Executive Editor of FREE INQUIRY. that the Earth is a certain young age. And so it is. Case
40 FREE INQUIRY closed. another race? What's the problem here? Let's examine each type of rel- Social infallibility has another weird ramification. It ativism in turn. seems to be the case that it's at least possible that we can dis- agree with our own society and still be right. But according to social relativism, this can never happen. Society is infalli- SUBJECTIVISM ble, and we simply could not disagree with it and still be The notion that truth is relative to individuals is a subjectivist right. If your society said that something was true, and you view of truth. Truth is subjective (a matter of what a person disagreed, your claim would be false. Thus, social reformers believes) not objective (a matter of how the world is). If you in any society would always be wrong. Even social reform- believe something to be the case, then it is. The subjectivist ers who wanted to convince their objectivist society to would say, as many New Agers have, "This is my truth, and believe in social relativism would be hopelessly wrong. that's your truth." Social relativism is also as much an equalizer of beliefs as But this view has some odd implications that render it subjectivism is. If truth is socially constructed, then every highly implausible. First, if we could make a statement true society's belief is as true as every other's. If so, then a soci- just by believing it, we would be infallible. We couldn't pos- ety's belief is true—and so is another society's belief that the sibly be in error. For the mere holding of a belief would guar- opposite is true. This too is implausible. antee its truth. We could never be mistaken about where we parked the car. We could never make an error in math when we did our taxes. To defend relativism objectively is to Second, if we each made our own truth, dis- give it up; to defend relativism agreeing with one another would be pointless. We disagree with others when we think that relativistically is not to defend it at all. they're mistaken. But according to subjec- tivism, no one would be mistaken. No one could possibly be It also means that no one could legitimately criticize wrong. In disagreements over any issue, it seems appropriate another society. If a society is doing what it believes is right, for one person to try to persuade another that he is mistaken. then it's right. The social relativist would be forced to admit But subjectivism implies that this is always a pointless exer- that every massacre, every ethnic cleansing, and every holo- cise. caust in history was justified—if the respective society Third, because subjectivism holds that every belief is believed it was doing the right thing. How can you legiti- equally true, it undermines itself in a strange way. If subjec- mately criticize any society for doing the right thing? tivism is true, then the belief that it is false would be just as Then there's this difficulty: What do individuals disagree true as the belief that it is true. As philosopher Harvey Siegal about when they disagree? Social relativism implies that puts it, "If opinions conflict about the truth of [subjectivism], whenever individuals disagree about the truth of a proposi- then the [subjectivist] must acknowledge the truth of the tion, what they're really disagreeing about is whether society opinion that the doctrine is false. Thus, if it is true, then (as believes it. After all, what's true is whatever society says is long as there is one who holds that it is false) it is false."' true. So if we're members of the same society, when we In light of all this, it seems that truth is not made by our argue about whether a drug will cure cancer or kill the personal beliefs. patient, we're just disagreeing about what society believes is the case. If we want to resolve a dispute about comets and asteroids, we need only to ask Gallup to poll our society. If SOCIAL RELATIVISM we want to settle once and for all whether God exists, or As already noted, the view that truth is constructed not by the assisted suicide is moral, or there's a fly in your soup, we can individual but by one's society is social relativism. Truth is simply ask everyone what they think. relative not to an individual's beliefs but to society's beliefs. Obviously we can do no such thing. So something can be true for Americans, but false for the But let's say that truth is made by society. Would it then be Vietnamese. True for freethinkers, but false for scientologists. easy to discover what the truth was? Not really. The problem The problem is, social relativism also runs afoul of infal- is that we each don't belong to just one society—but many. libility. According to social relativism, individuals aren't And there is no fact of the matter regarding which is our infallible, but societies are. People can be mistaken about "right" society. Each of us exists in a complicated mix of what their societies believe, but the beliefs of whole societies many societies—racial, political, religious, geographical, you cannot be mistaken. If your society believes that something name it. So if society makes truth, which society is making it? is true, it is. But this notion of societal infallibility is no more plausible than the idea of individual infallibility. Is it really the case that no society has ever been wrong about anything? CONCEPTUAL RELATIVISM Not about the causes of disease or the number of planets in Some relativists have said that truth is relative not to indi- the solar system or the burning of witches or the enslaving of viduals or societies but to conceptual schemes. A conceptual
Summer 1997 41 scheme is a set of concepts for classifying things into mean- Unfortunately, however, this supposition is absolutely neces- ingful groups. These relativists say that our conceptual sary before any translation or comparison between languages scheme doesn't just enable us to "see" things in a particular of different societies can take place. Without it, the situation would be like one where the inhabitants of two planets which way—it creates our world. And different conceptual differed fundamentally in their nature met each other and schemes make different worlds. So there is no one way the tried to communicate. So few things (if any) would be mat- world is. ters of common experience that their respective languages According to conceptual relativism, we can sometimes be would hardly ever run parallel? mistaken about how we classify something in our conceptual scheme, so we're not infallible. And whether a person's clas- Conceptual relativism, then, makes no sense. The sifying is a mistake is determined, at least in part, by some world—and truth—must not be manufactured by conceptual input from the world. But even though the world puts con- schemes. straints on the truth, the world does not uniquely determine the truth. Conceptual schemes determine the truth (or The Final Blow "truths"). Like a mold for molten metal, our conceptual schemes determine the way our world is. This is the case All these problems for relativism are small compared to this even though the world has some properties that aren't one: It's self-defeating. In all its forms, relativism defeats affected by the conceptual scheme, just as the metal has some itself because its truth implies its falsity. The relativist says "All truth is relative." If this statement is objectively true, then it refutes itself. For if it is objectively There is, after all, such a thing as objective true that "All truth is relative," then the statement is itself an example of an objec- truth. That is, there is a way the world is. tive truth. So if "All truth is relative" is This fact can be annoying to those who objectively true, it is objectively false. To get around this problem, the believe that wishing makes it so. relativist might claim that the statement "All truth is relative" is not objectively properties that aren't affected by the mold. Truth is relative true but is relatively true—that is, true relative to him, or his then to conceptual schemes because conceptual schemes society, or his conceptual scheme. But this just means that make worlds. the relativist thinks relativism is true. He thus provides no A crucial notion for conceptual relativism is that the same objective evidence for accepting relativism. He provides proposition can be true in one conceptual scheme and false none because he doesn't believe there is such a thing as in another. But, of course, this is not logically possible. The objective evidence. If we are to accept the relativist's notion same proposition cannot be both true and false. If proposi- of truth and abandon our normal understanding of truth, he tions have different truth values, then they're different must provide something better than self-refutations or non- propositions. evidence. You can also view the problem like this. According to So what the relativist faces is this. If he says that his conceptual relativism, conceptual schemes create different theory is objectively true, he defeats himself by showing that worlds, and the language of each conceptual scheme refers to it can't be objectively true. If he says that his theory is only the unique world made by that conceptual scheme. But if the relatively true, he defeats himself by providing no evidence language of each conceptual scheme refers to a different for it. The dilemma is inescapable. To defend relativism world, then the languages of two different conceptual objectively is to give it up; to defend relativism relativisti- schemes cannot possibly share any meanings. The languages cally is not to defend it at all. are about different worlds. And no translation is possible. So The upshot of all this is that truth is not relative to indi- there can never be one sentence that means the same thing in viduals, societies, or conceptual schemes. Belief is often two different conceptual schemes—much less true in one relative to these things, but that doesn't mean that truth is. conceptual scheme and false in another. There is, after all, such a thing as objective truth. That is, As all this suggests, sharing a common world is essential there is a way the world is. This fact can be annoying to for communication and translation. But if we really do those who believe that wishing makes it so. It also can inhabit different worlds, how can we possibly communicate make the practice of honest inquiry harder—and more with one another—as we believe we can? How can we pos- rewarding. FI sibly translate one language into another—as we believe we do? As philosopher Roger Trigg says, Notes The result of granting that "the world" or "reality" cannot be 1. Harvey Siegel, Relativism Refuted (Dordrecht, Netherlands: D. Reidel conceived as independent of all conceptual schemes is that Publishing, 1987), p. 5. there is no reason to suppose that what the peoples of very 2. Roger Trigg, Reason and Commitment (London: Cambridge different communities see as the world is similar in any way. University Press, 1973), pp. 15-16.
42 FREE INQUIRY Secularists, Rise Up—and Celebrate! Let's take ownership of the rites of passage
Roger E. Greeley
y definition, secular humanists are more focused on life bad as his brother." Bon Earth than religionists. They would do well to mark I have done almost as many services for those I never met the milestones of that life by coming together to celebrate— as for those I knew and loved. Robert Green Ingersoll was or mourn—the milestones of life and thereby enrich and frequently called upon for a funeral oration. Sometimes he strengthen their community. did not know the deceased. He was there, as I have been, to serve someone in need. The loss of someone near and dear demands a period of grieving, of closure, and of support to FILLING A NEED all those most affected by the loss. As a secularist, I have Not long ago, a militant atheist declared to me, "A true athe- received the thanks of hundreds of people for what my words ist, secularist cannot be involved in the usual celebrations found in a church. Secularists must have services that They're irrational, illogical, and irrelevant to honest freethought, reason, and being a consistently express secularism and yet true atheist!" be sensitive to the emotional/aesthetic As a secularist, I have to ask, Is there anything more orthodox and rigid than a needs of people. committed atheist? Since 1957,. I have done hundreds of weddings and memorials. Not once did I had meant to them in their period of agony, of loss, mourn- read from scripture or offer a prayer or an invocation. As for ing. Altogether too many folks are speechless in grief. "I these services being guilty of "just aping religion," this is an don't know what to say. He's dead; he's gone. What can any- unwarranted assumption and criticism. Above all, humanists one say? What good would it do anyway? You can't bring ought to be able to serve human needs. They must consider him back with rhetoric!" Absurd. Only the most insensitive the needs of the dying and the needs of the survivors follow- clod can treat death and dying in this manner. ing the death of a loved one. From the first day of my ministry I have been a secularist. You probably have heard the story of the very young nine- I had never spent a minute as a student in a divinity school. I teenth-century preacher who moves into a small Western was a teacher in a public high school when the People's community. He is there less than a week when a lapsed con- Church in Kalamazoo asked me to be a candidate for minis- gregant dies. The deceased's mother wants the preacher to do ter in 1957. I was elected by a vote of 60-4. The congrega- the funeral. He protests, but to no avail. tion was small, but 28 years later it numbered over 300 and The service begins, and the preacher, as expected, reads had paid off two major building programs. Following in my from the Bible for about 15 minutes, then offers a few predecessor's footsteps, I had never held a Bible reading, Christian prayers. He then confesses that he never knew conducted a prayer, or passed a collection plate. "Dirty Dan" and would appreciate it if a few people who did The People's Church was a thriving expression of orga- would "Come up front and say a few words." No one stirs. nized secularism. We sought to meet human needs. We cele- Perspiration streaming down his face, the preacher begs for brated birth, graduation, membership, marryin', and buryin'! at least "one, honest testimonial." Again, nobody moves. Why? Because these are stages in life that we all go through. Finally, the awkward silence is broken by a gnarled old man Not to provide for life's passages is a disservice in meeting in the last row who stands up and says, "Well, he wasn't as human needs. Secularists must have services that consistently express Roger E. Greeley is Chair of the Robert Green Ingersoll secularism and yet be sensitive to the emotional/aesthetic BirthplacelMuseum. He is both a former Unitarian minister needs of people. Reason and emotion are not opposites from and an atheist. which we must make a single choice. Reason and emotion
Summer 1997 43 are two sides of the same coin—the human reality. Both need myths, and miracles that have been codified into articles of sustenance and cultivation, and celebrating the stages of life faith in an attempt to ensure their immortality. is one of the opportunities to serve both reason and emotion Robert Ingersoll left a huge legacy of affirmations and and thereby better serve the needs of secularists. beliefs. The church and clergy labeled him an "infidel and I remember, early on in my ministry, a mother who had unbeliever" when in fact, he was utterly faithful to his own lost her eldest son in a terrible car accident. We were sitting impeccable belief system. Secularists should realize that our together at a church supper. The church's summer hiatus was philosophy, cause, movement cannot expect to grow if it about to begin. She asked me, "And what will you be doing allows its public image to be fully represented by the senti- this summer, Roger?" ment, "This I don't believe." It is like getting in a taxi and I replied, "Well, I'm working on a book dealing with the telling the driver where you do not want to go! We have all problems of death and dying." listened, for several generations now, to the rantings and rav- She literally snorted and said with a sneer, "And what ings of folks who, upon discovering the falsity and worth- makes you think you would know anything about death?" lessness of their religious upbringing, engage in endless I was young, just 35, in fact, but I probably had seen more recrimination against the "church of our fathers." While this death and dying during 34 days on Iwo Jima than the whole is a necessary phase through which most must go on their congregation (except combat veterans) would see in their way to secularism, there is a distinct danger in stalling out in entire lives. What my critic meant, of course, was that I had this stage. We must, as did Ingersoll, give evidence in our never lost any member of my immediate family, so how conduct of life and through our pronouncements that ours is could I feel her pain? I do not think we can ever feel anyone an affirmative philosophy of living. We will be unable to else's pain, but that is not the point. Trying to provide real offer any real service to searching secularists if our message support, sustenance, and comfort is a task incumbent on sec- and method is largely negative. ularists as well as the traditionalists in religion. I do not often find myself criticizing Ingersoll, but, when he referred to secularism as "the religion of humanity," I think he would have been much closer to the reality he was PosrrlvE A PATH forging had he said: "Secularism is what freethinkers Unfortunately, secularists frequently compound the problem embrace in lieu of religion." by the manner in which they identify and represent them- Let today's secularists build an affirmative movement that selves. Many years ago, when the Saturday Evening Post was seeks to meet human needs yet insists on being true to the best of the freethought tradition that Secularists should realize that our philosophy, exhorts us to use reason, science, education, and justice here and now cause, movement cannot expect to grow if it for improving the human condition allows its public image to be fully represented on planet Earth. But we cannot serve secularists well if we are unprepared by the sentiment, 'This I don't believe.' to meet their needs, needs that touch every life. We cannot settle for neg- still a weekly, available for a quarter an issue, a gentleman by ative recriminations as our prescription for celebrating life's the name of Robert Bendiner wrote an article entitled, "Our opportunities, happenings, joys, and sorrows. A service of Right Not To Believe." He made the point that freedom of child dedication need not be a shallow aping of the rite of bap- religion really embraces freedom from religion as well. tism. It can be an affirmation of secular humanists values No problem. At the time of this fine essay, I was just regarding parental responsibilities. Secular couples get mar- beginning my lifelong study and appreciation of the incom- ried too, and many want a custom-tailored service of joyful parable Robert Green Ingersoll. While I had often heard the celebration. Coming of age and graduation offer yet another terms disbeliever and unbeliever, I never had been comfort- opportunity to provide an appropriate secular celebration. able with them. Why? The explanation is simple. When you Should not joining a secular group involve something more say you are a disbeliever or an unbeliever you appear to than signing a membership book, a handshake, and a pledge admit that Christianity truly has a total monopoly on what card? Attentiveness to the terminally ill and services for the constitutes "true belief!" I will never extend that privilege to dead are absolutely essential if we are to serve human needs. the Judeo-Christian tradition, the Muslim faith, or any of the Let us admit, the church was not wrong when it sought to world's "great religions." meet human needs with rites. Those of us who accept a uni- We secularists hold many passionate beliefs. We are not verse without God, benevolent or otherwise, still have many disbelievers or unbelievers at all. No, instead we are people of the same hopes, fears, joys, needs, and aspirations of those who have rejected any and all belief systems that are at odds who have become addicts to the drug of traditional, rigid, with science, reason, and our growing understanding of the orthodox religion or who have sought escape in the fuzzy universe in which we live. We are rejecters, we have rejected obfuscation of "liberal religion." Let us strive to serve human the silly, cruel, horrible, palpable untruths, superstitions, needs in a creative, affirmative, secular humanist way! Fl
44 FREE INQUIRY are asked to stifle every noble senti- GREAT MINDS ment of the soul, and to trample under foot all the sweet charities of the heart. Because we refuse to stultify our- selves—refuse to become liars—we are denounced, hated, traduced, and Absurdities of the Gods ostracized here, and this same god threatens to torment us in eternal fire Robert G. Ingersoll the moment death allows him to fiercely clutch our naked helpless souls. Let the people hate, let the god Robert G. Ingersoll (1833-1899), thee, then it shall be that all people that threaten—we will educate them, and America's leading agnostic, was a far is found therein shall be tributaries we will despise and defy him. more thoughtful, moral, and humane unto thee, and they shall serve thee. The book, called the Bible, is filled freethinker than most of his religious And if it will make no peace with thee, with passages equally horrible, unjust, critics ever realized. He did indeed but will make war against thee, then and atrocious. This is the book to be attack the fallacies of religion and thou shalt besiege it. And when the read in schools in order to make our supernaturalism at every turn—but Lord thy God hath delivered it into thy children, loving, kind, and gentle! This also promoted reason, science, free- hands, thou shall smite every male is the book to be recognized in our dom, and humanism. In the following thereof with the edge of the sword. But Constitution as the source of all excerpt from his famous essay "The the women and the little ones, and the authority and justice! Gods," he details—in his characteristi- cattle, and all that is in the city, even all Strange! that no one has ever been cally clear and provocative style—a the spoil thereof, shalt thou take unto persecuted by the church for believing sampling of absurdities in religious thyself, and thou shalt eat the spoil of God bad, while hundreds of millions and biblical beliefs. thine enemies which the Lord thy God have been destroyed for thinking him hath given thee. Thus shalt thou do good. The orthodox church never will ach nation has created a god, and unto all the cities which are very far off forgive the Universalist for saying "God Ethe god has always resembled his from thee, which are not of the cities of is love." It has always been considered creators. He hated and loved what they these nations. But of the cities of these as one of the very highest evidences of hated and loved, and he was invariably people which the Lord thy God doth true and undefiled religion to insist that found on the side of those in power. give thee for an inheritance, thou shalt all men, women, and children deserve Each god was intensely patriotic, and save alive nothing that breatheth." eternal damnation. It has always been detested all nations but his own. All Is it possible for man to conceive of heresy to say, "God will at last save all." these gods demanded praise, flattery, anymore more perfectly infamous? We are asked to justify these fright- and worship. Most of them were pleased with sacrifice, and the smell of The instant we admit that a book is too innocent blood has ever been consid- ered a divine perfume. All these gods sacred to be doubted, or even reasoned have insisted upon having a vast num- about, we are mental serfs. ber of priests, and the priests have always insisted upon being supported Can you believe that such directions ful passages, these infamous laws of by the people, and the principal busi- were given by any being except an infi- war, because the Bible is the word of ness of these priests has been to boast nite fiend? Remember that the army God. As a matter of fact, there never about their god, and to insist that he receiving these instructions was one of was, and there never can be, an argu- could easily vanquish all the other invasion. Peace was offered upon con- ment even tending to prove the inspira- gods put together... . dition that the people submitting tion of any book whatever. In the One of these gods, and one who should be the slaves of the invader; but absence of positive evidence, analogy, demands our love, our admiration, and if any should have the courage to and experience, argument is simply our worship, and one who is wor- defend their homes, to fight for the impossible, and at the very best, can shiped, if mere heartless ceremony is love of wife and child, then the sword amount only to a useless agitation of worship, gave to his chosen people for was to spare none—not even the prat- the air. The instant we admit that a their guidance, the following laws of tling, dimpled babe. book is too sacred to be doubted, or war: "When thou comest nigh unto a And we are called upon to worship even reasoned about, we are mental city to fight against it, then proclaim such a God; to get upon our knees and serfs. It is infinitely absurd to suppose peace unto it. And it shall be if it make tell him that he is good, that he is mer- that a god would address a communi- thee answer of peace, and open unto ciful, that he is just, that he is love. We cation to intelligent beings, and yet
Summer 1997 45 GREAT MINDS make it a crime, to be punished in eter- All that is necessary, as it seems to the exception of eight persons. The old, nal flames, for them to use their intelli- me, to convince any reasonable person the young, the beautiful, and the help- gence for the purpose of understanding that the Bible is simply and purely of less were remorsely devoured by the his communication. If we have the human invention—of barbarian inven- shoreless sea. This, the most fearful right to use our reason, we certainly tion—is to read it. Read it as you would tragedy that the imagination of ignorant have the right to act in accordance with any other book; think of it as you would priests ever conceived, was the act, not it, and no god can have the right to of any other; get the bandage of rever- of a devil, but of a god, so-called, punish us for such action. ence from your eyes; drive from your whom men ignorantly worship unto The doctrine that future happiness heart the phantom of fear; push from this day. What a stain such an act would depends upon belief is monstrous. It is the throne of your brain the cowled leave upon the character of a devil! One the infamy of infamies. The notion that form of superstition—then read the of the prophets of one of these gods, faith in Christ is to be rewarded by an Holy Bible, and you will be amazed having in his power a captured king, eternity of bliss, while a dependence that you ever, for one moment, sup- hewed him in pieces in the sight of all upon reason, observation, and experi- posed a being of infinite wisdom, good- the people. Was ever any imp of any ence merits everlasting pain, is too ness, and purity to be the author of such devil guilty of such savagery? absurd for refutation, and can be ignorance and of such atrocity. One of these gods is reported to relieved only by that unhappy mixture Our ancestors not only had their have given the following directions of insanity and ignorance called god-factories, but they made devils as concerning human slavery: "If thou buy a Hebrew servant, six years shall The notion that faith in Christ is to be he serve, and in the seventh he shall go out free for nothing. If he came in by rewarded by an eternity of bliss, while a himself, he shall go out by himself; if dependence upon reason, observation, he were married, then his wife shall go out with him. If his master have given and experience merits everlasting pain, him a wife, and she have borne him sons or daughters, the wife and her is too absurd for refutation. children shall be her master's, and he shall go out by himself. And if the ser- "faith." What man, who ever thinks, well. These devils were generally dis- vant shall plainly say, I love my mas- can believe that blood can appease graced and fallen gods. Some had ter, my wife, and my children; I will God? And yet, our entire system of headed unsuccessful revolts; some had not go out free. Then his master shall religion is based upon that belief. The been caught sweetly reclining in the bring him unto the judges; he shall also Jews pacified Jehovah with the blood shadowy folds of some fleecy cloud, bring him unto the door, or unto the of animals, and according to the kissing the wife of the god of gods. doorpost; and his master shall bore his Christian system, the blood of Jesus These devils generally sympathized ear through with an awl; and he shall softened the heart of God a little, and with man. There is in regard to them a serve him forever." rendered possible the salvation of a most wonderful fact: In nearly all the According to this, a man was given fortunate few. It is hard to conceive theologies, mythologies, and religions, liberty upon condition that he would how the human mind can give assent to the devils have been much more desert forever his wife and children. such terrible ideas, or how any sane humane and merciful than the gods. No Did any devil ever force upon a hus- man can read the Bible and still believe devil ever gave one of his generals an band, upon a father, so cruel and so in the doctrine of inspiration. order to kill children and to rip open heartless an alternative? Who can wor- Whether the Bible is true or false is the bodies of pregnant women. Such ship such a god? Who can bend the of no consequence in comparison with barbarities were always ordered by the knee to such a monster? Who can pray the mental freedom of the race. good gods. The pestilences were sent to such a fiend? .. . Salvation through slavery is worth- by the most merciful gods. The fright- The Christians now claim that Jesus less. Salvation from slavery is ines- ful famine, during which the dying was God. If he was God, of course the timable. child with pallid lips sucked the with- devil knew that fact, and yet, according As long as man believes the Bible to ered bosom of a dead mother, was sent to this account, the devil took the be infallible, that book is his master. by the loving gods. No devil was ever omnipotent God and placed him upon The civilization of this century is not charged with such fiendish brutality. a pinnacle of the temple, and endeav- the child of faith, but of unbelief—the One of these gods, according to the ored to induce him to dash himself result of free thought. account, drowned an entire world, with against the earth. Failing in that, he
46 FREE INQUIRY GREAT MINDS took the creator, owner, and governor means to ends is perfectly apparent. to law, to freedom, to the known, and of the universe up into an exceeding They point us to the sunshine, to the to happiness here in this world. The high mountain, and offered him this flowers, to the April rain, and to all many have appealed to prejudice, to world—this grain of sand—if he, the there is of beauty and of use in the fear, to miracle, to slavery, to the God of all the worlds, would fall down world. Did it ever occur to them that a unknown, and to misery hereafter. The and worship him, a poor devil, without cancer is as beautiful in its develop- few have said "Think!" The many even a tax title to one foot of dirt! Is it ment as is the reddest rose? That what have said "Believe!" possible the devil was such an idiot? they are pleased to call the adaptation The first doubt was the womb and Should any great credit be given to this of means to ends, is as apparent in the cradle of progress, and from the first deity for not being caught with such cancer as in the April rain? How beau- doubt, man has continued to advance. chaff? Think of it! The devil—the tiful the process of digestion! By what Men began to investigate, and the prince of sharpers—the king of cun- ingenious methods the blood is poi- church began to oppose. The ning—the master of finesse, trying to soned so that the cancer shall have astronomer scanned the heavens, while bribe God with a grain of sand that belonged to God! Is there in all the religious literature The many have appealed to prejudice, to of the world anything more grossly absurd than this? .. . fear, to miracle, to slavery, to the unknown, Even the advanced religionist, and to misery hereafter. The few have said although disbelieving in any great amount of interference by the gods in `Think!' The many have said `Believe!' this age of the world, still thinks that in the beginning, some god made the food! By what wonderful contrivances the church branded his grand forehead laws governing the universe. He the entire system of man is made to with the word "Infidel"; and now, not a believes that in consequence of these pay tribute to this divine and charming glittering star in all the vast expanse laws a man can lift a greater weight cancer! See by what admirable instru- bears a Christian name. In spite of all with, than without, a lever; that two mentalities it feeds itself from the sur- religion, the geologist penetrated the bodies cannot occupy the same space rounding quivering, dainty flesh! See earth, read her history books of stone, at the same time; so that a body once how it gradually but surely expands and found, hidden within her bosom, put in motion will keep moving until it and grows! By what marvelous mech- souvenirs of all the ages. Old ideas per- is stopped; so that it is a greater dis- anism it is supplied with long and ished in the retort of the chemist, and tance around, than across a circle; so slender roots that reach out to the most useful truths took their places. One by that a perfect square has four equal secret nerves of pain for sustenance one religious conceptions have been sides, instead of five or seven. He and life! What beautiful colors it pre- placed in the crucible of science, and insists that it took a direct interposition sents! Seen through the microscope it thus far, nothing but dross has been of providence to make the whole is a miracle of order and beauty. All found. A new world has been discov- greater than a part, and that had it not the ingenuity of man cannot stop its ered by the microscope; everywhere been for this power superior to nature, growth. Think of the amount of has been found the infinite; in every twice one might have been more than thought it must have required to invent direction man has investigated and twice two, and sticks and strings might a way by which the life of one man explored and nowhere, in earth or have had only one end apiece. Like the might be given to produce one cancer? stars, has been found the footstep of old Scotch divine, he thanks God that Is it possible to look upon it and doubt any being superior to or independent of Sunday comes at the end instead of the that there is design in the universe, and nature. Nowhere has been discovered middle of the week, and that death that the inventor of this wonderful the slightest evidence of any interfer- comes at the close instead of at the cancer must be infinitely powerful, ence from without. commencement of life, thereby giving ingenious, and good? .. . These are the sublime truths that us time to prepare for that holy day For ages, a deadly conflict has been enabled man to throw off the yoke of and that most solemn event. These waged between a few brave men and superstition. These are the splendid religious people see nothing but women of thought and genius upon the facts that snatched the scepter of design everywhere, and personal, one side, and the great ignorant reli- authority from the hands of priests... . intelligent interference in everything. gious mass on the other. This is the For the vagaries of the clouds and the They insist that the universe has been war between Science and Faith. The infidels propose to substitute the reali- created, and that the adaptation of few have appealed to reason, to honor, ties of earth; for superstition, the splen-
Summer 1997 47
GREAT MINDS did demonstrations and achievements of but we are breaking those our fathers satisfied that there can be but little lib- science; and for theological tyranny, the made for us. We are the advocates of erty on earth while men worship a chainless liberty of thought. inquiry, of investigation and thought. tyrant in heaven. We do not expect to We do not say that we have discov- This of itself is an admission that we accomplish everything in our day; but ered all; that our doctrines are the all in are not perfectly satisfied with all our we want to do what good we can, and all of truths. We know of no end to the conclusions. Philosophy has not the to render all the service possible in the development of man. We cannot unravel egotism of faith. While superstition holy cause of human progress. We the infinite complications of matter and builds walls and creates obstructions, know that doing away with gods and force. The history of one monad is as science opens all the highways of supernatural persons and powers is not unknown as that of the universe; one thought. We do not pretend to have cir- an end. It is a means to an end: the real drop of water is as wonderful as all the cumnavigated everything and to have end being the happiness of man.... FI seas; one leaf, as all the forests; and one solved all difficulties, but we do grain of sand, as all the stars. believe that it is better to love men than Reprinted with permission from On the Gods and We are not endeavoring to change to fear gods; that it is grander and Other Essays by Robert G. Ingersoll (Buffalo: Prometheus Books, 1990). For information on the future, but to free the present. We nobler to think and investigate for the Robert Green Ingersoll Museum write to P.O. are not forging letters for our children, yourself than to repeat a creed. We are Box 664, Amherst, N.Y. 14226. 'A CELEBRATION OF FREETHOUGHT' SEPTEMBER 20 & 21, 1997, CINCINNATI, OHIO "A Celebration of Freethought" is a two-day conference during Oktoberfest weekend that combines discussion, meetings and social events. • Explore freethought's past, present and future with The Future of Freethought, leading experts A Tribute to Gordon Stein Speakers include: Derek Araujo, President of the Campus • Celebrate the heroes and heroines Freethought Alliance, and of the Harvard Secular Society of freethought history Thomas Flynn, Senior Editor of FREE INQUIRY The Omar Khayyam Banquet, on Saturday Annie Laurie Gaylor, author of a new anthology of women night, will celebrate the 950th anniver- freethinkers, Women Without Superstition: "No Gods — No sary of the birth of the great Persian Masters," and Editor of the newspaper poet and mathematician. The banquet Frances Wright Freethought Today will include readings and commentary on Omar Khayyám s James Haught, Senior Editor of FREE great poem, the Rubáiyat. INQUIRY, author of 2,000 Years of Disbelief The pioneering early-nineteenth century freethinker and feminist Gerald Larue, FREE INQUIRY Senior Editor, Frances Wright will be commemorated on Sunday afternoon and author of Freethought Across the with a field trip. Centuries: Toward A New Age of • Enjoy arts, culture, and cuisine at Oktoberfest Enlightenment Mark Twain The secular festivities of Cincinnati's Oktoberfest will last all Timothy Madigan, Editor of FREE INQUIRY weekend, and include plays, concerts, art shows, and a beer Fred Whitehead, coauthor of Freethought on the American festival. Frontier and Editor of the newsletter Freethought History A Celebration of Freethought runs from Saturday 9 A.M. to Subjects include: Women of Freethought, Mark Twain, Sunday 12 P.M. followed by the Frances Wright commemora- American Freethought and the U.S. Constitution, tive trip on Sunday afternoon.
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48 FREE INQUIRY anything! Change anything! Fix any- GOD ON TRIAL thing!" Billy stopped when he noticed Trying the God hypothesis in the court of reason Dr. White looking at him intently. "You mean if I were all-powerful?" asked Dr. White. "Yeah, something like that," said God for a Day! Billy cautiously. "Do you mean if I were God?" A tale about the problem of evil "Yeah, I guess so," Billy said with a touch of annoyance in his voice. Michael Martin "Billy, are you sure you are not hearing voices again?" asked Dr. oday was the day! Billy Eaton was making his rounds. White gently. was so excited! He had pre- "Good morning, Dr. White," Billy "No, honest, Doc!" Billy pleaded. Tpared all week. He had made said respectfully. "I remember several months ago long lists of things that he would do. "Good morning, Billy," said Dr. when you started asking questions He had asked questions of everyone on White, sitting down beside Billy, about General Grant's Civil War cam- the ward to help him decide what to put whose several sheets of yellow paper paigns. You lied and said you weren't on the lists without letting on what they were spread out on a table in the hearing voices. You told us later that were for. Yesterday he had asked Nurse Johnson, whom he considered pretty 'If I am God, I will make the world a place smart, "Johnson, if it was in your power to change the world and make it where people have free will and never a better place, what would you do?" Nurse Johnson looked at Billy with abuse children. Why can't God do this?' a professional eye. "Have you taken your medicine this morning, Billy?" patients' lounge. "Aren't we busy this President Lincoln had asked you to "Yes, I have. Come on, Johnson, morning!" he said cheerily. "How are take command of the Union Army what would you do?" you feeling? Any bad dreams?" from General Grant. We had quite a "Oh, I don't know," she said. "How "No. I haven't had any of those for time getting you settled down. It would much power would I have?" she asked, several months." save a lot of time and trouble if you smiling. "Good! Good! What about the would tell me the truth now." "The sky's the limit!" he said, try- voices? I believe you thought you were "No, Dr. White. There is nothing ing to suppress his excitement. having conversations with President like that going on now," he said, look- "Well, then, I would cure children Lincoln several months ago." ing Dr. White straight in the eye. of diseases of various kinds. I would "That's right, Doctor White. I also After Dr. White had gone, Billy stop war and famine. I would ..." She thought I was talking to old Sergeant went back to constructing his lists of stopped and looked at Billy. "Why are Allen, my Marine Corps drill instruc- things to do. "Dr. White was no help in you asking me this question, Billy?" tor. No, I haven't heard from either for making my list," he thought. "And he "Just interested," Billy said, looking sometime now," he laughed good- suspects something, too. But he doesn't very sheepish. naturedly. "It must be that new med- know the whole truth." "I don't believe you," said Nurse ication you have me on." Billy thought back to how it had Johnson, moving on to the next ward "Yes, it has shown remarkable started. He was having trouble going to as she gave Billy a playful slap on his results in several clinical trials." sleep one night, and without warning rump. "By the way, Doctor White, to keep God began speaking to him. It was easy He also asked Dr. White when he myself busy I am making a list of to speak to God, easier than speaking to things to do to improve the world. So I the nurses or the other patients, with the Michael Martin is Professor of Philos- want your opinion. If it was in your possible exception of Lois. God told ophy at Boston University. "God for a power to change the world and make it Billy that He would like Billy to Day!" is taken from his book The Big a better place, what would you do?" become God for a day. God told him Domino in the Sky (Prometheus "What do you mean 'in my power'? that he could make any changes he felt Books, 1996), which makes the case for Do you mean with my present were needed, and if he did a good job, atheism through fictional stories. Dr. resources? These, as you know, are he might be able to continue a while Martin's other books include Atheism: rather limited." longer. God said that Billy could take A Philosophical Justification and The "No, I mean if you had all the over on Tuesday. God was not sure Case Against Christianity. resources there were! If you could do when on Tuesday He would have Billy
Summer 1997 49 COUNCIL at the FOR SECULAR HUMANISM FUND FOR An Unprecedented Drive for a Humanistic Future Creating The Center for Inquiry— with its libraries, conference and seminar facilities, online and audio- visual capabilities—only prepares the Council for Secular Humanism to face a future filled with challenges. The Center for Inquiry, Amherst, N.Y., world headquarters of the Council for Secular Humanism The next step is up to you. Promoting secular humanism in the next century will demand new methods of outreach that magazine revenues alone cannot support. The answer is the Fund for the Future: an unprecedented ten-year effort to add no less than 20 million dollars to the Center for Inquiry endow- ments.* Endowment income will fund new and expanded projects described in the Council's new Ten- Year Plan, including: Birth of the Earth celebration.
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Additional regional Centers the cost of substantial investment in are planned with expanded calendars of activities. infrastructure. Center for Inquiry • P.O. Box 664 • Amherst, NY 14226-0664 • Tel. (716) 636-7571 • Fax (716) 636-1733 GOD ON TRIAL take charge, but He said that Billy ing all week. I've made lists of things I had outdone herself. "I don't know, should be prepared at any time. will change and things I will improve. Lois. Do you?" God for a day! Billy could hardly One of the first items on my list is to "Let's consider some of the things contain himself. He could not sleep for get rid of your depression." on your list and see if we can come up the rest of the night, and the next morn- "That's very sweet of you, Billy." with any answers." ing he started to prepare himself. What "Yes, wait 'til you see the things I'm "One thing I have on my list is to good works he would do! What mira- going to do when I become God!" he stop parents from abusing their chil- cles he would achieve! What works of said, pulling yellow sheets of paper dren. Is your question, Lois, why didn't humanitarianism he would accomplish! from his pocket. "First, I'm ..." God do this long ago?" At the end of his day of being God, the "Billy," Lois said gently, "I have a "Yes, but some people think they universe would be unrecognizable. It few questions I would like you to have an answer. They say that if par- would be a place of joy and happiness think about." ents were prevented from abusing their instead of misery and gloom! Let Dr. "Sure, Lois! You can be a big help children, this will be preventing God's White find out! It would be too late. to me when I become God. You have a creatures from exercising their free Mental hospitals would be one of first terrific education, and there's nobody will. These people believe that a world things to go. Mentally ill people and whose mind I admire more than yours. with free will and child abuse is a bet- mentally retarded people would be I want you to ask questions!" ter world than a world without both cured instantaneously, and no others "Billy, you say that you are going to free will and and child abuse." would be born or created. Sadistic drill change things and improve things Billy thought for a moment and then said, "I think that is a dumb answer." 'it seems crazy to suppose that all these "Why?" asked Lois, placing her hands in her lap and leaning forward. evils are necessary to some greater good.' "Why? If I am God, I will make the world a place where people have free instructors at Parris Island would have when you become God. But why will and never abuse children and to go, too. He already had ten yellow haven't they already been improved?" things like that. Why can't God do this? pages of things he would do, and he Billy looked blank. "I don't under- If people have free will, it does not knew that he had barely scratched the stand what you mean." mean they must do bad things. People surface. Still, even if he did not do "Well, if you become God, you will in Heaven have free will and don't do everything that should be done, he be all-powerful." bad things. Why do people in this life?" would make a big improvement. "Sure, Lois. Everyone knows that." "Do you think there is anything else After breakfast on Tuesday, when She went on, "So you will have the wrong with appealing to free will?" God had not yet put him in charge, power to make improvements. You Lois asked. Billy decided to visit Lois. He had not would also be all-good, so you will "Well, even if people choose to do yet told her the news, and he thought want to make them. Furthermore, you bad things, God could prevent the bad that this might be the time. He found would be all-knowing, so you will consequences of what they do. If I fire a Lois sitting on a bench under the big know how to make them." gun at someone intending to kill them, elm tree near the infirmary, reading a "Sure," said Billy, sitting down on God could make the bullet miss its tar- thick book. She smiled as she saw the bench, still clutching the yellow get or make the gun misfire. So I could Billy approaching. "Hello, stranger!" sheets of paper. have free will, choose to do evil, and yet she said. "Where have you been keep- "But, Billy, don't you see? Right not do evil," Billy said with great ing yourself? I haven't seen you in now, before you become God, before energy. Lois laughed in spite of herself. over a week." you become all-powerful, all-good, all- "Let's forget about the free will "Oh, Lois, I'm so excited! Wait 'til knowing, the real God—the Being argument for a while. You want to hear you hear what's going to happen today!" whose place you are taking—already some of the other things on my list?" Still smiling, she looked tenderly at exists. Why hasn't He made the asked Billy. Billy. improvements on your lists? Why hasn't "Please!" "God is going to put me in charge He cured my depression and achieved "Well, when I become God, I will today. I am going to be God for the all the other noble goals you have con- cure children of crippling diseases and day!" Billy said breathlessly. sidered? Why are there any bad things of mental retardation. I will also pre- Lois's smile faded, and she said that need improvement if God exists?" vent any more children from being slowly, "Well, Billy, that is big news." Billy was stunned. Lois always born crippled or retarded. Now is your "I can do it, Lois. I've been prepar- asked great questions, but today she question, Lois, why hasn't God already
52 FREE INQUIRY GOD ON TRIAL done this?" Then He might not be able to bring didn't really talk to God?" "That's right. Obviously appealing to about any improvement," she said, pre- "It is possible," said Lois, touching free will would not help in these cases." tending to shield herself from Billy's Billy's hand softly. "Why not?" asked Billy. forthcoming attack. "Well, who did I talk to? That's "The evil is not brought about by "What? God would have to be what I'd like to know." human choice," said Lois as she got up pretty weak! Some of the things that Lois said nothing and looked at and stretched. could make the world better even Billy compassionately. "Oh! But how do they explain these human beings could do. Who could "So I won't become God today?" evils?" worship a weak God like that?" he "I think it's unlikely," said Lois. "One answer they give is that crip- demanded in a loud voice. As the hours of the day passed and pled and mentally retarded children are "Suppose God is not all-good. Then he did not become God, Billy kept necessary for achieving a greater good. He might not want to improve things!" hoping that Lois was wrong. Having no such children would make she said. But when it became nine o'clock in things worse!" Billy laughed. "Come on, Lois, be the evening and nothing had happened, Billy did not dismiss this idea out of serious. By definition God is all-good." Billy had resigned himself. hand. "Gosh, I guess that's possible," "Yes, but perhaps not in our sense He was depressed for only a few he said thoughtfully, "but it doesn't of `good,"' she said, sitting down in moments. "What a great God I would seem very likely. Anyway, there are all her chair. have made," he thought sadly. "What sorts of other things on my list that also Billy thought this over for some works of humanitarianism I would have nothing to do with free will. It time. "Yes, I see what you mean. But have accomplished!" seems crazy to suppose that all of these unless God is good in our sense, why He saw Dr. White making his evils—tornadoes, hurricanes, volcanic eruptions, mental illness, cancer—are 'But couldn't these evils be important for necessary to attain some greater good." "But couldn't these evils be impor- building human character?' tant for building human character? After all, human beings do develop should we worship Him? This doesn't evening rounds and waved. "Well, character by fighting against evil. All mean, of course, that humans define Billy, how is your list coming along?" the things that you have just mentioned `good.' However, unless God was good asked Dr. White. provide us with lots of character-build- in our sense, He would not be our Billy took several crumbled sheets ing obstacles to overcome," Lois said. moral ideal. My uncle Joe was good in of yellow paper out of his pocket and Billy was not sure from the look on his sense of `good' but ..." threw them in the wastepaper basket. her face whether she was completely "Enough, Billy!" Lois said emphat- "Oh, I've given up on that, Doctor. serious. "Oh, come on, Lois! God ically. "Let's try to wrap this up. I have Lois has convinced me that ... never could build character without making to go take my medication in a few mind, I just don't think it is a good idea mentally retarded children! Anyway, minutes." anymore. By the way, Doctor White, sometimes the evil is so great it crushes "Okay by me. I must confess I am a do you believe in God?" and destroys people. Look at what hap- little confused. We have talked a lot, "Why, yes, Billy I do," he said, pened to me in the Corps, and remem- but what can we conclude? Anything?" rather startled. ber I told you once about my Aunt Beth "Well, the question was, why hasn't "I don't!" exclaimed Billy, and he who had cancer. Well, ..." God already done the things on your wondered if the doctor had ever con- Lois held up her hand to stop Billy list? We considered some answers, and sidered the problems that he and Lois from telling the story about Aunt Beth they all seem to be unsatisfactory." had discussed. "It's too bad you do," he that she had already heard many times. "Where does that leave us?" asked said, waving goodbye to Dr. White and "Yes, Billy, I agree," she said. "I just Billy softly. walking into the recreation room. Then wanted to see how you would react." "There is one possibility, old friend, he heard a deep, familiar voice speak- "Are there any other ideas of why that I have not broached, although it ing to him out of what seemed like God has not already done the things on seems like this is the time. Perhaps there eternity. "Are you ready, my son, to my list?" asked Billy. is no God," Lois said, looking at Billy take over my work?" "There are. But you might not like intently. "This would fairly well explain "Knock off pretending to be God, these any better," she said. why the things on your list remain to be Sergeant Allen! Get off the line!" Billy "Try me!" done. There is no God to do them." said. "I want to speak to President "Suppose God is not all-powerful. "But God talked to ... you mean I Lincoln." FI
Summer 1997 53 tion in opposition to assimilation REVIEWS defensible? Dershowitz says that he is himself a thoroughly secularized Jew and a humanist, and he is agnostic about the existence of God. Yet he believes that it would be a tragedy if Who Is a Jew? the American Jews were to decline or disappear. If present trends continue, Rising above the ancient loyalties the only identifiable group of Jews who are likely to survive, he says, are Paul Kurtz the most Orthodox Hasidic Jews who have a soaring birthrate (6.4%) and are The Vanishing American Jew: In Jew, the Jews in America are facing the intolerant of secular values. If so, the Search of Jewish Identity for the Next greatest crisis in their history. For, if remaining Jews will, he believes, Century, by Alan M. Dershowitz present demographic trends continue, become marginalized. He thinks that (Boston, New York: Little, Brown they will most likely disappear as an what is at stake is not simply the reli- and Company, 1997) 395 pp., $24.95 identifiable ethnic group by the year gion of Judaism, but its culture, which cloth. 2076—the 300th anniversary of the he says is 3,500 years old, and the con- American Declaration of Indepen- siderable creative, intellectual, scien- The Ashkenazic Jews: A Slavo-Turkic dence. Or at the very least, he warns, tific, artistic, and entrepreneurial tal- People in Search of a Jewish Identity, they are apt to be a less vibrant part of ents that he thinks Jewish life has by Paul Wexler (Columbus, Ohio: American life. This development, he contributed to civilization. Slavica Publishers, 1993) 306 pp., believes, is due to the decline of anti- Dershowitz's account of his own $19.95 paper. Semitism in the United States in recent religious upbringing is instructive. Born decades (except among fringe groups) into an Orthodox family in Brooklyn, he and to the widespread acceptance of studied at a Yeshiva school and kept In Defense of Assimilation Jews in public life. Indeed, he affirms kosher eating habits until age 25. He ow is "Jewish identity" to be that the Jewish minority has prospered later went on to become a Harvard pro- Hdefined? What does it mean to be and succeeded in America in many fessor and a public spokesperson for all Jewish? These have been burning issues fields of endeavor as in no other time sorts of controversial causes. He still for Jews, especially in the twentieth or place in history. A central concern in continues to attend synagogue, to century, when the Nazis attempted to this book is the fact that Jews have observe Jewish holidays, and to appre- answer these questions and to eradicate become so secularized and secure that ciate their Jewish "religious" and "spir- both Jews and Judaism. And they are a majority have abandoned Judaism itual values," though he remains some- questions faced anew today, given the and are marrying non-Jews. Der- what skeptical about their supernatural daily challenges to the State of Israel. showitz is concerned that assimilation claims. The most interesting paradox of his autobiographical account was the fact that, as a father, he became con- Should we not applaud those couples .. . cerned when his son James decided to marry an Irish Catholic girl, Barbara. who are willing to transcend their ethnic He feared that his grandchildren would backgrounds and transfer their affection no longer be brought up as Jews. Dershowitz has had to face the fact that to the broader human community? the chain linking his grandchildren to historic Jewish culture will be weak- Jews everywhere in North and South rates are increasing. Secular Jews have ened and that their "Jewishness" might America, Eastern and Western Europe, the "lowest birthrate" of any religious disappear. Dershowitz comes to accept continue to raise these and other trou- or ethnic group in the United States the marriage with affection, but not bling questions. Should people of (1.5 to 1.6%—below the 2.19% neces- without some guilt. Both James and Jewish background strive to persist as a sary for replacement). Barbara are skeptics, and they have separable and identifiable Jewish Alan Dershowitz is perhaps the exposed their children to their own var- minority, or should they seek to assimi- best-known lawyer in America, espe- ied backgrounds in their interfaithless late into the mainstream of the culture in cially since serving on the O. J. marriage, without partiality to one. which they live? Simpson defense team. His views are Dershowitz's concern about the loss According to Alan Dershowitz, in sought out on a variety of topics. When of Jewish identity is shared by many his new book, The Vanishing American he speaks, many listen. But is his posi- other members of the Jewish commu-
54 FREE INQUIRY REVIEWS
nity today, particularly Orthodox and means being a member of a "cultural human family, should not one learn to Conservative Jews, who blame secular- group," and only 35% think that it also appreciate all cultural traditions without ism for the decline. Dershowitz asks, means being a member of a "religion." chauvinistic preference for one's own? What can or should be done to stem this Even for religious Jews, 70% believe Why should the faith of one's forefa- tide? He states and rejects three that being Jewish means being a mem- thers command the devotion of individ- options: First, Jews can return to the ber of a cultural group, and only 49% a uals, especially since one's religious strictest Orthodox faith, attempting to religious group. But if Judaism is the and ethnic background is usually an blend their "Jewishness" with the core of Jewish culture—and therefore accident of birth or indoctrination, and demands of modern secular culture. "Jewish identity"—can a Judaism not one of voluntary choice? This is not possible for a secular Jew, stripped entirely of religion retain that In reading Dershowitz I am struck says Dershowitz, and most Jews in identity? Rabbi Alexander Schindler, by how deep-seated his own ethnic and America are secular. Second, they can president of the Reform movement, a tribal chauvinism is—and by his fail- depart for Israel, where they can supposedly liberal branch, recently ure to appreciate the virtues of assimi- assume an Israeli nationality. Most defended a decision of his group to lation, the appeal of interreligious American Jews are loyal to America exclude a secular humanist Jewish and/or interracial marriages. The and would not think of renouncing their congregation applying for member- United States (and Australia, New American nationality or their devotion ship, maintaining that "the concept of Zealand, Canada, and Western Europe to the United States. Or third, they can God" is the very foundation of to a lesser extent) are becoming truly accept assimilation as an inevitable fact Judaism. One might ask, Would universal societies, for they have taken and acquiesce to the disappearance of Judaism without these supernatural steps beyond ancient ethnic, national, Judaism and Jewish cultural life. This Dershowitz likewise deplores. Is it not time to rise to a new plane of He offers a fourth alternative, the development of a new form of "secular moral commitment? Indeed, one can Judaism" that is not supernatural but humanistic, that allows for agnostic dis- argue that the assimilation of past sent, and yet provides for full participa- cultures to a more universal world culture tion in Jewish culture and Jewish iden- tity.' But if this is to be achieved, he has higher ethical merit. believes there must be a redirection in American Jewish life and a new empha- foundations still have a viable message and racial chauvinisms. Should we not sis on Jewish education. He believes for freethinking and skeptical Jews? applaud those couples (including that young Jews need to appreciate their What would happen if the myth of the Dershowitz's son and daughter-in-law) "history and heritage" and the values of "Chosen People" and the belief that who are willing to transcend their eth- Jewish culture, which, he says, include Moses received the Ten Command- nic backgrounds and transfer their an emphasis on learning and question- ments from On High were finally affection to the broader human com- ing, independence of judgment, a abandoned? Dershowitz thinks that munity, able to reach out and love "the humanitarian concern with social jus- secular Jews should read the Jewish aliens" in their midst? Rather than tice and ethics, and an appreciation for historical literature and study the bemoan the loss of his grandchildren to the arts and sciences. He calls for a Talmud and Torah. But could a secular Jewish identity, why not applaud the "new Jewish state of mind" able to chal- approach to the historic Jewish cultural quest for a broader human identity? lenge the view that Jews can survive tradition provide enough sustenance Surely Dershowitz is not alone in only where they are discriminated for its continuity? his partiality to his ethnic background, against and persecuted. Judaism, he Why not consider a naturalized and yet what if his tribal sentiments were says, can persist "in an open, free, and humanized Judaism to be only one generalized? What if Barbara's Irish welcoming society, such as America." among many pluralistic contributions to Catholic parents were to deplore her Dershowitz's plea for a secularized human civilization that all educated per- marriage to James as being outside of Judaism no doubt will find a receptive sons should know about and perhaps their culture and faith? Following audience among many American Jews, appreciate. And why not have this take Dershowitz's argument, one might who have difficulty with traditional its place alongside of Egyptian, Greco- assert that Irish Roman Catholic cul- theological Judaism. Indeed, some Roman, Buddhist, French, Anglo- ture has historic roots and values, and 80% of American Jews who are secular Saxon, Indian, Chinese, and other cul- an Irish Catholic should resist the loss believe that to be a Jew in America tural traditions? As a member of the of grandchildren to this cultural her-
Summer 1997 55 REVIEWS itage. Similarly for the Southern a question of personal choice, without culture, and ethnicity intact. According Baptist, the Muslim, the Hindu Indian, the constraints of religious traditions or to the Old Testament story, the and so on. Isn't this a form of bigotry? ethnic prejudice. Most of the modern Hebrews fled the repressive pharaoh in Is it not time to rise to a new plane Jews, whom Dershowitz approves of, Egypt and settled in the Promised of moral commitment? Indeed, one can from Spinoza to Freud and Einstein, Land, Palestine. Occupied by Roman argue that the assimilation of past cul- were secular Jews who broke from legions, the Temple in Jerusalem was tures to a more universal world culture Judaism and were able to contribute to destroyed in 70 C.E., and the Jews dis- has higher ethical merit. By so arguing, more universalistic values. Dershowitz persed to many lands. Ever since the I do not suggest that we suppress the is convinced that anti-Semitism is Diaspora, according to the traditional multiplicities of culture or pluralistic passé in America, but who can be account, the Jews have attempted to life-stances--only that we encourage assured that Jewish achievement will return to their homeland. Interestingly, those who wish to transcend the exclu- not stoke new fires of resentment? All this view is shared by both secular and sive loyalties of the past and to achieve the more reason why so many secular Orthodox Jews, and even by the most rabid anti-Semites. A century ago, Over the millennia the Jews have not only Theodor Herzl, the father of modern Zionism, thought that the only solution assimilated other peoples into the fold, to anti-Semitism was for the Jews to have a state of their own in Palestine— but tens of millions have left the fold, and which he said should be secular and their gene pools have been dispersed not religious. Orthodox Jews in Israel, in defend- throughout many nations. ing the law of return, tie the question of who is a Jew to maternal descent. a more inclusive devotion to the Jews have concluded that assimilation Orthodox rabbis insist that they alone broader moral community of is a meaningful option for them, as can determine who is a Jew—exclud- humankind. Jews in America who they seek a more integrated life. ing Reform and Conservative rabbis. marry outside of the fold are much like But do the Jews have a continuous reli- other ethnic minorities who recognize gious and/or genetic identity (as even their cosmopolitan backgrounds— A Redefinition of Dershowitz, for example, assumes), or many people today affirm that they are Jewish Identity are there discontinuities? And do the part German, or part English, or part This leads to a second question about modern-day Jews draw upon disparate Hopi, or part African-American, or historic Jewish identity. It is the pre- peoples of the past? Surely neither part Asian. Dershowitz quotes former vailing assumption that the Jewish Christianity nor Islam are identified White House Chief of Staff John people represent a continuous line of with a specific racial type, for they Sununu, who heralds the fact that he is descent of 3,500 years, traceable back have appealed in their long history to a of mixed Lebanese, Greek, and El to the original Jews or Hebrews who wide range of ethnicities. Secular Jews Salvadoran ancestry: "It is a varied lived in Palestine. I would assume that have argued that the Jews do not repre- heritage and I am proud of it." Golf post-Holocaust Jews find abhorrent the sent a separate ethnicity or racial type, champion Tiger Woods, an Asian- claim of the Nazis that there is such a but represent a "cultural tradition." African-American, represents the thing as a distinct "Jewish race." Yet, Clearly the Jews who lived in India, blending of many ethnic and racial in defense of Jewish identity, oddly China, Yemen, Turkey, Africa, and backgrounds—what a wonder to enough, there are those Jews, particu- North and South America reflect a vari- behold! Racists may consider this a larly Orthodox, who are defending a ety of cultural values, but also diverse "mongrelization," but in saying this similar argument. The belief that ethnic genotypes, based on intermar- they only mask their ignorance of their Jewish culture represents a sacred riage with the indigenous stock. own distant past and the variety of chain of descent suggests at least that In a provocative book, The Ash- bloodlines that all humans represent. there is a kind of "ethnic purity."' The kenazic Jews: A Slavo-Turkic People in The fact that most secular Jews, like Jewish people are said to be unique in Search of a Jewish Identity, Paul others in America, have decided to that they have maintained their group Wexler, who teaches linguistics at Tel- move in this direction is, I submit, an identity for more than two millennia, Aviv University, maintains that in the affirmative decision on their part. The in spite of the fact that they had no first millennia most Jews lived outside search for a "new identity" beyond common territorial base and that they of Palestine and throughout the Medi- parochial loyalties should primarily be have preserved their ancestral religion, terranean world (for example, one mil-
56 FREE INQUIRY REVIEWS lion lived in Alexandria, Egypt, at one ture. According to Wexler, even modern the present impedes the systematic time), and they attracted converts of dif- Hebrew is a development and an accre- study of this historic Judaization ferent ethnic backgrounds to the fold. tion, and it is not a return to the original process. If he is correct, this thesis need The first Christians were Jews, who language per se (the Palestinian Jews not justify the frenzied effort by converted others to Christianity, which spoke Aramaic primarily), but is a result Palestinian nationalists to throw the was originally considered a branch of of a similar process of Judaization. Jews into the sea, no more than that Judaism. Similarly for the non-Christian Wexler grants that the historical record Native Americans need insist that the Jews—Wexler maintains that Judaism of the Jews between the sixth and settlers in America and Canada return at first grew by conversion of non-Jews, eleventh centuries is very fragmentary, to Europe and Africa, or that the mainly pagans, to Judaism. The Sephar- but he holds that, coterminous with the Australians give back Australia to the dic Jews, he maintains, were originally conversion of the pagans to Christianity Aborigines. The world is rapidly of Arabic and Berber stock. After the and Islam during this period, there were changing, and immigration and emigra- expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 1492, From the secular humanist perspective, assimilation they settled in many lands throughout the is a positive good and is not to be feared. world. Wexler focuses his study, however, widespread conversions of pagans to tion is a pervasive fact of postmodern on the Ashkenazic Jews. The traditional Judaism. existence. We should encourage inter- view is that the Jews in Eastern Europe Thus the Ashkenazis are a result of marriage, miscegenation, and other and Poland immigrated there from conversions by proselytes and wide- such processes, but especially the cre- France and Germany; and that they trace spread intermarriage and assimilation. ation of secular societies, which their lineage to the original Palestinian He grants that in time the Ashkenazi encourage people of diverse ethnicities Hebrews. Wexler maintains, on the con- Jews became a distinct interbreeding to settle and live together and to tran- trary, that the Ashkenazic Jewish origin ethnic stock and that, like the Muslims scend the ancient loyalties of the past. was due to the conversion of large num- and Christians, they eventually This, of course, should apply not only bers of Serbo-Turkic peoples in the attempted to enforce (not always with to Jewish chauvinists, but to chauvin- Balkans to Judaism, and that they are success) prohibitions against intermar- ists of all stripes. Islamic countries in largely ethnic Slays. In so arguing, riage or assimilation out of the group. particular need to respect the separation Wexler is recasting the argument pro- This means that Jews today are the of church and state, develop an appreci- posed by Arthur Koestler in his book product of a long period of assimilation ation for secularism, and mitigate hos- The Thirteenth Tribe.' Koestler held that (both ways) and that this is an ongoing tility to non-Muslims in their midst. the Ashkenazi Jews, who make up 80% process. Over the millennia the Jews From the secular humanist perspec- of the world's Jews today (in spite of the have not only assimilated other peoples tive, assimilation is a positive good and Holocaust), largely resulted from the into the fold, but tens of millions have is not to be feared. The moral agenda conversion of the Turkic Khazars in the left the fold and their gene pools have for humanists is to persuade people Caucasus of the eighth century. been dispersed throughout many that we need to go beyond the ancient Koestler's thesis was criticized because nations. Anti-Semites no doubt played divisive loyalties of the past and to of its lack of corroborating evidence. a role in this process, but it was a two- attain a new ethical level in which all Wexler maintains that the cradle for the way street. During certain periods, the persons become a part of the commu- Ashkenazi Jews was the Balkans and the Jews were confined to the shtetl and the nity of humankind. This may be diffi- mixed Germanic-Slavic areas of Europe ghetto, but many Jews also sought to cult. But if it is happening in America, in the Middle Ages. His evidence for this assimilate into the mainstream as a pro- why not elsewhere? is primarily linguistic: he traces Yiddish, tection against prejudice. the language of the Ashkenazi Jews, to a The implications of Wexler's Notes Slavic (not Germanic) origin. There research for the State of Israel are pro- 1. The most forceful proponent of this view were undoubtedly later heavy borrow- found. Jewish nationalism and Zionist is Rabbi Sherwin Wine of Birmingham, ings from German, but Yiddish, he ideology are wedded to "the sacred Michigan, who has founded a movement known as "Secular Humanist Judaism." It has developed maintains, is originally a Slavic lan- chain" thesis. Wexler observes that, 20 congregations in North America, and also guage. Thus, a Judaization process was given the Israeli-Palestinian conflict internationally. But thus far it has not become a introduced to a pagan people; they were today, the belief in an uninterrupted mass movement. 2. See Norman Cantor, The Sacred Chain responsible for transforming and devel- identity of the Jewish people and/or (New York: HarperPerennial, 1995). oping medieval and modern Jewish cul- religion from the Palestinian period to 3. London: Random House, 1976.
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believe that Jesus came to Earth to Reincarnation Undressed release humanity from God's awful curse. Moreover, Paul added, to be Martin Gardner born again and saved from hell one must also believe God raised Jesus Reincarnation: A Critical Examina- philosopher—in addition to his books from the dead. Can you imagine a deity tion by Paul Edwards (Amherst, and papers, Paul Edwards edited the more distant from the loving God N.Y.: Prometheus Books, 1996) 313 eight-volume Encyclopedia of Phi- taught by the historical Jesus? pp. $28.95. losophy—has written a comprehensive, Reincarnation does away with such powerful attack on reincarnation. a cruel creator. The horrors of hell are Religious insanity is very common in But Reincarnation: A Critical replaced by karma, a law as much a part the United States. Examination is much more than an of nature as the laws of gravity. Indeed, —Alexis de Tocqueville, as attack. Its prose is vigorous and enter- many reincarnationists were and are quoted by Paul Edwards taining, its arguments cogent, its sweep atheists, such as the British philosopher awesome, and its documentation im- John McTaggart Ellis McTaggart, who ecause reincarnation is a funda- peccable. Edwards seems to have read see no need for a god to uphold karma. »mental doctrine of Hindu religions everything on the topic, to have consid- We existed before in different bodies. and most forms of Buddhism, there are ered every argument pro and con. We will continue after death in other probably more people around the world True believers in reincarnation bodies. Every evil deed will be pun- who believe it than those who prefer probably will not read this book, and ished. Every good deed will be the Judaic-Christian-Muslim view that among those who do, not many are rewarded. Irrational suffering no longer our lives begin at birth and will con- likely to alter their opinions. It is a rare demands justification by reasons we tinue after death in heaven or hell. In event when believers of any stripe cannot now comprehend. Karma recent decades New Age infatuations change their minds about anything. On ensures that justice will always prevail, with Eastern faiths have impelled vast the other hand, perhaps a few with if not in this life, in lives to come. numbers of Americans to see in rein- brains still open to reason will find Who has not longed to participate in carnation the satisfaction of their Edwards's rhetoric persuasive. For future events on Earth, to take part in hunger for immortality. A 1991 Gallup anyone, his book will be a delight to building a better world, to see with poll found that 1 in 5 Americans are read and a basic reference to own about human eyes what happens to one's reincarnationists. More surprising, 14% one of the strangest religious phenom- descendants, to observe the changes of Catholics and 19% of Protestants ena to befuddle America since science and technology will bring? expressed belief in reincarnation. This Christian Science. Christians, Jews, and Muslims are is truly astonishing because nowhere unable to participate in Earth's future does the Bible defend the doctrine. history. The best they can do is observe REINCARNATION'S ALLURE Indeed, reincarnation sharply contra- it from a distant heaven. Reincarna- dicts Christian teachings. Many pages are devoted to the claim tionists have the hope of actively par- A raft of books defending reincarna- that reincarnation provides, as ticipating in the planet's future. tion has been written by Americans and Edwards himself believes, a better published by firms whose owners and solution to the terrible problem of irra- FLAWS AND FALLACIES editors have not the slightest interest in tional evil than the traditional Christian the doctrine beyond its power to inflate one. Catholic and Protestant funda- Foremost of all objections to reincar- profits. Now, for the first time in his- mentalists still believe that all of us are nation is the difficulty of conceiving tory, in any language, a distinguished sinners as a result of Adam and Eve how we can be the same person who disobeying a command of Jehovah. lived before if we have no memory of Martin Gardner is a FREE INQUIRY They also must believe that God was an earlier life. Edwards quotes Leibniz: Senior Editor and the author of many so disappointed with his own creation "What good would it do you, sir, to books about mathematics, science, lit- that he drowned all men, women, become King of China on condition of erature, and philosophy. His most babies, dogs, and cats except for Noah forgetting what you have been? Would recent boolç The Night Is Large, is a and his unremarkable family. They it not be the same thing as if God at the collection of essays published by St. must agree with St. Paul that the only same time he destroyed you created the Martin's Press. way to escape eternal damnation is to king of China?" How can we profit
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from past experiences if we can't their own past actions." were simultaneously punished for past remember them? Reincarnationists are troubled by sins. "How did this non-intelligent Here and there, especially in India, this reasoning. Some insist that you principle [karma] set up the geological a few rare individuals claim to recall should do your best to relieve pain forces so as to achieve the desired portions of a past life, such as the because if you succeed it proves a per- result with complete precision?" famous case of the American Bridey son's punishment is not as severe as it Edwards asks. Murphy. Edwards thoroughly demol- seemed! But this goes against the If the law of karma is infallible, ishes these flimsy claims. They are notion that karma is an inexorable law Edwards wants to know, how can a usually based on hypnotic sessions that cannot be altered. If we can reincarnationist bring himself to during which a hypnotist consciously change it at will it turns karma into believe that the 6 million Jews exter- or unconsciously guides the sleeping what Edwards calls a "vacuous" law. minated by the Nazis all deserved their patient with leading questions. Not In any case, the doctrine of karma con- fate? The same goes for Inquisition only is hypnotism used today to tinues to be a major obstacle to efforts victims, and those of Stalin. "Since the "regress" patients to former lives, but by India's government to make the Jews deserved extinction," writes some reincarnation therapists, notably miserable less miserable. Edwards, "the Nazis were not really the former Baltimore dentist Dr. Bruce Another objection to reincarnation criminals.... I assume that Eichmann Goldberg, "progress" patients to explored by Edwards is what is known deserved to be hanged, since he was observing events in their future incar- nations. Most reincarnation therapists One reason Edwards's book is such a treat patients for causes in past lives. Dr. Goldberg treats patients for causes pleasant read is that he has a sense of they will experience in future lives! humor and sarcasm worthy of Voltaire or Many reincarnationists claim that everyone will remember previous lives H. L. Mencken. during a period between incarnations that Edwards calls the "interregnum," as the "population problem." If every- hanged, but the many Nazis who a time when our soul or "astral body" one alive today once inhabited a previ- escaped deserved to escape." The most exists in a physically bodiless state. ous human body, how can the world's powerful objection to the death penalty Believers differ on how long interreg- population explosion be explained? becomes meaningless because, if nums can be. They may be as short as There simply are not enough former karma holds, no innocent man can be a few days or as long as hundreds of earthlings to account for today's popu- executed. "People may indeed be inno- years. Perhaps after many incarnations, lation, and each year the problem gets cent of the crime with which they are or at the end of them, if there is one, worse. Edwards considers what he charged, but if they are executed this is our brains will recall everything. calls several "noxious ad hoc assump- what they deserved. It makes one One of the strongest objections to tions" put forth to explain this. One is dizzy." reincarnation is that, in India, where that we had past lives as animals, as Suppose a child is run over by a car almost everyone believes in karma, expressed in Langdon Smith's popular and killed. What should a reincarna- efforts to alleviate suffering are damp- ballad "Evolution" which begins: tionist pastor say to console the ened by the belief that the Untouch- "When you were a tadpole and I was a mother? Edwards imagines him saying: ables are being punished for past sins. fish, in the Paleozoic time." Another is "It all makes sense—your child As Edwards makes clear, if you truly that we lived before on other planets, deserved her fate; she sinned in a previ- think that, say, a child dying of cancer or in a densely populated "astral ous life, and in view of the severity of is suffering from sins in a former life, world" on some higher plane of reality. her suffering we may assume that her why should you try to thwart karma by The most bizarre conjecture comes sins were enormous. What is more, you easing the child's pain? Edwards from Dr. Goldberg. He solves the pop- yourself are acutely suffering and there quotes Christmas Humphreys, an attor- ulation problem by assuming that a is no doubt that you are being punished ney who founded the British Buddhist soul can occupy two or more bodies at for some serious transgression either in Society: "He who suffers suffers from the same time! this or an earlier life or both." his deliberate use of his own free will." Still another powerful argument "If I were the mother," Edwards con- We should not show sympathy for against reincarnation rests on the sud- tinues, "and a baseball bat were handy, I "cripples, dwarfs, and those born deaf den deaths of tens of thousands of per- would hit the karmic pastor over the and blind," Humphreys adds, because sons in an earthquake. A reincarnation- head and, as he screams with pain, I their afflictions "are the products of ist must believe that all the victims would say: 'You deserve your pain not
Summer 1997 59 REVIEWS because of a sin in your previous life but returned home, his wife staggered him were not needed for reincarnation because you are a monster right now."' by telling about her out-of-body trip. one might almost be tempted to give She even recalled unusual features of up the astral body. the stateroom, and the presence of a LIGHTER NOTES passenger in the upper berth. PROPONENTS AND PERSONALITIES One reason Edwards's book is such a The other case involves Dr. George It would require too much space to dis- pleasant read is that he has a sense of Ritchie, a Virginia psychiatrist. In cuss Edwards's astute comments on humor and sarcasm worthy of Voltaire 1943, when he was pronounced dead in the views of the two most noted or H. L. Mencken. I have cited some an Army hospital, his astral body philosophers who defended reincarna- instances. Here is one more. Edwards floated into heaven where he encoun- tion—McTaggart, mentioned earlier, is considering the view of many rein- tered Jesus. The Lord then took him on and the French-born American Curt carnationists that evil individuals can a tour of both hell and heaven. Ritchie John Ducasse. Among lesser believers incarnate not only as animals, but also describes the tour in dazzling detail in trounced in the book are Elizabeth as insects, plants, or even rocks and his 1988 book Return from Tomorrow. Kübler-Ross ("the most credulous per- jars. Tongue in cheek, Edwards specu- Edwards notes that, the closer one gets son who ever lived"), Stanislaw Grof Another objection to reincarnation (the second-most credulous), Annie Besant, Edgar Cayce, Henry Ford, explored by Edwards is what is known as General George Patton, Princess Diana, and such entertainers as Shirley the `population problem.' MacLaine, Loretta Lynn, and Sylvester Stallone.* "Stallone thinks he may lates on the possible former animal to the original documents of such have been a monkey in Guatemala," lives of some prominent persons: notable cases, the greater become the Edwards reports, "something I find discrepancies. This "hiatus between entirely credible." It is widely believed that the poet the original claim and the actual evi- Edith Sitwell was a flamingo in an Ian Stevenson, a psychiatrist and dence," Edwards calls the "Ritchie- earlier life and there cannot be a seri- parapsychologist at the University of Wilmot syndrome." ous doubt that Winston Churchill had Virginia, is far and away the most Astral body defenders all agree that once been a bulldog. Bull terriers, the famous living reincarnationist and the lovable little dogs whose noses look each of us has within us an exact person most tireless in seeking empiri- as though they had been bashed in, replica of our physical body, a double cal support for the doctrine. Stevenson were probably prize fighters in a pre- who occasionally roams about at will. vious life. As for Marlene Dietrich, believes almost everything on the psi Curiously, when astral bodies are seen, the general consensus now is that she scene. He thinks Chicagoan Ted Serios they are invariably clothed. Many once was an emu. There seems to be could project his thoughts onto no other way of explaining her treat- astral experts, Annie Besant for exam- Polaroid film. He believes that Pavel ment of her daughter, Maria Riva. J. ple, contend that every physical object Edgar Hoover was almost certainly a Stepanek, a resident of Prague, was a has its counterpart in the astral world. praying mantis and the same is prob- great clairvoyant until he lost his pow- ably true of Richard Nixon and his This requires, writes Edwards, ers. He has written serious papers about criminal associates who brought us how the dreams of dozens of people Watergate. that every time somebody produces something, he also produces an foretold the sinking of the Titanic. astral copy of that thing. A carpenter Edwards's attacks on Stevenson, The book's funniest chapter is about who builds a set of bookshelves is whom he believes to be "sincere but astral bodies in which Edwards covers really building two sets, the regular deluded," are impersonal but harsh and in hilarious detail two famous cases of one he sells to his customer and an unrelenting. It would be fascinating to "astral projection." A century ago S. R. astral copy he sells to nobody. And read Stevenson's review of Edwards's Wilmot, on a stormy crossing of the the same of course applies to every- thing. A dentist, for example, who book, assuming he has the courage and North Atlantic, had a vivid dream that fills a tooth is really filling the tooth chutzpah to review it. his wife's astral body had visited his he thinks he is filling as well as its stateroom. Mrs. Wilmot, then at home astral duplicate, and when I am writ- *And Norman Mailer. According to ing these lines I am really writing Time in the United States, appeared by her (September 30, 1991, page 69), he told an inter- husband's bunk, wearing a nightgown. them twice at the same time. This is viewer: "I happen to believe in it [reincarnation]. too much. I would rather believe that As he told it, "she stooped down and ... It just seems to me that if we lead our lives all astral bodies are always naked with all that goes wrong with them, and then we kissed me, and after gently caressing and that we are deluding ourselves die and that's the end of us, that doesn't make me, quietly withdrew." When he when we observe them clothed. If it much sense." ...
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biblical command pointedly forbidding The Tragic the taking in of other human tissue." Reed comments,
Consequences of Faith What of those who went blind refus- ing a cornea transplants during the thirteen-year ban? What of those Dave Mac'uniller who died refusing a kidney or other vital organ? No apologies were Blood on the Altar: Confessions of a of blood, Korinek steadfastly given to the suffering individuals Jehovah's Witness Minister, by David refused to accept a transfusion... . still alive, nor to the JW families The Mormon doctor pleaded with who lost loved ones. The prohibition A. Reed (Amherst, N.Y.: Prometheus the young man's mother to authorize on such medical procedures was qui- Books, 1996) 285 pp., $24.95 cloth. the treatment, but she replied, "I etly dropped and then no longer would rather seen my boy dead and mentioned, as if it had never been. lood on the Altar focuses on the in the grave than see him violate Jehovah's Witnesses' refusal to Jehovah God's commandment B against blood!" Korinek died shortly Since the Watchtower Society has allow blood transfusions, even in the afterward. reversed itself on transplants and vacci- face of death. Much of the rest of the nations, why not drop the ban on blood? book deals with the 117-year history of Sadder yet are the accounts of Reed speculates that it "may be a case the Witnesses and their plethora of babies and children who died because of holding a tiger by the tail: how can scandals, failed prophecies, and con- their parents felt they were doing they let go after so many have died?" tradictory biblical interpretations. Jehovah's will. In several cases, doctors As a former Witness myself, I found The Watchtower Bible and Tract were able to get a court order to force a Reed's account fascinating. He quotes Society, which governs the Witnesses, transfusion, but by then it was too late. from Society literature dating back to loosely interprets an ancient Hebrew Sometimes, medical assistance was 1877, exposing teachings that even dietary restriction as God's injunction physically prevented by large groups of modern-day followers would find against blood transfusions. Genesis Witnesses guarding the patient. (This is absurd. For example, it was asserted 9:4 says, "But flesh with the life a recent tactic of the Witnesses, to send for decades that the measurements of thereof, which is the blood thereof, a "Hospital Liaison Committee" to the Great Pyramid of Giza represented shall ye not eat." (Oddly enough, dur- watch over a dying member.) A Witness a chronology predicting Christ's return ing the 1930s and 40s the Witnesses who is married to a nonbeliever may (a theory probably stolen from the also interpreted this passage as a bibli- secretly sign over power-of-attorney to Mormons). They also claimed to know cal ban on vaccinations.) a church elder, who can then legally God's address: the star Alcyone in the Although the Society releases no order blood withheld over the objec- Pleiades cluster. official mortality data, Reed calculates tions of the patient's family. Reed also details his own conversion that between 5,000 and 12,000 The Witnesses carry their ban on and the subtle yet powerful mind-con- Witnesses die every year from refusing blood to absurd extremes. As a trol that the Society exerts. He describes transfusions. But since they die quietly, Witness, you cannot even accept your his fall from grace over "an inch of one by one, they don't make sensa- own blood if it has been removed from hair" and his wife's wearing of tional headlines like the multiple your circulation. If your cat needed a pantsuits. (The Society maintains a deaths at Waco and Jonestown. The blood transfusion and you allowed it, strictly 1950s conservative dress code.) book is peppered with news clippings you would be sinning. You also could There is a fascinating mind-control about Witnesses who died by refusing not use leeches for medical purposes, story about his encounter with a blood. For example, there's the case of since you would be feeding them your Witness canvassing at his front door Bill Korinek, injured in a car crash. blood. (Witnesses must panic at the shortly after he left the cult. She talked sight of a mosquito!) Although growing weaker from loss about Revelation and the "great crowd" In 1967, the Society also interpreted of Witnesses who would live forever on Dave Mackmiller is a software engi- Genesis 9:4 as prohibiting organ trans- Earth instead of heaven. He asked her to neer and a former Jehovah's Witness. plants. It decried transplants as "a read from Revelation 19:1. He coexists peacefully with his shortcut to cannibalistically chewing Christian wife and agnostic daughter and eating human flesh." Then in 1980, She read, "After these things I heard in Minneapolis. the Watchtower stated, "There is no what was a loud voice of a great
Summer 1997 61 REVIEWS
crowd in heaven...." Then I asked in her Bible and asked her, "But what the Bible to us." her where the verse located the great is that word there—the last word you crowd. "On earth," she replied. So I read?" "It says `heaven,"' she finally Is it any wonder that people who are had her read it again, this time inter- acknowledged, immediately adding, so tightly controlled by the Watch- rupting her after she read the words, "but the great crowd is on earth." tower Society would gladly allow "great crowd in heaven." Again I Then she explained, "You don't asked her where the verse located the understand. We have men at our themselves to die over the Society's great crowd. And again she answered, [Watchtower Society] headquarters in interpretation of some ancient Kosher "On earth." So I pointed to the verse Brooklyn, New York, who explain dietary law?
in that gritty wilderness, and all of a Humanist Poetry for the Ages sudden they're supposed to come up with two elephants. Rob Boston Or is it more? "Shem," Japheth calls. "Is the elephant New and Selected Poems, 1956-1996 contains a generous helping from that a clean or an unclean animal? by Philip Appleman (Fayetteville, slim volume. In "Gertrude," Appleman If it's clean, that means seven of Ark: University of Arkansas Press, reflects on the slow, painful death of them 1996) 264 pp., $38.00 cloth, $22.00 his mother. He writes: and the ark is in trouble. And how paper. about rhinos? And hippos? What do we do I wish all the people about the dinosaurs? How do we who peddle God he University of Arkansas Press get a brontosaurus could watch my mother die: up the gangplank?" Japheth I has done the humanist community could see the skin and loves raising problems that Noah a great service by publishing Philip gristle weighing only hasn't thought of at all. "Pandas— Appleman's New and Selected Poems, seventy-nine, every stubborn kids pound of flesh a small 1956-1996. Appleman is an avowedly love pandas, we can't let them die death. nontheistic poet who does not hesitate out, to explore humanist themes in this but how do we get two of them work. His poems are alternately touch- After two verses in a similar vein, here ing, hilarious, and angry—and they Appleman concludes: in a hurry, all the way from China? And oh, by the way, Dad, never fail to be thought-provoking. I wish I had them gathered around, how are we going to keep the lions This new volume survey's Apple- those preachers, popes, rabbis, away from the lambs?" man's distinguished 40-year career as a imams, priests—every poet. Included are some of the best pious shill on God's payroll—and I The new poems indicate that works from Appleman's six volumes would pull the sheets from my Appleman has lost none of his verve. of poetry, all of which are unfortu- mother's brittle body, One of the best is "How to Live," writ- and they would fall on their knees nately now out of print. Given the lim- at her bedside ten in the form of a first-person dia- ited market for serious poetry in the to be forgiven all their faith. tribe, which explores the tragedy of United States, humanists are advised to those who live the unexamined life. get their hands on this new book now. Other pieces criticize biblical fun- Many famous poets incorporated Appleman's 1991 collection, Let damentalism with blistering wit. Noah, religious themes into their work. T. S. There Be Light, was a humanist tour de Judas, Mary, Jesus, and other figures Eliot's later poems are loaded with force, and New and Selected Works from the Bible come forth to tell their Christian symbols and mysticism. W. stories. Appleman's "Noah" is H. Auden embraced the Church of Rob Boston is Assistant Director of described as having "all the best England. Gerard Manley Hopkins, a Communications of Americans United instincts of a minor bureaucrat." Roman Catholic priest, celebrated his for the Separation of Church and State Ordered by God to summon pairs of faith in his works. Thanks to the writ- in Washington, D.C., and the author of animals for the ark, he never blinks. ings of Philip Appleman, humanists The Most Dangerous Man in America: Writes Appleman: have the satisfaction of knowing that Pat Robertson and the Rise of the posterity will know a great humanist Christian Coalition. Think of it—they're living out there poet as well.
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At other times the Preacher with No Imaginative Atheism Name sounds like a teacher urging his students to greater intellectual respon- Finngeir Hiorth sibility:
The Big Domino in the Sky and Other monomaniacal way. Sometimes one You must have the courage not to Atheistic Tales, by Michael Martin even gets the impression that many believe in things for which you have (Amherst, N.Y.: Prometheus Books, atheistic authors are fanatics with a no evidence! Base your belief on the 1996) 244 pp., $16.95 paper. total lack of humor, in this way sus- facts! Reject authority! Think for taining widespread prejudices against yourself! There is nothing so sad as a human being whose life is based ith his massive book Atheism, a atheists. on unsupported beliefs! If an exami- WPhilosophical Justification None of this applies to Martin, quite nation of the evidence shows that (Temple University Press, 1990) on the contrary. He has a very sensitive there is no reason to believe in God, Michael Martin established himself as style and a rich imagination. The sto- then you must not believe. This will a leading theorist of atheism in the ries carry us from the eighteenth to the be hard. You will be going against the tradition in which you were United States, and, in fact, the whole twenty-second centuries (!) with many raised. You will be rebuked by your world. Martin's book on atheism was interesting and intelligent characters, family and friends. More impor- followed by his The Case Against both on the side of the religious believ- tantly you will have no psychologi- Christianity (Temple University Press, ers, but even more, as one might expect cal crutch! You will have no one to 1991) which established Martin as a from a prominent atheist, on the side of pray to! You will be on your own! Have courage! leading critic of this religion. Martin's the nonbelievers. Martin has perhaps a critique of Christianity is very thor- tendency to depict the religious believ- ough and perhaps unique in its concen- ers as somewhat naïve, but it is, of The Preacher with No Name some- tration on major Christian creeds. course, a fact that many religious times sounds like Nietzsche with his His latest effort, The Big Domino in believers are naïve. But even the message of the death of God. But the the Sky, presents the case for atheism in learned believers, of course, are losers Preacher with No Name in his argu- the context of a number of stories. The in their battles with intelligent atheists. ments is a much more systematic but book, therefore, is a mixture of of phi- A recurring figure in Martin's book also a less poetic person than losophy and fiction. Much philosophy is the Preacher with No Name who c. Nietzsche. Sometimes the Preacher is, of course, a kind of fiction, so the 2130 starts an atheistic movement on with No Name sounds like Jesus or extension of philosophical arguments the planet Epsilon III in the Argon sys- Buddha. He delivers a Sermon on the to more common kinds of fiction is tem. This movement spreads to mining Hill and a Sermon by the Sea. But his quite natural. But it does not happen planets in the system and gains a fol- message is, of course, very different often that authors of fiction are as qual- lowing of approximately 30 million, from that of Buddha and even more ified in philosophy as Professor Martin. until is ruthlessly suppressed during different from that of Jesus. It has been Martin's intention to the Revolt Against Skepticism c. 2150. People who have read Martin's present the case for atheism in an The Preacher with No Name teaches books on atheism and Christianity, enjoyable way. I think Martin has suc- four doctrines of nonbelief: God-Fall, will, of course, recognize many of ceeded in his plan. Many of the stories God-Doubt, God-Rejection, and the Martin's arguments. Here they occur in that he has included in this book are goal of God-Free. simplified and abbreviated versions. very entertaining, which there is a Sometimes the message of the The book can be read as an introduc- great need for. Often atheistic authors Preacher with No Name is couched in tion to atheism, and specifically to appear dogmatic and insensitive. They poetic language: Martin's kind of atheism. The enter- attack religions, and in particular taining, sometimes even fascinating Christianity, in a heavy-handed and Like the wind out of the west stories, ensures that the book has the come I potential of reaching a wide public. Finngeir Hiorth is the author of Sweep before me the dust from The stories are never superficial and in Introduction to Atheism (1995) and the sky. a number of cases are quite profound. No trumpets blowing, only truth Introduction to Humanism (1996), both recall, Let us hope for the sake of positive published by the Indian Secular Society. And from Heaven and Hell God atheism that Martin's book will be His Atheism in India is forthcoming. will fall. widely read. FI
Summer 1997 63 LETTERS
(Letters, Cont'd. from p. 9) following brief sentiments, which I had Paul Kurtz replies: obviously erroneously, assumed to be follow one? understood: of course I would not There is absolutely no truth to Dr. If one holds atomic scientists to be assert that another culture's contrary Platow's statement that FREE INQUIRY morally accountable for the atomic concepts of "reality" nullify—or even has become "an apologia for the bru- bomb, then we must hold anthropolo- have equal validity with—anything tal and excessive behavior of the gists to account for the dubious ethical shown to be real by the principles of German people during World War II." uses to which their moral relativism the scientific method. And, as I stated Do you not mean Germany and its are put. Then, even disregarding the in the conclusion to my article, there government? Surely you cannot indict moral imperatives on the scientists' certainly are culturally universal all of the German people for what the part, the general public and leaders in moral standards. As I assert to all stu- Nazis did. We are bitterly opposed to particular must certainly be held dents, you are not expected to accept the terrible evils of the Third Reich responsible for the ethical use of both another's concept of reality; you don't from 1933-45 and in no way do we or atomic and anthropologic knowledge. even have to like it. But you absolutely I condone it. The Holocaust was an must understand it; and it may be very, infamous crime that we view with dis- Charles Kluepfel very wrong, and even potentially harm- gust. Bloomfield, N.J. ful to the basic expectations of human dignity to which all humanists aspire, to judge and condemn others' world- Mario Bunge Replies I would not have expected FREE views from the tenets of our own. INQUIRY to provide a forum for Philip The doctrine of cultural relativism is to His Critics Stevens's anti-scientific relativism. By absolutely central to cultural anthropol- Dennis J. Delprato and Noel W. Smith characterizing mythologies that differ ogy, and it has been for many decades. (Letters to the Editor, FI, Spring from culture to culture as "reality" he And, of course, anthropologists think it 1997) have attacked my piece "The seems to give them the same status as ought to guide the judgment of any oth- Pope, Evolution, and the Soul" (FI, the hard facts of our existence. This ers whose interests take them into belief Winter 1996/97). Mr. Delprato would imply, for example, that, in con- systems that differ from their own. accuses me of advancing the "anti- sidering the various aspects of the cul- humanistic brain dogma," whereas ture brought to them by the Professor Smith dismisses what he Conquistadors, the Aztecs would have The Legacy of calls my "mentalism." Both critics found it just as easy to doubt the real- challenge the thesis that mental ity of horses, firearms, and smallpox as World War II processes are neurophysiological that of demons, angels, and the Trinity. The last two words of Edmund processes. But neither even mentions Stevens similarly attaches no impor- Cohen's article in the Spring 1997 neuropsychology (or psychobiology, tance to the reliable, accurate, and pre- issue of FREE INQUIRY ("National biopsychology, or physiological psy- cise prediction of hard facts when he Character, Collective Guilt, and chology). This approach to the age- dismisses science as just another cul- Original Sin—the Goldhagen Con- old mind-body problem rests on the tural construct, thus giving it the same troversy") were "how sad." They were psychoneural identity thesis, and it is status as witchcraft. Blurring the dis- the only words in the entire article with currently garnering one triumph after tinction between private experiences which I found myself in agreement. another. This can be seen by anyone within our minds and shared experi- How sad that the editors of FREE willing to consult the general science ences in an objective, external universe INQUIRY, a journal given to objective journals Science and Nature, or any of may be a reality in his culture, but it is and fair-minded publication, could not such specialized journals as J. not in mine nor, I would hope, in that find a single offsetting article sup- Cognitive Neuroscience, Cognitive of most anthropologists. portive of Professor Goldhagen's posi- Neuropsychology, Physiological Psy- tion. How sad that in its action FREE chology, or Psychobiology. John G. Fletcher INQUIRY became, for all intents and Both critics adopt psychoneural Livermore, Calif. purposes, an apologia for the brutal dualism, Delprato explicitly, and and excessive behavior of the German Smith tacitly. Neither of them realizes Phillips Stevens replies: people during World War II. that dualism is nothing but the secular translation of the religious dogma that I ask these concerned writers to refer Joseph A. Platow, Ph.d. the mental is immaterial and inde- to my article again, prepared with the Fullerton, Calif. structible. FI
64 FREE INQUIRY Margaret Downey is founder and HUMANISM AT LARGE President of the Freethought Society of Greater Philadelphia, the Anti- Discrimination Support Network, and the Thomas Paine Pennsylvania Memorial Committee. Downey com- A Celebration of Freethought mented, "The future of freethought is dependent on the abilities of our suc- incinnati's Oktoberfest is a high launched on "International Humanist cessors. We need to nurture, encour- Cpoint of the local cultural calendar. Day," June 21. A press conference and age, and assist those willing to carry on The traditional German festival is a banquet in London—at which Paul our legacy and battles. The mentoring secular celebration of art, culture, and Kurtz, FREE INQUIRY'S Editor-in- program will enable us to pass our wis- cuisine. Tens of thousands of people Chief, will give the keynote address— dom and experience to willing pro- enjoy its plays, art shows, concerts, and will be followed by a three-day confer- tégés. I am looking forward to provid- food and beer tastings. This year, ence at the Centre for Inquiry at ing future activists with contacts who Cincinnati's festival-goers will also be Westminster College, Oxford. The will provide guidance and much able to enjoy "A Celebration of conference is sponsored by the Council needed information. Together, mentors Freethought"—a national conference for Secular Humanism, publisher of and protégés will maintain the wall of organized by FREE INQUIRY magazine FREE INQUIRY magazine. church-state separation, promote free- over Oktoberfest weekend. The IHEU is the international dom of thought, freedom of choice, A Celebration of Freethought, orga- umbrella group for humanist and and freedom from religious intrusion." nized in cooperation with the Free freethought groups. Founded in 1952, Inquiry Group of Cincinnati, will be IHEU now has over 100 member orga- held September 20 and 21 (yes, nizations from 35 countries. It has offi- Center for Inquiry Oktoberfest does take place in Septem- cial consultative status at the United ber!) and will bring together most of Nations, UNESCO, UNICEF, and in Russia America's leading experts on the past, other international forums. An international conference in late present, and future of freethought. (See September will launch the new Center page 48 for conference details and reg- for Inquiry—Moscow. The conference, istration form.) New Director of entitled "Science and Common Sense in On Saturday night a banquet will cel- Mentor Program Reforming Russia," will be held from ebrate the 950th anniversary of the birth September 29 to October 4. Jointly of one of the outstanding figures of Freethought activist Margaret Downey sponsored by the International Acad- world culture: Omar Khayyám. The has been appointed the first Director of emy of Humanism, the Russian Persian freethinker has the unusual dis- the Secular Humanist Mentor Program. Humanist Society, and the Philosophy tinction of being both one of the most The Mentor Program aims to provide Department of Moscow State Uni- important mathematicians and scientists support, training, and networking for versity, the conference will address such of his era and also a great poet. The ban- humanist activists. issues as "The Human Face of Science," quet will include readings from the "Mass Media and Misinformation," and Rubaiyát of Omar Khayyám. On Sun- "The Revival of Irrationalism and day afternoon there will be a visit to the Mysticism in Russia." Paul Kurtz, FREE grave of Frances Wright, a leading nine- INQUIRY Editor-in-Chief, will be a teenth-century freethinker and feminist. keynote speaker. All FREE INQUIRY readers are The Center for Inquiry—Moscow, at invited to join A Celebration of Free- Moscow State University, is jointly thought and to sample the delights of sponsored by the Council for Secular Oktoberfest. Humanism and the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal (CSICOP.) It is the sec- International ond Center for Inquiry to be estab- Humanists Launch lished outside of the United States, fol- lowing the Centre for Inquiry: Critical New HQ in Britain Studies in Society, Religion, and The new London headquarters of the Ethics at Oxford, England. International Humanist and Ethical Union (IHEU) will be officially Margaret Downey: Nurturing the legacy —Matt Cherry
Summer 1997 65 The International Academy of Humanism The International Academy of Humanism was established to recognize distinguished humanists and to disseminate humanistic ideals and beliefs. The members of the Academy, listed below, are nontheists who (1) are devoted to free inquiry in all fields of human endeavor, (2) are committed to a sci- entific outlook and the use of the scientific method in acquiring knowledge, and (3) uphold humanist ethical values and principles. The Academy's goals include furthering respect for human rights, freedom, and the dignity of the individual; tolerance of various viewpoints and willingness to compromise; commitment to social justice; a universalistic perspective that transcends national, ethnic, religious, sexual, and racial barriers; and belief in a free and open pluralistic and democratic society. Humanist Laureates: Pieter Admiraal, medical doctor, The Netherlands; Steve Allen, author, humorist; Shulamit Aloni, Education Minister, Israel; Ruben Ardila, psychologist, National University of Colombia, Colombia; Kurt Baier, professor of philosophy, Univ. of Pittsburgh; Sir Isaiah Berlin, professor emeritus of philosophy, Oxford Univ., U.K.; Sir Hermann Bondi, Fellow of the Royal Society, Past Master, Churchill College, Cambridge Univ., U.K.; Yelena Bonner, human rights defender, Commonwealth of Independent States; Mario Bunge, professor of philosophy of science, McGill Univ., Canada; Jean-Pierre Changeux, Collège de France and Institut Pasteur; Patricia Smith Churchland, professor of philosophy, Univ. of California at San Diego; Arthur C. Clarke, novelist, Sri Lanka; Bernard Crick, professor emeritus of politics, Birkbeck College, Univ. of London, U.K; Francis Crick, Nobel Laureate in Physiology, Salk Inst.; Richard Dawkins, Charles Simionyi Professor of Public Understanding of Science, 0xford University, U.K.; José Delgado, director, Centro de Estudios Neurobiologicos, Spain; Jean Dommanget, Royal Observatory, Belgium; Umberto Eco, educator and author, Italy; Paul Edwards, professor of philosophy, New School for Social Research; Luc Ferry, professor of philosophy, Sorbonne and Univ. of Caen, France; Sir Raymond Firth, professor emeritus of anthropology, Univ. of London, U.K.; Betty Friedan, author and founder of the National 0rganization for Women (NOW); Yves Galifret, professor of physiology at the Sorbonne and director of l'Union Rationaliste, France; Johan Galtung, professor of sociology, Univ. of Oslo, Norway; Stephen Jay Gould, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard Univ.; Adolf Grünbaum, professor of philosophy, Univ. of Pittsburgh; Murray Gell-Mann, Nobel Laureate in Physics, California Institute of Technology; Jurgen Habermas, professor of philosophy, University of Frankfurt, Germany; Herbert Hauptman, Nobel Laureate and professor of biophysical science, SUNY at Buffalo; Donald Johanson, Inst. of Human Origins; Alberto Hidalgo Tuñón, president, Sociedad Asturiana de Filosofía, Oviedo, Spain; Sergei Kapitza, chair, Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Russia; George Klein, cancer researcher, Sweden; Gyorgy Konrad, novelist, Hungary; Thelma Z. Lavine, professor of phi- losophy, George Mason Univ.; Jolé Lombardi, organizer of the New Univ. for the Third Age; José Leite Lopes, director, Centro Brasiliero de Pesquisas Fisicas, Brazil; Paul MacCready, chairman, AeroVironment, Inc.; Adam Michnik, historian and writer, Poland; Jonathan Miller, author, director, U.K.; Taslima Nasrin, author, physician, social critic, Bangladesh; Conor Cruise O'Brien, author, statesman, Ireland; Indumati Parilth, reformer and activist, India; John Passmore, professor of philosophy, Australian National Univ., Australia; Octavio Paz, Nobel Laureate in Literature, Mexico; Wardell Baxter Pomeroy, psychotherapist and author; W. V. Quine, professor emeritus of philosophy, Harvard Univ.; Marcel Roche, permanent delegate to UNESCO, Venezuela; Max Rood, professor of law and former Minister of Justice, The Netherlands; Richard Rorty, professor of philosophy, University of Virginia; Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., historian; Leopold Sedar Senghor, former president, Senegal; J. J. C. Smart, professor of philosophy, University of Adelaide, Australia; Wole Soyinka, Nobel Laureate in Literature, Nigeria; Svetozar Stojanovic, professor of philosophy, Univ. of Belgrade; Thomas Szasz, professor of psychiatry, SUNY Medical School; V. M. Tarkunde, reformer and activist, India; Richard Taylor, professor emeritus of philosophy, Univ. of Rochester; Sir Keith Thomas, president, The British Academy, U.K.; Rob Tielman, copresident, International Humanist and Ethical Union; Peter Ustinov, actor and director; Mario Vargas Llosa, novelist, Peru; Simone Veil, former president, European Parliament, France; Gore Vidal, nov- elist; Kurt Vonnegut, Jr., novelist; Mourad Wahba, professor of education, University of Ain Shams, Egypt; Steven Weinberg, Nobel Laureate in Physics; G. A. Wells, professor of German, Univ. of London, U.K.; Edward O. Wilson, professor emeritus of sociobiology, Harvard, Univ. Deceased: George O. Abell, Isaac Asimov, Sir Alfred J. Ayer, Dame R. Nita Barrow, Brand Blanshard, Milovan Djilas, Bonnie Bullough, Joseph Fletcher, Sidney Hook, Lawrence Kohlberg, Franco Lombardi, André Lwoff, Ernest Nagel, George Olincy, Chaim Perelman, Sir Karl Popper, Carl Sagan, Andrei Sakharov, Lady Barbara Wootton. Secretariat: Vern Bullough, visiting professor of nursing, California State Univ., Northridge, U.S.A.; Antony Flew, professor emeritus of philosophy, Reading Univ.; Paul Kurtz, professor emeritus of philosophy, SUNY at Buffalo editor of FREE INQUIRY; Gerald Larue, professor emeritus of archae- ology and biblical studies, Univ. of Southern California at Los Angeles; Jean-Claude Pecker, professor emeritus of astrophysics, Collège de France, Academy of Sciences. President: Paul Kurtz, professor emeritus of philosophy, State University of New York at Buffalo.
6/97 Il YES, I wish to become an Associate Member of the Council for Secular. Humanism Become a Council Associate Member today. Associate Members will receive (exclusively) the Secular Humanist Bulletin (the membership newsletter) and a 10% discount on registration fees for conferences and seminars, audiotapes and video- tapes, and a select list of books. Enclosed are my dues for: ❑Annual single membership, $18 ❑Annual family membership, $29 ❑Two-year single membership, $33 ❑.Two-year family membership, $49 ❑Three-year single membership, $45 ❑Three-year family membership, $72
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66 FREE INQUIRY - American community. countries, and assists them in spreading the human- ist point of view. Center Center for Inquiry Libraries Timothy Binga, Librarian Robert G. Ingersoll Collects works on secular humanism, freethought, Memorial Committee and philosophical naturalism. COUNCIL FOR il[CULAR NUMANI/M Roger Greeley, Honorary Chairman Committee for the Scientific Dedicated to running the Robert G. Ingersoll birth- The Center for Inquiry is adjacent to the State Examination of Religion (CSER) place museum in Dresden, N.Y., and to keeping University of New York Amherst campus. It also has Ingersoll's memory alive. Gerald A. Larue, President affiliated centers in Boulder, CO; Kansas City, MO; Los Angeles, CA; Moscow, Russia; and Oxford Hector Avalos, Executive Director James Madison Memorial University. It includes: Examines the claims of Eastern and Western religions Committee and of well-established and newer sects and denomi- Council for Secular Humanism nations in the light of scientific inquiry. The commit- Robert Alley, Chairman Paul Kurtz, Chairman; Timothy J. Madigan, tee is interdisciplinary, including specialists in biblical Keeps alive James Madison's commitment to the Chief Operating Officer; Matt Cherry, scholarship, archaeology, linguistics, anthropology, First Amendment and to liberty of thought and con- Executive Director the social sciences, and philosophy who represent dif- science. The Council for Secular Humanism is a not-for- fering secular and religious traditions. Secular Organizations for profit, tax-exempt educational organization dedi- Inquiry Media Productions cated to fostering the growth of the traditions of Sobriety (SOS) Thomas Flynn, Executive Director democracy and secular humanism and the principles James Christopher, Executive Director of free inquiry in contemporary society. In addition Produces radio and television programs presenting A secular alternative to Alcoholics Anonymous with to publishing FREE INQUIRY magazine, the Council skeptical and secular humanist viewpoints on a vari- more than 1,000 local groups throughout North sponsors many organizations and activities. It is also ety of topics. America. Publishes a newsletter available by sub- open to Associate Membership. Associate Members scription. receive the Secular Humanist Bulletin. Center for Inquiry Institute Vern Bullough, Dean Secular Humanist Aid and The Internl. Academy of Humanism Offers courses in humanism and skepticism; spon- Paul Kurtz, President sors a three-year certificate program and periodic Relief Effort (SHARE) The Academy of Humanism was established to workshops. Assists victims of natural disasters through secular recognize distinguished humanists and to dissemi- efforts. nate humanistic ideals and beliefs. International Secretariat for Growth and Development Campus Freethought Alliance African Americans for Humanism Matt Cherry, Executive Director Derek Araujo, Harvard University, President Norm Allen, Jr., Executive Director Works closely with individuals and groups in vari- Promotes humanist chapters on college campuses Brings the ideals of humanism to the African- .as parts of the world, especially in developing throughout the United States.
Alliance of Secular Humanist Dr., N. Palm Beach, FL 33408 (561) 626-6556; ists, PO Box 664, Amherst, NY 14226 (716) 636- Humanist Association of St. Petersburg, PO Box 7571; Capital District Humanist Society, PO Box 8099, Madeira Beach, FL 33738 (813) 399-9322; 2148, Scotia, NY 12302 (518) 381-6239; Secular H. James Birx, Executive Director Free Inquiry Society of Central Florida, PO Box Humanist Society of New York, PO Box 7661, The Alliance of Secular Humanist Societies is a 196481, Orlando, FL 32791 (407) 424-9076 New York, NY 10150 (212) 861-6003 network created for mutual support among local GEORGIA: Atlanta Freethought Society, PO Box NEVADA: Secular Humanist Society of Las Vegas, and/or regional societies of secular humanists. If 813392, Smyrna, GA 30081-3392 (770) 641-2903 240 N. Jones Blvd, Suite 106, Las Vegas, NV you are interested in starting or joining a group in HAWAII: Hawaii Rationalists, 508 Pepeekeo Pl., 89107 (702) 594-1125 your area, please contact PO 664, Amherst, NY Honolulu, HI 96822 (808) 235-0206 OHIO: Free Inquirers of Northeast Ohio, PO Box 14226-0664, (716) 636-7571, FAX (716) 636- ILLINOIS: Peoria Secular Humanists, PO Box 994, 2379, Akron, OH 44309-2379 (216) 869-2025; 1733. Normal, IL 61761 (309) 452-8907; Free Inquiry Free Inquiry Group, Inc., PO Box 8128 Network, PO Box 2668, Glen Ellyn, IL 60138 Cincinnati, OH 45208 (513) 557-3836 ARIZONA: Arizona Secular Humanists, PO Box (630) 469-1111 OREGON: Corvallis Secular Society, 126 N.W. 3738, Scottsdale, AZ 85271 (602) 230-5328 KENTUCKY: Louisville Association of Secular 21st St., Corvallis, OR 97330 (541) 754-2557 ARKANSAS: Arkansas Society of Freethinkers, Humanists, PO Box 91453, Louisville, KY 40291 Humanist Association of Salem, PO Box 4153, 1700 W. Dixon Road, Little Rock, AR 72206 (502) 491-6693 Salem OR 97302 (503) 371-1255 (501) 888-9333 LOUISIANA: Shreveport Humanists, 9476 Box- PENNSYLVANIA: Pittsburgh Secular Humanists, CALIFORNIA: Secular Humanists of the East Bay, wood Dr., Shreveport, LA 71118-4003 (318) 687- 405 Nike Dr., Pittsburgh, PA 15235 (412) 823-3629 PO Box 5313, Berkeley, CA 94705 (415) 486- 8175 SOUTH CAROLINA: Secular Humanists of the 0553; Secular Humanists of Los Angeles, PO Box MARYLAND: Baltimore Secular Humanists, PO Low Country, PO Box 32256, Charleston, SC 661496, Los Angeles, CA 90066 (310) 305-8135; Box 24115, Baltimore, MI) 21227-0615 (410) 29417 (864) 577-0637, Secular Humanists of Atheists and Other Freethinkers, PO Box 15182, 467-3225 Greenville, Suite 168, PO Box 3000, Taylors, SC Sacramento, CA 95851-0182 (916) 920-7834; MICHIGAN: Secular Humanists of Detroit, PO 29687 (803) 244-3708 San Diego Association of Secular Humanists, PO Box 432191, Pontiac, MI 48343-2191 (313) 962- TEXAS: Agnostic and Atheist Student Group, M.S., 927365 San Diego, CA 92122 (619) 272-7719; 1777 4237 Philosophy, Texas A & M Univ., College Humanist Community of San Francisco, PO Box MINNESOTA: Minnesota Atheists, PO Box 6261 Station, TX 77843; Secular Humanist Association 31172 San Francisco, CA 94131 (415) 342-0910; Minneapolis, MN 55406 (612) 484-9277; Uni- of San Antonio, PO Box 160881, San Antonio, Secular Humanists of Marin County, PO Box versity of Minnesota Atheists and Unbelievers, TX 78280 (512) 696-8537 6022, San Rafael, CA 94903 (415) 892-5243; 300 Washington Ave. SE, Minneapolis, MN VIRGINIA: Central Virginia Secular Humanists, Santa Barbara Humanist Society, PO Box 30804, 55455 (612) 731-1543 PO Box 184, Ivy, VA 22945 (804) 979-2508; Santa Barbara, CA 93130 (805) 682-6606; MISSOURI: Kansas City Eupraxophy Center, 6301 North Virginia Secular Humanists, PO Box 725, Siskiyou Humanists, PO Box 223, Weed, CA Rockhill Rd., Kansas City, MO 64124 (816) 822- Lorton, VA 22199 (703) 971-0971; Frederick 96091 (916) 938-2938 9840; Rationalist Society of St. Louis, PO Box Secular Humanists, PO Box 217, Lovettsville, VA CONNECTICUT: Northeast Atheist Association, 2931, St. Louis, MO 63130 (314) 772-5131 20180, (301) 698-0671 PO Box 63, Simsbury, CT 06070 NEW HAMPSHIRE: Secular Humanists of WASHINGTON, DC: Washington Area Secular FLORIDA: Secular Humanists of South Florida, Merrimack Valley, PO Box 368, Londonderry, Humanists, PO Box 15319, Washington, D.C. 1951 NW 98 Ave., Sunrise, FL 33322 (954) 741- NH 03053 (603) 434-4195 20003 (202) 298-0921 6532; Atheists of Florida, Inc., PO Box 530102, NEW JERSEY: New Jersey Humanist Network, PO WISCONSIN: Milwaukee Freethought Society, Miami, FL 33153-0102 (305) 936-0210; Box 51, Washington, NJ 07882 (908) 689-2813 10975 N. Oriole Lane, Mequon, WI 53092 (414) Humanists of The Palm Beaches, 860 Lakeside NEW YORK: Western New York Secular Human- 242-0788.
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