Efforts to Overcome the Problems of Food Demand in South Sulawesi in the Guided Democracy Period (1959–1965)

Efforts to overcome the problems of food demand in South Sulawesi in the Guided Democracy period (1959–1965)

A.A.A. Mulya & M. Iskandar Department of History, Faculty of Humanities, Universitas Indonesia, Depok, Indonesia

ABSTRACT: Indonesia is no different from other developing countries of the world when it comes to facing problems related to meeting food demands of the people. Unfortunately, in South Sulawesi, strategies to overcome food demand, especially demand for rice, resulted in not only increased rice production but also increased smuggling activities by the emergence of separatist movements of Darul Islam/Tentara Islam Indonesia (DI/TII) Kahar Muzakkar. The aim of this study is to reconstruct the efforts made by the government in the Guided Democracy period in South Sulawesi to overcome the problems. It is crucial to explain the efforts made by the current government as well as the challenges faced by during 1959–1965. Both qualitative and quantitative data are presented in this study. Methods used in this study were heuristic, critics, interpretation, and historiography.

1 INTRODUCTION

Rice has long been the staple food of Indonesians. According to some experts, Indonesians have known rice since 1000 BC (Khudori, 2008). However, the exact period of its emergence as staple food remains unknown. Nevertheless, it is hypothesized that rice production has been widely practiced since the 8th century in Java. Studies about rice are interesting to be investigated, especially those with regard to its role among the people of South Sulawesi. At present, when we talk about the Bugis-Makassar tribe that resides in the south peninsula of Sulawesi, their maritime aspect attracts our atten- tion. This is true because people of the tribe are widely known as great seamen. Nonetheless, this tribe should also be recognized for their agricultural practices. Cristian Pelras, in his book Manusia Bugis (The Bugis People) stated that the Bugis-Makassar tribe had been known for their agricultural practices long before they were known for their maritime activities. This is evident in their customs, such as Mappadendang, in which the members celebrated their successful rice harvests by organizing parties. Furthermore, the book Mattulada, Lingkungan Hidup Manusia (Human Environment) mentions one of the three main aspects of the great kingdoms of Bone, Luwu, and Makassar in the South Sulawesi peninsula and their vast and wide agriculture land (padangmaloang). This shows that agriculture played an important role in the past glory. Unfortunately, studies about food demands, particularly of rice, in South Sulawesi, are scarce, as most of them address problems related to rice in Java or in Indonesia in general. Therefore, the aim of this study is to review the problems of food demand, particularly of rice, in South Sulawesi in the Guided Democracy period (1959–1965). Several prominent problems in this period were the increase of price, pest attacks that obstructed rice production, and peace intrusion by Darul Islam/Tentara Islam Indonesia (hereinafter abbreviated as DI/TII).

755 1.1 Background of the study South Sulawesi1 is one of the main rice producers in Indonesia, apart from Java. Production areas include Pinrang, Sidenreng Rapang (Sidrap), and Bone Regencies. South Sulawesi receives regular interchanging annual rainfall, which is advantageous for agricultural practices, especially the production of rice. In Sulawesi, the agriculture sector is divided into two groups, namely foodstuff and plantation sectors. The foodstuff sector includes rice, corn, yam, and bean cultivation. The varieties of rice cultivated in South Sulawesi are rice paddy (Oryza sativa), gadu paddy, and gogo paddy. Meanwhile, the plantation sector includes coffee, chocolate, and coconut production. Rice, on the one hand, holds an important position in the Bugis-Makassar culture. This is evident in a widely known cultural tradition called Mappadendang, in which the society celebrates successful rice harvests to show gratitude to God. The name Mappadendang is derived from the practice of singing (dendang) traditional songs by the women during rice pounding. Because this tradition is considered very sacred, the women usually wear bajubo- do.2 The women of the Bugis-Makassar tribe wear traditional clothes, whereas the men wear a coiled headband, black clothes, as well as black sarong around their bodies. Meanwhile, covering approximately 20% of the province’s total area, paddy fields are considered one of the largest contributors in the island of Sulawesi (Southeast Sulawesi and North Sulawesi). This is also evident since South Sulawesi has become a rice producer in Indonesia, particularly in Pinrang, Sidrap, and Bone regencies. The rice cultivation areas are supported by four distinct irrigation systems, namely technical irrigation, half-technical irrigation, village irrigation, and rain-fed irrigation, of which the village irrigation system is mostly used by the farmers in South Sulawesi. Meanwhile, Sidrap and Pinrang regencies, whose cultivation areas are the largest, used the technical irrigation system. These activities are supported by the construction of dam Bendungan Benteng, which has been active since the period of Dutch colonialism in Indonesia. The spacious cultivation area of South Sulawesi is proportionally in line with its number of farmers. It is presumed that, 60% of South Sulawesi population were farmers in 1906, which increased to approximately 71% in 1930. Furthermore, there was no sign of job switch for the past 20 years in the South Sulawesi society (Harvey 1989).3 The farmer society in South Sulawesi, especially the Bugis-Makassar tribe, is divided into three structural levels, namely kings and royal families (bangsawan), liberate people (to maradeka), and servants (ata’) (Abdullah, 1985).4 In general, noblemen own the cultivated lands and employ the liberate people or servants to manage their lands. Before Indonesia’s independence, these workers were only given food and drinks as payment for their labor. This is seen as a special tribute for the landowners because of their high societal status. In addition, the landowners managed an authority to solve problems related to the workers within the society. The agrarian law in Indonesia during the period of 1959–1965 was closely related to the condition in Indonesia that put the Guided Democracy into practice. This was first marked by President Soekarno’s decree on 5 July 1959, according to which all government policies were sourced from the president. The policies applied to all sectors, including the agrarian affairs. One of the agrarian policies applied in this period was the Basis Agrarian Law (also referred to as UUPA) number 5 of 1960. This policy was founded on the basis of the spirit of anti-colonialism and feudalism as mentioned by the then Agrarian Minister Mr Sadjarwo that “the struggle to reform our agrarian laws is firmly connected with Indonesian history of struggle to be free from the grasps, influences, and other remnants of invasion,

1. In the beginning of its establishment in 1960, Southeast Sulawesi Province was combined with the South Sulawesi Province. The area was then called as Level I Area of South-Southeast Sulawesi. In 1964, the province was divided into Level I of Region Province into South Sulawesi. 2. The traditional clothes of Bugis-Makassar women. 3. Harvey, B. Pemberontakan Kahar Muzakkar; dari Tradisi ke DI/TII, p. 59. 4. Abdullah, H., Manusia Bugis Makassar, Inti Idayu Press. 1985. p. 109.

756 particularly the struggles of peasant society to free themselves from the feudal systems of land and exploitation of foreign capital” (Wibowo, 2009).

1.2 The condition of South Sulawesi’s agriculture in the beginning of the Guided Democracy period During the early periods of implementing the newly practiced policy, Indonesia experienced higher rainfalls (in 1960) compared to the previous years. This condition lasted throughout the year, which then contributed to the increase of harvests in South Sulawesi. In Pinrang regency (Level II Region),5 the rainfall recorded was 2,086 mm with an average of 115 rainy days annually. In addition, 41,856 Ha of total cultivated paddy fields was verified in the regency, larger than that in the previous year (32,542 Ha). An increase in land utilization for paddy cultivation of 9,314 Ha is evident from these data.6 Out of the total 41,856 Ha of the land, 20,000 Ha was irrigated using the technical irrigation system, 3,700 Ha used the half- technical irrigation system, 13,400 Ha used the traditional irrigation system, and the remain- ing 4,756 Ha depended on rainfall for its irrigation.7 Different types of rice were cultivated in these areas. The farmers in Pinrang regency planted three varieties of rice, including rice paddy (Oryza sativa), gadu paddy, and gogo paddy. However, the most common species was rice paddy, which occupied 39,574 Ha of the land. Rice production from such large areas reached 49,467 tons, which rapidly increased in 1959 to 48,993 tons from just 32,981 Ha of cultivated lands. On the contrary, gadu paddy and gogo paddy were produced on 5,519 and 665 Ha of cultivated lands, achieving harvests as much as 7,392 and 399 tons, respectively. In line with the increase of the areas of cultivated lands, the gadu paddy harvest also increased by 1,693 tons from the previous year, while gogo paddy did not experience such increase. In regions of Bone regency, the data of the rainfalls in 1960–1961 from the Department of Agriculture in Bone show that the rainfall distribution in the first three months of 1961 was identical to that of the last three months in 1960. This high rainfall facilitated rice cultivation. However, there was minor land damage due to flash floods that flooded as much as 16 Ha8 in the first three months of 1961. In Bone regency, gadu paddy cultivation also developed in terms of land occupied. This is apparent from the data obtained from the first three months of 1961, according to which 3,010 Ha of land was used to produce this rice variety, slightly larger than that in 1960 (2,292 Ha). On the contrary, land occupied by gogo paddy fields decreased. In the first three months of 1960, it was 2,180 Ha, which decreased to 1,729 Ha in the same period of 1961, a decline of 460 Ha. The total volume of rice harvested throughout the South Sulawesi region in 1960 was 515,000 tons with 435,000 Ha of cultivated lands. The increase of land use for cultivation is believed to be due to the increasing demands of food in Indonesia, particularly in Java (Mubyarto, 1989),9 which continuous increase of population. On the contrary, the population of South Sulawesi did not grow as rapidly as that of Java. Essentially, according to the 1961 data, the food demand of Indonesia was 90 kg/year. This high demand urged the government to maximize cultivation lands outside Java.

1.3 Problems of food demand in South Sulawesi in the Guided Democracy period Despite satisfactory outcomes in the agriculture sector in South Sulawesi, particularly its rice production, efforts were not easy. Data from 1960–1961 show increase of rice production;

5. Level II Region is equal to Regency/City. Maschab, M. Politik Pemerintahan Desa di Indonesia, p. 99. 6. The Yearly Report of Level II Region Department of Agriculture of Pinrang in 1961. 7. Opcit. 8. Archives of Department of Agriculture of Bone in 1961. 9. Annual increase of agricultural production in Java was only 2.9%. Mubyarto, Pengantar Ekonomi Pertanian., p. 31.

757 however, in 1962, pest attack was a major threat to paddy fields. The pest is called sundep10 (a type of caterpillar that eats young leaves of paddy plants) in the district of Sidenreng Rap- pang (Sidrap). Meanwhile, the separatist movement of DI/TII also caused other problems in South Sulawesi regions. Besides, high prices of all staple commodities, especially rice, became a hurdle to agriculture in South Sulawesi. Data obtained from Marhaen’s daily report on 14 January 1960 show that there was about 30% increase in the cost of rice, from Rp 3.5 to Rp 5 per kilogram. (Marhaen Daily, 1960)11 The data also included an interview with the head of Indonesian Rice Mill and Traders Society (IPPBI) of Makassar, Mr M. Daud Latif, according to whom, this increased price of rice was due to the absence of licensed rice distributors among the farmers who milled rice (millers). A report from Sidenreng Rappang district submitted to the Governor of Southeast Sulawesi shows that approximately 2,147 Ha of land was damaged due to sundep attack. The attack occurred in a large scale and led up to 100% destruction of the contaminated paddy plants. This attack occurred because the plants were not sprayed with pesticides. Meanwhile, in Pinrang district, there were mice attacks, damaging hundreds of acres of paddy fields.12 The threat from DI/TII also aggravated the problems related to agriculture in South Sulawesi. Sidrap Regent’s Report described the situation of rice harvest in mid-1962, in which DI/TII group demanded the farmers to hand over 20% of their rice harvests. They also forced the farmers to pay Rp 5 for every paddy they gave.13 Furthermore, in Pinrang regency, the gadu paddy farmers were chased away from their rice fields by the DI/TII members. They did not only intrude the farmers’ work but also forced them to hand over their rice harvests. They also threatened to beat the farmers and prohibit them from cultivating their lands.14 In fact, a farmer named Manrung Padjalele from Patampanua district of Pinrang regency was kidnapped and was held as a captive from August 1964 by DI/TII, which ended in his death.15

1.4 Efforts to overcome the problems of food demand in South Sulawesi It has been mentioned in the previous section that the high price of rice, pest attacks, and threats from DI/TII are the three main problems in the government’s efforts to improve the agriculture sector and resolve the problems of food demand in South Sulawesi. Therefore, Level 1 Region (Province) of South Sulawesi cooperated with the Level 2 Region (Regency) to solve the problems. In order to decrease the high price of rice, the government provided several solutions. First, miller farmers were allowed to sell their rice directly without any agents. Then, a shop was established specifically for provision of staple commodities. These efforts were made to control and stabilize the rising price of rice and other foodstuff within the province. Meanwhile, to improve the agriculture sector and increase the rice production, the government of Sidenreng Rappang regency on 9 January 1963 instructed the use of high-quality seeds in Maritengngae district. The rice varieties used for this purpose were Bengawan and Si Gadis. It also instructed and supported the rice cultivation by using high-quality rice plants, making good use of land, and fertilizing plants by spraying, weeding, and exterminating pests. The regency government even launched a 1-month cultivation course facilitated by officers of the agriculture office to improve the harvests.16 In addition, an organization named South Sulawesi Agricultural Development Foundation was officially established on 8 February 1961 to carry out agricultural development plans and provide recommendations and technical supports to not only individuals but also agricultural

10. Sundep is a kind of caterpillar pests that attack the paddy field areas. It usually attacks young leaves, causing the plant to wilt and then die. 11. Marhaen Daily, 14 January 1960. 12. Damage caused by mice in Pinrang regency was not mentioned in detail in the Archives of the Department of Agriculture of Pinrang. 13. Report of Regent of Sidenreng Rappang, on 28 June 1962. 14. Report of Head of Patampanua District, Pinrang Regency on 11 November 1963. 15. Report of Regent of Pinrang, Andi Djalante Tjoppo on 26 August 1964. 16. Instruction of Regent of Sidenreng Rappang, Andi Sapada, on 28 November 1962.

758 companies when needed. Ibrahim Manwan was appointed as the head of the foundation. It was highly expected that this foundation would succeed in increasing South Sulawesi’s food production, which is the mission and vision of the foundation.17 Alternatively, in Pinrang regency, the efforts to increase its agricultural production and prevent land destruction from pest attacks included fertilization of gadu paddy plants as instructed by the head of the Department of Agriculture of Pinrang. This instruction was mandatory to all gadu paddy farmers.18 In order to solve the problems and security threats caused by DI/TII, the head of the foundation urged the farmers not to feel intimidated by such threats. Andi Muhammad Dalle, the Commander of Mattiro Walie District Military Command, instructed all merchants who wanted to buy and sell rice to submit a report to the district military command. This was in order to prevent and block DI/TII from disrupting the economy. In addition, some security personnel were appointed to monitor and provide security to the farmers so that they could continue cultivating their lands without feeling threatened by DI/TII soldiers.19 Eventually, the security disruption caused by DI/TII soldiers reduced over time as they disunited. Some of the heads and members quit and even surrendered voluntarily.

2 CONCLUSION

The measures taken for increasing the agricultural production in South Sulawesi in the Guided Democracy period began in 1960. The situation in the beginning of this period, particularly in South Sulawesi’s regencies of Pinrang, Sidrap, and Bone, showed good outcomes between 1960 and 1961. It was evident from the increased harvests compared to the previous year. Climate and high rainfall was a contributing factor for this. Some cultivated fields were damaged due to the high rainfall. However, it did not have any impact on the volume of harvest. Unfortunately, the efforts were not always easy. The two main hurdles to the increase of food production were the attack of a pest called sundep and security interference by DI/ TII soldiers. In Sidrap regency, sundep attacked approximately 2,000 Ha and inflicted 100% damage to the paddy plants. In addition, the farmers were threatened by the demands from DI/TII soldiers to hand over 20% of their harvest and pay Rp5 for every bunch of rice they took. The South Sulawesi government made significant efforts to overcome these problems. The first instruction was to inform the farmers to start cultivating high-quality paddy seeds. Besides, they were told to irrigate their fields, fertilize their crops, and perform weeding. Furthermore, the government initiated a forum of agriculture extension carried out by the officers of the agriculture office to help the farmers improve their harvests. Meanwhile, to help the farmers from the security interference caused by DI/TII, it was instructed that the farmers must submit a report on the goods they sold to the District Military Command. This was done to block DI/TII’s economy. The security personnel also provided the farmers with security so that they could work without worrying about the threats from DI/TII. It is interesting to note here the shift of a patron–client pattern in the South Sulawesi society, which was made possible by the nation’s interference in the agricultural practices of the society. It has been mentioned that the traditional patron–client pattern of this society was centered in the noblemen (arung/karaeng) as the landowners and in maradeka as well as ata as the workers. Nevertheless, this position began to shift when the state took part in becom- ing the patron for the farmers. The shift, however, was even more evident during the New Order Period with Sidrap farmers’ tradition of Tudang Sipulung.20 In the past, this tradition

17. Report of the Board of Patrons of South Sulawesi Agricultural Development Foundation on 8 February 1961. 18. Head of Pinrang Department of Agriculture instruction, Abdullah Lawi, on 26 October 1965. 19. Instruction of Commander of Mattiro Walie District Military Command, A.M. Dale, on 13 October 1962. 20. Tudang is referred to sitting, while Sipulung means together. The literal meaning of Tudang Sipulung tradition is to sit together.

759 was held by the farmers to determine the patterns of rice cultivation. In the New Order period, the government of Sidrap regency turned the tradition of Tudang Sipulung into an agenda, which served as a means to deliver the government’s agricultural programs. This agenda was then led by the Regent of Sidrap.

REFERENCES

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