Natural Resource Management for Sustainable Agriculture Natural Resource Management for Sustainable Agriculture

Dr. Joginder Singh Assistant Professor Department of Horticulture Janta Vedic College, Baraut, Baghpat, U.P.

Published By Anu Books Delhi Meerut Visit us : www.anubooks.com EDITOR Dr. Joginder Singh Assistant Professor, Department of Horticulture Janta Vedic College, Baraut, Baghpat, U.P.

CO- EDITORS Dr. Rashmi Nigam Assistant Professor, Department of Horticulture Janta Vedic College, Baraut, Baghpat, U. P.

Dr. Anant Kumar Assistant Professor, Horticulture K. V. K., Muradnagar, Ghaziabad, U. P.

Dr. Rajendra Singh Associate Professor, Department of Entomology S. V. P. U. A. & T. Modipuram, Meerut, U. P.

Sh. Ashwani Kumar Associate Professor, Department Ag. Extension C.C.S.S. (PG) College, Machhara, Meerut, U. P.

Dr. A. K. Sharma Assistant Professor, Department of Horticulture Janta Vedic College, Baraut, Baghpat, U.P. Published By : ANU BOOKS, Shivaji Road, Meerut Green Park Extension, New Delhi Ph. 0121-2657362, 9997847837

Natural Resource Management for Sustainable Agriculture

First Edition : 2017

ISBN: 978-93-82166-51-1

Price : Rs. 450 /- Only

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The views expressed by the authors are their own. The editors and publishers do not own any legal responsibility or liability for the views of the authors, any omission or inadvertent errors. Preface

Agriculture has been described as the backbone of our economy as it provides livelihood and food security for the majority of Indian population. Increasing crop production is imperative to meet the growing demand of the human in terms food, fodder, fiber, fuel, timber and industrial raw materials. The need is increasing to produce more and more from less and less resources. Though, a lot of progress has been made in the field of agricultural sector, yet much remains to be done to increase the production as we are still behind other countries in this field. It is essential to address the issues of agricultural production to achieve the aim of sustainable food security. Agriculture has changed greatly in the past few decades. In the present economic and environmental scenario, the enhancement of production, productivity and sustainability of agriculture is of prime importance which largely depends upon the effective use and management of natural resources. The natural resources such as land and water play a critical role in sustainability of agriculture and its output. The diverse change and constraints as human growing population increasing food, feed and fodder needs, natural resource degradation, global climate change and new trade regulations demand a paradigm shift in formatting the all agricultural research programmes to conserve natural resources and bio-diversity for achieving global food security besides maintaining the agro-ecological balance for sustainable agriculture. The farm income is increasing at lower rate which is one of the major causes for agrarian stress and moving of youth away from agriculture. The farming system itself is a natural resources management unit operated by households to ensure their physical and socio-economic well being. The consumption pattern is also upgrading major change with the improvement in per capita income, especially in urban areas. Hence, farming system approach of managing the land and water will lead to better output and sustainability. Agriculture cannot be sustained if it is not climate resilient. Therefore, the topic was chosen for the national conference entitled “Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture” is very well timed and effort in the direction by Agricultural Technology Development Society, Ghaziabad and Department of Horticulture at conference hall, Janta Vedic College, Baraut, Baghpat, U. P. was very appreciated. Themes areas covered in this conference was very wide, exhaustive and also covered entire gamut from climate change to biotechnology, IT and technology transfer innovations. I am highly thankful to the members of Agricultural Technology Development Society and all those who has participated positively in this conference and also made valuable suggestions to enhance the utility of the proceedings book. The book is based on the belief that introduces natural resource management of sustainable agriculture. I extend deeply thankful to Principal, Management Committee and my all colleagues of J. V. College, Baraut for motivation and encouragement to organize a grand success conference. I am highly grateful to chief guest of the conference Dr. A. S. Panwar (Director, IIFSR, Meerut) and Dr. Manoj Kumar (Director, CPRI, CPRS Campus, Meerut). I would like to record my sincere thanks to all co-editors and authors. I hope the book would be interesting and useful to the students, teachers and scientists. Dr. Joginder Singh Contents

1 Sustainable Technologies For Management Of Sugarcane Diseases and Enhancing Cane Productivity 1-6 Ram Ji Lal And Rashmi Nigam 2 Sustainable Agriculture: Benefits and Challenges 7-14 Poonam Gupta 3 Role of Natural Resources For Sustainable 15-24 Agriculture Mahak Singh, Amit Tomar and M.S. Rathi 4 Government Policies For Sustainable Agriculture 25-30 Pradeep Kumar Jain 5 Sustainable Techniques For Insect-Pest Management of Vegetable Crops 31-49 Rishi Pal, Rajendra Singh, Harikesh Singh and Awaneesh Kumar 6 Sustainable Agriculture: An Overall Accelerated Development Of Horticulture In National Perspective 50-57 Harpal Singh, Gaurav Ahirwar and Joginder Singh 7 Agricultural Sustainability and Its Impact 58-67 Nitin Kumar and Ashwani Kumar 8 Linking Farm Gates With The Retail Outlets Through 68-73 Mobile Based Agri Retailing (Mbar) Model Shoji Lal Bairwa, Lokesh Kumar Meena and Meera Kumari 9 Global Taxonomy Initiative: A Link Between Taxonomy and The Conservation & Sustainable Use of Biodiversity 74-84 Sheesh P. Singh and Rohini Singh 10 Biofertilzers and Their Role In Agriculture 85-89 Ashish Dwivedi, U. P. Shahi, Amit Kumar and R. K. Naresh 11 Plastic Mulching Based Okra Cultivation For Moisture Conservation: An Innovative Approach of Farmer 90-92 Jeetendra Kumar, Wajid Hasan and Shobha Rani 12 A Succes Story of Vegetable Cultvation 93-93 Wajid Hasan, Jeetendra Kumar And Shobha RaniScientist, 13 A Preliminary Survey of Kharif Weeds In Akola Region 94-110 V.S.Patil, S. P. Rothe, Shital V. Chavan And D.A. Dhale 14 Gm Technology: Future Tool For Agriculture Development 111-114 Rajeev Kumar 15 Resource Use Efficiency of Mentha Oil Production In Sitapur District of Uttar Pradesh 115-121 Anil Kumar, K. K. Verma And Pankaj Verma 16 Effect of Storage On Chemical Qualities of Khoa Prepared From Cow Milk and Buffalo Milk 122-123 T.P.S.Duhoon, H.C.L.Gupta, Devesh Gupta and Mojpal Singh 17 Techniques of Fruit Ripening and Toxic Effects of Calcium Carbide Ripened Fruits On Human Health 124-128 Pavitra Dev 18 Genetic Resources of Temperate Fruit and Nut Crops In India 129-140 fgyubu Amit Kumar, Angrez Ali, Nirmal Sharma and Manmohan Lal 19 Impact of Sugarmill Effluents On Seed Germination And Seedling Growth of Glycine Max 141-143 Indu Yadav, R. K. Sharma, Mamta Verma and Shikha Agarwal 20 Water Pollution: Causes, Effects and Management 144-148 Indu Singh 21 Water Pollution: Sources, Causes, Effects and Control 149-153 Yogender Singh and L.S.Gautam 22 A Study of Fungal Spore Populations In The Atmosphere At Hapur 154-157 Shalu Sharma, Sudhir Kumar, Dheeraj Kumar, Ritu and Laxman Singh Gautam 23 Effect of Chemical Fertilizers on Growth and Yield of Okra 158-162 Anirudh Kr.Sharma, Rashmi Nigam And Joginder Singh 24 Study Of Physico-Chemical Status of Freshwater Canal In (U.P.) 163-169 IndiaMadhu, Neera Singh and Archana Arya 25 Traditional Sources Oof Antidotes From Botanicals Sold By Herbal Vendors In North Maharashtra, (India) 170-173 Y.A. Ahirrao, M.V. Patil and D.A. Patil 26 Effect of Humidity and Ascorbic Acid On Oil Seed Under Different Storage Regimes 174-176 Dheeraj Kumar,Geeta Rani, Shalu Sharma, R.K.Sharma and Laxman Singh Gautam 27 Exploring Gladiolus For Color Revolution In India 177-187 Manoj Nazir 28 Assessment Genetic Diversity In Crop Plants Using Molecular Markers: A Review 188-203 Munnesh Kumar, Kuldeep Chandrawat, Kapil Nagar and Bharat Bhushan 29 Wind Energy A Source of Clean Energy: Future In India 204-209 Manika Barar And Kaviraj 30 Soil Erosion, Soil and Water Conversation 210-215 Archana Sharma 31 The Contribution of Livestock In Sustainable Agricultural Systems 216-223 Om Prakash 32 Analysis of Automobile Pollution of Different Roadside 224-231 Soils In Meerut City, U.P. India Shiv Kumari and Ila Prakash 33 Chitosan-Cellulose Hydrogel Beads As Adsorbent For Dyes 232-241 Anuja Agarwal and Vaishali 34 Environment Pollution Control & Management 242-250 Shweta Tyagi 35 Effect Of Holding Size On Production and Quality of Milk of Cross-Bred Cows And Murrah Buffaloes 251-255 M.L. Bhaskar 36 Crop Diversification and Its Relevance Climate Change In Indian Context 256-270 H. S. Jatav, Y.V.Singh, Hemant Jayant, S.S. Jatav, Baby Sonam, Suryakant Dhawal Sukirtee Chejara and Sunil Kumar 37 Challenges Of Climate Change In Agricultural Sustainability & Food Security 271-289 Dalip Kumar ghggfhfh Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 1 Sustainable Technologies For Management of Sugarcane Diseases and Enhancing Cane Productivity

Ram Ji Lal1 and Rashmi Nigam2 1Division of Crop Protection, Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research, Lucknow 2Deptt. of Plant Pathology, Janta Vedic College, Baraut Introduction Sugarcane plays a significant role in Indian agriculture. It is an important cash crop grown in an area of about 5.03 million hectares with an average yield of 69.0 t/ha. It is major source for the production of white sugar, jaggery khandsari etc. in the country. In recent years its demand is increasing in view of expanding horizon of agro-industrial use of sugarcane, particularly in co-generation of electricity and production of ethanol for blending with petrol. India’s population is expected to be around 1.5 billion by 2030 AD at the present compound growth rate of 1.6 per cent per annum. The country may require nearly 33 million tonnes of white sugar for domestic consumptin alone by 2030 AD. In future, the production of alcohal for partial replacement of fossil fule and use of bagasse in co-generation of electricity have great potential and thus requirement of cane will incerease further. Therefore, in order to meet the growing demand of sugar and energy by 2030 AD, the country will require around 520 million tonnes of sugarcane with a recovery of 10.75%. This will entail an incresse in sugarcane productivity to the tune of 100 to 110 t/ha, as area may stablize around 5.0 million hectares. However, the cane productivity is not increasing as per expectation. Several factors viz., natural resource degradation, higher cost of cultivation, inadequate irrigation facilities, excessive and untimely use of irrigation water, inappropriate use of fertilizers and pesticides, replacement of a rich traditional varieties with high yielding varieties, breakdown of resistance of varieties to insect-pests and diseases, climate change and other natural calamities etc., are responsible for low/stable cane productivity. At the current prices, the monetary value of the total losses due to various diseases, pests (insects, nematodes and weeds) may exceed Rs. 25,000 crores annually. There is worldwide need to move towards the practice of sustainable agriculture, using environmental friendly, less dependent on agricultural chemicals and less damaging to soil and water resources. Sugarcane is vulnerable to number of diseases right from the 2 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture seed/sett is sown until the crop is harvested. The diseases alone cause about 15-20% loss in yield and quality and are major cause for the reduction in cane productivity and sugar recovery. Sugarcane diseases can be classified in two categories (i) Seed piece transmissible diseases, and (ii) Non-seed piece transmissible diseases. (i) Seed piece transmissible diseases: Red rot, smut, wilt, grassy shoot disease, leaf scald, ratoon stunting, mosaic and yellow leaf disease (ii) Non-seed piece transmissible diseases: Leaf spots (Brown spot, yellow spot), sett rot (Pine apple disease), rust and root rot (Pythium root rot) and physiological disorders/diseases The both growers and miller suffer the following losses due to these diseases. A. Losses to growers: (i) Reduction in no. of millable canes (ii) Reduction in cane yield (Iii) Poor quality seed and (iv) Poor ratoon stand B. Losses to Millers: (i) Poor juice extractability (ii) More reducing sugars and (iii) Reduction in sugar recovery Fungal Diseases (i) Root rot The root rot is primarily caused by Pytium graminicolum. The affected seedlings are characterized by yellowing, drying of the leaves and dark necrotic lesions on the affected roots. The affected seedlings subsequently die due to rotting of roots. The death of seedlings not only results in patchy stand in seed beds but also causes loss of potentially promising genotypes. Occasionally, standing canes are also affected by the disease resulting in rotting of roots, yellowing and drying of clumps especially under water logged condition. (ii) Sett rot The disease is caused by Ceratocystis paradoxa. It is an important soil borne disease which affects sett germination. The disease is also called as “Pineapple disease” because the split open canes emit an odour reminiscent of pineapple fruits. Occasionally, standing canes also affected depending on environmental conditions. (iii) Red rot disease Red rot is one of the serious diseases of sugarcane is caused by Colletotrichum falcatum. The most conspicuous symptoms of the disease appear in rainy season (July-September). The disease starts with the yellowing of one or two leaves of the crown. Later on the entire crown Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 3 becomes light orange/ yellow and dries. The affected stalks exhibit purple discolouration on rind. On split open longitudinally, the typical disease symptoms viz., reddening of internal tissues with white spots which are usually at right angle to the long axis of the stalk are seen. The affected canes also emit sour alcoholic smell. In the later stage of disease development, the stalks become hollow and fungus grows in the hollow space. The canes eventually dries out and fungus sporulate’s abundantly at the nodes. The pathogen also produces laminar and midrib lesions on the foliage.The other most important phase of the disease is the infection on leaf midrib and leaf lamina. (iv) Wilt The disease is caused by Fusarium sacchari. The typical wilt symptoms appear during monsoon or post monsoon season. The leaves of the affected plants show yellowing followed by drying from upward. Late in season, crown withers and plant may die. The canes become light and hollow and on split open they manifests dull red colour of internodes. The pith of the affected cane becomes fibrous. (v) Smut The disease is caused by Ustilago scitamineum. The typical symptom of the disease is the production of a black whip like structure from the central core of the meristematic tissue. Affected plants have slender and thin stalks. The leaves of the affected plants are usually thin, stiff and remain at the acute angle. The whip when young is covered by a thin, white papery membrane and on maturity it ruptures and millions of tiny black teliospores liberated and disseminated by wind. (vi) Pokkah boeng Disease: The disease is caused by Fusarium moniliforme. The general symptoms of pokkah boeng are mainly of three types: 1. Chlorotic phase, 2. Acute phase or top rot phase, 3. Knife-cut phase (associated with top rot phase) (a) Chlorotic phase The earlier symptom of the disease is a chlorotic condition towards the base of the young leaf and occasionally on the other parts of the leaf blades. Frequently, a pronounced wrinkling, twisting and shortening of the leaves accompanied the malformation or distortion of the young leaves. The base of the affected leaves is seen often narrower than that of normal 4 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture leaves. In affected mature leaves, the irregular reddish stripes and specks are observed within a chlorotic part. The reddish area sometimes develops into the lesions of a rhomboid shape which turn dark reddish to brown colour, producing a burned appearance. Leaf sheaths also observed with chlorotic conditions in some cases. Later, irregular necrotic areas of reddish colour, similar on the leaf blades are also noticed on leaf sheath and midribs. (b) Acute or top rot phase The most advanced and serious stage of the disease is a top rot phase. The young spindles are killed and the entire top dies. Leaf infection sometimes continued to downward and penetrates in the stalk by way of a growing point. In advance stages of infection, the entire base of the spindle and even growing point show a malformation of leaves, pronounced wrinkling, twisting and rotting of spindle leaves followed by top rot of the tender tissues of the apical part of the cane. (c) Knife-cut phase The symptoms of knife cut stages are observed in association with the acute phase of the disease characterized by one or two or even more transverse cuts in the rind of the stalk/stem in such a uniform manner as if, the tissues are removed with a sharp knife. This is an exaggerated stage of a typical ladder lesion of the disease. On stripping off the leaves, large horizontal conspicuous cuts are develops on stalks. Bacterial diseases (i) Leaf scald The disease is caused by Xanthomonas albilinians and in nature it occurs in two distinct phases. (a) Acute phase Affected clumps suddenly show wilt symptoms and die without displaying any of the diagnostic symptoms. However, the striking disease symptoms appear when plants growing under stress conditions, like drought, low temperature, poor soil fertility or in water logged condition. (b) Chronic phase The affected plants display characteristic whitish lines which usually run the full length of the leaf blade and the leaf sheath. The lines in some leaves broaden and diffuse, resulting in the death of the leaves which ultimately wither away. The drying is always from tip downwards; this gives a scalded appearance to the clump. Some time, the affected cans Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 5 show sprouting of lateral buds in acropetal fashion besides galls (callus tissue) and multiple buds on the upper nodes of the stalk. (ii) Ratoon stunting disease (RSD) The disease is caused by Leifsonia xyli sub sp. Xyli and results in stunting of ratoon crop. The diseased plants usually display stunted growth, reduced tillering, thin stalks with shortened internodes and yellowish foliage. The diseased shoots on split show orange-red vascular bundles in shades of yellow-orange, pink, red and reddish-brown at the nodes. Viral and phyoplasmal diseases (i) Mosaic: The prominent symptoms appear on the basal portion of younger leaves. The affected leaves display light-green and yellowish patches contrasting with the normal dark-green healthy tissues. In severe cases, the cane becomes stunted. (ii) Grassy shoot disease (GSD) Grassy shoot disease (GSD) is characterized by the production of numerous lanky tillers with narrow leaves, with or without albinism. Premature excessive tillering gives a crowded “grass like” appearance to the clump. The affected clumps are usually stunted and in many instances exhibit premature proliferation of axillary buds. In some cases, there is also formation of aerial roots at the lower nodes. (iii) Yellow Leaf Disease (YLD) Symptoms of the sugarcane yellow leaf disease (SCYLD) are a yellowing of the leaf midrib on the underside of the leaf. The yellowing appears on leaves 3 to 6 counting down from the top expanding the spindle leaf. Yellowing is the most prevalent and noticeable in mature cane from October until end of harvest in March. The yellowing expands out from the leaf mid rib in to the leaf blade as the season progresses until general yellowing of the leaves can be observed from the distance eventually all most all the leaves of the plant turn yellow. Sustainable technologies to be adopted for disease management and enhancing cane productivity 1. Three tier seed programme: It must be adopted for the production of healthy seed material for planting. This helps in the eradication/elimination of most of the sett borne diseases besides providing healthy seed for next crop. 6 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 2. Selection of land: Avoid planting of sugarcane in water logged areas as it aggravates red rot. 3. Field sanitation: Fields should be kept free from weeds as some of them act as alternate/collateral hosts of the pathogen. 4. Use of recommended (disease resistant) variety: This is the most effective and economical method of disease control. Farmers love to have disease resistant variety as they spent no money on crop protection. 5. Rouging: The diseased plants as and when detected, should be rouged out; this helps in arresting the secondary spread of the pathogens. 6. Ratooning: Ratooning of diseased crop should be avoided. 7. Crop diversification: Grow coriander, rice (Oryza sativa), arhar (Cajanus cajan) etc. to reduce the inoculum load of some of the pathogens (red rot and wilt). 8. Chemotherapy: Setts treatment with Bavistin @ 0.2% for 30 min. before planting to improve bud germination and enhancement of shoots. 9. Thermotherapy: Thermotherapy is known to kill the pathogens. In India two types of heat therapy plants are in vogue viz., Hot Water Treatment (HWT) at 50oC for 2 hrs and Moist Hot Water Treatment (MHAT) at 54oC for 2-0 hrs. Of these two systems, MHAT is better than HWT as it gives better control of red rot (incipient infection), smut, grassy shoot and ratoon stunting diseases. 10. Biological control: Apply Trichoderma Mixed Culture (TMC) multiplied on Farm Yard Manure (FYM) or press mud @ 220 kg/ha (1 kg/ 100m row) at the time of planting to improve soil and plant health besides nutrient uptake. Thus if the cane growers adopts the above sustainable technologies for the management of sugarcane disease they can be managed below the economical threshold level besides enhancing cane productivity. Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 7 Sustainable Agriculture: Benefits and Challenges

Poonam Gupta Deptt. of Chemistry, M.M.H.College, Ghaziabad, U.P. Introduction In recent years, agriculture sector, world over, has experienced a phenomenal growth since the mid-twentieth century. The growth driven by Green revolution has made a significant dent on aggregate supply of food grains, ensuring food security to the growing population. Increases in agricultural productivity have come in part at the expense of deterioration in the natural resource base on which farming depend. The modern agricultural practices are heavily dependent on the use of chemical pesticides, inorganic fertilizers and growth regulators has raised the agricultural production manifold but at the cost of resource depletion, environmental deterioration and loss of crop diversity. It was realized that the modern agriculture is not sustainable in long run, hence the concept of sustainable agriculture emerged. The main challenge facing the developing countries in the south pertains to the sustainability of resource use while the main challenge facing the developed economies in the north is the overuse of chemicals. It is urgent that this trend be reversed by encouraging farmers to adopt more sustainable methods of farming that will have long-term benefits in environmental conservation and development of sustainable livelihoods. Sustainable agriculture emphasizes on the natural resources but also maintains the quality of environment. Sustainable agriculture is the production of plant and animal products, including food, in a way which uses farming techniques that protect the environment, public health, communities, and welfare of animals. It allows us to produce and enjoy healthy foods without compromising the ability of future generations to do the same. The key to sustainable agriculture is finding the right balance between the need for food production and preservation of environmental ecosystems. It also promotes economic stability for farms and helps farmers to better their quality of life. It is a balanced management of renewable resources including soil, wildlife, forests, crops, fish, livestock, plant genetic resources and ecosystems without degradation and to provide food, livelihood for current and future generation maintaining and improving productivity and ecosystem services of these resources. Sustainable agriculture systems are designed to use existing soil 8 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture nutrient and water cycles, and naturally occurring energy flows for food production. Such systems also aim to produce food that is more nutritious and without products that harm human health. In practice such systems aim to avoid as far as possible the use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, growth regulators, and livestock feed additives, instead relying on crop rotations, crop residues, animal manures, legumes, green manures, off farm organic wastes, mechanical cultivation and mineral bearing rocks to maintain soil fertility and productivity, and on natural biological and cultural controls for insects, weeds, and other pests. Need For Sustainable Agriculture Chemical fertilizers and pesticides dependent modern agricultural practices have caused several problems. In modern agriculture there has been consistent use high yielding hybrid crop varieties which has resulted into the depletion of land varieties(desi varieties) that are not only nutritious but also possess several useful characters such as drought, disease and pest resistance. The gradual loss of variability in the cultivated forms and in their wild relatives is referred to as genetic erosion. This variability arose in nature over a long period of time and if lost, would not be reproduced during a short period. Over use of inorganic fertilizers has led to problem of soil erosion. Fertilizers destroy the soil structure making the soil susceptible to erosive forces like water and wind. Over use nitrogenous fertilizer urea has caused the soil acidity. Excessive nitrogen suppresses biological activity including mycorrhizae, reduce nodulation in leguminous plants, give a competitive advantage to the weed over crop and increase pest incidence. Mismanagement of surface and ground water resources has led to the problem of water logging, soil alkalinity, and salinity. Extraction of water for irrigation has caused the lowering of ground water table. Deforestation has led to the problem of global warming, depletion of biological diversity, drought and the siltation of water reservoirs. Modern agricultural practices also have enhanced the ozone depletion. Nitrous oxide produced by microbial action on the nitrogenous fertilizers is responsible for the thinning of the stratospheric ozone layer which provides protection from harmful ultraviolet radiations of sun. Pesticide resistance and environmental pollution are other effects of excessive pesticide use. These problems have led to increasing awareness and a felt need for moving away from the input intensive agriculture perused during green revolution phase, to sustainable farming in different parts of the world. Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 9 Methods of Sustainable Agriculture 1. Crop rotation: It is one of the most powerful techniques of sustainable agriculture. It avoids the consequences that come with planting the same crops in the same soil for years. Rotations of crops break the reproduction cycles of pests. During rotation certain crops replenish plant nutrients and reduced the need for fertilizers. 2. Cover crops: Many farmers choose to have crops planted in a field all the times and never leave it barren. By planting cover crops like clove or oat, the farmer can achieve his goal of preventing soil erosion, suppressing growth of weeds and enhancing the quality of soil. 3. Soil enrichment:It is possible to enrich the soil and maintain and enhance the quality of soil in many ways for example by leaving the crop residue in the field after a harvest, and the use of composted plant material or animal manure. 4. Natural pest predators: Many birds and other animals are natural predators of agricultural pests. Managing a farm so that it harbours populations of these pest predators is an effective as well as sophisticated technique. 5. Bio intensive Integrated Pest Management: This is an approach which relies on the biological as opposed to chemical methods. It emphasizes the importance of crop rotation to combat pest management. Once a pest problem is identified IPM refers to appropriate responses would be the use of sterile males and biocontrol agents such as ladybirds. Benefits of Sustainable Agriculture 1. Contributes to environmental conservation: Sustainable agriculture helps to replenish the land as well as other natural resources such as water and air ensuring that these resources will be able for future generations to sustain life. 2. Public Health Safety: Sustainable agriculture avids hazardous pesticides and fertilizers so that farmers are able to produce fruits, vegetables and other crops that are safer for consumers, workers and surroundings communities. Through careful and proper management of livestock waste, farmers are able to protect humans from exposure to pathogens, toxins and other hazardous pollutants. 10 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 3. Prevents pollution: Sustainable agriculture ensures that any waste from farm produces remains inside the ecosystem. In this way waste cannot cause pollution. 4. Reduction in cost: the use of Sustainable agriculture reduces the need for fossil fuels resulting in significant cost savings in terms of purchasing as well as transporting them. This in turn lessens the overall costs involved in farming. 5. Biodiversity: Sustainable farms produce a wide variety of plants and animals resulting in biodiversity. Crop rotation results in soil enrichment, prevention of disease and pest outbreaks. 6. Beneficial to Animals: Sustainable agriculture results in animals being better cared for, as well as treated humanely. The natural behaviours of all living animals, including grazing or pecking, are catered for. As a result they develop in a natural way. Sustainable farmers and ranchers implement livestock husbandry practices that protect animal’s health. 7. Economically Beneficial for farmers: Farmers receive a fair wage for their production when engaged in sustainable agriculture. This greatly reduces dependence on government subsidies and strengthens rural communities. Organic farms typically require 2.5 times less labor than factory farms yet yield 10 times more profit. 8. Social Equality: Practicing Sustainable agriculture techniques also benefits workers as they are offered a more competitive salary as well as benefits. They also work in humane and fair conditions, which include safe work environment, food, and adequate living conditions. 9. Beneficial for Environment. Sustainable agriculture reduces the need for use of non-renewable energy resources and as a result benefits the environment. Challenges Due to population increase, it is estimated that by 2050 we will need approximately 70% more food than is currently being produced in order to provide the estimated 9.6 billion world population. While the need for a paradigmatic shift in the growth strategy is well recognized, the transition from input intensive to sustainable farming however, has certain inherent difficulties. India’s National Agricultural Policy accords high priority Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 11 to the sustainability of agriculture. ICAR and the State Agricultural Universities, which comprise the National Agricultural Research System (NARS), also emphasize the importance of incorporating the sustainability perspective into their research and education programmes. But this requires an analytical framework for sustainable agriculture that can guide a transition from research and education directed towards productivity goals to research and education that addresses productivity issues keeping sustainability concerns in sight. The national agricultural policy (Ministry of Agriculture, 2000) of Government of India aims at agricultural growth (4% annually to 2020) with sustainability, by a path that will be determined by three important factors: technologies, globalization, and markets. Agricultural research and education of the future must therefore address two related challenges: increasing agricultural productivity and profitability to keep pace with demand, and ensuring long term sustainability of production. Development of Framework Sustainability can only be defined only in the boundaries of a system’s framework, that is, after specification of what is to be sustained. Choosing the boundary is difficult because agricultural systems operate at multiple levels: soil-plant system, cropping system or farming system, agro ecosystem and so on to higher regional, national, and global levels. An agricultural production system is sustainable if, over a long term, it enhances or maintains the productivity and profitability of farming in the region, conserves or enhances the integrity and diversity of both the agricultural production system and the surrounding natural ecosystem, and also enhances health, safety, and aesthetic satisfaction of both consumers and producers. Objectives: It is important to clarify the sustainability objectives: what is to be sustained, for how long, and at what level? These are related with the national or regional policies and goals for agricultural production. For example, in view of India’s large population and for strategic reasons, food production goals have been synonymous with food self sufficiency. Indicators: Sustainability indicators are quantifiable and measurable variables that can be used to evaluate system performance with relation to its objectives. A Sustainable system is one with non negative trend in these variables. A list of these variables are given in Table 1. 12 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture

Table 1: Sustainability indicators (adopted from RIRDC, 1997) Hierarchical level Sustainability Indicators (economic, social & environmental)

Cropping system/ Non-negative trends in: farming system (i) farm productivity (ii) net farm income (iii) total factor productivity, (iv) nutrient balance (v) soil quality (vi) residues in soil plant products (vii) farm water use efficiency (viii) farmer skills/education (ix) debt-service ratio (x) health (xi) time spent in other social cultural activities Agroeco system Non-negative trends in: (watershed, (i) regional production Agroecozone, etc) (ii) regional income (iii) regional total factor productivity (iv) regional nutrient balance (v) income distribution (vi) species diversity (vii) soil loss (viii) surface water quality (ix) groundwater quality (x) regional social and economic development indicators Global, National, Indefinitely meet demands at acceptable social, economic, Regional Systems and environmental costs.

The recent revolutions in biotechnology and genetics, and in information and communication technologies radically changed the conceptual framework of managing the agricultural production system. Framework The frame work of sustainable agriculture is determined by 1. The food demand of the growing population and economy, and supply limits set by carrying capacities of the agro-ecosystems. 2. The tradeoffs between agricultural productivity and quality of natural resource base in different regions/ agro-ecosystems as assessed by trends in suitable sustainability indicators. 3. New technologies and improved management strategies that can shift the tradeoffs towards improving both sustainability and productivity. The framework is to be applied at two levels: the crop production system and the agroecosystem. Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 13 Implications The above framework calls for a major paradigm shift in agricultural research and education from the current commodity and input based approach to management of agricultural resources, to an approach that emphasizes a systems framework and process-knowledge based management to increase production. The challenges faced by the agricultural research system in incorporating the sustainability perspective will also be applicable to agricultural universities as well. The state agricultural universities(SAUs) also face the challenge of incorporating the sustainability perspective into their education programmes. The conventional education in agricultural statistics and experimental design needs to be entirely overhauled, when sustainability is the goal. Sustainable agriculture demands site-specific precision agriculture that allows different solutions under different conditions. In the past SAUs have not placed much emphasis on basic science skills and will have to build their strengths in this area. In addition to the changes required in knowledge base of agricultural education, sustainability requires serious didactical reorientation (Wals, 2000). the traditional view is that a university produces graduates with a set of skills that can be used in market place. Major changes will be required in the structure, systems and skills of NARS before the sustainability perspective can be effectively incorporated into agricultural research and education. Conclusion Under the changing agricultural scenario, the agricultural technologies needs a shift from production oriented to profit oriented sustainable farming. In this direction the pace of adoption of resources conserving technologies by the Indian farmers is satisfactory to a larger extent but under the present scenario, we are in half way of conservation of agriculture. New opportunities are opening the eyes of farmers, development workers, researchers and policy makers. They now see the potential and importance of these practices for their direct economic interest and for further intensification and ecological sustainability. Lastly, proper management to improve productivity, profitabiltity and sustainability of farming system will go long way for all over sustainability. References • Barnett,V., Payner, R., and Steiner, R.(1995) Agricultural 14 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture

Sustainability:Economic, Environmental and Statistical Considerations, John Wiley and sons, UK, 266. • Barnett,V., Payner, R., and Steiner, R.(1995) Agricultural Sustainability:Economic, Environmental and Statistical Considerations, John Wiley and sons, UK,19. • ICAR(1999). ICAR-Vision 2020, Indian ouncil of Agricultural Research, New Delhi, India. • Ministry of Agriculture (2000). National Agricultural Policy. • N.H.Rao, National workshop on Agricultural Policy: Redesigning R&D to Achieve the objectives, April, 2002. • RIRDC (1997). Sustainability indicators for agriculture, Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation, Australia, 1997, 54. • Sustainable Agriculture: Critical Challenges Facing the Structure and Function ofAgricultural Research and Education in India • Wals, E.J.(2000). Integrating sustainability in higher education: dealinf with complexity, uncertainity and diverging world views, Interuniversity Conference for agricultural and Related Sciences in Europe, Ghent, Belgium. Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 15 Role of Natural Resources For Sustainable Agriculture

Mahak Singh1, Amit Tomar2 and M.S. Rathi3 1Deptt. of Genetics & Plant Breeding, CSAUA&T, Kanpur, 2Deptt. of Genetics & Plant Breeding,School of Agricultural Sciences, The Global University, Saharanpur 3Deptt. of Horticulture, J.V. College, Baraut Introduction Sustainable agriculture is farming in sustainable ways based on an understanding of ecosystem services, the study of relationships between organisms and their environment. It has been defined as “an integrated system of plant and animal production practices having a site-specific application that will last over the long term”, for example: · Satisfy human food and fiber needs · Enhance environmental quality and the natural resource base upon which the agricultural economy depends · Make the most efficient use of non-renewable resources and on- farm resources and integrate, where appropriate, natural biological cycles and controls · Sustain the economic viability of farm operations · Enhance the quality of life for farmers and society as a whole History of the term The phrase was reportedly coined by the Australian agricultural scientist Gordon Mc Clymont. Wes Jackson is credited with the first publication of the expression in his 1980 book New Roots for Agriculture. The term became popularly used in the late 1980s. Farming and natural resources Traditional farming methods had zero carbon foot print. Sustainable agriculture can be understood as an ecosystem approach to agriculture. Practices that can cause long-term damage to soil include excessive tilling of the soil (leading to erosion) and irrigation without adequate drainage (leading to salinization). Long-term experiments have provided some of the best data on how various practices affect soil properties essential to sustainability. In the United States a federal agency, USDA- Natural Resources Conservation Service, specializes in providing technical 16 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture and financial assistance for those interested in pursuing natural resource conservation and production agriculture as compatible goals. The most important factors for an individual site are sun, air, soil, nutrients, and water. Of the five, water and soil quality and quantity are most amenable to human intervention through time and labor. Although air and sunlight are available everywhere on Earth, crops also depend on soil nutrients and the availability of water. When farmers grow and harvest crops, they remove some of these nutrients from the soil. Without replenishment, land suffers from nutrient depletion and becomes either unusable or suffers from reduced yields. Sustainable agriculture depends on replenishing the soil while minimizing the use or need of non-renewable resources, such as natural gas (used in converting atmospheric nitrogen into synthetic fertilizer), or mineral ores (e.g., phosphate). Possible sources of nitrogen that would, in principle, be available indefinitely, include: · Recycling crop waste and livestock or treated human manure- · Growing legume crops and forages such as peanuts or alfalfa that form symbioses with nitrogen-fixing bacteria called rhizobia- · Industrial production of nitrogen by the Haber process uses hydrogen, which is currently derived from natural gas (but this hydrogen could instead be made by electrolysis of water using electricity (perhaps from solar cells or windmills) or · Genetically engineering (non-legume) crops to form nitrogen-fixing symbioses or fix nitrogen without microbial symbionts The last option was proposed in the 1970s, but is only recently becoming feasible. Sustainable options for replacing other nutrient inputs (phosphorus, potassium, etc.) are more limited. More realistic, and often overlooked, options include long-term crop rotations, returning to natural cycles that annually flood cultivated lands (returning lost nutrients indefinitely) such as the flooding of the Nile, the long-term use of biochar, and use of crop and livestock landraces that are adapted to less than ideal conditions such as pests, drought, or lack of nutrients. Crops that require high levels of soil nutrients can be cultivated in a more sustainable manner if certain fertilizer management practices are adhered to. Nation wide food producers require vast amounts of land and soil to produce food at an accelerated rate. This diminishes the nutrients in the soil and decimates the idea of sustainable agriculture, which is best built through local, regional agricultural Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 17 methods. Water In some areas sufficient rainfall is available for crop growth, but many other areas require irrigation. For irrigation systems to be sustainable, they require proper management (to avoid salinization) and must not use more water from their source than is naturally replenishable. Otherwise, the water source effectively becomes a non-renewable resource. Improvements in water well drilling technology and submersible pumps, combined with the development of drip irrigation and low-pressure pivots, have made it possible to regularly achieve high crop yields in areas where reliance on rainfall alone had previously made successful agriculture unpredictable. However, this progress has come at a price. In many areas, such as the Ogallala Aquifer, the water is being used faster than it can be replenished. Several steps must be taken to develop drought-resistant farming systems even in “normal” years with average rainfall. These measures include both policy and management actions: · Improving water conservation and storage measures, · Providing incentives for selection of drought-tolerant crop species, · Using reduced-volume irrigation systems, · Managing crops to reduce water loss, and · Not planting crops at all. Indicators for sustainable water resource development are Internal renewable water resources. This is the average annual flow of rivers and groundwater generated from endogenous precipitation, after ensuring that there is no double counting. It represents the maximum amount of water resource produced within the boundaries of a country. This value, which is expressed as an average on a yearly basis, is invariant in time (except in the case of proved climate change). The indicator can be expressed in three different units: in absolute terms (km³/yr), in mm/yr (it is a measure of the humidity of the country), and as a function of population (m³/person per year). Global renewable water resources This is the sum of internal renewable water resources and incoming flow originating outside the country. Unlike internal resources, this value can vary with time if upstream development reduces water availability at the border. Treaties ensuring a specific flow to be reserved from upstream 18 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture to downstream countries may be taken into account in the computation of global water resources in both countries. Dependency ratio This is the proportion of the global renewable water resources originating outside the country, expressed in percentage. It is an expression of the level to which the water resources of a country depend on neighbouring countries. Water withdrawal In view of the limitations described above, only gross water withdrawal can be computed systematically on a country basis as a measure of water use. Absolute or per-person value of yearly water withdrawal gives a measure of the importance of water in the country’s economy. When expressed in percentage of water resources, it shows the degree of pressure on water resources. A rough estimate shows that if water withdrawal exceeds a quarter of global renewable water resources of a country, water can be considered a limiting factor to development and, reciprocally, the pressure on water resources can affect all sectors, from agriculture to environment and fisheries. Soil Soil erosion is fast becoming one of the world’s severe problems. It is estimated that “more than a thousand million tonnes of southern Africa’s soil are eroded every year. Experts predict that crop yields will be halved within thirty to fifty years if erosion continues at present rates.” Soil erosion is not unique to Africa but is occurring worldwide. The phenomenon is being called peak soil as present large-scale factory farming techniques are jeopardizing humanity’s ability to grow food in the present and in the future. Without efforts to improve soil management practices, the availability of arable soil will become increasingly problematic. Some soil management techniques · No-till farming · Keyline design · Growing windbreaks to hold the soil · Incorporating organic matter back into fields · Stop using chemical fertilizers (which contain salt) · Protecting soil from water run-off (soil erosion) Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 19 Phosphate Phosphate is a primary component in the chemical fertilizer which is applied in modern agricultural production. However, scientists estimate that rock phosphate reserves will be depleted in 50–100 years and that peak phosphorus will occur in about 2030. The phenomenon of peak phosphorus is expected to increase food prices as fertilizer costs increase as rock phosphate reserves become more difficult to extract. In the long term, phosphate will therefore have to be recovered and recycled from human and animal waste in order to maintain food production. Land As the global population increases and demand for food increases, there is pressure on land resources. Land can also be considered a finite resource on Earth. Expansion of agricultural land decreases biodiversity and contributes to deforestation. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations estimates that in coming decades, cropland will continue to be lost to industrial and urban development, along with reclamation of wetlands, and conversion of forest to cultivation, resulting in the loss of biodiversity and increased soil erosion. Energy for agriculture Energy is used all the way down the food chain from farm to fork. In industrial agriculture, energy is used in on-farm mechanization, food processing, storage, and transportation processes. It has therefore been found that energy prices are closely linked to food prices. Oil is also used as an input in agricultural chemicals. Higher prices of non-renewable energy resources are projected by the International Energy Agency. Increased energy prices as a result of fossil fuel resources being depleted may therefore decrease global food security unless action is taken to ‘decouple’ fossil fuel energy from food production, with a move towards ‘energy-smart’ agricultural systems. The use of solar powered irrigation in Pakistan has come to be recognized as a leading example of energy use in creating a closed system for water irrigation in agricultural activity. Economics Socioeconomic aspects of sustainability are also partly understood. Regarding less concentrated farming, the best known analysis is Netting’s study on smallholder systems through history. The Oxford Sustainable Group defines sustainability in this context in a much broader form, 20 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture considering effect on all stakeholders in a 360 degree approach. Given the finite supply of natural resources at any specific cost and location, agriculture that is inefficient or damaging to needed resources may eventually exhaust the available resources or the ability to afford and acquire them. It may also generate negative externality, such as pollution as well as financial and production costs. There are several studies in cooperating these negative externalities in an economic analysis concerning ecosystem services, biodiversity, land degradation and sustainable land management. These include the The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB) study led by Pavan Sukhdev and the Economics of Land Degradation Initiative which seeks to establish an economic cost benefit analysis on the practice of sustainable land management and sustainable agriculture. The way that crops are sold must be accounted for in the sustainability equation. Food sold locally does not require additional energy for transportation (including consumers). Food sold at a remote location, whether at a farmers’ market or the supermarket, incurs a different set of energy cost for materials, labour, and transport. Pursuing sustainable agriculture results in many localized benefits. Having the opportunities to sell products directly to consumers, rather than at wholesale or commodity prices, allows farmers to bring in optimal profit. Methods (Polyculture practices) What grows where and how it is grown are a matter of choice. Two of the many possible practices of sustainable agriculture are crop rotation and soil amendment, both designed to ensure that crops being cultivated can obtain the necessary nutrients for healthy growth. Soil amendments would include using locally available compost from community recycling centers. These community recycling centers help produce the compost needed by the local organic farms. Using community recycling from yard and kitchen waste utilizes a local area’s commonly available resources. These resources in the past were thrown away into large waste disposal sites, are now used to produce low cost organic compost for organic farming. Other practices includes growing a diverse number of perennial crops in a single field, each of which would grow in separate season so as not to compete with each other for natural resources. This system would result in increased resistance to diseases and decreased effects of erosion and loss of nutrients in soil. Nitrogen fixation from legumes, for example, used in conjunction with plants that rely on nitrate from soil for growth, helps to allow the land to be reused annually. Legumes will grow Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 21 for a season and replenish the soil with ammonium and nitrate, and the next season other plants can be seeded and grown in the field in preparation for harvest. Rotational grazing practices in use with paddocks Monoculture, a method of growing only one crop at a time in a given field, is a very widespread practice, but there are questions about its sustainability, especially if the same crop is grown every year. Today it is realized to get around this problem local cities and farms can work together to produce the needed compost for the farmers around them. This combined with growing a mixture of crops (polyculture) sometimes reduces disease or pest problems but polyculture has rarely, if ever, been compared to the more widespread practice of growing different crops in successive years (crop rotation) with the same overall crop diversity. Cropping systems that include a variety of crops (polyculture and/or rotation) may also replenish nitrogen (if legumes are included) and may also use resources such as sunlight, water, or nutrients more efficiently (Field Crops Res. 34:239).Replacing a natural ecosystem with a few specifically chosen plant varieties reduces the genetic diversity found in wildlife and makes the organisms susceptible to widespread disease. The Great Irish Famine (1845– 1849) is a well-known example of the dangers of monoculture. In practice, there is no single approach to sustainable agriculture, as the precise goals and methods must be adapted to each individual case. There may be some techniques of farming that are inherently in conflict with the concept of sustainability, but there is widespread misunderstanding on effects of some practices. Today the growth of local farmers’ markets offer small farms the ability to sell the products that they have grown back to the cities that they got the recycled compost from. By using local recycling this will help move people away from the slash-and-burn techniques that are the characteristic feature of shifting cultivators are often cited as inherently destructive, yet slash-and-burn cultivation has been practiced in the Amazon for at least 6000 years; serious deforestation did not begin until the 1970s, largely as the result of Brazilian government programs and policies. To note that it may not have been slash-and-burn so much as slash-and-char, which with the addition of organic matter produces terra preta, one of the richest soils on Earth and the only one that regenerates itself. There are also many ways to practice sustainable animal husbandry. Some of the key tools to grazing management include fencing off the grazing area into smaller areas 22 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture paddocks frequently. Sustainable intensification (Intensive farming & Sustainable intensive farming) In light of concerns about food security, human population growth and dwindling land suitable for agriculture, sustainable intensive farming practices are needed to maintain high crop yields, while maintaining soil health and ecosystem services. The capacity for ecosystem services to be strong enough to allow a reduction in use of synthetic, non renewable inputs whilst maintaining or even boosting yields has been the subject of much debate. Recent work in the globally important irrigated rice production system of East Asia has suggested that - in relation to pest management at least - promoting the ecosystem service of biological control using nectar plants can reduce the need for insecticides by 70% whilst delivering a 5% yield advantage compared with standard practice. Soil treatment Sheet steaming with a MSD/moeschle steam boiler (left side) Soil steaming can be used as an ecological alternative to chemicals for soil sterilization. Different methods are available to induce steam into the soil in order to kill pests and increase soil health. Solarizing is based on the same principle, used to increase the temperature of the soil to kill pathogens and pests. Certain crops act as natural bio-fumigants, releasing pest suppressing compounds. Mustard, radishes, and other plants in the brassica family are best known for this effect. There exist varieties of mustard shown to be almost as effective as synthetic fumigants at a similar or lesser cost. Off-farm impacts A farm that is able to “produce perpetually”, yet has negative effects on environmental quality elsewhere is not sustainable agriculture. An example of a case in which a global view may be warranted is over-application of synthetic fertilizer or animal manures, which can improve productivity of a farm but can pollute nearby rivers and coastal waters (eutrophication). The other extreme can also be undesirable, as the problem of low crop yields due to exhaustion of nutrients in the soil has been related to rainforest destruction, as in the case of slash and burn farming for livestock feed. In Asia, specific land for sustainable farming is about 12.5 acres which includes land for animal fodder, cereals productions lands for some cash crops and even recycling of related food crops. In some cases Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 23 even a small unit of aquaculture is also included in this number (AARI- 1996). Sustainability affects overall production, which must increase to meet the increasing food and fiber requirements as the world’s human population expands to a projected 9.3 billion people by 2050. Increased production may come from creating new farmland, which may ameliorate carbon dioxide emissions if done through reclamation of desert as in Israel and Palestine, or may worsen emissions if done through slash and burn farming, as in Brazil. International policy Sustainable agriculture has become a topic of interest in the international policy arena, especially with regards to its potential to reduce the risks associated with a changing climate and growing human population. The Commission on Sustainable Agriculture and Climate Change, as part of its recommendations for policy makers on achieving food security in the face of climate change, urged that sustainable agriculture must be integrated into national and international policy. The Commission stressed that increasing weather variability and climate shocks will negatively affect agricultural yields, necessitating early action to drive change in agricultural production systems towards increasing resilience. It also called for dramatically increased investments in sustainable agriculture in the next decade, including in national research and development budgets, land rehabilitation, economic incentives, and infrastructure improvement. Urban planning There has been considerable debate about which form of human residential habitat may be a better social form for sustainable agriculture. Many environmentalists advocate urban development’s with high population density as a way of preserving agricultural land and maximizing energy efficiency. However, others have theorized that sustainable eco-cities, or eco-villages which combine habitation and farming with close proximity between producers and consumers, may provide greater sustainability. The use of available city space (e.g., rooftop gardens, community gardens, garden sharing, and other forms of urban agriculture) for cooperative food production is another way to achieve greater sustainability. One of the latest ideas in achieving sustainable agriculture involves shifting the production of food plants from major factory farming operations to large, urban, technical facilities called vertical farms. The advantages of vertical 24 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture farming include year-round production, isolation from pests and diseases, controllable resource recycling, and on-site production that reduces transportation costs. While a vertical farm has yet to become a reality, the idea is gaining momentum among those who believe that current sustainable farming methods will be insufficient to provide for a growing global population. Criticism Efforts toward more sustainable agriculture are supported in the sustainability community, however, these are often viewed only as incremental steps and not as an end. Some foresee a true sustainable steady state economy that may be very different from today’s: greatly reduced energy usage, minimal ecological footprint, fewer consumer packaged goods, local purchasing with short food supply chains, little processed foods, more home and community gardens, etc. Agriculture would be very different in this type of sustainable economy. Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 25 Government Policies for Sustainable Agriculture

Pradeep Kumar Jain Deptt. of Account, J.V. Jain College, Saharanpur. Introduction Agriculture is a dominant sector of our economy and credit plays an important role in increasing agriculture production. Availability and access to adequate, timely and low cost credit from institutional sources is of great importance especially to small and marginal farmers. Along with other inputs, credit is essential for establishing sustainable and profitable farming systems. Most of the farmers are small producers engaged in agricultural activities in areas of widely varying potential. Experience has shown that easy access to financial services at affordable cost positively affects the productivity, asset formation, income and food security of the rural poor. The major concern of the Government is therefore, to bring all the farmer households within the banking fold and promote complete financial inclusion. Agricultural Credit Policy The Government of India has initiated several policy measures to improve the accessibility of farmers to the institutional sources of credit. The emphasis of these policies has been on progressive institutionalization for providing timely and adequate credit support to all farmers with particular focus on small and marginal farmers and weaker sections of society to enable them to adopt modern technology and improved agricultural practices for increasing agricultural production and productivity. The Policy lays emphasis on augmenting credit flow at the ground level through credit planning, adoption of region-specific strategies and rationalization of lending Policies and Procedures. These policy measures have resulted in the increase in the share of institutional credit of the rural households Institiutional Arrangements Agricultural credit is disbursed through multi-agency network consisting of Commercial Banks (CBs), Regional Rural Banks (RRBs) and Cooperatives. There are approximately 121225 million village level Primary Agricultural Credit Societies (PACS), 371 District Central Cooperative Banks (DCCBs) with 13327 branches and 31 State Cooperative Banks (SCBs) with 1028 branches providing primarily short-term and medium term agricultural credit in the country. The long term cooperative structure consists 26 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture of 19 State Cooperative Agriculture and Rural Development Banks (SCARDBs) and 755 Primary Cooperative Agriculture and Rural Development Banks (PCARDBs) with 1219 branches and 689 branches respectively, which are catering to the requirement of investment credit. Besides, there are 45957 rural and semi-urban branches of Commercial Banks, 14462 branches of RRBs and more than 7 million micro finance institutions. Initiatives Taken By The Government For Increasing Flow of Credit (i) Farm credit package: Government of India in its Farm Credit Package announced in June 2004, advised banks to double credit to agriculture sector in three years, i.e., by 2006-07. In the subsequent annual budgets, Government of India announced targets for credit to agriculture to ensure adequate credit flow to the sector. The flow of agriculture credit since 2003-04 has consistently exceeded the target. (ii) Interest subvention to farmers :Government of India announced an interest subvention scheme in 2006-07 to enable banks to provide short term credit to agriculture (crop loan) upto Rs.3 lakh at 7% interest to farmers. Further, to incentivize prompt repayment, in the Union Budget for 2009-10, Government of India announced an additional interest subvention of 1% to those farmers who repay their short term crop loans promptly and on or before due date. This was subsequently raised to 2% in 2010- 11 and 3% in 2011-12 and 2012-13 also. Thus, farmers, who promptly repay their crop loans, are now extended loans at an effective interest rate of 4% p.a. As proposed in the Union Budget 2013-14, Interest subvention scheme for short-term crop loans to be continued scheme extended for crop loans borrowed from private sector scheduled commercial banks (iii) Extension of interest subvention scheme to post harvest loans In order to discourage distress sale by farmers and to encourage them to store their produce in warehousing against warehouse receipts, the benefit of interest subvention scheme has been extended to small and marginal farmers having Kisan Credit Card for a further period of upto six month post harvest on the same rate as available to crop loan against negotiable warehouse receipt for keeping their produce in warehouses. (iv)Guidelines for providing relief in event of occurrence of natural calamities Reserve Bank has put in place a mechanism to address situations Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 27 arising out of natural calamities. The banks have been issued necessary guidelines for undertaking necessary credit relief measures in event of occurrence of natural calamities. The guidelines, inter alia, contain directions to banks to ensure that the meetings of District Consultative Committees or State Level Bankers’ Committees are convened at the earliest to evolve a co-ordinated action plan for implementation of the relief programme in collaboration with the State/ district authorities. Banks have been advised to provide conversion/ reschedulement of loans and consider moratorium period of at least one year in all cases of restructuring. To enhance awareness, the banks are also required to give adequate publicity to their disaster management arrangements, including the helpline numbers. Further, the banks have been advised not to insist for additional collateral security for such restructured loans. (v) Interest subvention for loan restructured in the drought affected states in 2012 The standing guidelines of Reserve Bank of India (RBI) provide for rescheduling of short term crop loans upon declaration of natural calamity including drought. Suchrescheduling of crop loans converts them into term loans for which normal rate ofinterest are applicable. Due to deficient rainfall this year in some parts of the country,the matter of providing relief to the farmers of the drought affected areas has beenunder the consideration of the Government. (vi) Kisan Credit Card Scheme In order to ensure that all eligible farmers are provided with hassle free and timely credit for their agricultural operation, Kisan Credit Card Scheme for farmers was introduced in 1998-99 to enable the farmers to purchaseagricultural inputs such as seeds, fertilisers, pesticides, etc. The Kisan Credit Card Scheme is in operation throughout the country and is implemented by Commercial Banks, Coop. Banks and RRBs. The scheme has facilitated in augmenting credit flow for agricultural activities. The scope of the KCC has been broad-based to include term credit and consumption needs. All farmers including Small farmers, Marginal farmers, Share croppers, oral lessee and tenant farmers are eligible to be covered under the Scheme. The card holders are covered under Personal Accident Insurance Scheme(PAIS) against accidental death/permanent disability. (vii) Agriculture Debt Waiver and Debt Relief Scheme, (ADWDRS) 28 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 2008 To mitigate the distress of farming community in general and small and marginal farmers in particular and to declog the institutional credit channels and make farmers eligible for fresh credit, the Debt Waiver and Debt Relief Scheme, 2008 was announced in the Union Budget for 2008- 09. The scheme covered direct agricultural loans disbursed (i) between 31 March 1997 and 31 March 2007 (ii) overdue as on 31 December 2007 and (iii) remaining unpaid until 29 February 2008. In the case of small and marginal farmers, short term production loans (subject to a ceiling in respect of plantation and horticulture) and installments of investment loans overdue were covered, while in the case of the other farmers, one time settlement was extended under which a rebate of 25% of the eligible amount was given on the condition that the farmer repays the balance 75% in three installments. (viii) Bringing Green Revolution in Eastern India (BGREI) : Financing Agricultural Investments in the Eastern Region – Concessional RefinanceSupport In order to support the banking system finance such keyinvestments, NABARAD has introduced a concessional refinance scheme in the year 2011-12, with an objective to accelerate investments in agriculture to enhance production and productivity of crops in the Eastern region (Assam, Bihar, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, West Bengal and Eastern Uttar Pradesh) by incentivising the banks. Under the scheme, NABARD provides 100% refinance to banks at aconcessional rate of 7.5% p.a. Provided certain minimum targets are achieved by the bank in financing these key investments. The operative period of scheme is for financial years, 2011-12 and 2012-13. Four activities viz, Water Resources development, Landdevelopment, Farm Equipments (including tractor financing on group mode basis) and Seed Production are covered. Concessional refinance is provided subject to condition of minimum 70% lending against credit potential for the identified activities assessed on the basis of projections made in the Potential Linked Plans. The commercial banks are required to achieve the minimum lending level of 70% while the RRBs and Co-operative Banks are required to achieve the minimum lending level of 50% of the Overall lending Target / Potential assessed. The norms were revised during 2011- 12 being the first year of the scheme, to 50% in case of Commercial Banks and 25% in case of RRBs and Cooperative Banks. Support to the banks for Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 29 (a) Forming and linking of Joint Liability Groups (JLGs) (b) Awareness programmes for promoting the scheme (c) Organizing sensitization meets for the branch officials of implementing banks and (d) Training and capacity building of identified entrepreneurs is also offered under the scheme. In partial modification of the Scheme, Tractor Financing under group mode to Self Help Groups (SHGs) / Joint Liability Groups (JLGs) were also considered for concessional refinance by the banks, provided tractors are financed to; a) An existing Self Help Group (SHG) which is at least two years old b) A new Joint Liability Group (JLG), provided the number of land owning farmers in the group is not less than five and every member is a Small Farmer (SF) or a Marginal Farmer (MF) (ix) Revival Package for Short Term Cooperative Credit Structure The Government is implementing a package for revival of Short- term Rural Cooperative Credit Structure in the country. The Revival Package is aimed at reviving/strengthening the Short-term Rural Cooperative Credit Structure (CCS) and make it a well-managed and vibrant medium to serve the credit needs of rural India, especially the small and marginal farmers. It seeks to (a) provide financial assistance to bring the system to an acceptable level of health; (b) introduce legal and institutional reforms necessary for their democratic, self-reliant and efficient functioning; and (c) take measures to improve the quality of management. Those states choosing to participate in the Revival Package will be entitled for financial assistance under the package through the mechanism of a formal MOU or Exchange of Letters with the Central Government and NABARD to implement (in a phased manner & within a period of 3 Years), the legal and institutional reforms envisaged. Financial assistance for STCCS under the package which has been estimated at Rs 13596 crore will be available for cleansing of Balance Sheet and increasing the capital to a specified minimum level. In order to ensure that the CCS continues on sound financial, managerialand governance norms, technical assistance will also be provided to upgrade institutionaland human resources of the CCS, computerization and building up proper internal controland accounting system. References • “The Analyst”, The Institute of Chartered Financial Analysts of India, Hyderabad. • Banking Annual, Business Standards New Delhi. 30 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture

• Economic & Poltical Weekly. • Report on Trend and Progress of Banking in India”, Reserve Bank of India, Mumbai. • The Economic Times, New Delhi. • sWebsites: www.rbi.org.in, www.iba.org.in, www.iibf.org.in Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 31 Sustainable Techniques For Insect-Pest Management of Vegetable Crops

Rishi Pal1, Rajendra Singh2, Harikesh Singh2and Awaneesh Kumar2 1Gochar Mahavidhyaly, Rampur Maniharan, Saharanpur (U.P.), 2Deptt. of Entomology, Sardar Vallab bhai Patel University of Agriculture & Technology, Meerut (U.P.) Introduction India ranks second in the production of vegetables after china. The existing area under vegetable cultivation in India is around 4-5 million ha. During the last 50 years, there is tremendous increase in vegetable production and therefore, India is largest vegetable producer an estimated production of about 162.9 million tons from 9.40 million ha (Horticulture Statistics at as Glance Data Base, 2015), during 2013-14. For the period the total vegetable production was higest in case of West Bengal (23.045 thousand tonnes), followed by U.P. (18.60 thousand tonnes), during 2013-14. India contributing 13.38 per cent of total world production of vegetable. India occupies first position in cauliflower, second in onion and third in cabbage in world. The importance of vegetables as protective food and as supplier of adequate quantities of vitamins, proteins, carbohydrates and minerals in human diets throughout the world. Vegetable cultivation is one of the more dynamic and major branches of agriculture, and from the point of view of economic value of the produce, it is one of the most important. Majority of Indians are vegetarian, with annual per capita consumption of vegetables are only 63kg as against 220 kg in Korea, 115 kg in China and 105 kg in Japan. In near future, there is need of around 5-6 million tones of food to feed our billion Indian population expected by the year 2020 (Paroda, 1999). The major limiting factor, include the extensive crop devastation due to increased pest menace. In many cases there is 100 per cent yield loss due to viral diseases vectored by insects. The insect pest inflict crop losses to the tune of 40 per cent in vegetable production (Srinivasan, 1993) the extent of crop loses in vegetables varies with the plant type, location, damage potential of the pest involved and cropping season. Vegetables are more prone to insect pest and disease mainly due to their tenderness and softness. At the same time, vegetable cultivation is becoming more costly due to the increasing use of purchased inputs such as pesticides and fertilizers 32 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture to sustain production levels. Vegetable growers by and large depend on chemical pesticides to counter the problem of insect pests. It accounts for 13-14 per cent of total pesticides consumption as against 2.6 per cent of cropped area (Sardana, 2001). Because of high susceptibility of vegetables to insects, farmers tend to apply chemicals for protective purposes. Also, their high profitability combined with a lack of knowledge by the farmers has often led to improper use andhandle of synthetic insecticides. In order to support sustainable vegetable production, it is important to develop better seed, improved cultural practices, better insect and disease management practices. Integrated Pest Management an alternative and effective methods of pest control. The results obtained against a considerable number of key pests have been very promising. The conventional technology in the use of synthetic insecticides has not been very effective against numerous hemipterans insect pest because they generally feed on the underside of foliage or within the plant canopy. Why insect-pests in vegetable crops are difficult to manage? · Multiple generations: Insects have short life cycle with faster rate of multiplication and complete more number of generations in a year. For example whitefly can complete 11 generation/year, where as in Punjab mite is believed to complete 32 generation in a year. · Unlimited food supply: Due to year around cultivation pests has sufficient food so there is no dearth period for them. · Lack of natural enemies: Number of natural enemies is considerably abundant in open environment for checking the pest population but in an enclosed structure, where most of the vegetables are cultivated; these natural enemies are hard to exist. · Manipulated environmental conditions: The manipulated environmental condition inside protected structure favors the faster reproduction and multiplication of insect-pests. Several techniques have been devised for the management of insect-pests which are quite safe to environment and selectively kill insect-pest. Few of them are discussed as follow: Techniques of sustainable pest management in Vegetable Crops The most important consideration in sustainable pest management is that we should not depend on any one method for pest control. All options Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 33 must be carefully considered. Surveys and Surveillance and Monitoring: Timely and precise detection of insects with respect to their distribution and abundance on the related crops, will generate reliable data to support the specific kinds of control/ management programmes. Cultural control Cultural control is a purposeful manipulation of the environment in order to made it less favorable to pests and at the same time more favourable to their natural enemies. it is based mainly on modifications in the time and manner of field operation for raising the crops. the method is most widely applicable in sustaining pest management. cultural control is one of the older and cheapest modes of pest suppression. traditionally, farmers with experience managed most of their pest problems using these methods. Crop Location: Crop diversity can be affected by varying the type of crops growing in adjacent field. Many insects can move quickly from one field to the next and between botanically related crops to obtain their requisite. Location of botanically dissimilar crops adjacent to one another will moderate pest movement, as insect species would not fiend requisites in both. Large- scale monoculturing of cotton, paddy, sugarcane and vegetable crop in India has resulted in a rapid increase in number and intensity of insect pest. Sanitation tillage/removal of weeds Destroying or removing crop residues from fields is to eliminate pests, over wintering sites and reduce the spread of infestation. this may be achieved by ploughing directly or shredding, chopping burning residue or raking and scooping them into piles for buring. ploughing and tillage also expose soil-inhibiting insects and destroy volunteer plants and weeds that provide breeding sites for many pests. summer ploughing results in high mortality of cutworms white grubs, grasshoppers and many soil inhabiting caterpillars and beetles. Adjusting Sowing/harvesting times Infestation by some pests can be avoided by adjusting the time of crop planting. The best example is sowing chickpea or mustard early in the season to avoid pod bores and aphid attack in respective crops. Early sown pea avoids pod borer damage, as the pods are ready when temperature is low and hence not conducive for the development of pest. Similarly by adjusting time of harvesting, crop can be saved from the attack of pest, 34 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture which might become abundant later in the season. In many cases pest are killed before they complete their life cycle, if crop is harvested in time. Harvesting fruits before they are ripe can save them from the damage by some fruit flies, which prefer ripened fruits. Seed rate Adoption of appropriate seed rate ensure proper stand, spacing and crop canopy and checks the unwanted growth of crop. High seed rate is recommended where removal of infested plants is helpful in minimising the incidence of insect pests viz. maize borer in maize. Low seed rate along with untimely rain and high temperature during sowing, drought conditions, favoures termite attack. Plant spacing Spacing may influence the population and damage of many insects by modifying the microenvironment of the crop. Closer spacing may increase the incidence of plant hoppers (BPH, WBH), leaf folder in rice. Crop rotation Farmers with their long experience have learnt to reduce pest problems by carefully rotating the crop belonging to one family with one of a different family. This practice is still very relevant. Rotating groundnut with maize will reduce the attack of white grubs. Rotating pigeon pea or chickpea with leguminous crop is a good practice for managing Fusarium wilt and nematode problems. Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 35

Table 1: Tolerant varieties of some vegetables crops C rops Pest Varieties Tomato Fruitborer( H. Arka Vikash, Pusa Gaurav, pusa Early armigera ) Dwrf, Punjab Keshri, Punjab Chhuhra, pant Bahar, Azad, Avinash-2, Hemsona, Krishna, Sartaj Brinjal Shoot and fruit SM17-4, PBr 129-5 Punjab Barsati, borer ( L. orbnalis ), ARV 2-C, Pusa Purple Round, Punjab Aphid, jassid, Neelam kalyanpur- 2 Punjab Chamkila, thrips, whitefly Gote-2, PBR-91, GB-1 GB-6 Cabbage Aphid All season, Red Drum Head, Sure Head, (B revico ryne Express Mail brossica ) Cauliflower Stem borer Early patha, EMS-3, KW-5 KW-8, (Hellula undalis) Kathmandu Local Okra Jassid ( Amrasca PBR-2, PBR-6 Arka Niketan, Pusa biguttu la ) Rathar, PBR-4 PBR-5, PBR-6 Onion Thrips ( thrips PBR-2 PBR-6 Arka Niketan, pusa tabaci ) Rathar, PBR-4 PBR-5, PBR-6 Round gourd, Fruit fly ( B. Arka Tinda Pumpkin, Bitter Cucurbitae ) Arka Tinda gourd Arka Suryamukhi Hissar-11 Inter cropping Growing of two or more crops together helps in alleviating certain pest problems by making micro-climate less favourable for pest. It also hinders the free movement of pests amongst the plants of some species and those increasing the environmental resistance for the pest Table 2: Major Inter Crops of Vegetables Sr. No. Inter Crop. Insect 1 Tomato + Cabbage DBM, Leaf weaver 2 Chickpea + Wheat/Marley/Mustard Pod borer 3 Cabbage + Carrot DBM 4 Frachbeen + Cabbage Fruit fly T rap crop Trap crop provides protection either by preventing the pest from reaching the main crop or by concentrating them in certain pockets of the field where they can be economically destroyed. The trap crop must be distinctly more attractive to the pest than the main crop. For example African marigold against fruit borer in tomato is a very effective trap crop. The major benefit of trap cropping is that insecticides are seldom required to be used on the main crop and this enhances the natural control of pest. Use of tall African marigold as trap crop for the management of tomato fruit borer, H. armigera, was demonstrated in 1992 (Srinivasan et al., 1994). Planting 36 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture Indian mustard as a trap crop for the management of insect pest of cruciferous vegetable (Moorthy and Kumar, 2004). Host plant resistance Managing insects’ pests and diseases using resistant plant varieties is perhaps most effective economical and environment friendly way. resistance varieties are of special significance for india, where holdings are small and farmers are not equipped to take up other methods and pest control. Table 3: Major Trap Crops of Vegetables Sr. No. Insect Main Crap Trap crop 1 DBM, Aphid, Leaf weavers Cabbage Mustard 2 Fruit borer Tomato African 3 White fly Tomato Cucumber 4 Thrips Cotton Onion, Garlic 5 Stem borer Maize Bajra 6 Fruit borer Cotton Okra 7 Tobacco caterpillar Tobacco Costar W ater and fertilizer management Crop grown in soil rich with humus and balance fertilizer is able to with stand pest attacks due to its increased compensatory power. High levels of nitrogen fertilizers significantly increase the incidence of most of the insect pest including yellow stem borer, leaf folder, green leaf hopper in rice; leaf folder, white fly and boll worm in cotton; internode, stalk borer and pyrilla in sugarcane. In other hand application of potash with nitrogen result in lower incidence of many insect pests. Mechanical It involves use of mechanical or manual operation and mechanical barriers for the control of pests. Hand picking and destruction of inactive adults, conspicuous egg mass and large sized larvae can be collected and killed. Hand picking of hairy caterpillars, leaf rollers, tobacco caterpillars, cabbage butterfly, mustard saw fly, white grubs, may reduce the damage. Pruning and destruction of infested shoot of brinjal may reduce the shoot & fruit borer. Physical It involves manipulation of temperature, humidity, light and sound water etc. for controlling pests. For example – Low temperature (below 40C) makes insects inactive so prevent damage. Stored grain pests can be killed by three hours exposure to 51.50C to 54.50C. Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 37 Light Trap Light traps for attracting and mass killing of several species of moths and beetles are used as a control measure as some insects are phototaxic. The traps could be useful for monitoring the population of important insect pest in an area. Behavioral control Pheromone trap A recent approach involves the development of haloacetate analogous of natural pheromones of a number of insects including, Plutella xylostella, Helicoverpa armigera, Ostrinia nubilalis, Sesami monagrioides and Scotogramma trifolii. These analogous are act as competitive inhibitors of the male response in laboratory and field studies

(Riba et al., 1994). Table 4: Sex pheromones and their purpose against insect pest S. N. H ost Insect pest Pheromone Purpose p lan t 1. Tobacco, Tobacco caterp illar, (Z, E) 9,11- Monitoring co tton, Spodoptera litura Tetradecadenyl acetate and mass vegetables and (Z, E) 9,12 -dienyl trapping ace tate 2. Okra Spotted bollworm, (E,E) 10,12- Monitoring Earias spp. Hexadecadienal 3. Cabbage Thysanopulsia (Z) 7-Dodecenyl acetate Monitoring orc halce a 4. C ucurbits Bactrocera 4(p-Hydroxyphenyl)-2- Monitoring cucurbitae butanoyl acetate Kumar et al., 2009 Adhesive trap (Yellow trap) To reduce the number of small insects like aphids, whitefly etc. yellow traps are used. In this trap, empty yellow container or yellow painted containers, which should be circular in shape and may be coated with grease, Vaseline or castor oil on outer surface. Yellow colour attracts the insect and grease or oil makes them adhere to the trap. Set up yellow trap for monitoring whitefly, aphid, jassids, thrips, @ 8-10 traps/ha. These traps should not be used for the crop in which egg parasitoid Trichogramma are already released. Poison bait trap This trap may be used to control fruit flies, which cause damage to a number of vegetables and fruits. To make this trap, one-liter containers is filled with 1.5 ml methyl-euginol (an adult attractant) + 2 ml nuvon (an insecticide) and one liter water. Adult fruit fly get attracted to the methyl- 38 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture euginol and fall in the trap and die. 4-6 traps/acre are to be used in the field. Biological Control Parasitoid Parasitoid means parasite like. Although, parasitoids are similar to true parasites which are generally much smaller than their hosts. Most parasitoids are highly host specific, laying their eggs on or into a single developmental stage of only or a few closely related host species. They are often described in terms of the host stage within, which they develop. For example, three are eggs parasitoids ( Trichogramma species, Tetrasticus spp., Telonomus spp., Ooenocytus pyrillae, Epicricania melanoleuca). Larval parasitoid (Apantales spp., Senobracon spp.) Larval pupal parasitoids (eggs are place on or into the larval stage of the host and the host pupates before dies), pupal parasitoids (Xenthopimpla spp.) and few species that parasitize adult insect. Predators They consume several to many preys over the course of their development, they are free living, and they are usually as big as or bigger than their prey. Ladybird beetles Particularly their larvae are active in India. They are voracious predators of aphids and will also consume mites, scale insects and small caterpillars. The ladybug is a very familiar beetle with various colored marking, while its larvae are initially small spidery. The larvae a tapering segmented gray/black body with orange/yellow markings. Table 5: Biocontrol agents recommended in vegetable crops Bioagent Dose Target pest Trichogramma 2,50,000 parasitized eggs/ha Okra shoot and fruit borer brossilinsis (Inundative release) tomato fuit borer Chrysoperla 50,000 frist instar larvae/ha Okra aphid Cabbage aphid Zastrowi Arabica (weekly release) HNPV 250 LE/ha (10 days interval) Tomato fruit borer SNPV 250 LE/ ha (10 days interval) Spodoptera litura Bacillus 500 g ai/ha (10 days interval Diamondback moth Shoot and thuringiensis fruit borer of brinjal and okra, Tomoto fruit borer Kairomones Effect Natural enemies Tricosane Preconditionong and reinforcing Chrysopid (increased agent Predation Alpha- Ovipositionl attractrant Singh Chrysopid, Trichogramma, Tryptophan (2001) Coccinellid (Increased ovipositing ) Satpathy et al., 2006

Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 39 Hoverflies Resembling slightly darker bees or wasps, they have characteristic hovering during flight. Adult feed on nectar and pollen which they required for egg production. Eggs are minute (1mm), pale yellow white and laid singly near aphid colonies. Larvae are 8-17 mm long disguised to resemble bird dropping; they are legless and have no distinct head. They are semi- transparent in a range of colours from green, white, brown and blac Chrysoperla carnea Adult green lacewing is delicate, light green bodies, large, clear wings, and bright golden or copper-coloured eyes. Green lacewing larvae are predators of soft-bodied insects viz. jassides, white fly, aphids, thrips, mealy bugs, young larvae, mites and insect eggs but they feed on aphids and are commonly called as “Aphid lion”.Normally Chryspids are recommended for use against different crop pest @ 50,000 to 1,00,000 eggs or 1st instar larvae/ha. Releases are made singly or sequentially at 2- week intervals, depending on the pest to be controlled. Singh et al. (2004). Pathogen Microorganisms like bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa and nematodes develop diseases to the pest and thus help in killing pest. This includes: Fungus Beauveria bassiana, Metarrhizium anisopliae, Nomuraea relyie - Used for soft bodied insects, soil dwellers and lepidopterous larvae. Spraying of B. bassiana 1X104 cfu/g two times with a week interval satisfactorily managed whitefly nymphs and adults. Spraying of B. bassiana @ 2.5 kg/ha was found effective against shoot and fruit borer, L. orbonalis in brinjal (Tiwari et al., 2009) and in okra also found effective against Earias sp. (Lok Nath, 2008) Bacteria B. thuringienesis - Used against diamond black borer, fruit and shoot borer of brinjal. Bt @ 0.5 kg/ha + removal and destruction of infested twigs fruits and fallen leaves were found most effective against shoot and fruit borer, L. orbonalis in brinjal (Tiwari et al., 2009) and application of Bt in okra was found effective against Earias sp. (Lok Nath, 2008) Virus Ha-NPV - Used against tomato fruit borer: S-NPV- Used against tobacco caterpillar. Ha NPV @ 300 LE was found effective against tomato 40 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture fruit borer, H. armigera (Singh et al., 2009). The sprays of Ha NPV at 250 larval equivalents/ha has been found to be effective in controlling fruit borer. Studies at IIHR have indicated that 3-4 applications at weekly intervals, the first spray coinciding with flowering, reduced pest incidence to minimum (> 5%). (Moorthy et al., 1992 and Mohan et al.,1996). Entomopathogenic nematodes Nematodes associated with insects that parasitize, cause disease and kill the insects are called Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPN). Entomopathogenic nematodes persist in the soil as non-feeding, third stage infective juveniles (IJs), detecting their potential hosts by physical and chemical cues. Infective juveniles penetrate the host via natural body openings, such as mouth, anus, spiracles and/or also directly through cuticle. The symbiotic bacteria is released in the haemocoel of the host insect, causing septicaemia and death of the host, usually within 24 – 48 h of infection. Virulence of entomopathogenic nematode, Heterorhabditis indica (Meerut strain), against lepidopteran and coleopteran pests. (Prasad, C.S. et al., 2010). Pathogenicity and Mass production of Entomopathogenic Nematode, Heterohabditis indica on major insects of agricultura importance (Pal, Rishi et al., 2012) Botanicals NSKE sprays are recommended on a variety of crops such as cabbage, cauliflower, tomato and cucurbits against all pests, on tomato and cucurbits against serpentine leaf miner, and on beans against stem fly, Ophiomyia phaseoli. In cabbage and cauliflower, NSKE sprays provided excellent control of all the pests and the crop could be raised without a single insecticide application. Many neem formulations have been found effective against serpentine leaf miner also. The use of neem seed cakes is well known for controlling nematodes. These also reduce soil-borne insects like termites, grubs, etc. use of NSKE @ 5% and Neem gold @ 2 ml/l were found effective against L. orbonalis (Tiwari et al., 2009) The insecticide resistant brinjal shoot and fruit borer was effectively reduced to 6-10% by 2-3 soil applications of neem and pongamia cakes @ 250 kg/ha. This was found to reduce the incidence of ash weevil, gall midge and thrips successfully and with minimum insecticide use. Botanicals were found to be effective against pest complex of brinjal. Application of neem cake decreases the incidence of borer. The soil application of neem cake Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 41 @ 250 kg/ha at sowing and two repeated applications at 30-45 days interval was found to reduce the incidence of okra insects. Nicotine sulphate was found effective in suppressing leafhopper population. Leaf extract of Parthenium hysterophorus 3% was found effective against leafhopper (Pawar et al., 2001) of okra. Leaf extract of Lantana camara was found effective against Earias sp. (Lok Nath, 2008). NSKE and nimbecidine was found effective against tomato fruit borer, H. armigera (Singh et al., 2009) Selection of Chemicals May Sustain the IPM System These insecticides should be used considering certain aspect like waiting period of chemical, economic threshold level and initiation of control measures through pheromone /light trap catches. Safe use of chemicals can be adopted in IPM. For this Regular monitoring of crop for occurrence of pest, Economic Threshold Level and Judicious selection and use of chemicals is important. Table 6: Biorational insecticides for use in vegetables S. Common name Crop Target pest Dose/ha N. (g a . I.) 1. Imidacloprid 17.8% SL Chilli Jassid, aphid, thrips 25 -20 Chilli Okra Jassid, aphid, thrips 20 2. Thiamethoxam 25% WG Okra Jassid, aphid, whitefly 25 Tomoto Whitefly 50 Brinjal Whitefly 50 3. Thiacloprid 21.7% SC Chilli Thrips 54 -72 4. Fipronil 5% SC Cabbage DBM 40 -50 Chillies Thrips, aphid, froit bore, 40 -50 5. Indoxacarb 14.5% SC Cabbage DBM 30 -40 6. Spinosad 2.5%SC Cabbage/c DBM 15.0-17.5 aulflow er 7. Spinasod 45%SC Chillies Fruit borer 73 8. Chlorantranilprole 18.5% Cabbage DBM 10 SC Okra Fruit and shoot brer 9.5-11.0. 9. Emmamection benzoate Cabbage DBM 7.5-10.0 Chilli Fruit borer ,thrips, mite 10 Brinjal Fruit and shoot brer 10 10. Chlorfenapyre 10% SV Chilli Mite 75 -100 11. Spiromesifen 22.9% SV Brinjal Red spider mite 96 Chilli Yellow mite 96 12. Diafenthurion 50% EC Cabbage DBM 300 Chilli Mite 300 Brinjal Whitefly 300 13. Lufenuron 5.4% EC Cabbage/c DBM 30 auliflower 14. Novaluron 10% EC Cabbage DBM 75 Tomato Fruit borer 75 Chilli Fruitborer,tobacco 33.5 caterpillar 15. Buprofezin 25 % SC Chillies Yellow mite 75 -100 16. Flufenoxuron 10% DC Cabbage DBM 40

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Table 7: Important considerations in Chemical Control Pest ETL DBM of cabbage ( P. xylostella ) 10 larvae/plant at seedling stage Cauliflower aphids 30 aphids/plant Chilli mites ( P. latus ) Single mite/leaf Chilli thrips ( S. dorsalis ) 2 thrips/leaf Whitefly ( B. tebaci ) in brinjal 5-10 flies/leaf BSFB (L. orbonalis) o.5% shoot and 5% fruit damage, 8-10 moths/ day/ trap Tomoto Fruit borer( H. armigera ) 1 Larva/ plant or 2% fruit damage Okra fruit borer( E. vittella ) 5.3% of fruit infestation Leafhopper( A. biguttula biguttula ) 4-5 nymphs/plant Pea aphids( Acyrtosiphon pisum ) 3-4 aphids/stem tip

Integrated Pest Management of Vegetables Crops Pests of brinjal Shoot and fruit bore (Leuciniodes orbonalis Guenee,) The Major host plants of the pest are Brinjal. The young caterpillars bore into the tender shoots near the growing points, flower buds or the fruits. A single caterpillar may destroy as many as 4-6 fruits. The larva comes out of the damaged shoot or fruit and pupates in a tough gray cocoon in soil or plant debris. Attacked fruits become unfit for consumption and marketing. Infestation up to 70 per cent has been recorded. Brinjal Stem borer (Euzophera perticella Rag.) The moths emerge sometime in second half of March and soon after mating, the females start laying eggs. The caterpillars cause the damage and feed exclusively in the main stem. It enters the main stem and makes tunnel, which result either in stunting of growth or wilting of whole plant, prior to yellowing of leaves. Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 43

Table 8: Insect pest of major vegetable Crops Vegetables Insect pest Scientific name Damage% References Cabbage Diamond back Plutella Xylostella 20-52 Chellaiah & moth sreenivasan, 1986 Cabbage borer Hellulla undalis NA Cauliflower Diamond back Phutella xittella 20-52 Chellaiah & moth Sreenivasan, 1986 Okra Shoot and fruit Earias vittella NA bore Fruit borer Helicoverpa armigera NA Tomato Fruit borer Helicoverpa armigera 15-46 Singh, 1991 Brinjal Shoot and fruit Leucinodes orbonalis 25-92 Mall, 1992 bore Stem borer Euzophera perticella NA Hadda beetle Epilachna NA vigintioctopunctata Chilli Thrips Scirtothrips dorsalis 11.8.90 Dhandapani et al, 2003 Cucurbits Melon fruit fly Bactrocera cucurbitae 50-100 Panwar, 1995 Pumpkin beetle Raphidopalpa foveicollis NA Potato Tuber moth Pthorimaea operculella 30-70 Srivastava, 2000 NA- Nat available, Source: Dhandapani et al, 2003. Pests of Tomato Tomato Fruit borer (Helicoverpa armigera (Hub.) The Major host plants of the pest are Okra, onion, brinjal, potato, chillies, tomato cowpea beans, gram, maize, cotton, pea, pigeon pea etc. The younger larvae feed initially on the foliage for a while and later bore into the green fruits. The larva while feeding, thrusts its head into the fruit leaving the rest of its body outside. Early instars feed on leaves and fruiting bodies. Latter they bore into fruits. The bored fruits invite secondary infection by other organisms, lead to rotting. Tobacco caterpillar (Spodoptera litura (F.) Major host plants of this pest are Brinjal ,Cabbage, cauliflower, Capsicum, cucurbits, okra, Phaseolus, potato, sweet potato and species of Vigna and other wild hosts. After hatching, the larvae feed gregariously together and later they spread out and feed individually. 44 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture Serpentine leaf miner: (Liriomyza trifolii (Burgess) Major host plants of the pest are Okra, onion, cucurbits, beans, potato, brinjal, crucifers and other crops. Liriomyza trifolii is one of the polyphagous agromyzids causing serious damages on several crops including ornamentals. Damage is due to mining into leaves and petiole by the larva. The photosynthetic ability of the plants is often greatly reduced as the chlorophyII – containing cells are destroyed. Severely infested leaves dry up and fall. Whiteflies: (Bemisia tabaci Gene.) The major host plants, the pest are Okra, crucifers, cucurbits and solanaceous crops. On hatching, the first instars larva (only mobile stage) or crawler moves to a suitable feeding site on the lower leaf surface where it moults and becomes stationary throughout the remaining sates. Apart from the direct damage to the crops by way of sucking the sap. B. tabaci is an important vector of a wide array of plant virus diseases. Pest of chilli Thrips (Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood,) This is a polyphagous pest. Besides chillies, it feeds on tomato, cotton, castor, sunflower, mango and citrus. The nymphs and adults lacerate and suck the cell sap from leaves and tender parts of the plants and causes the leaves to shrivel and curl upward. In case of severe infestation, there is a malformation of leaves, buds and fruits. The attacked shoots hardly develop and the leaves fall off. They are also responsible for transmitting the leaf curl disease in chillies. Broad mite: (Polyphagotarsonemus latus Banks) This mite is a polyphagous pest with a wide array of host plants belonging to solancaeae and cucurbitaceae. The foliage often becomes rigid and appears bronzed scorched. Discoloration of tissues due to mite feeding, fruits become deformed or fail to develop. Severely infected fruits fall. Cruciferous Vegetables Diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella (L.) P. xylostella is considered as the main insect pest of crucifers, particularly cabbage, broccoli and cauliflower. The newly hatched larvae cause serious damage to crops like cabbage, cauliflower by scrapping the leaf tissues, and they grow older, bite holes in them and render the vegetables unfit for human consumption. A severe infestation results in the formation of under-sized curds in cauliflower and in cabbage, head formation does Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 45 not take place when the infestation is severe during primordial stage. Leaf Webber (Crocidolomia pavonana (F.) The major host plants of this pest are cabbage, cauliflower and mustard. C. pavonana is of great economic importance in central and southern India. The larvae web the leaves wit silken stands and feed on the lower surface of the leaves and completely skeletonize them. In cauliflower, larvae nibble the growing tip of seedlings and bore into the curd resulting in discoloration of curds. Even a single mature larva per plant is capable of causing economic loss to cabbage at pre and post- heading stages. Cabbage caterpillar (Pieris brassicae (L.) The major host plants of this pest are cabbage, cauliflower, other cruciferous vegetables and mustard. Freshly hatched caterpillars scrape the leaf surface. The older larvae eat up the leaves from margins, leaving intact the main vein. Sometimes all the leaves of entire plant are eaten away. Cabbage head borer (Hellula undalis (F.) It is major pest of cole crops in tropical and subtropical regions. Younger seedlings are most susceptible to the attack of these pests. The caterpillar in initial first two instars mine the leaves. Later on, they feed on the leaf surface and bore into the heads of the cauliflower and cabbage. Cabbage semilooper (Thysanoplusia orichalcea (F.) It is a polyphagous pest and defoliates a wide range of crop plants such as ads cabbage, turnip, lettuce, cotton, chicory groundnut, sun hemp, tobacco, sunflower, tomato, potato, chickpea and soybean. The younger larvae infect damage by biting holes into the leaves. The later stages larvae completely defoliate the plant during severe infestation. Aphids (Myzus persicae sulzer and Brevicoryne brassicae (L.) Aphids appear in November and remain active till April. Both nymphs and adults are similar in appearance. Direct feeding on young growth leads to wilting of plants. Early attack may lead to stunted growth. Symptoms of viruses transmitted by B. brassicae include mosaic, chlorotic and necrotic lesions on leaves. M. persicae is the most important aphid virus vector. It has been shown to transmit well over 100 plant virus diseases. Tobacco caterpillar (Spodoptera litura (F.) Major host plants of this pest are brinjal, cabbage, cauliflower, capsicum, cucurbits, okra, phaseolus, potato, sweet potato and species of 46 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture Vigna and other wild hosts. Larvae are very active at night. Heavy infestation in the form of out breaks can severely defoliate the crop. Pests of Malvaceous Vegetables Pests of okra Shoot and fruit borer (Earias vittella (F.) It is major pest on Malvaceous crops like okra and cotton. Both nymphs and adults of leafhoppers are seen on the underside of the leaf sucking the sap. The initial symptoms of leafhopper damage are yellowing of leaves, followed by crinking around the margins and upward curling of leaves. Severely affected plants have stunted growth. Red Spider mites: Tetranychus urticae Koch The pest is polyphagous and is known to feed on more than 150 species of plants including cucurbits, brinjal and okra. etc. The damage is caused both by nymphs and adults. A large number of webs are formed on the leaves under which the pest sucks the cell sap. The affected leaves dry up and finally wither away giving and unhealthy appearances. Webbing interferes with the plant growth and reduction in yield. Pest of Cucurbits Melon fruit fly: (Dacus cucurbitae (Coq.) B. cucurbitae is a serious pest of cucurbitaceous crops particularly bitter gourd and musk melon and have dark patch on the outer margins of their wings. The larvae tunnel in the fruit, contaminating them with frass and providing entry points for fungi and bacteria, which cause the fruit to rot. The infestation varies from 50-100 per cent in different cucurbitaceous crops. Red pumpkin beetle (Raphidopalpa foveicollis (Lucas) The host plants of this pest are pumpkin, cucumber, ash guard, bitter gourd and melons. The grubs live in soil feeding on roots and underground stems of vines and sometimes on fruits in contact with the sioil. the beetles feed on aerial parts of the plants like cotyledons, flowers and foliage by biting holes into them. The damage by beetles is detrimental to the cotyledon stage of the seedlings. Leaf Eating Caterpillar: (Diaphania indica (Saunders) It is an irregular and sporadic pest of cucurbits becoming serious currently on cucumber, gherkins and bitter gourd. Initially after hatching, caterpillars feed on the leaves by binding them together. Some time the Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 47 flowers are also infested. The vines are cut from one side and the terminal parts become yellowish and dry up. The fruits show clear holes made by the larvae. The bored fruits become unfit for consumption. Conclusion Despite use of pesticides, insect pests and diseases cause considerable losses in vegetables. Moreover, many insect pests have developed resistance to insecticides used to control them, implying repeated applications of insecticides and increase in the cost of protection, secondary out break and pest resurgence. Therefore, there is an urgent need to popularize the new technologies after taking stock of the existing techniques and if necessary, modify them to suit different ecological needs. The perusal of literature shows that there are several ecofriendly ways available to reduce the pesticide uses in vegetable cultivation and produce optimization. The pest management tools that have been deployed have had a positive impact on the environment by reducing the amount of chemical pesticides that are applied to these crops. There is a need to realize to potential of indigenous bio-control agents and attention should be given to conserve them. The newer technologies and practices embedded in IPM provide better protection against insect pests; improve crop yields and net benefits to the farmers. References • Anonymous.(2015). Horticulture at a Glance pp 9-10. • Atwal A.S., and Dhariwal; G.S., (2004). Legislative, Cultural and Mechanical Control Agriculture Pest of South Asia and Their Management pp. 54-67. • Jain P.C. and BhargavA M.C., (2007). Ecological Perspective of Pest Management. Entomology Novel Appropaches.PP. 109-119. • Lok Nath. (2008). Bio-intensive management of shoot and fruit borer, Earias sp. on okra. Ph.D thesis submitted to S.V.P.University of Agriculture & Technology, Meerut, India. • Mall, N. P., Pande, R. S., Singh, S. V. and Singh S. K., 1992. Seasonal incidence of insect pests and estimation of losses caused by shoot and fruit borer on brinjal. Ind. J. Ent 54(3):241–247. • Mathur Y.K., and Upadhay K.D., (204). Insect Control. A Text Book of Entomology pp 54-67. • Mohan, K.S., Asokan, R. and Gopalakrishnan, C. (1996). Isolation and filed application of a nuclear polyhedrosis virus for the control of fruit borer: Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner) on tomato. Pest Management in Horticultural 48 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture

Ecosystems 2: 1-8. • Moorthy, P.N. K. and Kumar, N.K. (2004). Integrated Pest Management in Vegetable Crops. Proceedings 11. Integrated Pest Management in Indian Agriculture. National Centre for Agricultural Economics and Policy Research (NCAP), New Delhi, And National Centre For Integrated Pest Management (NCIPM) New Delhi, India, pp. 95-108. • Prasad CS, Hussain MA, Pal R, Prasad M. (2010). Virulence of entomopathogenic nematode, Heterorhabditis indica (Meerut strain), against lepidopteran and coleopteran pests. Vegetos 25(1): 343-351(2012). • Paroda, R. S. (1999). For a food secure future. The Hindu Survey of Indian Agriculture. • Pal Rishi, Tiwari G. N. and Prasad C.S. Pathogenicity and Mass production of Entomopathogenic Nematode, Heterohabditis indica on major insects of agricultura importance Trends in Biosciences 5(1): 38-40. 2012. • Riba, M., Eizaguirre, M., Sans, A., Quero, C. and Guerrero, A. 1994. Inhibition of pheromone action in Sesami monagrioides by haloacetate analogues. Pestic. Sci. 41: 97-103. • Sardana, H. R. Integrated pest management in vegetables. In: training manual- 2, Training on IPM for zonal Agriculture Research Stations. May 21-26. pp.: 105-118. • Shrivastav K.P., and Arora Ramesh (2006). Legislative, Cultural and Mechanical Control . Text book of Entomology Vol I pp. 5-13. • Singh S.P. and Prasad C.S., (2004). Technique of Sustainable Pest Management Integrated Pest Management in crops. Pp. 1-20. • Singh, D. (1991). Pests of solanaceous vegetables in “A decade of research on pests of horticultural crops, 1980–1990”, Group discussion of entomologists working on coordinated prioject of horticultural crops held at CIHNP, Luknow. • Singh, R., Dhaka, S.S., Kumar, A., Ali, N. and Tiwari, G. 2009. Bio-efficacy of some neem formulations against Helicovrpa armigera (Hub.) in tomato. Ist Indian Agricultural Scientist and farmers Congress, 03-04 Oct. 2009. C.C.S. Uni. Meerut, India. pp: 27 • Singh, R., Prasad, C.S. and Tiwari, G. (2009). Eco-friendly management of tomato fruit borer, Helicovrpa armigera (Hub.). International Conference on Current trends in Bio-technology, 19-21 Feb. (2009). S.V.P.U.A. & T., Meerut, India. pp: 160-161. Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 49

• Srinivasan, K. 1993. Pests of vegetable crops and their control. In: Advances in Horticulture, 6: Vegetable crops Eds. K.L Chaddha and G. Kallu. Malhotra Pub. House, New Delhi. pp: 859-886. • Srinivasan, K. and Veeresh, K. (1986). The development and comparison of visual damage threshold for chemical control of Plutella xylostella and Crocidolomia binotalis on cabbage in India. Insect Sci. Appli. 7: 547-557. • Srinivasan, K., Krishnamoorthy, P.N. and Raviprasad, T.N. (1994). African marigold as a trap crop for the management of the fruit borer; Helicoverpa armigera on tomato. International Journal of Pest Management 40 (1): 56-63. • Srivastava, K.P. (2000). Pests of vegetables. A Textbook of Applied Entomology. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi, 116-132 pp. • Tiwari, G.N.; Prasad, C.S. and Lok Nath. (2009). Integrated management of brinjal shoot and fruit borer, Leucinodes orbonalis Guen. in western Uttar Pradesh. Annals of Horticulture, 2(1): 54-61. • Tiwari, G.N.; Prasad, C.S.; Singh, R. and Lok Nath. (2009). Bio-intensive management of brinjal shoot and fruit borer, Leucinodes orbonalis Guen. (Pyralidae: Lepidoptera). Ist Indian Agricultural Scientist and farmers Congress, 03-04 Oct. (2009). C.C.S. Uni. Meerut, India. pp: 328. 50 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture Sustainable Agriculture: An overall accelerated Development of Horticulture in National perspective

Harpal Singh1, Gaurav Ahirwar2 and Joginder Singh2 1Janta Vedic College, Baraut, Baghpat, U.P., 2Deptt. of Horticulture, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, BAU, Jhasi, U.P. A vision is, like a Pole Star which helps navigate routes, even in the rough weather, to the destination successfully. Global agricultural production has outpaced unprecedented population growth over the past 25 years. Humankind owes this immensely to the foresight of the people, that ensured adequate food production, averting mass deprivation and hunger. While the world has won several important battles in the area of food security, the war is still on. Eight hundred million people, forming 15% of the world population, do not have access to food needed for healthy and productive living. One-third of the all pre-school children in the developing countries are food insecure, and deserve all care and attention. According to IMF World Economic Outlook (April-2016), GDP growth rate of India in 2015 is 7.336% and India is 9th fastest growing nation of the world. In 2014, India was 14th fastest growing nation of the world with GDP growth rate of 7.244%South Asia and Africa are the hot spots, because more than two thirds to three-fourths of the world’s malnourished are located there. World population is expected to increase from around 6 billion now to around 8 billion by 2020. And more than 95% of the additional will be in the developing countries. The prospects of food security for them, therefore, remain bleak. In South Asia and Africa, two out of five children will remain malnourished, despite distinct improvement in per caput food availability. Thus, food and nutritional security will continue to remain major challenge for developing countries all over the world. Sustainable Agriculture is farming in sustainable ways based on an understanding of ecosystem services, the study of relationships between organisms and their environment. The phrase was Sustainable agriculture is farming in sustainable ways based on an understanding of ecosystem services the study of relationships between organisms and their environment. It has been defined as “an integrated system of plant and animal production practices having a site-specific application that will last over the long terms reportedly coined by the Australian agricultural scientist Gordon McClymont. Wes Jackson is credited Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 51 with the first publication of the expression in his 1980 book New Roots for Agriculture. The term became popularly used in the late 1980. India’s Horticulture production currently nearing 280 million ton a year, has not only brought prosperity to small and marginal farmers but also provided food and nutritional security to the Nation. Ranked as the second largest producer of Fruits & Vegetables in the world, horticulture in India has today emerged as one of the most important sectors for diversification in agriculture. NHB’s contribution in this direction has been multidimensional: supporting the farmers and the entrepreneur to face challenges of globalised markets with improved production, post harvest management and value addition through its broad based entrepreneur driven innovative schemes since the year 1999-2015. After the launch of Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH) since April 2014, it became imperative for NHB to re-position itself and assume a new role to accelerate planned development of Commercial Horticulture sector. To achieve this, schemes of NHB have been modified to generate synergy with other subschemes of MIDH and fulfill the aim of development of horticulture sector by removal of overlap. It may be noticed that while a number of existing scheme components continued to be operational with necessary modifications, the Govt has approved higher level of subsidy of 40 % for open field cultivation and 50 % for protected cultivation to maintain parity with the schemes of NHM under MIDH. It is expected that these schemes will lead to increased productivity and improved post-harvest management and marketing with emphasis on quality which in turn will encourage entrepreneurship in every aspect of horticulture including exports. Over the years, horticulture has emerged as one of the potential agricultural enterprise in accelerating the growth of economy. Its role in the country’s nutritional security, poverty alleviation and employment generation programmes is becoming increasingly important. It offers not only a wide range of options to the farmers for crop diversification, but also provides ample scope for sustaining large number of Agroindustries which generate huge employment opportunities. At present, horticulture is contributing 24.5% of GDP from 8% land area. During the previous two Plan periods, focused attention was given to horticultural research and development. The result has been encouraging. On account of significant production increases in horticultural crops across the country, a Golden Revolution is in the offing and India has emerged as a leading 52 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture player in the global scenario. We have now emerged as the world’s largest producer of coconut and tea and the second largest producer and exporter of tea, coffee, cashew, spices exports of fresh and processed fruits, vegetables, cut flowers, dried flowers have also been picking up, As a result of a number of thoughtful research, technological and policy initiatives and inputs, horticulture in India, today, has become a sustainable and viable venture for the small and marginal farmers. It is a matter of satisfaction that their food consumption levels and household income have increased. During the past several years, we have created commensurate infrastructure facilities for horticultural research, education and development in the country in terms of setting up of institutes, National Research Centres, All India Coordinated Research Projects, establishment of separate Departments of Fruits, Vegetables, Floriculture in several State Agricultural Universities and carving out State Departments of Horticulture from the erstwhile Agriculture Departments in many of the States. About 10 per cent of the total budget of Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) and 17 per cent of the total budget of the Department of Agriculture & Cooperation (DAC) has been earmarked for the horticulture sector during the IX Plan. There is no doubt that the tempo generated during the IX Plan will be accelerated, during the next plan and to meet the aspirations of the farmers of the country besides providing the needed nutritional security to the Indian population. The planning process for the development of horticulture during the Xth Plan has commenced with the constitution of the Working Group on Horticulture Development covering fruits, vegetables, potato, tropical tubercrops, mushroom, floriculture, medicinal & aromatic plants, plantation crops and spices. Efforts have been made to highlight the current status of horticulture industry in terms of area , production productivity & exports, future demand, infrastructure available for the same, constraints, progress during the Ninth Plan, opportunities and strategies to achieve objectives, organisational and infrastructure support besides drawing programmes for the XIth Plan. The emerging trends in deployment of hi-tech horticulture have also been discussed in detail. An attempt has been made to provide recommendations, which could result into action programmes for accelerating the growth of the horticulture sector. The projected demand of horticultural commodities, worked out based on the norms and trends, increase considerably . Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 53 Glimpses of Indian Horticulture – A brief review · Globally, second largest producer of fruits and vegetables · Largest producer of mango, banana, coconut, cashew, papaya, pomegranate etc. · Largest producer and exporter of spices · Ranks first in productivity of grapes, banana, cassava, peas, papaya etc. · Export growth of fresh fruits and vegetables in term of value is 14% and of processed fruits and vegetables is 16.27% · A total of 1,596 high yielding varieties and hybrids of horticultural crops (fruits – 134, vegetables – 485, ornamental plants – 115, plantation and spices – 467, medicinal and aromatic plants – 50 and mushrooms – 5) were developed. As a result the productivity of horticultural crops viz. banana, grapes, potato, onion, cassava, cardamom, ginger, turmeric etc. has increased significantly. · As per National Horticulture Database published by National Horticulture Board 2014-15 the area under floriculture production in India was 248.51 thousands hectares with a production of 1,685 thousand tonnes loose flowers and 472 thousand tonnes cut flowers. · As per National Horticulture Database published by National Horticulture Board, during 2014-15 India produced 86.602 million metric tonnes of fruits and 169.478 million metric tonnes of vegetables. The area under cultivation of fruits stood at 6.110 million hectares while vegetables were cultivated at 9.542 million hectares. Horticultural Diversification Demand for high-value commodities is increasing rapidly with the rising per capita income, growing urbanization and unfolding globalization. To meet the demand of these commodities, research focus would be further strengthened to augment their production more efficiently and competitively. Along with the development of improved genotypes (varieties and hybrids) and management practices for raising productivity of these commodities in different agro-eco-regions, consumer-preferred quality traits and food safety would be given high priority. Employment Generation Horticultural crops are labour intensive. These crops being delicate and tender in nature, require utmost care in each and every aspect of cultivation right from the selection of site to harvesting, processing, marketing 54 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture and storage. Income Generation Use of protected cultivation under controlled conditions using Hi- tech horticulture for growing fruits like strawberries, vegetables like cucumber, cabbage, capsicum, tomato and temperate vegetables in plain areas and high value cut flowers for domestic use and export. Promoting cultivation of crops, which produces higher biomass/unit area/unit time e.g., banana, pineapple, papaya, potato, sweet potato, tapioca, elephant foot yam in areas requiring poverty alleviation and nutritional security. Application of frontier technologies (Hi-tech horticulture) e.g. microirrigation, fertigation, integrated nutrient management etc for improving productivity of high value crops. Use of honeybees for pollination thus increasing fruit set and productivity in most of the cross-pollinated horticulture crops. Enhancing the shelf life of fruits and vegetables such as mango, grape, litchi through use of pre-cooling units controlled/ modified atmosphere/ refrigerated containers, particularly for transport by sea and reduce transport losses. Nutritional Development Fruit and vegetables being rich in vitamins and minerals are commonly known as protective food. Indian council of Medicinal Research (ICMR) recommends the use of 120g fruits and 280g vegetables per capita per day. Industrial Development The agricultural sector in India, like many developing countries, continues to occupy a pivotal position, and contributes to about one-third of the Gross Domestic Product. Nearly two-thirds of the work-force is employed in this sector. And the overall performance of the economy is largely dependent on this sector. In the post-independence period, the technology back-up by the agricultural scientists coupled with the positive policy support, greater public funding for agricultural R&D and dedicated work of farmers have contributed to phenomenal increase in agricultural, Golden Revolution through significant production increases in horticultural crops is already on the horizon. Genetic Resources Conservation More than 180,000 germplasm accessions of different agri- horticultural crops and their wild relatives collected/ augmented and conserved ex situ in the national base collection ( 20°C). And nearly 2,500 accessions of about 50 recalcitrant, difficult or rare species, conserved in in vitro in Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 55 tissue-culture bank (4° to-25°C) or in-cryo-bank (-196°C). A total of 72,974 genetic resources holding 9240 accessions of fruits, 25,400 accessions of vegetables an tuber crops, 25,800 accessions of plantation and spices, 6250 accessions of medicinal and aromatic plants, 5300 accessions of ornamental plants and 984 accessions of mushroom. Released 460 high-yielding varieties/ hybrids of Horticultural and plantation crops; developed following: red coloured, dwarf, regular-bearing and seedless hybrids of mango, summer cropping acid-lime, gyno-dioecious varieties of papaya, leaf-spot resistant banana and high-yielding, good quality cultivars of grape, pomegranate, Aonla, coconut, areacanut and cashewnut;F1 hybrids and disease-and pest-resistant vegetables and high-value spices and tuber crops developed for industrial use; kinnow mandarin and Kiwi fruit introduced successfully in the northwestern plains and hills, respectively. Biotechnology Standardization of shoot-tip grafting technique in citrus. Genetic engineering to delay ripening and to prolong shelf-life of fruits, and also molecular testing and hardening of transgenics of tomato. To address future needs, research will facilitate sustainable use of available genetic resources through – (i) Characterization, (ii) Genetic enhancement and prebreeding, (ii) Functional genomics, proteomics, phenomics etc., (iii) Gene mining, (iv) Molecular breeding through tools like marker-aided selection and gene stacking, (v) Customized genetic engineering (development of trait-specific transgenics. Natural Resources Management Prepared soil maps of the country in 1:1 million scale and of several states in 1:250,000 scale, and also prepared model land resource atlas for 6 states. Based on the soil and bioclimatological characteristics, delineated country into 20 eco-regions and 60 subregions. Alternatives to shifting cultivation developed for the north-east region . Production of fruits and vegetables tripled during the last 50 years. Agroforestry systems such as Agrisilviculture, Agri-Silvi-horticulture, Agri horticulture and Silvipasture,Breeding for yield stability led to varieties resistant/tolerant to 56 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture biotic/abiotic stresses in several field and horticultural crops. Efficiency Improvements Use of Azotobacter economized N requirement of potato-crop to the extent of 21%. Identified resource efficiency and remunerative cropping systems for different agro-farming systems. Water-use efficient micro- irrigation methods and technologies developed for utilization of available water for Horticultural and plantation crops, resulting in 30-50% saving. Several strategies utilized successfully for improving yields in horticultural crops such as application of Growth retardants in mango, drip irrigation in banana, grape and coconut, and high-density planting in Mango, Banana, Pineapple and Kinnow-orange. Pest and Pathogen Management Biological control for Phytophthora in citrus, black pepper and cardamom. Developed region-specific integrated pest management modules for various pest-intensive crops and weeds. To minimize the dependence on toxic pesticides, eco-friendly bio-agents like, Trichogramma, NPV, Paecilomyces etc. were developed to combat insect pests. Efficient strains of Trichoderma, P. thiorescens, Aspergillus etc. were isolated and scaled up to manage soil-borne pathogens like Fusarium, Rhizoctoria, Pythium, Phytophthora and plant parasitic nematodes in horticultural crops. Post harvest Technology and Management Equipment developed for various post-harvest operations of field crops, vegetables and tuber crops. Cost-effective and fuel-efficient machines designed for continuous khoa- and ghee-making for industrial use. Post- harvest technology developed for perishable commodities. Varieties suitable for processing developed in tomato and potato. On-farm storage structures, including a zero-energy cool chamber, developed for fruits and vegetables crops. Precooling and cold storage temperatures standardized for several fruits and vegetables. Carbonated drinks developed from several minor fruits. For cultivation of oyster mushroom, coconut waste has been found a suitable substrate. Standardized rapid vegetative propagation techniques for several Horticultural crops, hitherto propagated by seed. Protocols developed for multiplication of sugarcane, banana, pineapple, papaya, grape, cardamom, orchids and anthurium through micropropagation. Technology standardized for raising potato-crop through true potato seed (TPS), and technology perfected for production of microtubers. Farm mechanization to increase Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 57 harvesting and processing efficiency and to reduce crop loss has been implemented by developing fruit harvesters, grading and cutting machines, driers, sorters etc. Low cost environment friendly cool chamber was developed for on farm storage of fruits and vegetables. Informatics Computer software developed for creating, updating and for retrieval of data. Agricultural Research Information System (ARIS) has been set up. Strong infrastructure developed for publication of research journals, ICAR Newsletter, ICAR Reporter, Agricultural data book, handbooks, monographs, technical bulletins on agriculture, and for agri-business to provide latest information. Database information and expert systems were developed on Germplasm resources, pests and diseases in potato, grapes and spices. Reference • A Brief History of Sustainable Agriculture, Frederick Kirschenmann, editor’s note by Carolyn Raffensperger and Nancy Myers. The Networker, vol. 9, no. 2, March 2004. • ICAR (Indian Council of Agricultural Research) (2006) Guidelines for Intellectual Property Management and Technology Transfer/Commercialization. New Delhi, India. • Rural Science Graduates Association (2002). “In Memorium - Former Staff and Students of Rural Science at UNE”. University of New England. Retrieved 21 October 2012. • Wes Jackson, New Roots for Agriculture. Foreword by Wendell Berry. University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 08-032-75625-. Sources Source: APEDA, DGCIS Principal commodities data April- August (2016-17) (Provisional data) . 1. National Horticulture Database published by National Horticulture Board, Vegetables stats during (2014-15). 2. National Horticulture Database published by National Horticulture Board, Fruits stats during (2014-15). 3. National Horticulture Database published by National Horticulture Board, Floriculture stats during (2014-15). 58 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture Agricultural Sustainability and Its Impact

Nitin Kumar1 and Ashwani Kumar2 1Deptt. of Plant Pathology C.S.S.S.(P.G.) College Machhra, Meerut, 2Deptt. of Ag. Extension C.S.S.S.(P.G.) College Machhra, Meerut Introduction Agriculture has changed dramatically, especially since the end of World War II. Food and fiber productivity soared due to new technologies, mechanization, increased chemical use, specialization and government policies that favored maximizing production. These changes allowed fewer farmers with reduced labor demands to produce the majority of the food and fiber in the U.S.Although these changes have had many positive effects and reduced many risks in farming, there have also been significant costs. Prominent among these are topsoil depletion, groundwater contamination, the decline of family farms, continued neglect of the living and working conditions for farm labourers, increasing costs of production, and the disintegration of economic and social conditions in rural communities. A growing movement has emerged during the past two decades to question the role of the agricultural establishment in promoting practices that contribute to these social problems. Today this movement for sustainable agriculture is garnering increasing support and acceptance within mainstream agriculture. Not only does sustainable agriculture address many environmental and social concerns, but it offers innovative and economically viable opportunities for growers, labourers, consumers, policymakers and many others in the entire food system. This paper is an effort to identify the ideas, practices and policies that constitute our concept of sustainable agriculture. We do so for two reasons: 1) to clarify the research agenda and priorities of our program, and 2) to suggest to others practical steps that may be appropriate for them in moving toward sustainable agriculture.Because the concept of sustainable agriculture is still evolving, we intend the paper not as a definitive or final statement, but as an invitation to continue the dialogue. Concept Themes Sustainable agriculture integrates three main goals environmental health, economic profitability, and social and economic equity. A variety of philosophies, policies and practices have contributed to these goals. People Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 59 in many different capacities, from farmers to consumers, have shared this vision and contributed to it. Despite the diversity of people and perspectives, the following themes commonly weave through definitions of sustainable agriculture. Sustainability rests on the principle that we must meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Therefore, stewardship of both natural and human resources is of prime importance. Stewardship of human resources includes consideration of social responsibilities such as working and living conditions of laborers, the needs of rural communities, and consumer health and safety both in the present and the future. Stewardship of land and natural resources involves maintaining or enhancing this vital resource base for the long term. A systems perspective is essential to understanding sustainability. The system is envisioned in its broadest sense, from the individual farm, to the local ecosystem, and to communities affected by this farming system both locally and globally. An emphasis on the system allows a larger and more thorough view of the consequences of farming practices on both human communities and the environment. A systems approach gives us the tools to explore the interconnections between farming and other aspects of our environment. A systems approach also implies interdisciplinary efforts in research and education. This requires not only the input of researchers from various disciplines, but also farmers, farmworkers, consumers, policymakers and others. Making the transition to sustainable agriculture is a process. For farmers, the transition to sustainable agriculture normally requires a series of small, realistic steps. Family economics and personal goals influence how fast or how far participants can go in the transition. It is important to realize that each small decision can make a difference and contribute to advancing the entire system further on the “sustainable agriculture continuum.” The key to moving forward is the will to take the next step. The remainder of this document considers specific strategies for realizing these broad themes or goals. The strategies are grouped according to three separate though related areas of concern: Farming and Natural Resources, Plant and Animal Production Practices, and the Economic, Social and Political Context. They represent a range of potential ideas for individuals 60 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture committed to interpreting the vision of sustainable agriculture within their own circumstances. Farming and Natural Resources Water When the production of food and fiber degrades the natural resource base, the ability of future generations to produce and flourish decreases. The decline of ancient civilizations in Mesopotamia, the Mediterranean region, Pre-Columbian southwest U.S. and Central America is believed to have been strongly influenced by natural resource degradation from non- sustainable farming and forestry practices. Water is the principal resource that has helped agriculture and society to prosper, and it has been a major limiting factor when mismanaged. Water supply and use In California, an extensive water storage and transfer system has been established which has allowed crop production to expand to very arid regions. In drought years, limited surface water supplies have prompted overdraft of groundwater and consequent intrusion of salt water, or permanent collapse of aquifers. Periodic droughts, some lasting up to 50 years, have occurred in California. Several steps should be taken to develop drought-resistant farming systems even in “normal” years, including both policy and management actions: 1) improving water conservation and storage measures, 2) providing incentives for selection of drought-tolerant crop species, 3) using reduced-volume irrigation systems, 4) managing crops to reduce water loss, or 5) not planting at all. Water quality The most important issues related to water quality involve salinization and contamination of ground and surface waters by pesticides, nitrates and selenium. Salinity has become a problem wherever water of even relatively low salt content is used on shallow soils in arid regions and/or where the water table is near the root zone of crops. Tile drainage can remove the water and salts, but the disposal of the salts and other contaminants may negatively affect the environment depending upon where they are deposited. Temporary solutions include the use of salt-tolerant crops, low-volume irrigation, and various management techniques to minimize the effects of salts on crops. In the long-term, some farmland may need to be removed from production or converted to other uses. Other uses include conversion Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 61 of row crop land to production of drought-tolerant forages, the restoration of wildlife habitat or the use of agroforestry to minimize the impacts of salinity and high water tables. Pesticide and nitrate contamination of water can be reduced using many of the practices discussed later in thePlant Production Practices and Animal Production Practices sections. Wildlife Another way in which agriculture affects water resources is through the destruction of riparian habitats within watersheds. The conversion of wild habitat to agricultural land reduces fish and wildlife through erosion and sedimentation, the effects of pesticides, removal of riparian plants, and the diversion of water. The plant diversity in and around both riparian and agricultural areas should be maintained in order to support a diversity of wildlife. This diversity will enhance natural ecosystems and could aid in agricultural pest management. Energy Modern agriculture is heavily dependent on non-renewable energy sources, especially petroleum. The continued use of these energy sources cannot be sustained indefinitely, yet to abruptly abandon our reliance on them would be economically catastrophic. However, a sudden cutoff in energy supply would be equally disruptive. In sustainable agricultural systems, there is reduced reliance on non-renewable energy sources and a substitution of renewable sources or labor to the extent that is economically feasible. Air Many agricultural activities affect air quality. These include smoke from agricultural burning; dust from tillage, traffic and harvest; pesticide drift from spraying; and nitrous oxide emissions from the use of nitrogen fertilizer. Options to improve air quality include incorporating crop residue into the soil, using appropriate levels of tillage, and planting wind breaks, cover crops or strips of native perennial grasses to reduce dust. Soil Soil erosion continues to be a serious threat to our continued ability to produce adequate food. Numerous practices have been developed to keep soil in place, which include reducing or eliminating tillage, managing irrigation to reduce runoff, and keeping the soil covered with plants or mulch. Enhancement of soil quality is discussed in the next section. 62 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture Plant Production Practices Sustainable production practices involve a variety of approaches. Specific strategies must take into account topography, soil characteristics, climate, pests, local availability of inputs and the individual grower’s goals. Despite the site-specific and individual nature of sustainable agriculture, several general principles can be applied to help growers select appropriate management practices: · Selection of species and varieties that are well suited to the site and to conditions on the farm; · Diversification of crops (including livestock) and cultural practices to enhance the biological and economic stability of the farm; · Management of the soil to enhance and protect soil quality; · Efficient and humane use of inputs; and · Consideration of farmers’ goals and lifestyle choices. Selection of site, species and variety Preventive strategies, adopted early, can reduce inputs and help establish a sustainable production system. When possible, pest-resistant crops should be selected which are tolerant of existing soil or site conditions. When site selection is an option, factors such as soil type and depth, previous crop history, and location (e.g. climate, topography) should be taken into account before planting. Diversity Diversified farms are usually more economically and ecologically resilient. While monoculture farming has advantages in terms of efficiency and ease of management, the loss of the crop in any one year could put a farm out of business and/or seriously disrupt the stability of a community dependent on that crop. By growing a variety of crops, farmers spread economic risk and are less susceptible to the radical price fluctuations associated with changes in supply and demand. Properly managed, diversity can also buffer a farm in a biological sense. For example, in annual cropping systems, crop rotation can be used to suppress weeds, pathogens and insect pests. Also, cover crops can have stabilizing effects on the agroecosystem by holding soil and nutrients in place, conserving soil moisture with mowed or standing dead mulches, and by increasing the water infiltration rate and soil water holding capacity. Cover crops in orchards and vineyards can buffer the system against pest Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 63 infestations by increasing beneficial arthropod populations and can therefore reduce the need for chemical inputs. Using a variety of cover crops is also important in order to protect against the failure of a particular species to grow and to attract and sustain a wide range of beneficial arthropods. Optimum diversity may be obtained by integrating both crops and livestock in the same farming operation. This was the common practice for centuries until the mid-1900s when technology, government policy and economics compelled farms to become more specialized. Mixed crop and livestock operations have several advantages. First, growing row crops only on more level land and pasture or forages on steeper slopes will reduce soil erosion. Second, pasture and forage crops in rotation enhance soil quality and reduce erosion; livestock manure, in turn, contributes to soil fertility. Third, livestock can buffer the negative impacts of low rainfall periods by consuming crop residue that in “plant only” systems would have been considered crop failures. Finally, feeding and marketing are flexible in animal production systems. This can help cushion farmers against trade and price fluctuations and, in conjunction with cropping operations, make more efficient use of farm labor. Soil management A common philosophy among sustainable agriculture practitioners is that a “healthy” soil is a key component of sustainability; that is, a healthy soil will produce healthy crop plants that have optimum vigor and are less susceptible to pests. While many crops have key pests that attack even the healthiest of plants, proper soil, water and nutrient management can help prevent some pest problems brought on by crop stress or nutrient imbalance. Furthermore, crop management systems that impair soil quality often result in greater inputs of water, nutrients, pesticides, and/or energy for tillage to maintain yields. In sustainable systems, the soil is viewed as a fragile and living medium that must be protected and nurtured to ensure its long-term productivity and stability. Methods to protect and enhance the productivity of the soil include using cover crops, compost and/or manures, reducing tillage, avoiding traffic on wet soils, and maintaining soil cover with plants and/or mulches. Conditions in most California soils (warm, irrigated, and tilled) do not favor the buildup of organic matter. Regular additions of organic matter or the use of cover crops can increase soil aggregate stability, soil 64 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture tilth, and diversity of soil microbial life. Efficient use of inputs Many inputs and practices used by conventional farmers are also used in sustainable agriculture. Sustainable farmers, however, maximize reliance on natural, renewable, and on-farm inputs. Equally important are the environmental, social, and economic impacts of a particular strategy. Converting to sustainable practices does not mean simple input substitution. Frequently, it substitutes enhanced management and scientific knowledge for conventional inputs, especially chemical inputs that harm the environment on farms and in rural communities. The goal is to develop efficient, biological systems which do not need high levels of material inputs. Growers frequently ask if synthetic chemicals are appropriate in a sustainable farming system. Sustainable approaches are those that are the least toxic and least energy intensive, and yet maintain productivity and profitability. Preventive strategies and other alternatives should be employed before using chemical inputs from any source. However, there may be situations where the use of synthetic chemicals would be more “sustainable” than a strictly nonchemical approach or an approach using toxic “organic” chemicals. For example, one grape grower switched from tillage to a few applications of a broad spectrum contact herbicide in the vine row. This approach may use less energy and may compact the soil less than numerous passes with a cultivator or mower. Even with the growing specialization of livestock and crop producers, many of the principles outlined in the crop production section apply to both groups. The actual management practices will, of course, be quite different. Some of the specific points that livestock producers need to address are listed below. Management Planning Including livestock in the farming system increases the complexity of biological and economic relationships. The mobility of the stock, daily feeding, health concerns, breeding operations, seasonal feed and forage sources, and complex marketing are sources of this complexity. Therefore, a successful ranch plan should include enterprise calendars of operations, stock flows, forage flows, labor needs, herd production records and land use plans to give the manager control and a means of monitoring progress toward goals. Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 65 Animal Selection The animal enterprise must be appropriate for the farm or ranch resources. Farm capabilities and constraints such as feed and forage sources, landscape, climate and skill of the manager must be considered in selecting which animals to produce. For example, ruminant animals can be raised on a variety of feed sources including range and pasture, cultivated forage, cover crops, shrubs, weeds, and crop residues. There is a wide range of breeds available in each of the major ruminant species, i.e., cattle, sheep and goats. Hardier breeds that, in general, have lower growth and milk production potential, are better adapted to less favorable environments with sparse or highly seasonal forage growth. Animal nutrition Feed costs are the largest single variable cost in any livestock operation. While most of the feed may come from other enterprises on the ranch, some purchased feed is usually imported from off the farm. Feed costs can be kept to a minimum by monitoring animal condition and performance and understanding seasonal variations in feed and forage quality on the farm. Determining the optimal use of farm-generated by-products is an important challenge of diversified farming. Reproduction Use of quality germplasm to improve herd performance is another key to sustainability. In combination with good genetic stock, adapting the reproduction season to fit the climate and sources of feed and forage reduce health problems and feed costs. Herd Health Animal health greatly influences reproductive success and weight gains, two key aspects of successful livestock production. Unhealthy stock waste feed and require additional labor. A herd health program is critical to sustainable livestock production. Grazing Management Most adverse environmental impacts associated with grazing can be prevented or mitigated with proper grazing management. First, the number of stock per unit area (stocking rate) must be correct for the landscape and the forage sources. There will need to be compromises between the convenience of tilling large, unfenced fields and the fencing needs of livestock operations. Use of modern, temporary fencing may provide one practical 66 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture solution to this dilemma. Second, the long term carrying capacity and the stocking rate must take into account short and long-term droughts. Especially in Mediterranean climates such as in California, properly managed grazing significantly reduces fire hazards by reducing fuel build-up in grasslands and brushlands. Finally, the manager must achieve sufficient control to reduce overuse in some areas while other areas go unused. Prolonged concentration of stock that results in permanent loss of vegetative cover on uplands or in riparian zones should be avoided. However, small scale loss of vegetative cover around water or feed troughs may be tolerated if surrounding vegetative cover is adequate. Confined Livestock Production Animal health and waste management are key issues in confined livestock operations. The moral and ethical debate taking place today regarding animal welfare is particularly intense for confined livestock production systems. The issues raised in this debate need to be addressed. Confinement livestock production is increasingly a source of surface and ground water pollutants, particularly where there are large numbers of animals per unit area. Expensive waste management facilities are now a necessary cost of confined production systems. Waste is a problem of almost all operations and must be managed with respect to both the environment and the quality of life in nearby communities. Livestock production systems that disperse stock in pastures so the wastes are not concentrated and do not overwhelm natural nutrient cycling processes have become a subject of renewed interest. The Economic, Social & Political Context In addition to strategies for preserving natural resources and changing production practices, sustainable agriculture requires a commitment to changing public policies, economic institutions, and social values. Strategies for change must take into account the complex, reciprocal and ever-changing relationship between agricultural production and the broader society. The “food system” extends far beyond the farm and involves the interaction of individuals and institutions with contrasting and often competing goals including farmers, researchers, input suppliers, farmworkers, unions, farm advisors, processors, retailers, consumers, and policymakers. Relationships among these actors shift over time as new technologies spawn economic, social and political changes. Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 67 A wide diversity of strategies and approaches are necessary to create a more sustainable food system. These will range from specific and concentrated efforts to alter specific policies or practices, to the longer- term tasks of reforming key institutions, rethinking economic priorities, and challenging widely-held social values. Areas of concern where change is most needed include the following: Food and agricultural policy Existing federal, state and local government policies often impede the goals of sustainable agriculture. New policies are needed to simultaneously promote environmental health, economic profitability, and social and economic equity. For example, commodity and price support programs could be restructured to allow farmers to realize the full benefits of the productivity gains made possible through alternative practices. Tax and credit policies could be modified to encourage a diverse and decentralized system of family farms rather than corporate concentration and absentee ownership. Government and land grant university research policies could be modified to emphasize the development of sustainable alternatives. Marketing orders and cosmetic standards could be amended to encourage reduced pesticide use. Coalitions must be created to address these policy concerns at the local, regional, and national level. Consumers and the Food System Consumers can play a critical role in creating a sustainable food system. Through their purchases, they send strong messages to producers, retailers and others in the system about what they think is important. Food cost and nutritional quality have always influenced consumer choices. The challenge now is to find strategies that broaden consumer perspectives, so that environmental quality, resource use, and social equity issues are also considered in shopping decisions. At the same time, new policies and institutions must be created to enable producers using sustainable practices to market their goods to a wider public. Coalitions organized around improving the food system are one specific method of creating a dialogue among consumers, retailers, producers and others. These coalitions or other public forums can be important vehicles for clarifying issues, suggesting new policies, increasing mutual trust, and encouraging a long-term view of food production, distribution and consumption. 68 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture Linking Farm Gates With The Retail Outlets Through Mobile Based Agri Retailing (Mbar) Model

Shoji Lal Bairwa, Lokesh Kumar Meena and Meera Kumari Deptt. of Agricultural Economics, DKAC Kishanganj (Bihar) Introduction In India, efficient marketing is a big challenge for the producers, government as well as for policy makers. There is a huge gap between retail and wholesale prices of agricultural products. Inefficiencies in the wholesale markets result in a long chain of intermediaries, multiple handling, loss of quality, post-harvest losses, which increase the gap between the price at which the consumer purchases agricultural products and the price that the grower gets. Nowadays, mobile phone becomes a very important part of human life in the present hi tech era and its importance also increases in the communication, promotion and marketing of goods and services in all business organizations (Sengupta, 2008; Shankar et al., 2010 and Bairwa et al., 2015). Mobile phone has really changed consumer lifestyles from merely indoor to any places in the world with relatively low communication costs (Roger, 2013; Bairwa et al., 2014; Rajkumar and Jocob, 2014). Jason et al., (2006) reported that many agribusiness firms are using internet oriented devices in U.S.A. business. Amazon, flip kart, snap deal, paytm, shop clues, Jobong and eBay are the major online retailers of consumer based items such as electronics, books, furniture, and recharges services around the globe (Bairwa et al., 2015). Mobile phone and computer users are increasing rapidly which put the online shopping on boom and businesses tend to find new ways to communicate with their target customers (Dastagiri et al., 2009). The problem of agricultural marketing can be solve through the linking farm gates with the retail outlets which results in better prices to farmers for their produce. Linkage also provides timely and assured selling of farmer produce at their farm. Mobile based agri retailing model (MBAR) is an innovative and hi tech retailing method for agricultural products (fruits, vegetables, milk, milk products, and eggs) and farm inputs (seed, feed, fertilizers, insecticides, weedicides) at reasonable price as per the need of consumers at their doorstep. It is a business oriented retailing model which can be adopt by any business organization and individuals in order to supply agricultural Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 69 products and farm inputs to ultimate consumer through use of mobile phones. Major components of model are producers, agribusiness retailers, input manufacturers, mobile phones, sales persons and consumers. The present model have three key entities in which agribusiness retailer have both side linkages with consumers as well as farmers but consumers and farmers have one sided link only with agribusiness retailers (Bairwa et al., 2015). The agribusiness firms or retailers can contact directly with farmers to procure the fruits, vegetables, eggs, milk and other agricultural and livestock produce. He may contact to agri input firms to procure the farm inputs either by agreement or bargaining. In APMC act applicable states, agribusiness firm or retailer also can purchase fruits and vegetable, eggs and milk products from APMC regulated market, poultry farm and dairy cooperatives respectively. The application of MBAR model will place traditional agricultural retailing on innovative, cost effective and time saving way of retailing of agricultural inputs, fruits, vegetables, milk products and poultry products. This model makes possible for agribusiness retailer to reach the millions of their customer at lower cost in less time period. MBAR model eliminates middlemen from the traditional agri supply chain by the linkage of producers and ultimate consumers though only and one agribusiness retailer which means that removing intermediaries will reduce retail prices. This model also brings the business opportunities for urban and rural youths through the establishment of their own supply centre of agricultural and livestock products and farm inputs to the respective consumers (Bairwa et al., 2015).

70 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture Linking farm gates with retail outlets through mbar model According to this model farm gates (farmers) can be linked with retail outlets in two ways i.e. supply of agricultural products and supply of farm inputs to their concerned consumers. Following are the framework of the model: · Supply of agricultural products to consumers According to model, Consumer can place their order with detail information (name and quantity of commodity, delivery time and consumer address etc.) through sms, emails, whatsApp, messenger, phone calling, and video calling using their mobile device and these order details will be reached and saved in online system of retailer and he supplies the quantity demanded of each commodity to the concerned customer at their home address through the sales person in stipulated time period. The basic raw material supplier to retailer is the farmer, poultry farm, dairy cooperatives. Agribusiness retailer makes direct contact to farmers and procure required quantity of agricultural and livestock products for storage as well as spot distribution to consumers as per their order. Retailers are procuring eggs, milk and milk products from the poultry farm and dairy cooperatives respectively. Farmers can either bargain or contract with the agribusiness firm for price fixation for the procurement of agricultural and livestock produce. Supply of farm inputs to farmers MBAR model also applicable in supply of agricultural inputs such as seed, feed, fertilizers, insecticides, farm implements, farm machinery from the place of manufacturing to the place of utilization i.e. farmer’s field. According to this, farmer can give their order to agribusiness retailer with necessary information such as name, type and quantity of inputs, delivery time and address through sms, emails, whatsApp, messenger, and phone calling using their mobile device. Farmer’s order details will be reached and saved in retailer’s online system and as farmer instructions he will supplies all the inputs in quantity demanded to the concerned farmer at their mentioned address through the sales person in stipulated time period. Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 71

Agribusiness retailer will be purchased these farm inputs from the manufacturing firm on wholesale rate or lower rate through bargaining. The difference between bargaining price or wholesale price and retailing price of input will be the profit of retailer and as business and number of farmers will increase; the profit of agribusiness retailer goes up continuously. Major benefits of the mbar model The present model is beneficial to the all the entities i.e. producers (farmers), retailers (youths) and consumers. This model also brings the business opportunities for urban and rural youths through the establishment of their own supply centre of agricultural and livestock products and farm inputs to the respective consumers. · Benefits to Farmers/Producers – this model ensure the regular and assure sale of farmers produce, reduce forced sale, improve bargaining power of producer, saving of time and cost (money) of transportation and reduce wastage of agricultural produce. Retailers are procuring eggs, milk and milk products from the farmers which assured direct marketing of agricultural produce of farmers. This model also helps in reduction of post- harvest losses of agricultural and livestock produce which helps in improving farmer’s income level and living standard. · Benefits to Consumers – this model provides benefits to consumer with the good quality products, products at reasonable prices, instant and home delivery of products and saving of time and money of purchasing from the market place. Consumers also benefitted with the supply of all types of items such fruits, vegetables, eggs, milk products from same retailer at any time and convenience of order quantity as per his requirements (small or large order) and order payment either online or cash on delivery. In nutshell, 72 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture it facilitates products inquiry, reliability of products, customer satisfaction and relation, online payment, cash on delivery, order quantity convenience, free home delivery, and all types’ products from one retailer at any time at reasonable prices. · Benefits to retailing firm/retailer – agribusiness firm/ retailer are the largest beneficiary of this model because MBAR is a business oriented model for retailing of agricultural and livestock products among consumers. Initially, retailer is less benefitted due to limited size of customers but as increasing in customer’s size, the profit will goes up and agribusiness retailing chain will established which generates future cash inflows. The agribusiness retailing firm can be apply this model for supply of agricultural inputs to farmer at their doorsteps. · Benefits to society and economy – MBAR model established links producers and consumers with agribusiness retailing firm/retailers and these are the major drivers of the social system of the any economy. This model gives benefits to all the entities (consumers, farmers and retailers) involved in the whole chain of retailing of agricultural produce. It also creates employment opportunities; increase income level of farmers through bargaining power in selling of produce, consumers benefitted with good quality products at reasonable prices at home delivery. Rural and urban youths can gain employment through establishment of business of agricultural retailing based on MBAR model in local as well as surrounding areas of their living. Concluding Remarks Mobile and computer becomes very important component of human life as well as business organization which provide quick communication at lower cost. Linking farms with retail outlets will results in removal of intermediaries from traditional marketing system which minimize the retail prices of agricultural products to the ultimate consumers. The present article is an effort to contribute in efficient marketing system of agricultural products and farm inputs through supply of farm inputs and agricultural products by one and only intermediary i.e. agribusiness retailer. The application of MBAR model will place traditional agricultural retailing on innovative, cost effective and time saving way of retailing of agricultural inputs, fruits, vegetables, milk products and poultry products. Linking producer with consumer through MBAR model is a step towards efficient marketing which minimize the intermediaries and post-harvest losses of agricultural produce. It also helps Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 73 in generation of employment opportunities for urban and rural youths especially for agricultural graduates and agribusiness professionals of the country. Government and policy makers must develop programmes and schemes based on this model for agricultural and other graduates/youths for the improvement of agricultural marketing system. Thus, MBAR model is a cost effective retailing method which provides free home delivery, flexible platform to customers along with two way communications and customer’s relationship. References • Bairwa, Shoji Lal, Kumari, Meera and Meena, L. K. (2015). Developing Mobile Based Agri Retailing (MBAR) Model for High Value Agricultural and Livestock Products, International Journal of Agricultural Science and Research, 5 (6): 125 – 130. • Bairwa, Shoji Lal, Kushwaha, Saket, Meena L.K. and Lakra, Kerobim (2014). ICT Application in Agribusiness Industry: Present and Future Perspective, Edited by Y P Kohli “Science for Rural India”. Reading Rooms Publication, Varanasi, PP 129 – 136. ISBN 978-81-9295-10-2-7. • Dastagiri, M.B., Kumar, B. G. and Diana, S. (2009) Innovative Models in Horticulture Marketing in India, National Centre for Agricultural Economics and Policy Research, New Delhi – 110 012. • Jason R. Henderson, Jay T. Akridge, and Frank J. Dooley (2006). Internet and e-commerce use by agribusiness firms, Journal of Agribusiness, 24(1):17-39. • Rajkumar, Paulrajan and Jacob, Fatima (2010). Business models of vegetable retailers in India, Great lakes herald, 4 (1):31- 43. • Roger, Strom (2013). Value of mobile marketing for consumers and retailers: a literature review, Martin Vendel, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Halmstad University, Sweden. • Sengupta, Anirban (2008). Emergence of modern Indian retail: an historical perspective, International Journal of Retail and Distribution Management, 36 (9), 689-700. • Shankar, V., Venkatesh, A., Hofacker, C. and Naik, P. (2010). Mobile marketing in the retailing environment: Current insights and future research avenues, Journal of Interactive Marketing, 24 (2): 111-120. 74 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture Global Taxonomy Initiative: A Link Between Taxonomy and The Conservation & Sustainable Use of Biodiversity

Sheesh P. Singh1 and Rohini Singh2 1Deptt. of Botany, J.V. College, Baraut 2Deptt. of Botany, Govt. PG College, Ambala Cantt. Introduction The Global Taxonomy Initiative (GTI) is a cross cutting issue of the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) to address the lack of taxonomic information and expertise available in many parts of the world, and thereby to improve decision making in conservation, sustainable use and equitable sharing of the benefits derived from genetic resources. The programme of work, for the GTI; which was adopted at the sixth Conference of the Parties in 2002 and further supplemented after in depth review at the eighth Conference of the Parties in March 2006. The Global Taxonomy Initiative (GTI) was put in place specifically to remove the taxonomic impediment – the crucial need identified in the Darwin Declaration. By 1998, the hindrance to Convention implementation caused by the lack of appropriate taxonomic information had become very apparent. Unless action was taken to redress the situation, the impact of the Convention on Biological Diversity would be blunted, and progress in obtaining its objectives slowed. The GTI has come into existence to specifically support the implementation of the work programmes of the CBD on thematic and cross cutting issues. There are seven thematic work programmes under the Convention. These address marine & coastal biodiversity, agricultural biodiversity, forest biodiversity, island biodiversity, the biodiversity of inland waters, dry & sub-humid lands and mountain biodiversity. GTI is supporting the thematic programmes by providing taxonomic information. Convention on Biological Diversity The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) Opened for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 and entered into force in December 1993. The Convention on Biological Diversity is an international treaty for the conservation of biodiversity, the sustainable use of the components of biodiversity and the equitable sharing of the benefits derived from the use of genetic resources. With 196 Parties up to now, the Convention has near universal participation among countries. The Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 75 Convention seeks to address all threats to biodiversity and ecosystem services, including threats from climate change. The Cartagena Protocol (2003) on Bio-safety and the Nagoya Protocol (2014) on Access and Benefit Sharing are supplementary agreements to the Convention.

Fig.Source: http://www. biodiv.org Why Global Taxonomy Initiative? Achievement of the objectives of the Convention on Biological Diversity – conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources depends basically on our understanding of biodiversity. Yet, only a fraction of the total number of species that make up the life on earth have been named or described. What’s more, progress in taxonomy, the science of naming, describing and classifying organisms, is suffering from a shortage of expertise and declining resources. This so-called taxonomic impediment is at the base of objectives of the CBD. Without taxonomic expertise CBD objectives cannot be obtained. This realization by Parties to the Convention resulted in development of the Global Taxonomy Initiative (GTI). Decline of taxonomy Taxonomy as a discipline has been in decline for the past few decades. This has been and continues to be a matter of concern. The decline has been associated with a lack of understanding of the importance of taxonomic information and taxonomists have expressed concern that their work is not fully appreciated, nor taken up by other sectors. The massive 76 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture political support for taxonomy expressed in the Conference of the Parties (COP). Number of taxonomists in Asia working on each major taxon. From Shimura, 2003.

Fig. source- CBD technical series no.30 Why Taxonomy is important? Taxonomy is the science of naming, describing and classifying organisms. Using morphological, behavioral, and genetic and biochemical observations, taxonomists identify, describe and arrange species into classifications, including newly discovered organisms. Taxonomists have named and described some 1.78 million species of animals, plants and microorganisms, only a fraction of the estimated 5 to 30 million species on Earth. Taxonomy is the tool by which the components of biological diversity are identified and numerated, and therefore provides basic knowledge underpinning management of biodiversity. The Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) have acknowledged the existence of a ‘taxonomic impediment’ to implementation of the convention, referring to the shortage of taxonomic expertise, taxonomic collections, field guides and other identification aids, as well as to the difficulty in accessing existing taxonomic information. Problems with taxonomy and taxonomists:- many species- few taxonomists Limitations on the identification of species are largely due to the lack of a mechanism to organize past taxonomic knowledge and frequent recent taxonomic revisions. Despite the bacterial nomenclature code initiated Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 77 in 1980 to validate species names, great numbers of species are renamed and old names are often still used by different research communities without clearing their synonymy. In addition, huge groups of microorganisms are still not known despite the finding of new species by active experts. Although there are many species waiting to be described, there are far too few taxonomists to do the job, particularly in the countries where they are arguably most needed, the biodiversity-rich developing countries. Most taxonomists work is being done in relatively biodiversity-poor but resource- rich industrialized countries. Institutions in these countries also hold the largest reference collections of specimens from developing countries, as well as the books and scientific papers required to identify species and to carry out taxonomic research. Collections, with the specimens properly identified and with the names up-to-date, are vital tools, especially in the absence of simple-to-use guides. Many species are only known to have been collected once, and are represented in collections only by the type specimen. Taxonomic capacity in terms of both human and institutional capacity varies widely between countries and regions. Although many developed countries have relatively comprehensive reference collections and a number of experts, no single country has a complete taxonomic inventory of national biodiversity, nor experts in all relevant taxonomic groups. In many cases, developing countries have very little or no physical reference collections of local biodiversity, nor trained personnel. Much of the existing reference material from developing countries resides in the expert institutions of the developed world, as do the experts in particular taxonomic groups. However, even in developed countries taxonomy has been under-resourced for many years, leading to a general decline in infrastructure, and a dearth of younger professionals. Taxonomy in Indian Scenario Even after being the party to the convention on biological diversity, there are no significantly recognizable efforts that could satisfy the country needs to fulfill its obligations under the Convention on biodiversity.India is among the one of the mega-biodiversity centers of the world and harbors four global biodiversity hotspots. Accordingly, it needs really big efforts to achieve the goals of preserving bio-diversity and averting loss of habitats. All this is not possible without developing taxonomic capacity 78 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture in terms of both expert taxonomists and government & non- government institutions. Given below are points that brief the Indian scenario. • Few Taxonomists. • No comprehensive list of species(state wise) • No national integrated data base of species. • Data is scattered and not easily accessible. • No real species identification tools & infrastructure. • Not up to date with plant position according to APG system of classification ( for Angiosperms). Not only taxonomists, real taxonomic infrastructure is needed The majority of developing countries Including India lack sufficient number of taxonomists, collections of their flora and fauna, field guides and other identification aids, adequate libraries , accessible internet resources and collections of scientific papers to assist the taxonomic process. All these are needed; just hiring taxonomists without the necessary tools for them to do their work effectively will not be sufficient. Confronting the taxonomic impediment to biodiversity conservation Effective conservation and management of biodiversity depends in large part on our understanding of taxonomy. Unfortunately, inadequate taxonomic information and infrastructure, coupled with declining taxonomic expertise, hinders our ability to make informed decisions about conservation, sustainable use and sharing of the benefits derived from genetic resources. Governments, through the Convention on Biological Diversity, have acknowledged the existence of a “taxonomic impediment” to the sound management of biodiversity, and have developed the Global Taxonomic Initiative to remove or reduce the impediment. The Conference of the Parties (COP) established the GTI and the programme of work for the GTI. In decision IX/22, “Outcome oriented deliverables for each of the planned activities of the programme work of the global taxonomy initiative” were annexed. It indicates the targeted date and suggested actors for each deliverable. The suggested actors are not exclusive and Parties are urged to carry out the activities planned in the programme of work. The GTI programme of work outlines strategies, planned activities, expected products, timelines, lead actors and resources needed. It is intended Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 79 to fulfill the following functions: To contribute to the implementation of the Convention’s Strategic Plan; · To set operational objectives with clear expected outputs and ways and means through which to achieve the set objectives; · To provide the rationale for the choice of the operational targets, with indications of opportunities for further elaboration of the programme of work; and · To serve as a guide to all biodiversity stakeholders on specific objectives to which they can contribute individually or collectively, at the local, national or international level. Objectives of GTI Consequently, the Global Taxonomy Initiative (GTI) was developedby the Parties to: • Identify taxonomic needs and priorities; • Develop and strengthen human capacity to generate taxonomic information; • Develop and strengthen infrastructure and mechanisms for generating taxonomic information, and for facilitating sharing of and access to that information and • Provide taxonomic information needed for decision-making regarding the conservation of biological diversity, sustainable use of its components and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources. The Global Taxonomy Initiative Programme of Work Operational objective 1: Assess taxonomic needs and capacities at national, regional and global levels for the implementation of the Convention. Planned Activity 1: Country-based taxonomic needs assessments and identification of priorities. Planned Activity 2: Regional taxonomic needs assessments and identification of priorities. Planned Activity 3: Global taxonomic needs assessments. Planned Activity 4: Public awareness and education. Operational objective 2: Provide focus to help build and maintain the human resources, systems and infrastructure needed to obtain, collate, and curate the biological specimens that are the basis for 80 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture taxonomic knowledge. Planned Activity 5: Global and regional capacity-building to support access to and generation of taxonomic information. Planned Activity 6: Strengthening of existing networks for regional cooperation in taxonomy. Operational objective 3: Facilitate an improved and effective infrastructure/system for access to taxonomic information; with priority on ensuring countries of origin gain access to information concerning elements of their biodiversity. Target under operational objective 3: A widely accessible checklist of known species, as a step towards a global register of plants, animals, microorganisms and other organisms. Planned Activity 7: Develop a coordinated taxonomy information system The Global Taxonomy Initiative Programme of Work Operational objective 4: Within the major thematic work programmes of the Convention include key taxonomic objectives to generate information needed for decision-making in conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity and its components. Planned Activity 8: Forest biological diversity. Planned Activity 9: Marine and coastal biological diversity. Planned Activity 10: Dry and sub-humid lands biodiversity. Planned Activity 11: Inland waters biological diversity. Planned Activity 12: Agricultural biological diversity. Planned Activity 13: Mountain biological diversity. Planned Activity 13b: Island biological diversity Operational objective 5: Within the work on cross-cutting issues of the Convention include key taxonomic objectives to generate information needed for decision-making in conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity and its components. Planned Activity 14: Access and benefit-sharing. Planned Activity 15: Invasive alien species. Planned Activity 16: Support in implementation of Article 8 j (Traditional Knowledge, Innovations and Practices). Planned Activity 17: Support for ecosystem approach and CBD work on Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 81 assessment including impactassessments, monitoring and indicators. Planned Activity 18: Protected areas. Conclusions Taxonomy and biodiversity. Taxonomy is essential to implementation of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Taxonomic knowledge is a key input in the management of all types of ecosystems, from marine areas to forests to dry- lands. It is also a key to effectively addressing alien species, access and benefit-sharing, and the many other cross-cutting issues under the Convention. Each country and region, in addressing this wide range of biodiversity issues, has different needs and priorities regarding taxonomic support. Understanding those needs and priorities is the important first step to overcoming the “taxonomic impediment”. Consequently, it is no surprise that the Conference of the Parties, at its eighth meeting in March 2006, urged Parties and other governments that have not done so to undertake or complete or update, as a matter of priority, national taxonomic needs assessments, including related technical, technological and capacity needs, and to establish priorities for taxonomic work that take into account country- specific circumstances, with particular regard to user needs and priorities. The programme of work for the Global Taxonomy Initiative (GTI) includes a focus on taxonomic needs assessment and identification of priorities at national, regional and global levels. At the national level, the programme of work specifies that each country would report their taxonomic needs through their national biodiversity strategies and action plans as well as through their national reports, and the information would be disseminated through the clearing-house mechanism of the Convention. Accordingly, this page intends to summarize the information of the needs and priorities identified in national reports, national biodiversity strategies and action plans, Global Environment Facility (GEF)- funded assessments, or other sources. Achievement of the objectives of the Convention on Biological Diversity – conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources depends basically on our understanding of biodiversity. Yet, only a fraction of the total number of species that make up the life on earth have been named or described. What’s more, progress in taxonomy, the science of naming, describing and classifying organisms, is suffering 82 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture from a shortage of expertise and declining resources. This so-called “taxonomic impediment” . This impediment is at the base of objectives of the CBD. Without taxonomic expertise CBD objectives cannot be obtained. This realization by Parties to the Convention resulted in development of the Global Taxonomy Initiative (GTI). Taxonomic work needs to be reoriented in a context of biodiversity. Many funding opportunities are tied to biodiversity-related outcomes, rather than being for taxonomy alone. An individual taxonomist applying for project has to show how the taxonomic work proposed will contribute to the biodiversity aim, often in a logical framework that demands clear linkage of what taxonomy is undertaken and how the results are disseminated to the benefits to biodiversity. Indian perspective Keeping in mind that India is one of the mega-biodiversity centres, demands mega efforts to conserve its genetic resources. Meanwhile the government Institutions, experts responsible for biodiversity conservation should accelerate its efforts to achieve the goals set by convention on biological diversity. There is an urgent need to understand the severity of harm to the science caused by lack of expert taxonomists and taxonomic infrasturure and its implications in conserving biodiversity of the nation. References • Andelman, S.J. & Fagan, W.F., (2000), Umbrellas and flagships: Efficient conservation • surrogates or expensive mistakes? Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 97(11), 5954–5959 • Anon, (1998), The Darwin Declaration, Environment Australia, Canberra. ISBN: 0 642 21413 1. URLs: http://www.biodiv.org/crosscutting/ taxonomy/ darwin-declaration.asp • Anon, (1998)b, The Global Taxonomy Initiative: Shortening the Distance between Discovery and Delivery, Environment Australia, Canberra. ISBN: 0 642 56803 0. http:// www.anbg.gov.au/abrs/flora/web publ/london.htm • Anon, (1999), Implementing the GTI: Recommendations from DIVERSITAS element 3, including an assessment of present knowledge of key species groups. Available at the URL: http://wwwbiodiv. org/doc/ref/gti-diversitas.pdf • Anon, (2000), Mechanisms for management of the GTI, with a consideration on inclusion of traditional and indigenous knowledge perspectives on current Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 83 taxonomic systems. Blackmore, S., 2002, Biodiversity update – progress in taxonomy. Science 298, 365. • Chavan, V. & Krishnan, S., (2003), Natural history collections: a call for national information infrastructure. Current Science, 84(1), 34-42. • Golding, J.S. & Timberlake, 2004, How taxonomists can bridge the gap between taxonomy and conservation science. Conservation Biology, 17, 1177-1178. • Groombridge, B. (Ed.), (1992), Global Biodiversity. Status of the Earth’s living resources. Chapman and Hall, London, 585pp. • Hopkins, G.W. & Freckleton, R.P., (2002). Declines in the numbers of amateur and professional taxonomists: implications for conservation. Animal Conservation, 5, 245-249. • King, N. & Lyal, C.H.C., (2003), Meeting the gaps in protected area management – overcoming the taxonomic impediment. Paper presented to the Vth World Parks Congress, Durban. • Klopper, R.R., Smith, G.F. & Chikuni, A.C., (2002), The Global Taxonomy Initiative in Africa. Taxon 51, 159-165. • Lapage, S.P. et al. (Eds), (1992). International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria (1990 Revision). Bacteriological Code. American Society for Microbiology, Washington DC. • Lyal, C.H.C., (2004), Strategy and symbioses: Building capacity for the GTI in Asia. pp 80-88 in Shimura, J., Ed., Building Capacity in Biodiversity Information Sharing 2003, NIES, Japan, 254pp. • Lyal, C.H.C., (2004)a, The GTI Programme of Work. pp 1-7 in Shimura, J., Ed., Building Capacity in Biodiversity Information Sharing 2003, NIES, Japan, 254pp. • Lyal, C.H.C. & Weitzman, A.L., 2004, Taxonomy: Exploring the Impediment, Science, 305, 1106. • Lowry, P.P. & Smith, P.P., (2003), Closing the gulf between botanists and conservationists. Conservation Biology, 17, 1175-1176. • McNeely, J.A., (2002), The role of taxonomy in conserving biodiversity. Journal for Nature Conservation, 10, 145-153. • Pfeiffer, J. & Uril, Y.,(2003), The role of indigenous parataxonomists in botanical inventory: from Herbarium Amboinense to Herbarium Floresense. Telopea 10(1), 61-72. • Samper, C., (2004), Taxonomy and environmental policy. Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society. Biological Sciences. 359(1444), 721-728. 84 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture

• SCBD, (2001), Global Biodiversity Outlook. Montreal, 282pp. • SCBD, (2002), Scientific And Technical Cooperation And The Clearing-House Mechanism. Report of the Joint Convention on Biological Diversity/ Global Invasive Species Programme Informal Meeting on Formats, Protocols and Standards for Improved Exchange of Biodiversity-related Information. Note by the Executive Secretary. UNEP\ CBD/COP/6/INF/18. URL: http://www. biodiv.org/ doc/meetings/cop/cop-06/ information/cop-06-inf-18-en.doc • Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity. The Global Taxonomy Initiative Programme of Work. The Global Taxonomy Initiative Programme of Work ISBN-0-642- 568302003. Australian Biological Resources Study, Australia 2003, p.1-26. • Shimura, J., (Ed.), (2003), Global Taxonomy Initiative in Asia. Report and Proceedings of the 1st GTI Regional Workshop in Asia. Putrajaya, Malaysia, September 2002. NIES, Japan, 314 pp. • Shimura, J. (Ed), (2004), Building capacity in biodiversity information sharing, 2003. NIES, Japan. 254 pp. • Smith, T., (2004), [response to Golding & Timberlake], Conservation Biology, 18, 7-8. • Smith, P.P., Lowry, P.P., Timberlake, J. & Golding, J.S., 2004, The work of taxonomy [letter in response], Conservation Biology, 18, 8-9. • Steenkamp, Y. & Smith, G.F., (2002), Addressing the needs of the users of botanical information. South African Botanical Diversity Network Report 15: 52pp. • Suarez, A.V. & Tsutsui, N.D., (2004), The value of museum collections for research and society. BioScience, 54 (1): 66-74. • Wemmer, C., Rudran, R., Dallmeier, F. & Wilson, D.E., (1993), Training developing- country nationals is the critical ingredient to conserving global diversity. BioScience, 43, 762-767. • Wilson, K., Shimura, J., Lyal, C.H.C. & Cresswell, I. (Eds.), (2003), Building Capacity: Bangladesh to Bali and Beyond. Report of First Global Taxonomy Initiative Workshop in Asia. 75pp NIES, Japan. • Wilson KL, Gordon P, Soetikno SS, Fornwall M & Shimura J. The report. Taxonomy for Biodiversity in Asia-Oceania 2004, p.2-38, ISBN 4-486-07065-8 C3045. • Yahner, R.H., (2004), The work of taxonomy, Conservation Biology, 18, 6-7. Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 85 Biofertilzers And Their Role in Agriculture

Ashish Dwivedi, U. P. Shahi, Amit Kumar and R. K. Naresh Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel University of Agriculture & Technology, Meerut, U.P. Introduction Biofertilizers are low cost, renewable sources of plant nutrients which supplement chemical fertilizers. Biofertilizer is one of the best modern tools for agriculture. Use of Biofertilizer is one of the important components of integrated nutrient management, as they are cost effective and renewable sources of plant nutrients to supplement the chemical fertilizers for sustainable agriculture. The beneficial effect of legumes in improving soil fertility was known since ancient times. The commercial history of Biofertilizers began with the launch of ‘Nitragin’ by Nobbe and Hiltner, a laboratory culture of Rhizobia in 1895, followed by the discovery of Azotobacter and then the blue green algae and a host of other microorganisms. Azospirillum and VesicularArbuscular Micorrhizae (VAM) are fairly recent discoveries. In India the first study on legume Rhizobium symbiosis was conducted by N. V. Joshi and the first commercial production started as early as 1956. Commonly explored Biofertilizers in India are mentioned below along with some salient features. Different Types of Biofertilizers Rhizobium Rhizobium belongs to bacterial group and is symbiotic nitrogen fixer. They are the most efficient Biofertilizer as per the quantity of nitrogen fixed concerned. It has been estimated that 40-250 kg N/ha/year is fixed by different legume crops by the microbial activities of Rhizobium. Azotobacter It is important and well known free living nitrogen fixing aerobic bacterium. It is used as a Bio-Fertilizer for all non leguminous plants especially rice, cotton, vegetables etc. Of the several species of Azotobacter, A. chroococcum happens to bethe dominant inhabitant in arable soils capable of fixing N2 (2-15 mg N2 fixed/g of carbon) in culture media. Azospirillum It belongs to bacteria and fix the considerable quantity of nitrogen in the range of 20- 40 kg N/ha in the rhizosphere in nonleguminous plants such as cereals, millets, oilseeds, cotton etc. It stimulates for the production 86 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture of growth promoting substance (IAA), disease resistance and drought tolerance. Cyanobacteria These are free-living as well as symbiotic cyanobacteria (blue green algae) and described by a group of one-celled to many-celled aquatic organisms and only used for rice cultivation and do not survive in acidic conditions. Azolla Azolla is a free-floating water fern that floats in water and fixes atmospheric nitrogen in association with nitrogen fixing blue green alga Anabaena azollae. Azolla is used as biofertilizer for wetland rice and it is known to contribute 40-60 kg N/ha per rice crop. Besides its cultivation as a green manure, Azolla has been used as a sustainable feed substitute for livestock especially dairy cattle, poultry, piggery and fish. Phosphate solubilizing microorganisms (PSM) The species of Pseudomonas, Bacillus, Aspergillus etc. secrete organic acids and lower the pH in their vicinity to bring about dissolution of bound phosphates in soil. Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) This group of bacteria colonize roots or rhizosphere soil. These PGPR are referred to as biostimulants and the phytohormones as they produce indole-acetic acid, cytokinins, ibberellins and inhibitors of ethylene production. Liquid Biofertilizers As an alternative, liquid formulation technology has been developed in the Department of Agricultural Microbiology, TNAU, Coimbatore which has more advantages than the carrier inoculants. The advantages of Liquid bio-fertilizer over conventional carrier based Bio-fertilizers are longer shelf life of 12-24 months, no contamination, no loss of properties due to storage upto 45º c, greater potentials to fight with native population, high populations can be maintained, easy identification by typical fermented smell, quality control protocols are easy and quick, better survival on seeds and soil, easy to use by the farmer, dosages is 10 time less than carrier based powder biofertilizers, high export potential and very high enzymatic activity since contamination is nil. Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 87 Application of Biofertilizers Seed treatment The seeds are uniformly mixed in the slurry of inoculant and then shade dried for 30 minutes. The shade dried seed are to be sown within 24 hours. One packet of the inoculant (200 g) is sufficient to treat 10 kg of seeds. Seedling root dip: This method is used for transplanted crops. Two packets of the inoculant are mixed in 40 litres of water. The root portion of the seedlings is dipped in the mixture for 5 to 10 minutes and then transplanted. Main field application Four packets of the inoculant are mixed with 20 kgs of dried and powdered farm yard manure and then broadcasted in the main field just before transplanting. Set treatment This method is recommended generally for treating the sets of sugarcane, cut pieces of potato and the base of banana suckers. Culture suspension is prepared by mixing 1 kg (5 packets) of bio-fertilizer in 40- 50 litres of water and cut pieces of planting material are kept immersed in the suspension for 30 minutes. The cut pieces are dried in shade for some time before planting. For set treatment, the ratio of bio-fertilizer to water is approximately 1:50. Potential Role of Biofertilizers in Agriculture Nitrogen-fixers (NF) and Phosphate solubilizers (PSBs) The incorporation of bio fertilizers (N fixers) plays major role in improving soil fertility and yield. In addition, their application in soil improves soil biota and minimizes the sole use of chemical fertilizers (Subashini et al., 2007). It is an established fact that the efficiency of phosphatic fertilizers is very low (15-20%) due to its fixation in acidic and alkaline soils and unfortunately both soil types are predominating in India. Therefore, the inoculations with PSB and other useful microbial inoculants in these soils become mandatory to restore and maintain the effective microbial populations for solubilization of chemically fixed phosphorus and availability of other macro and micronutrients to harvest good sustainable yield of various crops. Mycorrhizae The fungi that are probably most abundant in agricultural soils are 88 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi. They account for 5– 50% of the biomass of soil microbes. Potential Role of AM) fungi in Agriculture are as follows: Improved nutrient uptake (macro and micronutrients) The improvement of P nutrition of plants has been the most recognized beneficial effect of mycorrhizas. It is also reported that the AM- fungi also increases the uptake of K and efficiency of micronutrients like Zn, Cu, Fe etc. By secreting the enzymes, organic acids which makes fixed macro and micronutrients mobile and as such are available for the plant. Better water relation and drought tolerance AM fungi play an important role in the water economy of plants. Their association improves the hydraulic conductivity of the root at lower soil water potentials and this improvement is one of the factors contributing towards better uptake of water by plants. Soil structure (A physical quality) Mycorrhizal fungi contribute to soil structure by growth of external hyphae into the soil to create a skeletal structure that holds soil particles together, creation of conditions by external hyphae that are conducive for the formation of micro-aggregates, enmeshment of micro aggregates to form macro aggregates and directly tapping carbon resources of the plant to the soils. Enhanced phytohormone activity The activity of phytohormones like cytokinin and indole acetic acid is significantly higher in plants inoculated with AM. Higher hormone production results in better growth and development of the plant. Crop protection (interaction with soil pathogens) AM-inoculation considerably increases production and activity of phenolic and phytoalexien compounds due to which the defense mechanism of plant becomes stronger there by imparts the resistance to plants. Constraints in Biofertilizer Use Production level constraints: Unavailability of appropriate and efficient strains, unavailability of suitable carrier, mutation during fermentation. Market level constraints Lack of awareness of farmers, inadequate and inexperienced staff, lack of quality assurance, seasonal and unassured demand. Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 89 Resource constraint Limited resource generation for Biofertilizer production. Field level constraints: Soil and climatic factors, native microbial population, etc. References • Ramesh P. (2008). Organic farming research in M.P. Organic farming in rainfed agriculture: Central institute for dry land agriculture, Hyderabad, pp-13-17. • Sabashini HD, Malarvannan S and Kumar P.(2007). Effect of Biofertilizers on yield of rice cultivars in Pondicherry, India. Asian Journal of Agriculture Research 1(3): 146-150. • Sheraz S Mahdi, GI Hassan, SA Samoon, HA Rather, Showkat A Dar and B Zehra. (2010. Bio-fertilizers in Organic Agriculture. Journal of Phytology 2(10): 42-54 90 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture Plastic Mulching Based Okra Cultivation For Moisture Conservation: An Innovative Approach of Farmer

Jeetendra Kumar, Wajid Hasan and Shobha Rani Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Gandhar, Jehanabad, Bihar (Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, Bhagalpur) Introduction Sri Ganesh Prasad, Village-Keshopur, P.O.-Nonhi, Block-Kako, Distt.-Jehanabad, aged-48 years is a small but progressive farmer. He grows paddy, wheat, pulses, oilseed and vegetable crops by traditional method using local seed. Since he has only 1.50 acre land for cultivation, he focused mainly on vegetable cultivation for regular and better income. The village is facing with water problem, that’s why during rabi and summer season, he suffers from moisture stress in vegetable cultivation. The yield and income from these crops was low enough for survival of his family member and study of his children. He came in contact with KVK, Gandhar, Jehanabad (Bihar) and put up his problems with the scientist of the KVK, where he has been motivated to attend training on moisture stress management, scientific methods of cultivation of various crops, water saving crop cultivation methods as well as regarding use of modern farm implements. Mr. Ganesh Prasad has less acreage of land, he grows vegetable crop such as okra, brinjal, cabbage, cauliflower, cowpea, radish, vegetable pea for regular income. During rabi season, farmer of this village was facing moisture stress problem in vegetable cultivation. As per direction of Scientist of KVK, Jehanabad, he used plastic mulching technology in vegetable cultivation (okra).Plastic mulching is slightly expansive in comparison to other methods of okra growing but in less water availability condition, it proved to be better method for qualitative Okra cultivation. He prepared the field by 2-3 ploughing followed by planking and incorporated essential dose of chemical fertiliser as well as organic compost during last ploughing. After planking, plastic mulch film of 1.2 meter width has been laid down and soil is poured at both the sides of plastic film to restrict it from blowing by wind. After that, holes have been made on plastic film at an interval of 45 cm row and 30 cm distance in lines with a small piece of hollow iron pipe then in each hole, one seed of okra has been sown. He used 15 kg seed per hectare. Plastic film has two colour silver on Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 91 one side and black on another side. Silver colour has been kept on upper side, due to which it reflected the excess sunrays. Black colour kept on inner side, that caused moisture conservation for a longer duration (12-15days) and the soil is swallow as well as soft due to that root and plant growth found better. This method, allows less evaporation of water which is judicious use of water, minimised the problem of weeds and it does not need intercultural operations and weeding. He has not any advance irrigation system for mulched Okra cultivation, so he irrigated the field over the plastic sheet and water goes into the soil by the holes already made on plastic film. He needed to irrigate only 3-4 times at an interval of 12-15 days as compared to 8 irrigations at a short interval of 6 days with traditional method of sowing. As a result, he is not only able to save irrigation water but also have less weed infestation in vegetable cultivation. He got a superior yield of okra as 162.5 quintal/ha in comparison to 106 quintal/ha in traditional method. Now, his moisture stress problem in vegetable cultivation solved and he is getting an additional income of Rs. 45100/- per annum.

Technology option irrigation No. of Yield Cost of Gross Net interval Irrigati (q/ha) cultivation return return (Days) on (Rs./ha) (Rs/ha) (Rs./ha) Planting of Okra without 6 8 106.0 35400 106000 70600 any mulch Okra cultivation with plastic 15 3 162.5 46800 162500 115700 mulch. Okra cultivation with plastic mulch material has been found superior with saving of 5 irrigations than traditional method of sowing without any mulch.For innovative works in vegetable cultivation, ICAR institutes and agricultural university have awarded him. Likewise in year 2015, Central Potato Research Station, Patna awarded Mr. Ganesh Prasad with consolation prize on the occasion of Purvanchal regional farmers fair 2015 for scientific cultivation of cabbage undertaken by him. Again, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour (Bhagalpur), Bihar awarded him with 2nd prize in quality cabbage production and 3rd prize for quality Radish production on the occasion of an Horticultural Exhibition during Farmer’s fair 2016. Besides this, he is also growing less water requiring crops like pulses, oilseed in rabi season with improved method of cultivation and in addition to these he have a dairy with 2 buffalos. His total annual net income from these crops increased to Rs. 1,20,000 after adopting scientific crop cultivation 92 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture methods as compared to Rs. 55,000 from traditional cultivation practices. He is now an example for profitable agri-business enterprise among the villagers.

Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 93 A Sucess Story of Vegetable Cultvation

Wajid Hasan, Jeetendra Kumar and Shobha Rani Scientist, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Gandhar, Jehanabad, Bihar (Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, Bhagalpur) Sri Satyadev Singh verma, a small farmer having 2.0 acre of land is a progressive farmer, after education, he decided to continue agriculture farming but he lacked technical knowledge. When he comes in contact of Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Gandhar, Jehanabad, he knew about many improved technologies for upbringing of his family. After several training, now he is having many enterprises such as vegetable production, vermi compost production, dairy farming and small orchard. He grows winter vegetables like Potato, Radish, Chilli, spinach, Brinjal, Cabbage, Cauliflower, Sugar beet, turnip, turmeric, Onion, Garlic, green coriander & during summer pumpkin, cowpea, bitter gourd, sponge guard and other vegetables. He has also having fruit plants like Citrus, banana, Guava, Papaya, etc. In addition to these, he is having a dairy with one buffalo and one cow. His standard of living has risen up as is evident from his annual Net income of Rs. 173500 from integrated farming as compared to Rs. 80,000 from traditional cultivation. He attended different training programme at kvk as well as different institutes i.e CPRI, Patna for Potato productivity enhancement by True Potato Seed. Crop/ Enterprise Area Cost of Return Net income (acre)/No. production* (Rs. per (Rs. per unit) (Rs. per unit) unit) Crop (cereals, pulses, 1.00 acre 20000.00 65500.00 45500.00 oilseeds) Livestock 0.02 acre 10000.00 45000.00 25000.00 Vegetable 1.0 acre 35000.00 135000.00 100000.00 Enterprise 0.02 acre 1000.00 4000.00 3000.00 Vermicompost Economics of the farm: Aincludes cost of input, labour and others including marketing and transport of the products. Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 94 A Preliminary Survey of Kharif Weeds in Akola Region

V.S.Patil1, S. P. Rothe1, Shital V. Chavan2 and D.A. Dhale2 1Deptt. of Botany, Shri Shivaji College of Arts, Commerce & Science, Akola 2Deptt. of Botany, SSVPS’s, L.K.Dr.P.R. Ghogrey Science College, Dhule Introduction In India the kharif season varies with crops. Kharif starting at the earliest in May and ending in January but is popularly considered to start in June and end in October. Many weed plant grows in between kharif crop. A weed is a plant considered undesirable in a particular situation, “a plant in the wrong place”. Most commonly occurring unwanted plants are not in human-controlled settings, such as farm fields, gardens, lawns, and parks. Many plants that people widely regard as weeds are also intentionally grown in gardens and other cultivated settings. The term is also applied to any plant that grows or reproduces aggressively, or is invasive outside its native habitat. More broadly “weed” occasionally is applied to species outside the plant kingdom, species that can survive in diverse environments and reproduce quickly; in this sense it has even been applied to humans (Rothe and Deshmukh, 1997).Weeds are destroyers of crop plants. They complete their life cycle with the crop plants for water, minerals, nutrients and light. Thus there is a struggle for existence between crop plant and weeds. Weeds cause great damage to the crop resulting in a substantial decrease in the yield. This damage cannot be estimated year after year. The land under cultivation in Akola of Vidarbha region is less than that occupied by hill forests and grasslands. The irrigation facilities are very poor. Most of the area cannot be irrigated. Annual rainfall is the only source of the water for the district. The permanent water resources are chiefly the wells and these can hold good amount of water for only 5-6 months (Rothe, 2002). The wet lands around permanent water resources as well as irrigated lands are particularly rich in weed flora specially in Akola town and its adjoining area. The more common among them are enumerated here. Present investigation was carried out during 2015-2016. It is hoped that the list of several weeds short description will be helpful for the identification of these plant. Akola is a district in the Indian state of Maharashtra. Akola district there are 7 blocks that are divided into two sub divisions for agriculture Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 95 department as Sub Division. Akola includes 3 blocks as Akola, Barshitakli & Murtizapur & Sub Division Akot includes 4 blocks as Akot, Telhara, Balapur, Patur. The geographical area is 5.42 Lakh. ha. 1) Geographical area :5.42 Lakh ha. 2) Total area under cultivation :4.96 Lakh ha. 3) Total average area under kharip crops :4.82 Lakh. ha 4) Total average area under rabi crops :0.46 Lakh. ha Akola region has extremity in climatic situation. It has very cold winter and extreme hot summer. The average rainfall is 660 mm. Agriculture is the main occupation of the people in rural parts of the region. Cotton, Soybean and Jawar are the essential crops grown in the district. Other important crops of the region are Wheat, Sunflower, Peanut, Bajra, Harbara, Tur, Urad and Moong, etc. Most of the crops are dependent on the monsoon which is only 15%. Materials And Methods The plant exploration tours were conducted during the monsoon & winter seasons i.e. they were collected in August to November. Data of collected species were noted. For collection of plant assorted size of polythene bags were used. Each collected specimens of a plant in flowering or fruiting condition were taken into consideration and were given a field number. They were put in a small polythene bag which prevented the leaves from shriveling. All such bags were put in a large and thick polythene bags which has easy to carry in the field. These bags are preferable to traditional vasculum made of metal, which is too heavy and tend to convey heat to the plant within. In case of trees convenient size of representative specimens were collected. The leaves were carefully checked to avoid insect eaten or fungal infected ones. If the leaves, inflorescence and fruits were too large for the mounting board, they were trimmed suitably. When a leaf had to be removes for want of space the petiole was left on the specimen itself to shows phyllotaxy. The drying of specimens was done in the conventional method news- paper. The dried specimens identify with the help of local floras. The dried specimens were arranged on herbarium sheets. After confirming the plants, identification was done with the help of local flora. Identification of plants was done with the help of Cooke’s (1901), Hooker’s Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 96 (1872-1898) & Naik’s (1998) flora. Afterwards their nomenclature was checked, by using Bentham and Hooker’s system of classification. Results And Discussion 1) Cocculus hirusutus (L) Diel. Family: Menispermaceae Collected from: Murtizapur A straggling, scandent shrub, young parts densely hairy, grey; Leaves ovate, oblong, deltoid, apiculate, subcordate, and truncate at the base, softly villous on both surface; Flowers small, dull, green, male flowers in short axillary racemes or panicles, Pedicels slender, bracts minute, subulate, hairy, sepal oblong, ovate, hairy, 3 outside, inner large, petals 6, obovate, emarginated, embracing the filaments at base, smaller than petals of the female flowers, Stamen 5, female flower in axillary clusters, 2 – 3 together rarely recemose, petals thick and fleshy, divided at the apex into two, triangular lobes with swollen bases, stigmas tetrad. 2) Argemone mexicana L. Family: Papaveraceae Collected from: Borgaon manju Erect, annual herb, leaves sessile, half amplexicaul; Segments dentate, spiny, very pale, prickles very sharp, yellow; Flowers yellow, solitary terminal, Peduncles prickly outside, horned at the apex, very caduceus, sepal 3, spinous. caducous, green, imbricate in 2-4 merious, more or less. crumpled in aestivation, obovate, cuniform, petals yellow, ovary covered with soft spines, stigmared; seed globose, blackish brown. 3) Cleome viscosa L. Family: Cleomaceae Collected from: Murtizapur Annual, erect herb; stem grooved, densely clothed with glandular and simple hair; Leaves petiolet, Leaflets elliptic, oblong, the terminal large petiole hairy; Flowers yellow, axillary, growing out into lax racemes, pedicels slender, tetrad, hairy, sepals, oblong, lanceolate, glandular, petal oblong; seed brown, black when ripe. 4) Portulaca oleracea L. Family: Portulacaceae Collected from: Murtizapur Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 97 Annual, Succulent prostrate herb; stem reddish, swollen at a nodes quite, glabrous; Leaves fleshy subsessile, alternate, cuneiform, rounded, truncate at the apex, fresh with glisting dots, margin reddish; Flower few together in sessile terminal head, Sepals ovate triangular unequal, obtuse, petals 5, obovate, yellow, Stamen 7 – 12 style 3 – 8 partite; Fruit capsule, ovoid, green with reddish base; seed numerous. 5) Abutilon indicum L. Family: Malvaceae Collected from: Murtizapur Erect branched, minutely hoary tomantoes; Leaves broadly ovate, petiole long, acute, deflexed; Flower solitary, axillary, Calyx long divided to the middle lobe, ovate, apiculate, Corolla yellow or orange, opening in evening, Staminal tube hairy at the base, filament long, acute point hairy; seed brown to black. 6) Sida acuta L. Family: Malvaceae Collected from: Murtizapur Annual or perennial shrubby much branched; branches slender, terete minutely stellately hairy; Leaves long, lanceolate with rounded base, sharply serrate, glabrous on both side, petiole long shorter than stipules, pedicels about 5cm, each axil, shorter or longer than the petiole jointed about the middle; calyx long, lobes acute, corolla nearly twice as long as the calyx, fruit yellow. 7) Corchorus fascicularis Lam. Family: Tiliaceae Collected from: Murtizapur Annual or Branched from the base; stem and branches terete, glabrous; Leaves elliptic, serrate, lower part produced filiform appendages, glabrous, base rounded, petiole very; Flower cyme ,buds obovoid, apiculate, bracts long, linear, apicullate, petal oblong, obovate; Fruit capsule, long; Seed wedge shaped, black, smooth. 8) Cardiospermum halicacabum L. Family: Sapindaceae Collected from: Borgaon Manju Annual or perennial, Climbing glabrous or pubescent herbs; Leaves Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 98 deltoid, alternate, petioles long, segments of leaves lanceolate, glabrous, serrate, very acute at the apex and narrow at the base; Flower white, in few flowered umbellate cyme on axillary penduncle, peduncles slender stiff 2 – 10 cm long provided beneath the cymes of with 2 opposite circinate tendrils, pedicels very slender, outer sepal rounded, obovat, usually with a few scattered hairs on the back just below the apical margin, inner sepal larger than the outer rounded membranous petals rounded at the apex, Stamen 8, filaments hairy, style short; Fruit capsule, shortly stalked subglobose, depressed, Pyriform, trigonous. 9) Alysicarpus rugosus (Willd.) DC. Family: Fabaceae Collected from: Borgaon Manju Erect annual herb; stem ascending, glabrous except for a decurrent line of hairs; Leaves foliolate, petiole 3 – 4 mm long, stipules scarinus 6 – 10 mm long, usually oblong, rarely orbicular, apicular, glabrous, base often cordate, petioles extremely short, stipule minute, caduceus; Flower in dense spicate racemes, pedicel 3 – 4 mm long, slender glabrous, bracts large chafty, ovate, acuminate glabrous. Calyx glabrous on the back 6 – 9 mm long deeply divides teeth lanceolate much imbricate minutely ciliate, turgid very shortly stalked. 10) Culin corylifolia L. Family: Fabaceae Collected from: Murtizapur Erect, annual herb, stem and branches grooved conspicuously gland- dotted and with few apprised hairs; Leaves l-foliolate, petioles longs, hairy, gland-dotted, stipules lanceolate, 5-8 long, persistent, Leaflets broadly ovate, lanceolate or elliptic, cuneate or rounded at the base, inciso-dentate, mucronate at apex, hairy, nigro-punctate on both surfaces; Flower in dense, short, axillary racemes, pedicels very short, Calyx hairy outside, upper teeth linear lanceolate, lower ones ovate, twice as long as the upper, Corolla twice as long as the calyx; Seed solitary, smooth, adhering to the pericarp. 11) Crotalaria juncea L. Family: Fabaceae Collected from: Murtizapur Annual herb, branches numorous, assending slender terete, striate silky, pubescent; Leaves linear or oblong, obtuse, clothed on both side with Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 99 appressed silky shining hairs, base usually acute, petioles long, stipules very minute; Flower large in erect terminal and axillary lateral, racemes often reaching 1 ft. long, Pedicels long, pubescent bracts beneath the Calyx, minute, linear subulate, Calyx clothed with fulvous hair teeth linear, lonceolate, very deep, corolla bright yellow, slightly exerted, standard ovate, oblong, subacute; Seed 10 – 15. 12) Desmodium dichotomum (Wild.) DC. Family: Fabaceae Collected from: Murtizapur Herbaceous, stem shout, annual deeply grooved clothed with long spreading soft hairs; Leaves tri foliolate, petioles 1–2 cm long, deeply hairy, Stipules large, fallacious, amplexicaul auricled leaflets, sub cariaceous 2–5 cm, ovate, oblong, elliptic, obtuse, apiculate, hairy on both surface, ciliate with long white hairy; Flower in terminal and axillary racemes reaching 30 cm long, laxly arranged into rachis, pedicel filiform 3 – 6 mm long, bracts long lanceolate acute, ciliate calyx hair, teeth as long tube, Corolla long; Pods straight indented on the both sutures more so on the lower joints 3 – 6 rounded on both edges or broad as long, clothed with hooked hair. 13) Goniogyna hirta (Wild.) Ali. Family: Fabaceae Collected from: Borgaon Manju A prostrate much branch herb, branches sometimes long hairy; Leaves numerous, simple, subsessile, ovate, sub acute, hairy on both surfaces, obliquely cordate at the base; Flower in the axil of most of the leaves, Solitary, Subsessile, Calyx segmented, acute, Corolla yellow; Pods silky, long surrounded at the base by the persistent calyx and tipped by the style, smooth or slightly hairy, flattened pale brown, 1 – 2 seeded. 14) Indigofera cassioides DC. Family: Fabaceae Collected from: Borgaon Manju Perennial herb; woody, taproot; young stem green, yellowish; Leaves pinnate, stipules, triangular, leaflets alternate, stipulate absent, bracts triangular; Flower pink to orange red, sometimes white; Pod descending, terete yellowish and brown, strigose to glabrescent , hairs spurs. 15) Indigofera cordifolia Roth. Family: Fabaceae Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 100 Collected from: Washemba A diffuse copiously branched, clothed with long white hair, stem tall, the young ones pubescent, the older nearly glabrous; Leaves simple, subsessile broadly ovate, cordate, subobtuse, muycronate, hairy on both sides, very densely below, stipules minute setaceous; Flower yellow, subsessile 4 – 8 flower head, Calyx 3 mm long, outside tube very short, teeth linear, acute, very hairy, corolla bright red not exerted standard; Pods cylindrical, oblong, straight; Seed 2 ,yellow. 16) Indigofera glandulosa Wild. Family: Fabaceae Collected from: Murtizapur Annual, tall, much branched, long slender, Clothed with spreading hairs when young not at all argent co canscent; Leaves trifoliolate, petiole long, Slender, hairy, stipules setaceous minute, Leaflets oblanceolate, hairs above glaucus, appressely hairy; Flower in short axillary, Sessile heads 8 – 9 mm long, Calyx long ,hairy outside, teeth, long setaceous, Corolla 2 – 3 time as longs as the Calyx; Pods 5 mm long, pubescent angled ,the angled slightly winged and often toothed; Seed 2, 3 spherical, smooth and polished. 17) Lathyrus odoratus L. Family: Fabaceae Collected from: Borgaon Manju Annual climbing plant, Leaves pinnate with two leaflets and terminal tendril which twines around supporting plant and structures; Flower purple, broad, they are layer and very variable in colour in the many cultivars. 18) Medicago sativa L. Family: Fabaceae Collected from: Borgaon Manju Erect annual herb; leaves trifolioate, petioles longs, stipules lanceolate Leaflets obovate, cuneate, slightly toothed; Flowers purple yellow, in terminate racemes 6 – 12 mm long, closely 2 – 6 flower, pedicels short than the tube corolla twice as long as the calyx ; Pod form a double spiral, Seed 4 – 8. 19) Stylosanthes fruticosa Retz. Family: Fabaceae Collected from: Murtizapur Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 101 Procumbent herbs or under shrubs; root stock; Stem woody, peduncles and pedicels loosely villous; Leaves 3 – folialate, leaflets oblong to elliptic, linear or lanceolate, acute at base, apex mucronate at tip, pubescent on both side, ciliate on margins; nerves parallel and close, stipules long; Flower yellow, 3–5 in terminal ,petals yellows, stamen monoadelphous, style filiform. 20) Tephrosia hirta L. Family: Fabaceae Collected from: Murtizapur Much branched annual or perennial herbs or sub-shrubs; branchlets densely pubescent with white apprised hair; Leaves imparipinnate, leaflet obovate or oblanceolate, base acute to cuneate, apex obtuse or retuse, Stipules long, subulate; Inflorescence pseudorcemose, terminal or leaf opposed; Flower subsessils, bracts linear to deltoid, Calyx lobes filiform, ciliate, petals pink or white; seed dark brown. 21) Cassia tora L. Family: Caesalpiniaceae Collected from: Murtizapur Annual herb; Leaves long, rachis grooved, more pubescent, with conical glands between each or lowest pair of leaflets, stipules long, linear sublate, codulcous, leaflets 5 pair opposite, obovate, oblong, glducous, membranous glabrous pubescent base oblique rounded nerved 8–10 pairs petioles; Flowers subsessile pairs in axil of the leaves, pedicel in fruit rarely exceeding 8.1 mm long, Calyx glabrous divided into the base, segment 5 mm long, ovate, acute, petals 5 pale yellow, subequal, obtuse, upper petals 2 lobed the other entire, stamen 10, the supper reduced to minute, staminodes and the remaining 7 perfect; Seed 25 – 30 oblong, smooth, brown. 22) Lagascea mollis Cav. Family: Asteraceae Collected from: Murtizapur A tall slender herb; Stem and branched pale, slender, striate, tetrad, pubescent; Leaves ovate, acute or acuminate, crenate, silky beneath and with somewhat coarser hairs above base shortly cuneate, petiole 9 – 25 mm long, densely pubescent, Very silky leaves; Head in clusters, silky villous with an involucres of elliptic acute or acuminate, flowers white peduncles, long slender pubescent. Involucres bracts long, connate for about half way Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 102 up into a tube lanceolate, very acute, ciliate, corolla tube short, limbs fid the segments linear acute, about as long as the tube, pubescent outside near the tip, style arms long, hairy papas a short fabricate. 23) Parthenium hysterophorus L. Family: Asteraceae Collected from: Borgaon Manju Erect profusely branched leafy herb; Leaves alternate, pinnatified, lobes again lobulate or entire or broadly serrate; Head 4 – 5 mm across, white numerous, peduncle in axillary or terminal, lax corymb like cyme. 24) Tridax procumben L. Family: Asteraceae Collected from: Borgaon Manju Procumbent herb, glabrous spreading, long hairy; Leaves opposite, ovate, pinnatifid or deeply incise dentate, acute clothed on both side with hairs form bulbous, bases, petioles long densely hairy; Head 10 – 15 mm across, Solitary on long, Slender, Peduncles, Receptacle flat paleaceous plea, membranous linear, Involucres bracts few seriate, the outer ones ovate, densely hairy, the inner one membranous, oblong, pubescent, ligules central, florets many with tubular 5 lobed, corolla yellow, Anthers bases sagitate with short acute auricles at base; fruit Achenes ,oblong. 25) Vernonia cinerea L. Family: Asteraceae Collected from: Murtizapur Erect annual herb; Leaves alternate, mostly spathulate; Flower head terminal or auxiliary, homogamous, cymes, Involucres ovoid lobose, Bracts in many series the inner longest, Receptacle naked shortly hairy, corolla all equal, regular, tubular, lobes 5, narrow anthers bases obtuse, style arms subulate hairy, pappus, usually by seriate, densely hairy, often girth with a row outer short hairs, oblong, slightly narrowed at the base clothed with apperessed, white hairs. 26) Convolvulus arvensis L. Family: Convolvulaceae Collected from: Murtizapur The leaves are spirally arranged, linear to arrowhead-shaped, alternate; Flower trumpet shaped, white or pale pink with five slightly darker Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 103 pink radial strips, funnel shaped, small bracts; Fruits light brown, two seeded. 27) Ipomea sinuata L. Family: Convolvulaceae Collected from: Murtizapur Perennial, vine, twinning, shoots with only cauline leaves and hair with swollen base i.e. postulate, blades glabrous, with cloudy latex; Stem cylindrical, tough, long internodes; Leaves alternate, deep palmately divided with 5 principle lobe, petiolate without stipules; Inflorescences cyme, axillary, bracteates, long peduncles, wiry, pilose, hairy and bumps, bracteates, subtending. Flower pin with conspicuous swelling at base middle sepals with 1 bump corolla, broadly 5 – lobed widely funnel shaped, Cream colored tube, lobe acute at tip white to pinkish , above red, Corolla fusel; Fruit capsule. 28) Merremia emarginata L. Family: Convolvulaceae Collected from: Murtizapur Perennial, slender, prostate, creeping, smooth or somewhat hairy herb; Stem at the node; Leaves small, Kidney shaped to somewhat heart shaped, irregularly toothed; Flower one to three, occurs in short stalk in the axils of leaves. Sepals rounded, weak hair, corolla yellow. 29) Lantana camara L. Family: Verbenaceae Collected from: Borgaon Manju A straggling shrub; numerous recurved prickles on the branches, quadranangular, yellowish brown; Leaves opposite, ovate, Crenate, serrate, pubescent above, rounded but suddenly narrowed at the base, petioles 6 – 8 mm long; Flower in dense corymobose, Pedunculate ovoid, head long, yellow colored flower, Peduncles long opposite axils 4 sides slender, hairy thickened, upwards bracts reaching 9 mm long ovate, acuminate, softy hairy on both sides, smaller upwords, calyx long truncate, membranous, very hairy, corolla yellow, drying orange red colour tube hairy outside, style short about 1 mm long. 30) Hyptis suaveolens L. Family: Lamiaceae Collected from: Borgaon Manju Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 104 Annual erects stout, strongly aromatic, viscid pubescent herb; Stem tall; Leaves ovate, rounded or sub cordate at the base, crenate, dentate pubescent on both surface; Flower blue, sessile peduncle cyme in upper axils, calyx fruiting camp adulate and ribbed with 5 aristate teeth, corolla tube cylinderic lobes or lip deflexed and saccate, the other erect and spreading flat, stamen 4 didynamous, anther cells confluent. 31) Ocimum basilicum L. Family: Lamiaceae Collected from: Murtizapur An erect branching herb, glabrous, pubescent; stem and branches green; leaves ovate, acute entire base cuneate, petiole long; Flower in whorls densely racemose, the terminal raceme usually much longer than the laternal one, bract, stalked, shorter than calyx, ovate, shortly pedicelled, lower lip with 2 central teeth longer than rounded upper lip, Corolla 8 – 12 mm long, white pink, pubescent, stamen slightly exerted, upper filaments toothed at the base (See Plate VI- A). 32) Ocimum sanctum L. Family: Lamiaceae Collected from: Borgaon Manju Subshrubs, much branched; Stem erect, base woody, spreading pilose; Leaf blade oblong, puberulent, glandular, pilose on veins, base cuneate to rounded, margin shallowly undulate, serrate, apex obtuse; Inflorescence Verticillasters, bracts, sessils, cordate, Stamens slightly exerted ,free. 33) Boerhavia diffusa L. Family: Nyctaginaceae Collected from: Washimba Herbaceous, diffuse; Root large, fusiform; Stem prostrate, branched, slender, purplish; Leaves at each node in unequal pairs the large 2 cm the smaller 1.2 cm long, both nearly as broad as long or rounded at the apex, green and glabrous above, margin entire, colored pink, petioles nearly long as the blade; Flower very small, shortly stalked, 4 – 10 together in small umbels arranged in slender long stalked, corymbose, axillary and terminal panicle, bracteoles small lanceolate, acute, perianth long, ovary tube long, ovary, glandular viscid, limb funnel shaped dark pink with 5 narrow vertical band outside, stamen 2 slightly exerted. Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 105 34) Achyranthes aspera L. Family: Amaranthaceae Collected from: Washimba Erect. annual herb; Stem stiff , branches quadrangular; Leaves elliptic rounded at the apex, pubescent on both sides entire; Flower greenish white, numerous, wooly pubescent, rachis elongated, terminal spike, ovate bracteoles, broadly ovate with a spine as long as the blade, glabrous and shining, tepals subequal, ovate pointed with narrow membranous margins, stamen 5, staminodes truncate, fimbricate. 35) Aerva lanata Amare (L) Juss ex Schult. Family: Amaranthaceae Collected from: Washimba Annual, branching, somewhat woody root system; Stems mostly straggling , sprawling and spread widely; Leaves alternate, oval, grow from whitish papery stipules with two loves and red base, tiny clusters of two or three flowers grow in the leaf axils, flower pink, dull white, self – pollinated. 36) Alternanthera sessilis L. Family: Amaranthaceae Collected from: Murtizapur A prostrate annual herb; branches many, often rooting from the lower nodes glabrous; Leaves shortly stalked, elliptic denticulate; Flower sessile white, shining arranged in dense small, lanceolate white or pink, ovary broads than long, compressed, utricle broadly obcodate, margin thickened; seed suborbicular. 37) Amaranthus viridis L. Family: Amaranthaceae Collected from: Borgaon Manju An annual, herbaceous plant; Stem erect or usually ascending glabrous to pubescent, pubescent especially upwards; Leaves glabrous or pubescent on vein of lower surface, petioles long; Flower green, unisexual, male and female intermixed, in slender axillary to terminal paniculate spikes, Bracts deltoid to lanceolate, ovate; Seed rounded, dark brown to black with a pale thick border. Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 106 38) Celosia argentea Var. Family: Amaranthaceae Collected from: Murtizapur Erect, annual, glabrous; Branches, grooved; Leaves acute, entire, glabrous base much tapering into a short, petiole; Flower at first pinkish afterwards white, crowded and imbricate in close cylindrical blunt terminal spikes, tepals 5, linear, lanceolate, acute, with 3 close parallel slender, stamen short, filament connate into a cup, style filiform, elongated flowering sometime exerted in fruit; Seed 4 – 8 sub reniform, black. 39) Acalypha indica L. Family: Euphorbiaceae Collected from: Murtizapur An annual or perennial herb or shrub; Leaves alternate, undivided, generally petiolate, stipulate, staples rarely present at the apex, petioles or leaf base, pinnately or palmately veined; Inflorescence, terminal or axillary, usually subtended by a large bract, racemose; Flower develop at each node, Male flower very small, shortly pedicullate, globose in bud,Calyx parted into 4, small, sepals valvate, stamen 4 – 8, unilocular; Female flowers generally sessils or subsessiles calyx 3 (4 – 5) small ,sepals imbricate. 40) Euphorbia geniculata L. Family: Euphorbiaceae Collected from: Murtizapur Annual herb, with branches, glabrous to sparsely pilose; Leaves ovate, margin with minute, distant gland, tipped teeth, both surface especially the lower, stipular, gland purplish; Cynthia densely clustered in terminal and axillary cymes, Bracts smillar to the leaves but progressively smaller and subsessiles; Seed are blakish brown. 41) Euphorbia hirta L. Family: Euphorbiaceae Collected from: Washemba Annual erect herb, hispid yellowish cripped hairs; stem usually tetrad branched often four angled; Leaves opposite, oblong, lanceolate dark green above pale beneath, base usually unequal sided, main nerve few distinct, stipules pectinate; Involucres numerous, cyme, gland minute, globose, without a limb; Seed ovoid, trogonous, slightly transversely rugose, light reddish brown. Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 107 42) Phyllanthus madraspatana L. Family: Euphorbiaceae Collected from: Washemba Erect, much branched, glabrous annual her; Leaves scattered, glabrous, obovate, subsessile, glaucous; Flower axillary, the male flower minute small cluster subsessile, the female flower larger, solitary, shortly pedicellate, tepals 6, obovate, obtuse, green with white margins, stamen 3, filaments connate, style 3, distinct very small lobes, globose; Seed black. 43) Aloe barbadensis Mill. Family: Asparagaceae Collected from: Murtizapur Stemless or very short stemmed succulent plant; Leaves thick, fleshy, green to grey-green, some varieties showing white flecks on their upper and lower stem surfaces, margin serrated, base small, white teeth; Flower producing in summer with yellow tubular corolla. 44) Commelina haskarlli L. Family: Commelinaceae Collected from: Murtizapur Annual erect or prostrate, glabrous herb; Leaves narrowly sheath, long base, ciliate, spathes long, axillary, scattered, obovate, cordate at the base with rounded lobes, glabrous, scabrid, peduncles; Flowers in pubescent cymes the upper branch 2 – 4 the lower 1 – 2 flowered. 45) Cyperus compressus L. Family: Cyperaceae Collected from: Murtizapur An annual erect, glabrous herb; root fibrous; stem slender, trigonous, with rounded smooth angles; Leaves shorter broad, finely acuminate 1 nerved; Inflorescence, umbel simple often with sessile, when ripe linear, oblong 20 – 40 flowered, rachis stout, angular, closely scarred, scarcely winged, glume imbricate keel produced into slightly recurved, laterally compressed, stigma 3 as long as the style. 46) Brachiaria mutica (J.E.Sm) Griseb. Family: Poaceae Collected from: Murtizapur Vigorous, semi-prostrate, perennial grass with creeping stolor which Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 108 can grow long; Stem have hairy node, leaf sheaths and leaf blades. It rot at the node and detached pieces of the plant will easily take root in moist ground; Flower – head , loose, panicle up to 30 cm long with spreading branches. 47) Dichanthium aristatum (poir) C. E. Hubb. Family: Poaceae Collected from: Washemba Perennial with slender stem and varying degrees of stolon development; Young plant prostrate to semi-erect; foliage, becomes erect at maturity, nodes glabrous or short wooly, culms with dense, Short hairs, leaves blades; Inflorescence a sub-digitate, panicle, sometime only one racemes at the end of season or under unfavorable condition, stalks of the racemes hairy. 48) Digitaria ciliaris (Retz.)Koel Pescr. Family: Poaceae Collected from: Borgaon Manju Annual herb; Stem slender, branched, base glabrous; Leaves lanceolate, acute, flat with scabrous margins, hairy, smooth, spike few, Rachis slender, triquetrous, narrowly winged; Inflorescence spikelets, acute membranous, the lower floral glume ovate, oblong, acute, the upper floral glumes as long subchartaceous, Stamen. 49) Dinebra retroflexa (Vahl) Panz. Family: Poaceae Collected from: Borgaon Manju Annual herb; stem short, slender, erect; Leaves linear, finely acuminate, flaccid, glabrous, contracted at the insertion; Sheath thin, loose, racemosely arranged oblong at the axis of an inflorescence, the lower involve glume shorter than the upper floral glumes reaching 2 cm long, oblong, subacute, white, anther oblong, pale brown. 50) Heteropogon contortus L. Family: Poaceae Collected from: Borgaon Manju Annual herb, culms tufted, erect simple or sparingly branched, node glabrous; Leaves mostly at base of culms; Inflorescence raceme, solitary, long terminating culums its branches lower 4 – 6 pairs of spikelets, Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 109 homogamous, lodicules 2, stamen 3, anthers sessile, spikelets of homogamous pairs like the pedicelled ones, more or less covered with tubercle based hairs. 51) Rottboellia conchinchinesis (Lour.) W.D.Clayton. Family: Poaceae Collected from: Murtizapur An annual grass; Stem and leaves covered with stiff, irritating hairs; leaf blades, long, wide, flat, alternate and parallel venation; Inflorescence jointed cylindrical raceme, long; Seed start producing 6 – 7 weeks. Conclusions In all near about 65 species were collected. Out of 65 species, 51 species remains perfectly preserved without any fungal or bacterial infection. Total 20 numbers of Families were collected. Out of them 16 number of Families were Dicotyledons. In Dicotyledons, 10 Polypetalae, 4 Gamapetalae. 2 Monochlamydeae and 4 monocotyledons families were observed. Plants that are unwanted or undesirable in the desired crop field, competitive, persistent and pernicious, interfere with the utilization of land and resources (Water, Nutrient) and adversely affect human activities. Weeds are destroyers of crop plants. The following harmful effects of Kharif weed are listed below. · Reduction in crop yield due to weeds result from their multifarious ways of interfering with crop growth and crop culture. Weeds compete their life cycle with crops for one or more plant growth factors such as mineral, nutrients, water, solar energy and space. They are hinder during crop cultivation operation. · Competition for water: For production of equal amount of dry matter, the weeds, in general transpire more water than most crop plants. It is reported that wild mustard transpires about four times more water than a crop of oat. · Weeds harm animal health: Several weeds of grasslands and forage crops contain high alkaloids, tannins, oxalates, glucosides, and other substances that prove poisonous to animals when ingested. From above information we come to conclude that weed shows economic aspects. Weeds are harmful to crops .They are destroyers of Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 110 crops plant & decrease crop yield. Some weed shows medicinal properties for curing the diseases. They also use as aromatic plant. References • Cooke (1901). “The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay”,Vol. I, II, III, London reprinted edition 1958, B.S.I. Calcutta. • Dhore and Joshi (1988). Flora of Melghat Tiger Reservoir related with Melghat tribal region. • Hooker J. D. (1872 – 1898). The flora of British India. Vol. I VII, L Reeves and Co., London. • Naik V. N. (1998). The Flora of Marathwada. Vol I & II, Amrut Prakashan, Aurangabad. • Rothe S. P. (2002). A Survey of Ornamental Plants from Akola District. P.D.K. V. Research Journal, 3: 9 – 14. • Rothe S. P. and Deshmukh R. G. (1997). Survey of common weeds of Kharif and Rabbi Crop fields from Akola District. Royal Edu. Soc. Journal., 63 – 69. Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 111 Gm Technology: Future Tool For Agriculture Development

Rajeev Kumar Deptt. of Ag. Botany, C.S.S.S. (P.G.) College Machhra, Meerut (U.P.) People have always been concerned with the food supply in view of ever increasing population. The world population is predicted to be between 9.6 billion and 11 billion in 2050 necessitating a 70% increase in food production. This amounts to an increase of 3 billion tonnes (t) of cereals mainly wheat, rice, and maize. Economic and environment-friendly approaches are needed to meet the above food demand. Thus, the development of crop cultivars demanding less water and fertilizers must be a priority for plant breeding. The application of conventional plant breeding tools has resulted in greatly increased yields per unit land area for many of our important crops, but it has changed the low input agriculture into high input agriculture in terms of more irrigation and increasing chemical use and it is not desirable as far as sustainable agriculture is concerned. Now it is imperative to shift from a high-input agriculture to a sustainable agriculture to minimize the impact of agriculture on the environment. India heavily relies on imports to meet the requirements of protein and fat spending US$ 4.5 billion on imported pulses and another US$ 10.5 billion on imported edible oil. It is expected that with urbanization, better employment opportunities coupled with more disposable income, the demand for nutritious food especially pulses, oils, vegetables, milk, meat and poultry food etc. will grow many folds. The situation currently is so grim that our Honorable Prime Minister Mr. NarendraModi drew attention of scientists and farmers to the large import bill toward the pulses and vegetable oils. In addition to the above challenges, climate change is also forcing us to develop climate resilient cultivars. Now, it seems very much essential to expedite the varietal development process by integrating biotechnological tools as it provides an option for breeders to overcome the problems associated with conventional breeding. If we combined plant biotechnology with traditional agricultural practices, it may make agricultural systems more sustainable. The basic principle involved in the production of GMO involves the addition of new genetic material or modification of organism’s genetic material in order to improve its characteristic and properties. Genetic engineering or recombinant DNA technology is being used for improving crop yields, Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 112 resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses, and to enhance the nutritional content of foods. Bt-transgenic cotton for pest resistance, golden rice for Vit. A deficiency and transgenic banana as a source of edible vaccine are some of the promising achievements in transgenic technology. Are there only benefits, or are also risks with recombinant technology? GMOs are increasingly becoming a topic of controversy. Biosafety measures should be used to avoid hazards, by taking necessary safeguards, associated with the recombinant DNA technology but it does not mean to avoid the use of technology.Plant biotechnology, involving the use of recombinant DNA (rDNA) technologies, alsoknown as genetic engineering, has emerged as a powerful tool with many potentialapplications in agriculture. New plant varieties developed using rDNAtechniques, commonly referred to as genetically engineered (GE), genetically modified(GM) or transgenic plants, have been and are being developed with the aim of: enhancingproductivity; decreasing dependence on the use of agricultural chemicals; modifying theinherent properties of crops; and improving the nutritional value of foods andlivestockfeeds. This year, 2016, marks the completion of 20 years of commercialization of GM crops. The global area under GM crops increased from just 1.9 million hectares in 1996 to 179.7 million hectares in 2015 (ISAAA (The International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications), 2016). The main commercial GM crops are Canola, corn, cotton and soybean, while recently potato and apple are the new commercially approved GM crops. India, with just one commercial, GM crop cotton and one commercial trait, insect resistance is the fourth after largest country in the world which GM crops are grown commercially. Insect resistant cotton or Bt cotton as more popularly known covers approximately 95% of all cotton grown area in India that has enabled India to become exporter of cotton from being a net importer few years ago.As more transgenic varieties are released and the resultant food products are commerciallyavailable and are traded across various countries, concerns have been expressed abouttheir safety. With this increased awareness, the concept of food safety assurance (i.e., thata food is safe for human consumption according to its intended use) has assumedimportance as with any method of genetic manipulation, including genetic engineering ofplants, there is a possibility of introducing unintended changes along with the intendedchanges, which may in turn have an impact on the nutritional status or health of theconsumer. Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 113 The potential of biotechnology in genetic enhancement

Recombinant DNA technologies have enormous potential to improve crops in a relativelyprecise way (Barampuram and Zhang 2011). Protocols for genetic engineering are available (Okada et al., 2001)and provide another means for the genetic enhancementof the crop. Genes of interest are introduced,often by Agrobacterium-mediated transformation, and become integrated at randompositions in the genome. Initial experiments involved gene transfer by using Agrobacterium tumefaciens (Herrera-Estrella 1983). The development of sophisticatedmethods later opened the way for an alternative procedure for engineeringplants using direct DNA transfer for a number of characteristics as shown below in the diagram. The protocols for this transfer include particlebombardment (Gan 1989), chemical treatments and electroporation (Bates 1994). However, the unavailability of efficient transformation methods to introduce foreign DNA (alien gene) can be a substantial barrier to the application of recombinant DNA methods in some crop plants (Bhatnagar et al. 2010). References • Barampuram S, Zhang ZJ (2011) Recent advances in plant transformation. Methods MolBiol701:1–35 • Bates GW (1994) Genetic transformation of plants by protoplast electroporation. MolBiotechnol2:135–145 • Bhatnagar M, Prasad K, Bhatnagar-Mathur P, Narasu ML, Waliyar F, Sharma KK (2010) An efficientmethod for the production of marker-free transgenic plants of peanut (ArachishypogaeaL.). PlantCell Rep 29:495–502 114 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture

• Gan C (1989) Gene gun accelerates DNA-coated particles to transform intact cells. The Scientist3:25 • Herrera-Estrella (1983) Expression of chimaeric genes transferred into plant cells using a Ti-plasmid-derived vector, Nature 303, 209 – 213. • Okada, Y., T. Murata, A. Saito, T. Kimura, M. Mori, M.Nishiguchi, K. Handa, J. Sakai, T. Miyasaki, Y. Matsuda, andH. Fukuoka. 2001. Virus resistance intransgenic sweetpotato. • Okada Y, Maeno E, Shimizu T, Dezaki K, Wang J, Morishima S. Receptor- mediated control of regulatory volume decrease (RVD) and apoptotic volume decrease (AVD). The Journal of Physiology. 2001; 532(Pt 1):3-16. Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 115 Resource Use Efficiency of Mentha Oil Production In Sitapur District of Uttar Pradesh

Anil Kumar1, K. K. Verma1 and Pankaj Verma2 1Asstt. Prof. (Farm Management) and (Soil Science) 2Research Scholar, Directorate of Extension, NDUAT Kumarganj, Faizabad (UP). Introduction Growing mentha (Menthol arvensis) considered as a bonus cash crops as it does not disturb or replace the cultivation of any major winter and rainy season crop. Being a labour intensive crop, cultivation, distillation, processing and marketing of mint provide ample employment opportunities in rural areas. Processing of menthe herb consists of two main processes distillation and crystallization. Steam distillation of mentha herb is commonly done to extract peppermint oil. It is marketed as such or in crystals and in sold as crystals or flakes. The prevailing market system of mint oil Industry reveals that there are good numbers of mint oil buyers are available in entire mint growing region this also allures farmers to en-cash more benefit from the crop. The area and production of mentha increased significantly during the period from 1970 to 2000 and growing. Since the crop has wide range of use in various cosmetics, medicine and other industries. Therefore, it is important to work out the economics of scale in order to know the benefit drawn by the farmers in real sense. The benefit cost ratio witch give an insight to understand the monetary gain by each rupee invested on the farming, processing and marketing. Methods and Materials Leading blocks of menthe cultivators falling under Sitapur district of UP with acreage in menthe cultivation was prepared using village level record and arranged in descending order, out of which two blocks namely Sakran and Biswan having highest area in mentha cultivation were selected. Further, a list of villages under the selected blocks was prepared. Out of which total four villages namely Sakran, Kutbapur, Kuttupur Nipania and Nipania Maphe (two villages from each block) was selected randomly. Farmers from these selected villages were arranged in descending order according to the acreage under mentha crops, of which, 25 mentha growers were selected from each village randomly making a total size of 100 farmers, which were further categorized as marginal (< One hectare), small (1 to 2 116 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture hectare), medium (2 to 3 hectare) and large (>3 hectare) size of farmers group. The study period pertains to Agricultural year 2011-12 Having estimated the elasticity coefficient using cob douglas production function, “t” test was applied to ascertain the reliability of these estimates. If calculated “t” value is greater than the table value of “t” at specific probability level at “n-k-1” degree of freedom , bj is said to be statistically significantly different (‘k’ is number of independent factors and ‘n’ is sample size). Results and Discussion It is evident from the double log production function analysis as shown in table no 1 that all the explanatory variable used in production function very well explained (98.04 percent) fallowed by small farmers (86.39 percent) , large farmers (70.09 percent) and marginal farmers (68.30 percent) however the variability was explained by (82.26 percent) for all the farms across the group lasticity of production of manure & fertilizer, irrigation charges, and cost incurred on seed or sucker was found significant for marginal, small, medium, and large category of farm sizes. Considering the slope of elasticity expenditure on labour was found to be negatively sloped for marginal, and medium farmers, exhibiting the situation of disguised un- employment, whereas, expenditure on irrigation were found significant for medium and large category of farms. The negatively sloped variables of production system were found to be non significant causing no change in total production even if it increases or decrease in the production process. However only one variable were found negatively sloped in general and for Small category farmers in particular. Expressing one percent increase or decrease seed or sucker and 0.41 percent charges in manure & fertilizer and irrigation charges will increase or decrease in production of Mentha oil by one percent for medium, large, marginal, and small category of farmers. Observing overall production function it was evident that 0.26 percent change in expenditure or manure & fertilizer and 0.31 percent change in expenditure on irrigation will increase/ decrease the Mentha oil production by one percent. Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 117

Table 1. Result of regression analysis for cost of cultivation. Sl. Variable’s Marginal Small Medium Large Overall No. 1 Intercept 0.880294 2.280967 5.465433 3.929956 1.789895 (1.672918) (2.104677) (1.743841) (8.139605) (0.942659) 2 Seed/Sucker 0.118204 0.327565 0.901746* 0.709501** 0.210408 (0.108388) (0.352677) (0.17661) (0.309925) (0.108999) 3 Labour charge -0.021816 0.1808 -0.097172 0.623524 0.108898 (0.0116) (0.353291) (0.147093) (0.610916) (0.113687) 4 Manure & 0.418133* 0.00277 0.162324 0.056126 0.262142** Fertilizer charges (0.090588) (0.300323) (0.102326) (0.627531) (0.086193) 5 Irrigation 0.321072 0.416566** -0.112885 -0.203625 0.314557** charges (0.183434) (0.207928) (0.259565) (0.802485) (0.102376) 6 Distillation 0.102056 0.003177 0.093545 -0.226339 0.0498003 Charges (0.086453) (0.107223) (0.053568) (1.992372) (0.054463) 7 Sum of Elasticity 0.981282 0.930878 1.367672 1.819115 0.9458053 8 R2 0.683068 0.863932 0.980445 0.70099 0.822656 N (40) (32) (17) (11) (100) Figures in parentheses denoted standard error of respective coefficient *** Significant at 5 and 1 per cent significance.

On an average variables used for Mentha oil production has explained 82.22 percent of variability. All the variable have shown positive relation with total production out of which only expenditure incurred on manure & fertilizers and irrigation charges have shown significant relation with Mentha oil production. Which exhibits 0.26 & 0.31 percent change in these inputs will significantly affect the Mentha oil productions. Marginal value productivity (MVP) Marginal value productivity is the amount of production added to total value product by another unit of the input used, by utilizing under citerus- peribes condition at their geometric mean level. Marginal value productivity may depict a constant (MVP un changed) an increasing trend (if MVP is positive) a decrease (if MVP is negative) in the gross value of product in respect to one unit increase in the input factor. The MVP of plant protection was observed thereby a positive response of production on medium farms. The efficiency of resource use the MVP of resource have been worked out and compared with their acquisition cost. If the MVP/MC is greater than unity, It indicates scope for increasing the expenditure on input variable. If the ratio is less than unity, it indicates excess expenditure on the variable and consequent need to decrease the input use. In the light of present inferences, resource use efficiency of all five variables could not be happened either less than or equal to unity. The results indicated that 118 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture there was sufficient scope for increasing the variable (human labour, seed, manure & fertilizer, and irrigation ). In order to attaining the profitability of Mentha oil production the ratio has to tend to unity as, it indicates efficient use of factors of production. The use of human labour, seed, manure and fertilizer, irrigation and distillation charges have showed positive response of production on all size group of farm. Resource Use Efficiency: In order to examine the resource use productivity the marginal value productivities of those controllable inputs have been calculated whose regression coefficients were found statistically significant in the estimated production function. The MVPs of a particular input represents additional return of a rupee forthcoming from the use of an additional unit of output. The MVP from the estimated production function has been compute as follows: SR. No. Type of PF : MVP Estimates 1 Linear : MVPi = bi 2 Cob Douglas : MVPi = bi (?Y/ ?X) 3 Semi Log (Y) : MVPi = bi (?Y) 4 Semi Log (X) : MVPi = bi / ?X here; ?Y and ?X were geometric mean of Yi & Xi values respectively and bis was the regression coefficient associated with the input Xi here; ^Y and ^X were geometric mean of Yi & Xi values respectively and bis was the regression coefficient associated with the input Xi For a profit maximising producer, there must exist a resource efficiency if inputs are used in right proportions. A necessary condition for this is that “input is used to the extent so that its marginal value productivity become equals to its price”. Mathematically, there exist a resource efficiency in respect of the use of the input (i) if MVPi = Pi (here Pi is the unit price of input i) Since all the input and output are expressed in the monetary term, the acquisition cost (prices) of each input is taken as ( ) rupee one. To examine the economic efficiency of different input used in milk production process the MVP of different inputs are compared with their unit price and the significance of deviation of the MVP of an input from its price is tested by using “t” statistics. If the difference between of an input and its unit price is statistically non significant, it indicates that all the inputs are utilized efficiently. On the other hand a significant higher MVP of input than its Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 119 prices shows the input can be used further to increase the productivity, while a significant lower difference of MVP of an input than its price indicates that the input is being used in excess and hence needs a reduction in its use. The resource use efficiency of menthe grown by farmers in Sitapur district shown in table no 2, reveals that, marginal farmers were not utilizing the manure and fertilizer resources adequately, this represents expecting better crop by using excess manures and chemical fertilizers whereas small farmers were found using excessive expenditure on labour in per unit of area. The medium and large farmers were spending more on seed/ suckers for good produce. This implies the medium and large farmers were given priority to the better quality seed which justifies with the menthol oil production of these farmers. Variables which are found significant in the production function (manures and fertilizers for marginal, irrigation charges for small, prices of seed and suckers for medium and large, and manures and fertilizers, irrigation charges for overall farmers) were only used for analyzing resource use efficiency as only these variables were capable of altering or modifying the production system. All those variables, found in- significant in the production system, were considered as being utilized efficiently. 120 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture

Table no 2: Marginal value products (MVPi) of mentha production inputs of farmers. Seed / Value of Manure and Irrigation Distillation Suckers human Fertilizers charges Charges

(X 1) labour (X 2) (X 3) Labor (X 4) (X 5) Marginal size farm category (< 1 ha) (N = 40)

MVP i 0.881796 -0.978184 0.581867 0.678928 0.897944 Prices 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 Difference of -0.1182 -1.97818 -0.41813** -0.32107 -0.10206

MVP i & Price (0.25532) (0.33999) (0.19811) (0.21203) (0.05488) Small Size farm category (1- 2 ha) (N = 32)

MVP i 0.672435 0.8192 0.99723 0.583434 0.996823 Prices 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 Difference of 0.32577 -0.1808 0.00277 -0.41657** 0.00318

MVP i & Price (2.87267) (1.27826) (0.92720) (0.98504) (23.65683) Medium size farm category (2 -3 ha) (N = 17)

MVP i 0.098254 -0.902828 0.837676 -0.887115 0.906455 Prices 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 Difference of -0.90175** -1.90283 -0.31773 -0.25126 -1.33299 MVP i & Price (1.03788) (1.2628) (0.77839) (1.14932) (0.33106) Large size farm category (> 3 ha) (N = 11)

MVP i 0.290499 0.376476 0.943874 -0.796375 -0.773661 Prices 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 Difference of -0.7095** -0.62352 0.05613 1.79638 -1.77366 (0.25532) (0.33999) (0.19811) (0.21203) (0.05488) MVP i & Price Overall Farmers (N = 100)

MVP i 0.789592 0.891102 0.737858 0.685443 0.950197 Prices 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 Difference of -0.21041 -0.1089 -0.26214** -0.31456* -0.0498

MVP i & Price (0.25532) (0.33999) (0.19811) (0.21203) (0.05488) Figures in parentheses indicate standard error of difference. *, ** statistically significant at 5 &1 per cent. Italics figures (in significant hence) not considered for resource use efficiency analysis

Conclusions Marginal (resource poor) farmers have invested more on manures, chemical fertilizers as their consideration about taking more by applying more manures and fertilizers, small farmers were using more irrigation water per unit of area, whereas, medium and large (resource rich) farmers were emphasizes more on quality of seed / suckers to maximize menthol production and hence invested more on buying good quality seeds / suckers. This implies introducing more and more input for maximizing the production up to a certain level of production (second / rational stage) only, but later on may reduce the production function drastically as in the case of traditional three stages of production function. Thus farmers are hereby suggested to have holistic approach by considering all inputs together. Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 121 Refrences • Kothari, S.K.; Singh, C.P.; Singh, K. and Kumar, Sushil (2000). Critical analysis of mentha mint (Mentha arvensis) cultivar differences in oil yield. Indian Perfumer, 44 (3) : 129-134. • Nair, E.V.S., Chinnamma, N.P. and Nair, K.C. (1980), Optimization studies on the factors of processing of essential oils. Indian Perfumer. 24 (2): 110-114. Mehra, B.K. (1976). Mentha oil and menthol production in India-Past, Present and Future. CIMAP 173-191. • Paroda, R.S. (2000). Opportunities and challenges for promotion of essential oils beyond 2000 : An India perspective. Indian Perfumer, 44 (3) : 93-100. • Ram, Muni, Kumar, Sushil, Ram, M and Kumar, S. (1999). Optimization of interplant space and harvesting time for high essential oil yield in different varieties of mint Mentha arvensis. Journal of Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Science. 21 (1): 38-45. • Singh, L. (1969). Commerical cultivation of Mentha arvensis in Tarai area CIMAP. 195-198. • Singh, Saudan; Singh, Aparbal, Singh, S. and Singh, A. (1999). Use of dust mulch and anti transparent for improving water use efficiency of menthol mint. Production and export of mint (Mentha arvensis). Journal of Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Science, 21 (1): 29-33. • Varshney, S.C. (1999). Market reports on essential oils. Indian Perfumer. 43 (2): 54-55. • Varshney, S.C. (2000). Vision 2005: Essential oil industry of India. Indian Perfumer. 43 (3): 101-118. 122 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture Effect of Storage on Chemical Qualities of Khoa Prepared From Cow Milk And Buffalo Milk

T.P.S.Duhoon, H.C.L.Gupta, Devesh Gupta and Mojpal singh Deptt. of Dairy Science &Technology, J.V.College, Baraut (Baghpat) Introduction Khoa, which is a good source of essential constituents required for body maintenance and also supplies a high energy per unit compared to the milk and its products. It is estimated that about 6.0 lakh tonnes of khoa produced annually, which is equivalent to 7.0 percent of India’s total milk production (Rajarajan et al.,2007).The present study was taken up to know the effect of storage on the chemical qualities of khoa. Material and Methods To know the effect of storage, Khoa was prepared from standardized cow milk and buffalo milk previously tested for acidity,fat,and total solids. The temperature 950C was selected for khoa making in aluminum container, the sample were then stored in glass petri dishes at room temperature for chemical qualities fresh with subsequent storage for 3 and 7days.The effect of storage was noted on the basis of moisture, fat, protein, lactose and total solids percentages. Results and Discussion As regard the fat percent after the storage of 3 days shows a slight increase and 7 days storage was approaches to the previous values. The fat percent of the product was not significantly influenced by storage. The similar relationship were found in buffalo milk khoa. After 3 days and 7 days of storage period a marked increase in protein percent was noted over initial samples in both khoa samples. It is found that protein percent of khoa is affected by storage period. As regard the lactose percent there was not marked influenced of storage period up to 3rd days of cow milk and buffalo milk khoa but after the storage of 7th days there was a slight decrease in lactose percent in both samples of khoa. Lactose % in khoa was also non significantly influenced by storage period. Total solids percent was inversely related to the moisture content of khoa. After storage of 3rd days and 7th days the values show a marked increase in total solids content of khoa due to the higher loss of moisture Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 123 content of khoa in cow milk but in buffalo milk khoa 3rd day of storage total solids was increased and 7th day of storage was approaches to the previous values. The storage period was significantly affect the total solids of khoa. The studied on lal peda was done by Jha.et al.(2014) and on indigenous dairy product by Sindhu et al.(2000). Conclusion It can be concluded that for getting best chemical qualities of khoa both milk (cow & buffalo) are suitable for storage. Table 1: Showing the effect of storage on chemical qualities of khoa prepared from cow milk and buffalo milk S.N. Constituents of Type of milk khoa Cow milk khoa Buffalo milk khoa Fresh After 3 rd After 7 t h Fresh After 3rd After 7 th days days days Days 1 Fat % 31.80 32.17 31.26 33.30 34.23 32.52 2 Protein % 13.89 16.29 17.48 15.69 16.49 17.15 3 Lactose % 28.36 28.00 27.38 18.52 18.29 18.03 4 Total solids % 74.05 76.46 76.12 67.51 69.01 67.70 5 Moisture% 25.95 23.54 23.88 32.49 30.99 32.30

References

• Jha,A.,Kumar, A., Jain,P.,Hariom, Singh, Rakhi and Bunkar, D.S. (2014) : Physico chemical, sensory changes during the storage of lal peda, Journal of food science &Technology,51(6),1173-1178. • Raja rajan.G., Kumar,C.N. and Elango,A.(2007): Distribution pattern of moulds in air of khoa samples collected from different section of khoa plant, Indian journal of Dairy Science.60(2) 133-135. • Sindhu, J.S., Arora, S. and Nayak, B.K.(2000): Physico chemical aspect of Indigeous Dairy Product, Indian Dairy Man, 53. 124 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture Techniques of Fruit Ripening And Toxic Effects of Calcium Carbide Ripened Fruits on Human Health

Pavitra Dev Deptt. of Horticulture, Chaudhary Charan Singh University, Meerut, Introduction Fruit ripening is the final phase of fruit development in which fruits attain their desirable flavour, quality, colour, palatable nature and other textural properties. Fruit ripening involves the changes in the biochemistry, physiology and gene expression of the fruits. In fruits, the cell walls are mainly composed of polysaccharides including pectin. During the ripening of a fruit, a lot of changes occur such as chlorophyll degradation, pigment biosynthesis, conversion of starch to simple sugars, conversion of pectin from a water- insoluble form to a soluble one, breaking down of acids, accumulation of flavor and organic acids, development of wax on skin, volatile production and rest by specific enzymatic activities. Breaking down of acid content is associated with sweeter test in fruits. Volatile compounds are responsible for the specific aroma in fruits. On the basis of ripening behavior and on the basis of respiration rate, fruits can be divided into two categories: climacteric and non-climacteric fruits. Climacteric fruits Climacteric fruits are those fruits in which ripening process associated with increase in respiration rate and ethylene production. In simple words climacteric fruits can ripen after harvesting as well. Examples of climacteric fruits are mango, banana, papaya, guava, sapota, fig, apple, plum, pear etc. Non-climacteric fruits Non-climacteric fruits are those which show a gradual decline in respiratory rate with ripening and produce very small amount of ethylene, means they ripen without ethylene and respiration bursts. Such type of fruits does not respond to ethylene treatment. So they should only be harvested at full ripe condition. Examples of climacteric fruits are citrus, Indian black berry, pineapple, grapes, pomegranate, litchi, ber, strawberry, Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 125 phalsa, karonda, cashew etc. Technologies of fruits ripening A. Chemical free or conventional methods of fruit ripening India has a long, prosperous and innovative history in agriculture development. During ancient times, Indian people developed different technologies for ripening of fruits, which were quite safe for human health and were eco-friendly also. Those methods included spreading of unripe fruits on a layer of paddy husk or wheat straw or any other dry plant material and covering this spreading layer of unripe fruits with the same plant material for creating an airtight structure and optimum temperature condition for well and uniform ripening of fruits. Those fruits ripened within a week. In another method, some ripened fruits were kept with unripened fruits inside an airtight container of wheat or rice grain. Since the ripened fruits release ethylene, therefore ripening in unripened fruits will be faster. These practices were mostly followed in mangoes. In other methods, fruits are placed in a vessel and smoke is created inside by using burnt paper followed by making this vessel airtight by covering with gunny sacks. Paper or other materials smoke emanates gases and maintains temperature in vessels. These practices are mostly used in bananas. These chemical free or conventional methods of fruit ripening are mainly practiced in villages but these are not the commercial methods of fruit ripening. B. Chemical based or modern methods fruit ripening Dip method: In this method, unripe mature fruits are dipped in 0.1 % ethrel solution for a moment and wiped dry. After that, these fruits are spread over a gunny sack or cotton cloth without touching each other and then covered with thin cotton cloth for next two days. In this method, the fruits will ripen within two days. Trickle Method: In trickle method of fruit ripening, ethylene gas is trickled into a room by maintaining a concentration of 10-100 ppm for a period of 24 to 60 hours. Time of treatment and concentration depend on the type of cultivar and stage of maturity. After 24 hours, room should be ventilated to prevent carbon dioxide exceeding 1% concentration, otherwise higher concentration of carbon dioxide may adversely affect fruit ripening. In order to facilitate uniform ethylene concentration and temperature in ripening chamber, fan can be used in chamber for proper air circulation. Presently this advance method of fruit ripening is being used. 126 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture Fruit ripening gases Ethylene and acetylene gases are used for the fruit ripening in many countries. Etheral and ethephon, which are ethylene generating chemicals are commercially used for fruit ripening. Ethylene is a flammable colorless gas with a sweet odour. It is a naturally occurring plant hormone that is produced by many fruits and vegetables. The ethylene ripened fruit is safe for consumption purpose. Food Safety and Standards (Prohibitions and Restriction on Sales) Second Amendment Regulation, 2016 the FSSAI has permitted the use of ethylene gas in the artificial ripening of fruits with a proviso which reads as; that ethylene gas may be used “Provided that fruits may be artificially ripened by use of Ethylene gas at a concentration up to 100 ppm (100µl/L) depending upon the crop, variety and maturity”. The fruits ripening through ethylene gas are completely safe and natural is approved by the World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. Fruit ripening with calcium carbide Calcium carbide is popularly known as ‘Masala’ or ‘Carbet’ used for generating acetylene gas for ripening of fruits. Acetylene gas is an analogue of ethylene and quickens the ripening process. It is colour less when pure, but black to greyish-white in colour otherwise, with slight garlic- like odour. In India, artificial ripening by using calcium carbide is banned under the Prevention of Food Adulteration (PFA) Act, 1954, and the Prevention of Food Adulteration Rules, 1955. According to section 44AA of the PFA Rules 1955, no fruit can be ripened with the aid of CaC2. As per section 50 of the food safety and standards Act, 2006, anyone who sells any food which is not in compliance with the provision of the Act will be liable to a penalty not exceeding Rs. 5 lakh. As per the section 59 of the Act, any person who manufactures, stores, and sells distributors or imports any food article unsafe for human consumption may be imprisoned for a term up to six months with a fine up to Rs. one lakh. Method of using calcium carbide In this method, small quantity of CaC2 is wrapped in a paper packet, and this packet is kept near or inside a pile or box of fruits. When fruit moisture comes in the contact of calcium carbide, it produced heat and acetylene gas due to some chemical reactions, which increase the fruit ripening process. Why Calcium carbide is banned for ripening fruits? Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 127 Calcium carbide is an artificial ripening agent which produces acetylene gas when reacts with water or water vapors. Acetylene gas at high exposure is quite harmful for the nervous system and also causes cancer in human beings. If a person inhales this gas, he or she can get unconscious within few minutes. Calcium carbide also contains traces of arsenic and phosphorus hydride which causes several acute and chronic health effects. The calcium carbide ripened fruits can lead to poisonous effects on the consumer. Because of it hazards and poisonous effects, it is banned in most of countries. Why calcium carbide is used for fruit ripening although it is banned? Most of the Indian population has a lack of knowledge about the chemical uses of calcium carbide and its effect on human health. Calcium carbide is easily available in local market at a very cheap rate. The fruits ripened with calcium carbide develop uniform surface colour. Fruits ripened through calcium carbide do not require any special airtight structure and it is a less cumbersome process also. So due to unawareness of the hazard effects among consumers and the cheap cost of calcium carbide; traders or vendors easily use the calcium carbide for fruit ripening. Effects of CaC2 on fruit quality An artificially ripened fruit with calcium carbide would show uniform ripening and attractive outer skin, but the inner tissues would not ripe and remain green and raw. Such type of ripened fruit does not contain a specific pleasant aroma and taste of the particular fruit species. Calcium carbide ripened fruits have more toxic and poisonous effect. Black spots may appear on the skin of the within a couple of day. Such fruit have also shorter storage life Effects of CaC2 on human health Mango, banana and papaya are the major fruit crops of the country. The production share of these fruits is about 60.68% of total fruit production in India. Unfortunately, artificial fruit ripening through calcium carbide is generally practiced in mango, banana and papaya fruits. The use of calcium carbide is not only toxic to consumers but, may also be harmful to those who handle it. Acetylene gas is acutely toxic on its higher explosive level and can cause unconsciousness within few minutes and may cause a build- up of fluids in the lungs. Acetylene gas acts as an asphyxiant and may also affect the neurological system by inducing prolonged hypoxia by causing 128 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture deficiency in the amount of oxygen reaching the tissues. Calcium carbide contains traces of arsenic and phosphorus hydride and the early symptoms of these traces include vomiting, diarrhea, thirst, burning sensation in abdomen and chest, cough, difficulty in swallowing, irritation and burning in eyes, mouth, nose and throat, rashes and redness in skin, peptic ulcer, problem in breathing etc. Consumption of calcium carbide ripened fruits causes infection in abdomen and intestine and may also cause kidney disorder. Presently the medical findings related to calcium carbides toxic and poisoning effects have reported headache, dizziness, mental confusion, memory loss, sleepiness, low blood pressure, infertility and also increased chances of miscarriage and the children born could develop abnormalities. Calcium carbide has been also defined as a carcinogen, which can cause cancer by converting healthy human cells into cancer cells. Precaution before purchasing and eating fruits It is advisable to buy fruits when they arrive in the market during the due season, which may ensure fresh and healthy fruits. Fruits should be thoroughly washed under running water before eating or cooking for a few minutes which may help in minimizing the chemical contents, if any, adhering to the fruits. After washing, the fruits should be dried with a clean cloth towel or paper towel. Peeling before eating the fruit could help in minimizing the risks associated with the use of CaC2. While eating fruits such as mangoes and apples, it is better to cut the fruit into pieces, rather than consuming them directly. Sources http://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/nelsons/banana/ripeningbunchm anagement.pdf http://indiacoldchainexpo.com/images/horticulture/1.pdf http://www.hindu.com/seta/2011/05/05/stories 2011050550431900.htm http://isopaninsulation.com/technologies/fruit-ripening-plants http://www.nj.gov/health/eoh/rtkweb http://aamishafoods.com/fruit-ripening http://www.academia.edu/2321590/ Eating_artificially_ripened_fruits_is_harmful http://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov www.iihr.ernet.in/content/artificial-ripening-fruits-right-way www.fssai.gov.in/Portals/0/Pdf/Article_on_fruits.pdf Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 129 Genetic Resources of Temperate Fruit and Nut Crops in India

Amit Kumar1, Angrez Ali1, Manmohan Lal2and Nirmal Sharma3 1Division of Fruit Science, SKUAST-Kashmir, Shalimar Campus, Srinagar 2Deptt. of Horticulture, FOA, Wadura, SKUAST, Kashmir and 3Division of Fruit Science, SKUAST-Jammu, Chatha, Jammu Introduction Fruit with enormous genetic variability are adapted to wide range of climate and edaphic condition. Although India grows predominantly tropical and subtropical fruits, yet temperate fruits have attained high significance during last few decades of 20th century. India is the second largest fruit production in the world after China. From an area of 7.21 million ha it produced 88.97 MT fruits during 2014 (FAO, 2014). The fruit production in the country is dominated by tropical and sub-tropical fruits, however, temperate fruits occupy 9.2 per cent area (0.66 m ha) of the total area under fruits contributing 5.57 million tonnes (6.3 per cent) in the total fruit production (Anon, 2014). The temperate fruits are mostly grown in the North western and Eastern hill region. Jammu and Kashmir (44.5 %), Himachal Pradesh (21.0 %), Maharashtra (13.55 %), Uttarakhand (11.55 %) and Punjab (0.79 %) are the five major states contributing maximum area under temperate fruits of India. The major temperate fruits under cultivation in India sizeable acerage apple (47.4 %), walnut (18.45 %), grape (17.98 %), pear (6.36 %), almond (3.22 %), peach (2.72 %), kiwifruit (0.71 %) and pecannut (0.22 %). Apple is the most important which constitutes 76.92 per cent in production among the temperate fruits. However, due to introduction and adapation of low chill varieties the potential for the cultivation of temperate fruits has extended to lower elevations which are considered marginal for temperate cultivation. They are rich source of different vitamins and minerals. They provide efficient use of labour especially during the slack season in farming by offering opportunities for training and pruning of the trees in their dormant stage, grafting and budding in their respective period, layout of orchard, pit digging and work in processing factories. Temperate Fruits Genetic Resources in India The geographical features and agro-climatic conditions prevailing 130 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture in entire North Western and North Eastern hilly states of India are conducive for the cultivation of temperate fruit crops. The diversity of temperate fruit plants in India is mainly confined to Indian Himalayas which comprised the states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal falling in North Western Himalayas. The North Eastern states of the country contributing in temperate fruit production to a limited extent including Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Assam, Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura, Darjelling district of West Bengal and Nilgiri hills of Tamil Nadu in the South India. The region constitutes a core area and the centre of origin and diversity for more than 20 major agricultural and horticultural crops (Vavilov, 1951). Major crops that constitute temperate fruits are apple, pear, peach, apricot, plum, cherry, almond, walnut, pecans, hazelnut, chestnut, currants kiwifruit and berries. As far as the status of temperate fruit and nut genetic resources is concerned, various SAU’s and ICAR Institutes locatd in the north-west hilly regions are maintaining field germplasm collections augmented through direct import, field explorations and mutual exchange. Based upon available information from published resources and personal communications (Table 1) gives an update on the present status of temperate fruit and nut genetic resources in India. About 168 domesticated species of economic importance and over 334 species of their wild forms and relatives are native to this region and constitute an invaluable reservoir of genes. Of this temperate fruits constitute an important group which is attributed to the wide variation in topography. Geographical position and climatic conditions within the region. A number of species belonging to the genera Malus, Prunus, Pyrus, Sorbus, Crataegus, Cydonia, Docynia, Rubus, Cotoneaster, Hippophae, Fragaria, Diospyros, Corylus and Actinidia occur both as cultivated and wild (Table 2). The brief account of diversity among important temperate fruits is given below. Apple Under the genus Malus about 30 species are known to occur worldwide. Out of these only two Malus baccata (popularly known as crab apple) and M. sikkimensis, occur wild in India. Two varieties of Malus baccata have also been identified as M. baccata var. himalaica in North western region and Meghalaya and M. baccata var. dirangensis in Arunachal Pradesh. Besides about seven ecotypes of M. baccata have also been collected from different temperate region (Randhawa, 1987). Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 131 About 20 species including some introgressions such as M. prunifolia, M. x zumi, M. mandshurica x M. sieboldii, M. x robusta, M. baccata x M. prunifolia have also been introduced for use as rootstocks and pollinizers etc. Varietal diversity of apple in Indian Himalayas is primarily introduction from Europe and North American countries. However, some selction and mutants viz., Ambri and its selections, Maharaji, Kesari, Razakwari and Hazratbali have been selected and released for cultivation in Kashmir valley. More than 700 varieties have been introduced at various levels but only four varieties Starking (Royal) Delicious, Red Delicious, Richard Delicious and Golden Delicious were occupying 70-75 per cent of the total area under apple cultivation in Himachal Pradesh (Thakur, 2015) whereas only Red Delicious and Royal Delicious cover 80-85 per cent area in Kashmir valley (Banday et al., 2015). However, the orchardists particularly in Himachal Pradesh and Kashmir are now growing spur type varieties and are some standard types which are high yielding, regular bearer and produce better colour. Pear Pear ranks second after apple in importance, production and area. In India, the improved cultivars were introduced in the later part of 19th century and cultivation got momentum with the success of Bartlett and Gola (Sand pear) in hill areas and Patharnakh sand pear in sub-mountainous warmer regions (Rathore, 1992). Present day’s pear cultivars can be broadly classified into two groups. First having butter fleshed fruits with inconspicuous grit cells is European pear (P. communis) and the second having firm and hard flesh with prominent grit cells is Oriental/Asiatic/ Chinese pear (P. pyrifolia var. culta Nakai). Besides about 15 species of pear also occur wild in the Himalayan region. Some of these species and particularly P. pashia (popularly known as Kainth), P. serotina (zarinth), P. pashia var. kumaonii, P. pyrifolia and P. jacquimontiana have been used as resistant rootstocks for cold rootstocks for cold hardiness and disease resistance. Other wild species are P. foliosa, P. polycarpa, P. griffthii, P. khasiana and P. thomsoni are confined to Indian Himalayas. There are as high as 200 cultivars being conserved in the field genebanks but the diversity under cultivation is less and few varieties. being red in colour were also found promising. Asian pears Chojured, Nijisseki and Shinseik have also been found promising sub mountainous areas. Another 132 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture type of European pear known as Buggugosa which has butter flesh and less grit cells is fully adapted to the warmer low hill conditions.

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28 09 06 23 39 02 03 20 23 05 06 38 248 CITH CITH Srinagar Srinagar

- - 09 09 35 - 21 39 20 12 04 - - 22 02 06 35 44 08 05 08 31 30 42 T- Kashmir Kashmir

Table 1: Status of Temperate Fruit and Nut Genetic Genetic Nut and Fruit Temperate of Status 1: Table Almond Apple Apricot Cherry 48 Hazelnut 219 Kiwifruit 18 Peach 26 Pear 210 nut Pecan 53 Persimmon 08 Pomegranate 26 Plum 07 spp. Ribes 83 203 spp. Rubus Strawberry 15 47 144 Walnut and Wild 28 fruits 29 minor - Total Ahmad 2006, Kumar, and Sharma 09 Source: 73 25 23 40 527 07 12 774 08 - 11 - 85 - - 793 691 256 191 126 40 26

Fruit/Nut Fruit/Nut SKUAS Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 133

Table 2: Temperate fruit species occurring wild in India General Species Name Malus M. baccata, M. baccata var. himalaica, M. baccata var. dirangensis, M. glancesens, M. pumila, M. sikkimensis Pyrus P. pashia, P. pashia var. kumaonii, P. serotina, P . communis, P. khasiana, P. pyrifolia, P. polycarpa, P. griffithi, P. thomsoni, P. jacquimontiana, P. aucuparia, P. baccata, P. foliolosa, P. lanata, P. malus Prunus P. domestica, P. avium, P. cerasus, P. cerasoides, P. armeniaca, P. persica, P. rufa, P. cornuta, P. salicina, P. nepaulensis, P. jenkinsii, P. wallichii, P. jacquimontii, P. prostrate, P. tomentosa, P. mira, P. undulate, P. padus Sorbus S. insignis, S. foliolosa, S. microphylla, S. acuparia, S. cuspidate, S. ursina, S. verrucosa, S. granulos e, S. lanata, S. rhamnoides Cotoneaster C. obtuses, C. multiflora, C. micropylla, C. accuminata, C. frigida, C. rotundifolia, C. nummularia, C. vulgaris, C. acuminatus, C. affinis, C. aitchisonii, C. bacillaris, C. prostrates, C. rosea, C. falconeri, C. dutheianus, C. obovatus, C. gilgitensis, C. pruinosus Ficus F. carica, F. hispida, F. nemoralis, F. odorta, F. cunix, F. oreolata, F. palmata, F. rumphii, F. auriculata, F. clavata, F. hederacea, F. sarmentosa, F. virens, F. oveolata, F. roxburghii Viti s V. lanata, V. parviflora, V. himalayana, V. divaricata, V. capreolata, V. vinifera, V. semicordatga, V. latifolia, V. trifolia Viburnum V. cylindricum, V. continifolium, V. foetens, V. alata, V. stellulatum, V. grandiflorum, V. nervosum, V. mullaha, V. coriaceum Rubus R. ellipticus, R. fruticosus, R. niveus, R. paniculatus, R. biflorus, R. macilentus, R. calycinus, R. acuminatus, R. hexagynus, R. hamiltoni, R. assamensis, R. insignis, R. ferox, R. moluccans, R. birmanicus, R. lucens, R. opulifolius, R. lasiocarpus, R. rosaefolis, R. gracilis, R. irritanus, R. pedunculosus, R. purpureus, R. saxatilis, R. pungens, R. discolor, R. antennifer, R. ulmifolius, R. alpestris, R. macilentus, R. almorensis, R. foliosus, R. hoffneistrianus and R. idaeus Ribes R. glaciale, R. nigrum, R. rubrum, R. alpestre, R. orientalis, R. himalayense, R. grossularia, R. takare Fragaria F. nubicola, F. daltoniaan, F. nilgerrensis, F. vesca, F. indica Duchesnea D. indica Myrica M. nagi, M. hookeriana, M. farquhariana, M. escu lenta, M. sapida Docynia D. indica, D. hookeriana Elaeagnus E. angustifolia, E. latifolia, E. umbellate, E. conferta Hippophae H. rhamnoides, H. salcifolia, H. turkestanica Corylus C. ferox, C. colurna, C. jacquimontii Crataegus C. oxycantha, C. songa rica Pyracantha P. crenulata Pinus P. gerardiana, P. roxburghii, P. griffithii, P. deodara, P. excels, P. smithiana, P. wallichiana Diospyros D. lotus, D. kaki, D. montana, D. cerasifolia, D. cordifolia, D. frondosa, D. serrata Cornus C. cuspidate, C. macrophylla, C. oblonga, C. mas, C. capitata Zizyphus Z. jujuba, Z. oxyphylla, Z. vulgaris, Z. mauritiana, Z. mauritiana var. fruticosa, Z. hysudrica, Z. vulgaris, Z. satyea Actinidia A. collosa, A. strigosa, A. kolomitka Olea Olea europaea subsp. eur opaea var. europaea, Olea cuspidate

Peach and Nectarine Peach is very versatile crop as it grows from hot North Indian plains to high hills. Wild and cultivated forms of P. persica grow through out the sub-Himalayan tract. Owing to almost self pollination, genetic variability in peach is limited. However, cross pollination through bees have led to selection of new variant arose through seedlings. Seeds harvested from bitter almond and from wild plantations are grown asseedlings and 134 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture used as rootstocks. More than 200 varieties are being maintained in various field gene banks. Low chilling cultivars are generally preffered and some of the notable introduction and locally released varieties are given in Table 3. Plum The cultivars grown in temperate region belong to European species P. domestica, whereas cultivars grown in sub mountainous subtropical region of India belong to P. salicina and its inter-specfic hybrids such as Santa Rosa with American species P. simonii (apricot plum) and P. americana (wild plum). Local variety Alubokhara widely grown in the subtropics is different from P. salicina (Hayes, 1957). Although about 100 cultivars have been introduced but only few are found promising (Table 3). Apricot The apricot occurs in semi wild conditions in mid hills through high hills to cold deserts areas of North-Western Himalayas. The preponderance particularly of the drier types of apricot is more in Trans-Himalayan region. Black apricot (P. dasycarpa) considered a natural hybrid between P. armeniaca and P. cereasifera and occurs in Kashmir (Sharma, 1993). Another Prunus species P. mume a very useful rootstock for high rainfall areas and P. ansu are also maintained at NBPGR, Shimla.Genetic variability for size and shape of fruit and sweetness of pulp and kernel has been observed and collected from cold region. Two variants of dry type apricot red fruited and white fruited are widely grown in Kinnaur and Leh areas. Another local variant known as chuli or zardalu is extensively used as common rootstock for Prunus species and its kernel yield quality oil comparable to almond oil. Varietal diversity for both indigenous and exotic cultivars exists in temperate region and some of the promising cultivars are presented in Table 3. Cherry Cherry occupy an important position among temperate fruits all over the world but the areas in India is less as compared to other stone fruit species. There are as many as five wild species occurring in India but cultivated types belong to P. avium (sweet cherry) and P. cerasus (sour cherry) which are of European, Caucasian, Western Asian origin. The wild species occur in India are P. nepaulensis, P. cornuta (= P. padus), P. cerasoides (= P. puddum), P. prostrata and P. tomentosa. Among these Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 135 P. cerasoides (locally known as paaja) has been successfully used as rootstock for sweet cherry. The species also has ornamental value in because it flowers in November when all other temperate fruits enter into dormancy. Similarly P. nepaulensis shed leaves in September and produce dark green foliage in the extreme winter months when there are hardly any green leaves found on other trees. There is not much varietal diversity and about 64 cultivars are maintained at different research stations (Table 3). Almond The cultivated almond belong to P. dulcis (=P. amygdalus) widely distributed in Himalayas. Wild population of bitter almond (P. dulcis var. amara) also occur in the interior of Pulwama and Budgam districts of Kashmir valley and Kullu, Kinnaur and Shimla district of Himachal Pradesh. It is considered as an important rootstock of almond. High quality papery shelled almond also grow in dry region of Kinnaur and Kashmir (Pulwama and Budgam) valley. Some 200 cultivars of both indigenous and exotic origin are being maintained at different places. Walnut The genus Juglans includes about 20 species among which J. regia is the most important being commercially cultivated in many countries. The other species are grown for timber and occasionallyfor edible purpose as they contained hard shelled nuts. Some of the species, namely J. nigra, J. sieboldiana, J. cordiformis, J. major, J. chenovo, J. mandshurica and J. drianoski have been introduced in India from various countries. Varietal diversity arose through seedlings is also very high and hundred thousands of trees occur in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttaranchal. These populations have tremendous variability both for fruit and tree characters. Few very thin shelled clones have been selected by CITH, Srinagar, NBPGR, Shimla and UHF, Solan from natural populations of Kashmir, Chamba, Kinnaur and Chakrata area. Pecan nut Pecannut is an introduced crop (known as Queen of Nuts) which have adapted very well in the mid hills, plantations in the hills generally comprised of seedling selection and very few introduced varieties. Abou 10 exotic cultivars of peacn are maintained at NBPGR, Shimla and some accessions introduced by the Punjab Government in 1937-38 are also maintained at CSK HPKV, Palampur. Among these Mahan and Western 136 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture Schley have performed well in the md hills. Hazelnut The hazelnut popularly known as bhotia badam or thangee is essentially an introduced nut in this country even though few plantations of native hazel nut Corylus colurna occur in Pangi (Chamba), Shimla, Kinnaur district of Himachal Pradesh and Srinagar, (Tral) Pulwama, Drass (Kargil) districts of Kashmir valley and parts of Uttaranchal as well. Localised plantations of C. ferox and C. jacquimontiana can also be encountered in the interior of Himalayas. Varietal diversity of some introduced material (Table 3) is maintained at Chaubattia in Uttarakhand, Boktu, Bajaura and Shimla in Himachal Pradesh and CITH, Srinagar and SKUAST-Kashmir, Srinagar in Kashmir valley. Twelve selections selected from the wild germplasm from the Srinagar district were also planted for further evaluation at SKUAST-Kashmir, Srinagar (Ahmad, 2009). Chestnut Chestnut is also an introduced plant and trees planted by Missionaries way back in the 19th century can be still located in the cooler regions particularly near the forest bungalows. Two accessions IC 19400 and IC 19401 are also maintained at NBPGR, Shimla. Fourteen selections collected from the seedling plantation from the district Srinagar were planted in the Departmenal field of Fruit Science (Kaur, 2008) and more than 80 plants of seedling origin were planted in late 70’s in the Harwan Nursery, Srinagar of the Department of Horticulture, Kashmir. Strawberry The strawberry is one of the most important small fruits and is favourite in all temperate countries. The cultivated strawberry Fragaria x ananassa is a result of hybridization of two American species, F. chiloensis and F. virginiana. About 130 strawberry cultivars are being maintained in the various genebanks of the region. The promising them are given in Table 3. Wild species such as F. nubicola, F. daltoniana, F. nilgerrensis, F. vesca and Duchesnea indica (= F. indica) also occur in India. Kiwifruit The kiwifruit introduced in late sixtees by NBPGR has been found promising in the sub Himalayan region. Recently tow wild species although yet to be verified taxonomically have also been collected from North Eastern region. Varietal diversity of introduced material is maintained at UHF, Solan, Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 137 NBPGR, Shimla, RHRS, Bajaura (Kullu) in Himachal Pradesh, CITH, Srinagar, SKUAST-Kashmir, Srinagar, ACDH, Pattan, ACDH, Ramban in Jammu and Kashmir and Regional Station CITH, Mukteswar, Uttarakhand. Soft fruits This climate of sub-Himalayan tract is most suitable for growing soft fruits. The important fruits that come under this group are Rubus, Ribes and Duchesnea. Rubus is the most complex variable genus widely distributed in the Himalayas. More than 429 species have been reported the world over, of thses 57 species occurs in Indian sub continent and 33 species and four varieties (taxonomic) confined to north western and western Himalayas. Rubus species that occur in the region are given in the Table 3. The two species R. ellipticus and R. niveus have wide range of variability for foliar and fruit characters. Twenty seven accessions of Rubus species have established at field gene bank at Shimla, some of them are having worth potential in terms of fruit colour and flavour. About 150 species of Ribes occur in the temperate region of the world and only eight species have been reported in India. Other minor fruits The Japanese persimmon (Diospyros kaki L.) was introduced by Europeans in 1921 in Kullu valley of Himachal Pradesh. Eight varieties and three accessions have maintained in the field genebank of RHRS, Bajaura, Kullu of Himachal Pradesh and in SKUAST-Kashmir, Srinagar of Kashmir valley. Currants are usually classified in the genus Ribes and family Saxifragaceae. The common red and white currants are natives of Eurasia. The common currants is classified as R. sativum, red currant as R. ruburm, black as R. nigrum, golden currant as R. aureum and buffalo currant as R. odoratum. Recently inntrduced five accessions of Ribes from USA have been established at NBPGR, Shimla. Seven species of olive were all over the world, however, the Olea cuspidate (wild olive) was the only species which was native to India (closely related to O. europaea) and the plants of this species are found in abundance in the foothills of the Himalayan from Kashmir to Kumaon. However, varieties of Olea europaea species introduced from other countries were firstly planted in Kandaghat area of Solan district of Himachal Pradesh about 50 years ago. However, there is tremendous scope for olive cultivation 138 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture in the Himalayan mountainous regions which includes Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand. Varietal diversity of introduced material is maintained at ACDH, Ramban, CITH, Srinagar, SKUAST-Kashmir, Srinagar district of Jammu and Kashmir.

Table 3: Some of the indigenous selections and introduced exotic cultivars Fruit crop V arieties/Cultivars/Selections Apple Red Delicious, Royal Delicious, Golden Delicious, Starkrimson, Top Red, Vance delicious, Hardeman,Skyline, Supreme Delicious, Red Spur, Red Chief, Oregon Spur II, Well Spur, Bright-n-Early, Silver Spur, Gala, Scarlet Gala, Fuji, Red Fuji, Jonathan, Rome Beauty, Florina, Co-op 12, Real McCoy, Super Chief, G olden Spur, Gale Gala, Galaxy Gala, Granny Smith, Gala Mast, Winter Banana, Honey Crisp, Early Red One, Washington Apple, Braeburn, Jeromine, Red Velox, Gala Redlum, Sansa, Anna, Fuji Zhen Aztec, Dorsett G olden, Pear Barlett, Conference, Flemish Beauty, Magness, Doyenne-du-Comice, Beurre Hardy, Manning Elizabeth, Max Red Bartlett, some strains of Bartlett and Starkrimson, William Bartlett, Clapp’s Favourite, Carmen, Abbate Fetel, Kashmiri N akh Peach Flordasun, July Elberta, J H hale, Alton, Elberta, Redhaven, Shan -e-Punjab, Sharbati, & Nectarine Stark Earliglo, Florabella, Early White Giant, CO-Smith, Summer Glo, Stanford, Okubo, Kanto-5, Nishiki, Luna, Ambri and Crest Heaven, Early A mber, Sunhaven, Shimzu Hakuo, Saharanpur Prabhat, Dawn Rose, Dawn Rambler, Scarlet Pearl, A lexander, Red June, World’s Earliest, Pant Peach-1, Summer Queen, Silver King, Snow Queen, Fire Prince, May Fire, Sun Red and Sun Rise some of the important nectarines. Plum Santa Rosa, Frontier, Mariposa, Stanley, Greengage, Drooper, Methley, Red Beauty, Queen Ann, Au-Amber, Au-Rosa, Ruby Sweet, Red Plum, Black Plum, Kanto-5, Burbank, Kelsey, Au-Cherry, Victoria, Monarch, Black Champa, Kala Amritsari, Early Transparent Gage, Kohinoor,Damson, Tarrol, Pant Plum -1, Fla -12 Apricot St. Aambroise, Moorpark, Royal, Shakarpara, Charmagaz, Suffaida, Kaisha, New Castle, Nugget, Almon, Early Shipley, Halman, Farmingdale, Harcot, Nari and low chilling Baiti, Chaubattia Kesri, Chaubattia Alankar, Chaubattia Madhu Cherry Pink Ealry, Black tarterian, Bing, White Heart, Red Heart, Black Heart, Early River, Pobeda, Early Purple, Noir, Gross, Lapins, Lambert, Sam, Sue, Sunburst, Stella, Durone Nero and Regina Almond N on -Pareil, Thin shelled, Drake,Ne Plus Ultra, IXL, Tree No. 69, Tree No. 109, Telangi Selection, Merced, Thompson, Badam Jor, Spillo 2D, Kashmir Seedling, Gaura, Nikitskij, Pranyaj, Spilo No. 7, Texas White, Shalimar, Waris, Makhdoom, Parbat, Primorskij Walnut Few selections vi z. Gobind, Pratap, Roopa Akhrot, Rattan Akhrot, Tapan, Solding Selection, Luxmi Akhrot, Kotkhai Selection, K-12, KN-5, SH-23, SR-11, CITH-1, CITH-2, CITH-3, CITH-4, CITH-5, CITH-6, CITH-7, CITH-8, CITH-9, CITH-10, H amdan, Sulaiman have been released Exotic varieties are Lake English, Colby, Blackmore, Hartley, Amigo, Chico, Payne, Vina, Tehama, Eureka, Turtle-16, Turtle-31, Orth, Serr, Chandler, Cisco, Howard, Howe, Adams 10, Graves Franquette, Placentia, Mayette, Nn 88 Godyn, Meylannaise, Parisienne Shinrei, Xin Zad Fen, Xin, Zheng Zhu, Bulgaria 3. Pecan nut Winter Nellis, Mahan, Western Schley, Halbert, Sumner, Chetopa, Major, Cheyenne, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Desirable, Giles, Cape Fear x Orth, Colby and Roentina. Hazelnut Barcelona, Alpha, W hite Aveline, Duchilly, Kruse and N ibber Strawberry Chandler, Brighton, Seascape, Sweet Charlie, Addie, Pajaro, Fern, Tioga, Camarosa, Gorella, Belrubi, Dana, Katrain sweet, henna, Redcoat, Red Cross, Isogaurd, Ofra, Phenomenon, Etna, Anthea, Confictura, Selva, Douglas, Fiana, Fair Fox, Blakemore, Missionar i, Majestic, Dilpasand, Larson, Elsantha, Festival, Catskill Kiwfruit A llison, Abbott, Hayward, Bruno, Monty, Tomuri Persimm on H achiya, Hyak ume, Fuyu Olive Azapa, Brancolilla, Carolea, Cerignola, Cipressino, Coratina, Cornicobra Attica, Frantoio, Itrana, Leccino, Moraiolo, Nocellara del Belice, Nocellara Etnea, N ocellara Messinese, Ottobratica, Tonda Iblea, Zaituna, Arbequina, Frantoio, Pendolino, Picholine Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 139 References • Ahmad, K. (2009). Documentation and evaluation of hazelnut germplasm in Dachigam area of Kashmir. M.Sc. Thesis submitted to Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology-Kashmir, Shalimar, Srinagar • Ahmad, N., Lal, S., Singh, S.R. and Mir, J.I. (2010). Genetic resources of temperate fruits and nuts and their conservation. In: Souvenir-National Symposium on Conservation Horticulture, March 21-23, 2010, Dehradun (eds.). Singh, S.S., Singhal., V., Pant, K., Dwivedi, S.K., Kamal, S.K. and Singh, P. pp. 56- 68 • Anonymous, (2014). Indian Horticulture Database. National Horticulture Board. MOA, GOI. • Banday, F.A., Sharma, M.K. and Mir, M.S. (2015). Status and Strategies for Meeting Planting Material Requirement in Temperate Fruits and Nuts. In: Temperate Fruits and Nuts: A way Forward for Enhancing Productivity and Quality. Chadha, K.L., Ahmed, N., Singh, S.K. and Kalia, P. (eds.). Astral International Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi. pp 285-300 • FAO, (2014). FAOSTAT Database. www.fao.org • Hayes, W.B. (1957). Fruit Growing in India. Kitabsuan, Allahabad, 532 p. • Kaur, A. (2008). Survey and selection of promising chestnuts in District Srinagar. M.Sc. Thesis submitted to Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology-Kashmir, Shalimar, Srinagar • Randhawa, S.S. (1987. Wild germplasm of pome and stone fruits. IARI regional Station, Shimla, pp. 51 • Rathore, D.S. (1992). Some outstanding temperate fruit introductions and future strategies. In: Emerging Trends in Temperate Fruit Production in India (eds). Chadha, K.L., Uppal, D.K., Pal, R.N., Awasthi, R.P. and Ananda, S.A. (eds.). NHB Technical Communication, No. 1, National Horticultural Board, Gurgaon, pp. 32-38. • Sharma, R.L. (1993). Genetic resources temperate fruit. In: Advances in Horticulture-Fruit Crops, Vol.1. Chadha, K.L. and Pareek, O.P. (eds.). Malhotra Publishing House, New Delhi. • Sharma, S.D. and Kumar, K. (2006). Temperate Fruit Diversity: Status and Prospects. In: Temperate Horticulture: Current Scenario (eds.). Kishore, D.K., Sharma, S.K. and Pramanick, K.K. New India Publishing Agency, New Delhi, pp. 27-34 140 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture

• Thakur, V.S. (2015). Temperate fruits: All the year round. In: Temperate Fruits and Nuts: A way Forward for Enhancing Productivity and Quality. Chadha, K.L., Ahmed, N., Singh, S.K. and Kalia, P. (eds.). Astral International Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi. pp 201-214 • Vavilov, N.I. (1951). The origin, variation, immunity and breeding of cultivated plants. Chronica Bot. 13: 364. Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 141 Impact of Sugarmill Effluents on Seed Germination And Seedling Growth of Glycine Max

Mamta Verma1, Indu Yadav2, R. K. Sharma2 and Shikha Agarwal2 1Deptt. of Botany, 2Deptt. of Zoology, S.S.V College, Hapur Introduction To increase the economic status of the country, government is emphasizing on generating more industrial areas. Beside their beneficial aspects, these industries are also the cause of various types of pollutions. One from these is the sugar mill effluents. In general sugar mill effluents contain acidic and alkaline compounds, a significant concentration of suspended high BOD, COD and sugar concentration. (Akbar and Kwaja 2006).Earlier workers have established several important roles of the effluent on soil quality, soil borne diseases, seed germination etc. (Khan et al.1996) Methods and Materials The distillery effluents were collected from Simbhoali Sugar mill, Simbhoali, Hapur. They were collected from two different outlets. One untreated sample was collected from main drain of industry before entering the effluent treatment plant. It was having a pH between 4.55—5.25,YSS – 1092 mg/lt, TDS – 1335 mg/lt, DO – 190 mg /lt, BOD – 790 mg/lt and COD -1380 mg/lt. The second sample was a treated sample which was collected from outlet of the aeration tank, where biological treatment was given. The different concentration of the effluent was made with distilled water. There were 0% (control), 25%; 50% and 100% sugar effluent. The experimental plant was Glycine max (Fabaceae).It is commonly known as soya bean. The experiment were conducted in large petriplates of 20 cm diameter having a depth of 2 cm. Seeds were washed with 1% HgCl2 solution before sowing. They were soaked for 24 hrs before sowing. Petriplates were lined with blotting paper .5 seeds were sown in each petriplates and 6 petriplates were used for each treatment. Thus, 30 seeds were used for every treatment. They were treated with water and effluents concentration after every 2 days. The emergence of radical was the criteria of seed germination. The length of radical and shoot was measured with scale. Observation 142 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture Table 1 shows the impact of different concentration of sugar mill effluent on seed germination of Glycine max. Effluent does not bring any increase in the seed germination .All concentration shows a negative impact on seed germination. However, the intensity of negative impact decline in treated effluents. Table 1: Impact of sugar mill effluents on seed germination of Glycine max S. No Treatment Seed Germination % 4 DAS 6 DAS 8 DAS 10 DAS UE TE UE TE UE TE UE TE 1. Control 11 11 18 18 23 23 25 25 2. 25% effluent 7 8 12 14 16 18 18 20 3. 50% effluent 9 10 16 17 20 21 22 24 4. 100% 6 9 8 15 10 18 10 18 effluent

Table 2 shows the impact of sugar mill effluent on seedling growth of Glycine max .The effluent at 50% concentration has invigoured the seedling growth. Both the radicles and shoot length were maximum in this treatment.Radicle shows 60% increase in untreated and 70% increase in treated effluent at 50% concentration.The percent increase in the shoot length was 25 % in untreated and 41% in treated effluent at 50% concentration. Table 2: Impact of sugarmill effluent on seedling growth of Glycine max. S. No Treatment Length radical (cm) Shoot length (cm) UE TE UE TE 1. 0 5 5 3 3 2. 25% 6 6.5 3.5 4 3. 50% 8 8.5 3.75 4.25 4. 100% 2 2.75 2.5 3

Results and Discussions Our observation revealed that sugar mill effluent have double sided impact. On one side it declines the seed germination whereas on the other side it enhances the seedling growth in Glycine max. However ,the treated sugarmill effluent was found not so toxic on seed germination. The treated effluents proves additional beneficial for promoting seedling growth as shown by 50% concentration of treated effluent in the table 2.Our findings on seed germination corroborate with the earlier findings of Hari Om et al.(1995) who also found a decline in germination of Okra seeds by 100% concentration of sugar mill effluents. The decline in germination might be due to impermeability and/or high level of total dissolved solids which increase the soil salinity and decrease the conductivity of solutes absorbed by seeds before germination as explained by Neelam and Sahai (1988) for Oryza sativa. According to Balsubrahmanian(1965) the alkaline soil solutions inhibits Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 143 enzyme activity by altering the polypeptide structure. It also declines the membrane permeability Murumkar and Chavan(1985) have studied the activity of importance enzymes in the germination stages of Brassica juneca treated with the sugar mill effluent and found an increased peroxidase activity may contribute to growth suppression at high doses. The rise in peroxidase activity is mainly due to accumulation of toxic substances. The present observation on the radical and shoot growth revealed that they were higher in 50% concentration and least in 100% of effluent over control. These were in conformation with the findings of Shrikantha et al (1997). The deduction in the seedling growth at 100% concentration might be the result of reduced hydration of protoplasmic proteins as shown by Krishan et al (1969).It also seems that the low pH of 100% effluents also contribute to the negative impact on seedling growth.It decrease the availability of mineral nutrients .However,a 50% dilutes of effluents enhances the pH at approximately 6.5 which also increase. References • Ali Khan,M.A. and Singh, H (1996). Ecophysiological studies of distillery, fertilizers factory, sugar mills and polluted water of Kali river on seed germination, growth and yield of Indian Mustard(Brassica juneca (L.) Czer and Coss ).First Indian Ecology Congress, Planning for Ecological Security in the 21st Century, 23 – 27 December. • Hari Om ,Singh,N. and Arya,m. (1995). Effects of waste of distillery and sugar mill on seed germination, seedling growth and biomass of okra (Abelmosches esculentus).J. Environ.Biol.,15 (3) :171 – 175. • Kiskhan,m.S., Gardner,W.R. and Gerloff, G.C. (1969). Leaf water potential of differently salinised. Plant Physiol.,44:178. • Murumkar,C.V. and Chavan,P.D.(1983). Studies in germination of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) under saline conditions. Proc. ISCA,India. • Nadia M. Akbar and Mohmood A. Khawaza (2006): Study on effluents from selected sugar mills in Pakistan:Potential Env. Health and Econonomic consequences of an excessive pollution load. Sustainable Develop.Policy Institute(SDPI),Islamabad,Pakistan. • Neelam and Sahai,R. (1988). Effect of fertilizers factory on Oryza sativa L. var.Jaya.Geobios.,15 (283) : 118 – 120. • Sahai R. and Srivastava, N.(1988). Effect of fertilizers factory waste on seed germination and seedling growth of two vegetable crops plants (B. oleraceaL. Var. botyris and B. oleracea L. var. capital. J.Environ. Biol., 9 (4): 381 – 385. • Shrikantha,k., Srinivasmoorthy,K.and Nagaraja, M.S.(1997). Effect of treated dairy effluent on chemical properties of soil.Mysore J.Agri. Sci. ,31:117 – 120. 144 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture Water Pollution: Causes, Effects And Management

Indu Singh Deptt. of Chemistry, Janta Vedic College Baraut (Baghpat) Inroduction Water pollution is the contamination of water e.g. lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers and ground water. This form of environmental degradation occurs when pollutants are directly or indirectly discharged into water bodies without adequate treatment to remove harmful compounds. The importance of water for sustenance of life cannot be overemphasized. Whether it is in use of running water in our homes, rearing cattle and growing crops in our farms, or the increased uses in industry, remain immeasurable. It is important therefore, to not that depletion of this commodity either through contamination or careless use results in serious consequences1. Water Pollution Water covers more than 70 percent of the Earth’s surface. While less than 3 percent of this water is drinkable, all of it is necessary for supporting life on Earth. Water pollution is one of the biggest threats to the environment2 today. Normally, water contains dissolved air and a few mineral salts, which are useful rather than injurious to living organisms. However, sometimes substances harmful to living beings are present in water, in which case the water is said to be polluted. Drinking contaminated water is hazardous to animal and human health3,4. When toxic substances dissolve in bodies of water, such as oceans, rivers and lakes, the water becomes polluted. Pollutants tend to lie suspended in the water or deposited on the bed. They degrade the quality of water over time. Causes of Water Pollution 1. Sewage from domestic households, factories and commercial buildings Sewage that is treated in water treatment plants is often disposed into the sea. Sewage can be more problematic when people flush chemicals and pharmaceutical substances down the toilet. 2. Dumping solid wastes and littering by humans in rivers, lakes and oceans. Littering items include cardboard, Styrofoam, aluminum, plastic and glass. 3. Industrial waste from factories, which use freshwater to carry waste from the plant into rivers, contaminates waters with pollutants such as asbestos, lead, mercury and petrochemicals. Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 145 4. Oil Pollution caused by oil spills from tankers and oil from ship travel. Oil does not dissolve in water and forms a thick sludge. 5. Burning fossil fuels into the air causes the formation of acidic particles in the atmosphere. When these particles mix with water vapor, the result is acid rain. 6. Mineral acids enter water bodies from mineral acid plants and abandoned coal mines, besides acid rain. They render the water unfit for aquatic life. 7. Metals and their compounds enter water bodies from metallurgical units. Some metals, like mercury, arsenic, antimony, bismuth, lead and copper, are highly toxic. 8. The phosphate radical comes from detergents and phosphatic fertilisers. It promotes the growth of aquatic weeds to such an extent that the water body gets choked, and the amount of dissolved oxygen decreases (eutrophication). Effects of Water Pollution · Consumption of polluted water is a major cause of ill health in India. Polluted water causes some of the deadly diseases like cholera, dysentery, diarrhoea, tuberculosis, jaundice, etc. About 80 per cent of stomach diseases are caused by polluted water. · Mercury compounds in waste water are converted by bacterial action into extremely toxic methyl mercury, which can cause numbness of limbs, lips and tongue, deafness, blurring of vision and mental derangement. · Thermal wastewater eliminates or reduces the number of organisms sensitive to high temperature, and may enhance the growth of plants and fish in extremely cold areas but, only after causing damage to the indigenous flora and fauna. · Water supports aquatic life because of the presence of nutrients in it. Here the primary focus is on fertilizing chemicals such as nitrates and phosphates. Although these are important for plant growth, too much of nutrients encourage the overabundance of plant life and can result in environmental damage called ‘entrophication’. · Harms animals: Birds that get into oil-contaminated water die from exposure to cold water and air due to feather damage. Other animals are affected when they eat dead fish in contaminated streams. · Causes algae in water: Urea, animal manure and vegetable peelings are food for algae. Algae grow according to how much waste is in a water 146 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture source. Bacteria feed off the algae, decreasing the amount of oxygen in the water. The decreased oxygen causes harm to other organisms living in the water. · Toxic pollutants mainly consist of heavy metals, pesticides and other individual xenobiotic pollutants. The ability of a water body to support aquatic life, as well as its suitability for other uses depends on many trace elements. Some metals e.g., Mn, Zn and Cu present in trace quantity are important for life as they help and regulate many physiological functions of the body. Some metals, however, cause severe toxicological effects on human health and the aquatic ecosystem. Control of Water Pollution Industries Some industrial facilities generate ordinary domestic sewage that can be treated by municipal facilities. Industries that generate wastewater with high concentrations of conventional pollutants (e.g. oil and grease), toxic pollutants (e.g. heavy metals, volatile organic compounds) or other non-conventional pollutants such as ammonia, need specialized treatment systems5. Some of these facilities can install a pre-treatment system to remove the toxic components, and then send the partially treated wastewater to the municipal system. Industries generating large volumes of wastewater typically operate their own complete on-site treatment systems. Some industries have been successful at redesigning their manufacturing processes to reduce or eliminate pollutants, through a process called pollution prevention. Economics Most environmental experts agree that the best way to tackle pollution is through something called the polluter pays principle. This means that whoever causes pollution should have to pay to clean it up, one way or another. Polluter pays can operate in all kinds of ways. It could mean that tanker owners should have to take out insurance that covers the cost of oil spill cleanups, for example. It could also mean that shoppers should have to pay for their plastic grocery bags, as is now common in Ireland, to encourage recycling and minimize waste. Or it could mean that factories that use rivers must have their water inlet pipes downstream of their effluent outflow pipes, so if they cause pollution they themselves are the first people to suffer. Ultimately, the polluter pays principle is designed to deter people Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 147 from polluting by making it less expensive for them to behave in an environmentally responsible way. Dispose of Toxic Chemicals Properly It’s always a good idea to use lower VOC (Volatile Organic Compounds) products in your home whenever possible. If you do use toxic chemicals, such as paints, stains or cleaning supplies, dispose of them properly. Paints can be recycled and oils can be reused after treatment. Proper disposal keeps these substances out of storm drains, water ways and septic tanks. Avoid Plastics When Possible Plastic bags in the ocean is a well documented water pollutant. Keep this problem from getting worse by changing to reusable grocery bags whenever possible. Treatment plants Big cities and towns usually have effluent treatment plants. These plants filter out undissolved materials. Chemical treatment is also given to separate out unwanted dissolved chemicals. The treated water is either allowed to go into the water reservoirs or refused in houses. Occasionally, the treated water is used for farming if the fields to be irrigated lie in the vicinity of the water treatment plants. Keep the pond water clean and safe Washing, bathing of cattle in the pond that is used by human should not be done. Washing of dirty clothes and bathing of cattle make the pond water dirty and unsuitable for human use. If these ponds are continually misuses, then it may lead of severe consequences. Conclusions Clearly, there is an urgent need to create awareness for pressing environmental problems and to develop solutions in close cooperation between science, governments, industry, and other relevant stakeholders. Environmental education is of immense importance to use particularly in schools and should have a place in the school curriculum. In this way they will be less inclined to pollute our waters. References • C. Wu, C. Maurer, Y. Wang, S. Xue and D. L. Davis. Water pollution and humaln health in China. Environmental Health Perspectives. 1999,107 (4) : 251-256. 148 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture

• D.H.K. Reddy dS. M. Lee. Water pollution and treatment Technologies. Environmental & Analytical. 2012. 2 (5): doi. 10.4172/2161-05251000e103. • J. N. Halder and M. N. Islam. Water pollution and its empact on the human health. Journal of Environmental and Human, 2015, 2 (1): 36-46. • N. Thyagaraju. Water pollution and its impact on Environment of Society. International Research Journal of Management It & Social Science. 2016, 3 (5): 1-9. • V.N.Desai. A study on the water pollution based on the environmental problem, Indian Journal of Research. 2014, 3 (12): 95-96. Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 149 Water Pollution: Sources, Causes, Effects And Control

Yogender Singh1 and L.S.Gautam2 1Deptt. of Chemistry, M.K.R. Govt. Degree College, Saddique Nagar, Ghaziabad 2Deptt. of Zoology, S.S.V.College , Hapur Introduction Water pollution occurs when pollutants are directly or indirectly discharged into water bodies without adequate treatment to remove harmful compounds. Water pollution affects plants and organisms living in these bodies of water. In almost all cases the effect is damaging not only to individual species and populations, but also to the natural biological communities. Infact 70% of earth is covered with water. But hardly 2% of it is drinkable. We all know that water is very essential for existence of human beings. The water is available to us from various resources. But unmindful use of these resources has led to a water crisis. Also with the growing industrialization and urbanization, pollution of water has become a major problem that needs to be tackled. Water Pollution Water pollution to be the presence of excessive amounts of a hazard (pollutants) in water in such a way that it is no long suitable for drinking, bathing, cooking or other uses. The various sources of water include; groundwater, surface water. Both these resources are in danger due to overuse and misuse. The ground water is susceptible to contamination from sources that may not directly affect surface water bodies, and the distinction of point vs. non-point source may be irrelevant. A spill or ongoing releases of chemical or radionuclide contaminants into soil may not create point source or non-point source pollution, but can contaminate the aquifer below, defined as a toxin plume. The movement of the plume, called a plume front, may be analyzed through a hydrological transport model or groundwater model. Analysis of groundwater contamination may focus on the soil characteristics and site geology, hydrogeology, hydrology, and the nature of the contaminants. A number of contaminants are responsible for ground water contamination including a wide variety of chemicals and pathogens. Most these lead to reduction in normal oxygen content in water and hence make it unfit for consumption. 150 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture Water-borne diseases and water-caused health problems are mostly due to inadequate and incompetent management of water resources. Many areas of groundwater and surface water are now contaminated with heavy metals, persistent organic pollutants (POPs), and nutrients that have an adverse affect on health. Safe water for all can only be assured when access, sustainability, and equity can be guaranteed. Access can be defined as the number of people who are guaranteed safe drinking water and sufficient quantities of it. There has to be an effort to sustain it, and there has to be a fair and equal distribution of water to all segments of the society. Urban areas generally have a higher coverage of safe water than the rural areas. Even within an area there is variation: areas that can pay for the services have access to safe water whereas areas that cannot pay for the services have to make do with water from hand pumps and other sources. Sources of water pollution In the urban areas water gets contaminated in many different ways, some of the most common reasons being leaky water pipe joints in areas where the water pipe and sewage line pass close together. Sometimes the water gets polluted at source due to various reasons and mainly due to inflow of sewage into the source. Ground water can be contaminated through various sources and some of these are mentioned below- · Pesticides · Toxic waste disposal at sea · Sewage leakages · Industrial waste dumped into our waters · Failing septic system · Flooding during rainy season which carries waste deposits into our waters. · House hold chemicals · Heavy metal · Combustion · High population density · Mineral processing plant (e.g. coal production) · Deforestation · Mining · oil spillage Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 151 · Pollution of ground water through drilling activities · Radioisotopes · Animal wastes. Effects of water pollution The effects of pollution on human beings and aquatic communities are many and varied. It has negative effects on the living and also on the environment. Water pollution causes approximately 14,000 deaths per day, mostly due to contamination of drinking water by untreated sewage in developing countries. An estimated 700 million Indians have no access to a proper toilet, and 1,000 Indians children’s die of diarrhea every day and so many other countries too. Following are some facts on water pollution— · According to UNICEF, more than 3,000 children die every day all over the world due to consumption of contaminated drinking water. · According to United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) estimates, 1.2 trillion gallons of untreated sewage, storm water, and industrial waste is dumped into U.S. waters annually. · Over 30 billion tons of urban sewage is discharged into lakes, rivers and oceans every year. · Fourteen billion pounds of garbage, which is mostly plastic, is dumped into the ocean every year. · The Ganges River in India is one the most polluted rivers in the world with sewage, trash, food, and animal remain, which due to, Lack of proper sanitation in water leads to diseases like cholera, malaria and diarrhea. Most fishes especially the species desired as food by man are among the sensitive species that disappear with the least intense pollution. Disease carrying agents such as bacteria and viruses are carried into the surface and ground water. Drinking water is affected and health hazards result. Direct damage to plants and animals nutrition also affects human health. Chemicals in water can be both naturally occurring or introduced by human interference and can have serious health effects- · Arsenic. Arsenic occurs naturally or is possibly aggrevated by over powering aquifers and by phosphorus from fertilizers. High concentrations of arsenic in water can have an adverse effect on health. A majority of people in the area was found suffering from arsenic skin lesions. The government is trying to provide an 152 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture alternative drinking water source and a method through which the arsenic content from water can be removed. · Fluoride. Fluoride in the water is essential for protection against dental caries and weakening of the bones, but higher levels can have an adverse effect on health. In India, high fluoride content is found naturally in the waters in Rajasthan. · Lead. Pipes, fittings, solder, and the service connections of some household plumbing systems contain lead that contaminates the drinking water source. · Other heavy metals. These contaminants come from mining waste and tailings, landfills, or hazardous waste dumps. · Petrochemicals. Petrochemicals contaminate the groundwater from underground petroleum storage tanks. · Chlorinated solvents. Metal and plastic effluents, fabric cleaning, electronic and aircraft manufacturing are often discharged and contaminate groundwater. The surface water is polluted due to flow of contaminated discharge from factories, sewage etc. It also gets contaminated by release of detergents, food processing wastes, insecticides and pesticides, volatile organic compounds, excessive use of fertilizers etc. Plants nutrients including nitrogen, phosphorus and other substances that support the growth of aquatic plant life could be in excess causing algal gloom and excessive weed growth. This makes water to have odour, taste and sometimes colour. Ultimately, the ecological balance of a body of water is altered. Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides cause acid rain which lowers the PH value of soil and emission of carbon dioxide cause ocean acidification, the ongoing decrease in the PH of the Earth’s Oceans as CO2 becomes dissolved. Control When water from rain and melting snow runs off roofs and roads into our rivers, it picks up toxic chemicals, dirt, trash and disease-carrying organisms along the way. Many of our water resources also lack basic protections, making them vulnerable to pollution from factory farms, industrial plants, and activities like fracking. This can lead to drinking water contamination, habitat degradation and beach closures. The water can be protected by enacting and enforcing strict laws. The governments over the world have made discharge of effluents in running water an offence. All Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 153 industrial waste water and water from sewerage must pass through treatment plants before being allowed to be discharged in running water. Green infrastructure and low impact development approaches and techniques help manage water and water pollutants at the source, preventing or reducing the impact of development on water and water quality. Learn about these cost-effective, sustainable, and environmentally friendly approaches to wet weather management. Also we need to avoid wastage of water. Rain water harvesting is one such measure that will go a long way in enhancing the depleting water table. Waste water treatment is another way to preserve water. Recycling the water by using water not fit for drinking for other purposes such as watering lawns etc will also help to conserve water. Conclusion Water pollution is an environmental problem that is of major concern to us. We need to conserve water and not waste and pollute the precious resource. Human contribution to water pollution is enormous by way of defecating; dumping of refuse, industrial wastes and washing of clothes etc. Environmental education is of immense importance to use particularly in schools and should have a place in the school curriculum. With advancement of science and technology a number of methods are available to treat and cure water. In this way they will be less inclined to pollute our waters. References • Abdullah F.A., Abu-Dieyeh M.H., Qnais E., (2008) Environmental Management, Sustainable development and human health, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group. • Article of Go green academy: causes & effects of water pollution, July,2014. • Mann U.S., Dhingra A.,Singh J. (2014) International Journal of Advanced Technology in Engineering and Science 2 (8). • Owa, F.D., (2013) Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences (4), 65-68. • Websites of : MNRE, Government of India, govt FDA website 154 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture A Study of Fungal Spore Populations in The Atmosphere at Hapur

Shalu Sharma1, Sudhir Kumar1, Dheeraj Kumar1, Ritu1 and Laxman Singh Gautam2 1Deptt of Botany, S.S.V College, Hapur 2Deptt of Zoology, S.S.V College, Hapur Introduction The study of fungal air-spora is of great importance and interest in order to understand the dissemination. Spread and movement of microbe, particularly the pathogenic in the atmosphere, this study may help in finding out suitable means to control the various type of human diseases included by fungal spores as they are well recognized as etiologic agents of several mycotic disease, also Asthma and allergies. Consequently there is special interest of allergists, immunologists, diseases, forecasters, foresters, entomologists, aerosol scientist and other (Chanda ,1992, Nilsson,1992). Initial interest in airborne fungi was due to plants and animals diseases they cause and different materials deteriorate (Vittal and Glory, 1984). Methods and Materials To trap and isolate air borne fungi from study sites, sterilized Petri plate of 10 cm diameter containing sterile Rosa bangal streptomycin sabouraud agar medium were exposed. Three Petri plate were exposed for 10 minutes the exposed petri plates were incubate in an inverted position at 27+- degree calcious for5-7 days. Fungal colonies were identified after preparing slides and observing cotton blue lacto phenol stained one under 10X, 40X, and 100X of compound microscope. Data were tabulated and microphotographs of some selected fungi have been depicted. The tables are based on culture plate method. The % occurrence of viable fungi was calculated using following formula. % Frequency= no of observation in which colonies appeared/ Total no of observation X100 Results The present study was undertaken to find out the quality and quantum aromycospora over Garh road vegetable market at Hapur city as affected by isolation methods, seasons and bio zones/ crowdedness. The fungi were observed under microscope and by visible method. The main vegetable Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 155 included potato, Mustard, pea, coriander, Tori, Methi, Aarbi, Beans , Carrot, Radish, Papaya, Cauliflower and Citrus. The experimental data have been presented in table. Table shows the maximum numbers of fungi were observed in winter season. Genera and species wise split is shown in adjoining table -1. Table 1: N umbers of fungi observed in different sea son Season Sum mer Rainy Winter Genera 19 18 26 Species 40 34 52

156 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture

In clture method frequency wise too, there were variations in aeromycoflora of Garh road Vegetables market Hapur (2009) in table no-2 .During summer, none fungi occurred in 76-100% frequency class while Alternaria alternate, A. longipes, Aspergillus flavus had 51-75% Frequncies. Alternaria citri, A. triticola ,Aspergillus sydowii, Curvvlaria lunata, Cledosporium spaerospermum, Epicoccum purpurascens and Fusarium spp had 26-50% frequencies. Other observed fungi had 0-25% frequency distribution. During rainy season, none fungi occurred in 76-100% frequency distribution. Only one fungi Curvularia lunata occurred in 51- 75% frequency.fungi with 26-50% distribution frequencies are Aspergillus niger,A. versicolor, A. fumigates, A. lunchuensis, A. sydowii, A. funiculosus, Geotrichum candidum and Phoma spp other observation fungi 0-25% frequency distribution. During winter season, two fungi with 76-100% frequency was Aspergillus niger and Cladosporium cladosporides. Fungi with 51-75 % frequencies comprised Aspergillus sydowii ,A. terreus, Aureobasidium ,Curvularia, Geotricum, Paecilomyces spp and Trichoderma other fungi had 0-25% frequencies distribution. Discussions During present investigation, the ecological nichs studied for air borne mycospora near Garh road area of vegetable markets formed different biozones, conditions and crowdedness. Fungal catches from these areas were at variance as analyzed in the results. Earlier, site to site in variation have been reported by several authors like Kakde et al.(1996), Bansal(2002).Singh et al(2005) found site to site in areomyflora of Mawana Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 157 while, Kotwal et al(2010) reported on areomicroflora residential area of Nashik, Nafis and Sharma (2012) reported on the areomycoflora from crowed area Chawri bazaar metro station, Delhi. Similarly, Joshi et al.(2005) observed differences in the medical stores of meerut at various sites and Gala et al. (2005) found such differences of occur at various sites at Nanital. Thus,beside few specific pathogens, market disease and air borne fungi were mostly either field fungi or opportunistic saprophytes, nevertheless ,rot fungi played a great role in decomposition of heaps of vegetables garbage. References · Bansal, P.(2002). Areomycolora of some selected environment in meerut. Ph. D. Thesis.C.C.S. University, Meerut. ·Chanda, S.(1992).Areomycoflora : An Inter and multidisplinary approach. Indian J. Areobiol (spl. Vol.), Proceeding 6th national conference an Aerobiology, 1-10 · Gola, Alka, Singh, L, Vats Preeti and Saima Praveen (2005) Significance of the areomycoflora in biological control. J. Exp Zool, India, 8: 441-451. · Joshi, Nidhi, Singh, L. and Preeti, Vats (2005). Isolation and identification of areofungi from certain medical stores at Meerut. Biochem. Cell Arch, 5:185-189. · Kakde U.B amd A. Saoji (1996). Airborn fungal in Vegetable and fruit market. Enviromnent. Mendel., 13:17-18 · Kotwal , S.G, Gosavi, S.V. and K.D. Deore (2010) .Areomyflora of outdoor and indoor air of resiental area in Nashik ,Asian J Exp. Biol.Sci, 24-30 · Nafis, A. and K.Sharma (2012). Isolation of areomycoflora in the indoor environment of Chawari Bazar metro railway station, Delhi. Recent Research in science and technology, 4(3): 4-5. · Nilsson, J.B (1992). Aerobiology: An interdisciplinary and limitless science, Indian J. Aerobiol.spl vol.: 23-29 · Singh, L. Singh, Vibha, Praveen,Saima and Alka Chopra(2005). Isolation and identification of Aeromycoflora of Mawana.Biochem. cell Arch., 5: 101-104. · Vittal, B.P.R and L. Glory (1984). Air borne fungus spores in library in india. Grana, 24: 129-133 158 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture Effect of Chemical Fertilizers on Growth and Yield of Okra

Anirudh Kr. Sharma, Joginder Singh1 and Rashmi Nigam2 1Deptt. of Horiculture, J.V.C. Baraut, Baghpat, 2Deptt. of Plant pathology, J.V.C. Baraut, Baghpat Introduction Okra, lady’s finger (Abelmoschus esculentus L.Moench) is an annual vegetable crop in grown tropical and subtropical regions of the world. Specific varieties are grown even lower hills with moderate climate .Okra is sensitive to frost and extreme low temperatures. For normal growth a temperature between 24 0 to 28 0C is suitable . Okra is believed to be native of south Africa or Asia (Thompson Kelly,1975) .According to Vavilov probably it was oriented from Ethiopian region .Murdock has reported to be originated from West Africa (Joshi et.al 1974) . India rank first in world in okra production .others growing okra commercially Brazil ,West Africa and many countries. It is belongs to malvaceae family. It is a fast growing herb the young seed pods of which are used as a common vegetable. Okra is one of the most important vegetable crops grown for its green fruits for vegetable purpose. It’s more remunerative than the fresh leafy vegetable. Tender green fruits are cooked in curry. The root and stem are useful for clearing cane juice in preparation of jaggery. In Turkey, its ripe seeds are roasted ,ground and used as a substitute of coffee (Mehta ,1959) Okra fruits control goiter due to high iodine content, okra is also useful for people suffering from weakness of heart ,but is not good for those who have weak digestion. Okra is said to be very useful against genitor urinary disorders, spermatorrhoea and chronic dysentery (Nandkarni, 1927), it is also used in manufacture of paper and cardboard. Consumable unripe okra fruit are source of carbohydrate, phosphorus, calcium protein, carotene, thiamine riboflavin niacin and vitamins C. Aykroyd (1963) reported that 100g of edible portion of okra fruits contains moisture 89.6 g , carbohydrate 6.4 g, protein 1.9 g, fat 0.2 g, fiber 1.2g ,minerals 0.7 g , calcium 66 mg, magnesium 1.5 mg , sodium 6.9 mg potassium 103 mg ,copper 0.19 mg vitamin A 88 I.U., thiamine 0.07 mg ,riboflavin 0.10 mg , nicotinic acid 0.60 mg and vitamin C 13 mg . Hence, the present study was conducted to study the combined effect of nitrogen, potash and spacing levels on the growth and green fruit Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 159 yield of in western Uttar Pradesh condition. The balance nutrition spacing is two important tools for obtaining higher fruits yields but the information on these one aspect of okra is meager. Therefore efforts were made to find out optimum and balanced nitrogen and potash fertilizer doses with suitable spacing for this okra variety of pusa sawani. Methods and Materials The field experiment was conducted at horticulture research farm A. S. College, Lakhaoti, Bulandshahr, UP. The experiment was laid out in a randomized block design with three level of nitrogen 60 kg (normal dose), 85 kg (normal dose +25) and 35 kg (normal dose -25 kg), three level of potash viz. 40 kg (normal dose) 60 kg (normal dose+20 kg) and 20 kg (normal dose -20 kg) with three spacing (60x30 cm, 45x30 cm and 30x30 cm). Certified seeds of okra variety Pusa sawani procured from the national seed corporation (NSC) Ltd. New Delhi. Seeds were sown in Rabi season. The doses of nitrogen was applied as urea form in three Installment, half at the time of sowing as a basal dose, one third 30 days after sowing (DAS) as a first top dress and remaining one fourth of nitrogen was applied at the time of flowering as a second top dress. Potash was applied as basal dressing through muriate of potash (MOP. Other intercultural operations were done time to time and data (Pool) were analyzed statically. The observations on fruiting and yield parameters were recorded by routine methods. The observations were recorded on the five randomly selected plants in each treatments plot. Results and Discussions Data showed that an application of 85 kg N/ha produced significantly maximum height of the plant (71.22 cm) followed by 60 kg N/ha (65.24 cm) and 35 kg N/ha (64.45 cm) respectively. Rastogi et al. (1987), Hooda et al. (1980) and Fageria et al. (1992) also reported highest growth with higher dose of nitrogen and normal dose of potash 40 kg/ha was significantly superior height of plant (66.51 cm) a followed by 60 kg K2O (65.57 cm) and 20 kg K2O/ha ( 65.50 cm) respectively. In treatments a spacing of 60x30cm recorded maximum plant height and it was superior to 45x30 cm and 30x30 cm spacing. The results are accordance with finding of Hooda et al. (1980). Okra crop which received higher nitrogen 85 kg/ha (43.12) and normal dose of K2O 40 kg /ha (45.09) took minimum number of days to 50% flowering compared to 60 kg N/ha (45.61) and 60 kg K2O/ha

(45.20) and 35 kg N/ha (47.12) and 20 kg K2O ( 45.60) followed by 160 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture respectively. Plants grown under various spacing did not significantly differ in respect of number of days for 50 % flowering in the years of experimentation. The maximum leaf length and width were recorded 85kgN/ ha (22.69cm) and (23.79cm) followed by 60kg N/ ha (21.13cm) and

(21.78cm) and 35 kg N/ha (18.28cm) and (19.01cm) respectively. The normal dose of potash application (40kg/ha) produced maximum leaf length(20.99 cm) and width(21.79 cm) followed by maximum dose of K2O

60kg /ha(20.82cm) and (21.65cm) and both were superior to 20kg K2O / ha (20.29 cm) and (21.18cm)respectively. with increase rate of nitrogen, phosphorus and normal dose of potash application they were increase of leaf length and width. The results are accordance with finding of Hooda et al. (1980). In high spacing of 60x30 cm was recorded maximum length of leaf and width (20.91 and21.97 cm) followed by 45x30 cm (20.43 and 21.55 cm) and 30x30 (20.76 and 21.18 cm) respectively. Highest rate of nitrogen and normal dose potash application 85 kg/ ha and 40 kg length of fruit (14.70 cm), (13.48 cm) followed by 60 kg N/ha

(13.26 cm), 35 kg N/ha(11.64cm) and 60 kg K2O/ha ( 13.29 cm) and 20 kg

K2O/ha (12.84 cm). Wider spacing 60x30 cm recorded maximum length (13.41cm) fruit length and was superior to 45x30 cm (13.28 cm) and 30x30 cm (13.10 cm) respectively. The highest rate of nitrogen application 85 kg N/ha produced maximum diameter (1.93 cm) of fruits followed by 60 kg N/ ha (1.71 cm) these were significantly superior to 35 kg/ha (1.39 cm) with increase rate nitrogen application there was increased fruits diameter. Diameter of fruits affected significantly by potash. Normal dose of potash application 40 kg/ha produced maximum fruits diameter (1.79 cm) followed by 60 kg K2O/ha (1.67 cm) and 20 kg K2O/ha (1.60 cm) respectively. In wider spacing of 60x30 cm recorded maximum fruit diameter (1.71 cm) and it was superior to 45x30 cm (1.66 cm) and 30x30 cm (1.62).similar result were also reported by Pandey et.al (1976). The maximum weight per fruit (8.82 g) were recorded 85 kg N/ha followed by 60 kg N/ha (7.32 g) and 35 kg N/ha (5.92) respectively. Wider spacing 60x30 cm recorded maximum weight per fruit (7.46 g) and superior to 45x30 cm (7.41 g) and 30x30 cm (7.13g) respectively. The normal rate of potash application (40kg/ha) produced maximum weight per fruit (7.51 g) followed by 60 kg K2O/ha. (7.42 g) and both were significantly superior to

20 kg K2O /ha (7.08 g) .With normal rate of potash apply per fruit weight was increased. The highest rate of nitrogen application 85 kg/ha produced Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 161 maximum green fruits yield (112.20 q/ha) followed by 60 kg N/ha (88.56 q/ ha) and both were significantly to superior 35 kg N/ha (63 kg/ha). The result has been also reported by Gandhi et.al. (1990), Hooda et al. (1984), Mani et al. (1981). Maximum green fruit yield per hectare was recorded when 40 kg K2O /ha (91.78 q/ ha ) was applied and it was significantly superior to

60 kg K2O/ha (89.54 q/ ha) and 20 kg K2O/ha ( 80.58 q/ha).similar result were also reported Mani et al (1981), Hooda et al. (1980), Sharma et al. (1973) and Singh et al. (1967). Increase in rate of nitrogen and normal potash application the fruit yield was increased. In closer spacing of 30x30 cm recorded highest green fruit yield and it was significantly superior to 45 x30 m (82.54 q/ha) and 60x30 cm (61.67 q/ha) spacing ,due to more plant in 30x30 cm unit area compared to 45x30 cm and 60x30 cm spacing. These result were also reported by Randhawa (1967), Pandey et al. (1979) Khan and Jaiswal (1988).

Table1: Effect of Nitrogen, Potash and spacing on growth and yield of okra (at the edible stage) Treatments Plant Days to 50% Length of Widthof Diameterof Lengthof weight Green *height flowerig leaf (cm) leaf (cm) fruits (cm)** fruits /fruit** fruits yield (cm)** (g) q/ha Level of Nitrogen Kg/ha Normal 65.24 45.61 21.13 21.78 1.71 13.27 7.32 88.56 dose(60) Normal 71.22 43.12 22.69 23.79 1.93 14.70 8.82 112.20 dose(60) +25 Normal 61.45 47.12 18.28 19.01 1.39 11.64 5.92 63.14 dose(60) -25 CD at 5% 2.11 1.02 0.59 0.51 0.05 0.30 0.19 13.86 Level of Potash Kg/ha Normal dose 66.51 45.09 20.99 21.79 1.73 13.48 7.51 91.78 (40) Normal dose 65.57 45.20 20.82 21.65 1.67 13.29 7.42 89.54 (40)+20 Normal dose 65.50 45.56 20.29 21.14 1.60 12.84 7.08 80.58 (40)-20 CD at 5% NS NS NS 0.51 0.05 0.03 0.19 13.86 Spacing (cm) 60 x30 66.33 45.73 20.91 21.97 1.71 13.41 7.46 61.67 45 x30 65.87 44.99 20.43 21.55 1.66 13.28 7.41 82.54 30 x30 65.74 45.13 20.76 21.18 1.62 13.10 7.13 120.10 CD at 5% NS NS NS 0.51 0.05 0.30 0.19 13.86 * = 80 Days after sowing, **= at the edible stage

References • Aykroyd, W.R. . (1963).ICMR special report. series No. 42 • Fageria, MS; Arya, P.S; Kumar, J. and Singh, A.K. (1992) Effect of sowing of dates and nitrogen levels on growth and seed yield of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus var. pusa sawani). Veg. Sci. 19 (1) : 25-29. 162 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture

• Joshi , A.B. ; Gadwal,V.C. and Hardas,M.W. (1974).Evolutionary studies in crops, diversity and changes in the subcontinent .(Ed.J.B.Hutchison),Cambridge, pp.99-105 • Khan, A.R. and Jaiswal, R.C. (1988). Effect of nitrogen spacing and green fruit pickings on the seed production okra.( Abelmoschus esculantus (L) moench). Veg. Sci. 15(1) : 814. • Hooda, R.S; Pandita, M.L. and Sindhu, A.S. (1980). Studies on the effect of nitrogen and phosphorus on growth and green pod yield of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus). Haryana J. Hort. Sci. 9 (3-4) 180-183. • Metha ,Y.R. (1959). Vegetable growing in Uttar Pradesh . Bureau of Agriculture Information , U.P.,Lucknow ,31-34. • Mani, S. and Ramanathan, K.M. (1980) Effect of N and K on the yield of bhindi fruit south Indian hort. 28 : 136-138. • Mishra, H.P. and Pandey, R.G. (1987) Effect of N and K on the seed production of okra (Abelmoschus esculantus (L) in calcareous soil. Indian J. Argon. 32 : 425-427. • Nandkarni , K.M.. (1927).Indian meteria medica . Nandkarni and Co. ,Bombay • Pandey, UC.Pandit, M.L Lal and Singh Kirti (1976) Effect of Spacings and Green fruit pickings in okra. Veg. Sci . (2) : 97-102 • Pandey, U.C. and Singh I.J. (1979) Effect of nitrogen plant population and soil moisture regimes on the seed production of okra ( Abelmoschus esculantus (L) moench). Veg. Sci. 6 : 81-91. • Randhawa, G.S. (1967) Growth and development of okra. (Abelmoschus esculantus (L) moench) as influenced by time of sowing and row spacing. J. Res. P. A. U. Ludhiana. 4 : 365-369. • Sarnaik, D.A; Baghel, B.S. and Singh, K. (1986) Response of okra seed crop to major nutrients. Res & dev. Rep. 3 (2) : 10-12. • Sharma, C.B. and Shukla V. (1988) Nature of response of okra to nitrogen phosphorus and potassium application and their economic optma. Indian J. Agric. Sci. 43 (10) : 930-933. • Singh, Hari and Gill, S.S. (1988) Effect of time of sowing and spacing on seed yield of okra. ( Abelmoschus esculantus (L) moench). J. Res. P. A. U. Ludhiana. 25 (1) : 44-48. • sThompson, H.C.. and Kelly,W. C. (1957).Vegetable Crops ,5th Eds.Mcgraw, Hill Book Co. New York. 561-563. Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 163 Study of Physico-Chemical Status of Freshwater Canal in (U.P.) India

Madhu, Neera Singh1 and Archana Arya2 1Deptt. of Zoology, Meerut College, Meerut., 2Deptt. of Basic Science, SVP University of Agriculture & Technology, Meerut. Introduction Water is not only important for human beings but also plays an important role to balance the entire ecosystem by various ways. Human activities can have a large and sometimes devastating impact on these factors. Humans often increase storage capacity by constructing canal and decrease it by draining wetlands. Humans often increase runoff quantities and velocities by paving areas and channelizing stream flow. The total quantity of water available at any given time is an important consideration. Some human water users have an intermittent need for water. Particularly the physico - chemical properties of water governs the life of aquatic organisms living in it. Any change in the water quality has direct influence on biotic communities where different species of flora and fauna exhibit great variations in their responses to the alter environment (Watson and John, 2003). The ranges of different parameters determine the quality of water body. The present study deals with physico-chemical characteristics of freshwater canal in Meerut District (U.P.), India and is aimed to analyses its physico-chemical l status. Methods and Materials The present study was carried out on upper Ganga canal in Mawana town of District Meerut, located in plain of Western region in Uttar Pradesh. The canal is used for irrigation of farming. Two sampling stations (A and B) were selected for collecting samples. One of the station (A) was located before the Mawana Sugar Mills, the second sampling station selected (B) was situated approximately 10 km downstream. Samples were collected on monthly basis, for a period of one year from February 2009 to January 2010 for analysis and study of the different physico-chemical parameters. The analyses were carried out as per APHA (1985). Results asnd Discussions The range of various physico-chemical parameter of canal water is presented in different figure 1-10. 164 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture Transparency The variations in values of transparency range from 55-140 cm and 90-130 cm at station (A) and station (B) respectively. The transparency was reported lowest and highest in the month of August and January respectively at both the stations. Transparency is a characteristic of water that various seasonally. During rainy season water of all body become turbid causing low transparency. Low values of transparency during season are mainly due to silt brought through rain water. According to Thirupathaih et. al. (2012), gradually suspended particles are settled causing high transparency.

160 140 120 m100 C 80 60 40

Months Station (A) Station (B)

Fig 1 Variations in transparency at station A and B Temperature The variation in temperature range from 16.5-26.8 0C and 17.0- 280C. The temperature was recorded lowest in the month of December both the stations and highest in the month July at station (A), Jun at station B. Temperature of water body is also important for the growth of organisms. The temperature of atmosphere at water plays and important role in physico- chemical and physiological behaviour of the water body. According to Welch (1952) the temperature exerts profound direct or indirect influence on metabolic and physiological behaviour of aquatic ecosystem. During the present study the variation the water temperature were due to seasonal variations as well as due to pouring of sugar mill wastes. Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 165

Fig 2 Variations in temperature at station A and B Hydrogen Ion Concentration (pH) The pH ranges from 6.6-7.5 at station (A) and 7.0-7.8 at station (B). The lowest values of pH are recorded in the month of May at station (A) and in the month of June at station (B); the highest values are observed in the month of December at both the stations. The alkaline pH is considered to be good for promoting high primary productivity. According to Fakayode (2005) the pH of water body is very important in determination of water quality since it affects other chemical reactions such as solubility and metal toxicity. Free Carbon Dioxide The values of free carbon dioxide at the station (A) ranged from 0.1-0.9mg/l and at (B) ranged from 0.1-0.8mg/l. The lowest values of free carbon dioxide were recorded in the month of December, January at station (A) and station (B), highest values in the month of July at both stations. Free carbon dioxide in the water is by product of metabolism. Carbon dioxide is required for photosynthesis hence effects concentration of phytoplankton and its productivity. It was similar to trend noted by Mohan et. al. (2001) in fresh water.

Fig 3 Variation in pH at station A and B 166 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture

Fig 4 Variation in FreeCO2 at station A and B Total Dissolved Solid The total dissolved solid ranges from 55.0-78.0 mg/l at station (A) and 60.0-80.1 mg/l at station (B). The values of TDS lowest and highest in the month of February and July at both the stations respectively. In fresh water the total dissolved solids content varies from 10-500mg/l (Sharma, 2000), Mohan et. al. (2001) have reported the TDS values ranging between 63mg/l to 112.19 mg/l at two stations of Gaula river in the Kumaon region.

Fig 5 Variation in TDS at station A and B Dissolved Oxygen The values of dissolved oxygen at the station (A) ranged from 4.2- 5.1 mg/l and at (B) it ranged from 4.2-5.0 mg/l. The lowest values of dissolved oxygen were recorded in the month of August at both the stations and highest values in the month of December and February respectively, at both the stations. The oxygen content of water body is important parameter in its quality assessment. Its presence is essential in aquatic ecosystem to keep the organism in balance. It also affects the solubility and availability of many hence affecting the productively of aquatic ecosystem (Wetzel, 1983). Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 167

Fig 6 Variation in DO at station A and B Alkalinity The values of alkalinity at the station A ranged from 50.18-50.28 mg/l and at B it ranged from 50.18-50.30 mg/l. The lowest values of alkalinity are recorded in the month of May at station A and in the month of June at station B; the highest values are observed in the month of January at both the stations. Rahul (2012) also reported decreased alkalinity during summer months. Similar observation was made during the present study also. Alkalinity can be defined as the sum of the negative ions reacting to neutralize hydrogen ions when acid is added to water. In natural waters alkalinity is mostly due to dissolved carbon dioxide (CO2) or carbonate ions and it represents the main carbon source for assimilation during photosynthesis.

Fig 7 Variations in alkalinity at station A and B Phosphorous The values of phosphorus at the station A ranged from 0.42-51 mg/ l and at station B it ranged from 0.40-0.51 mg/l. The lowest values of 168 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture phosphorus were recorded in the month of July at both the stations and highest values in the month of June at both the stations. Increased concentration of phosphorus was observed during summer season and lower concentration during rainy season by Patil et al. (2013). A small amount of phosphorus is an essential nutrient for all aquatic plants and algae but in high levels, phosphorous can be considered a pollutant. Massive biological uptake of phosphorus occurs during the growth of phytoplankton and zooplankton.

Fig 8 Variations in phosphorous at station A and B Silicates The values of silicates at the station A ranged from 0.32-0.54 mg/ l and at B it ranged from 0.38-0.49 mg/l. The silicates was reported lowest and highest in the month of November and June respectively at both the stations. Silica (silicon dioxide) is a compound of silicon and oxygen (SiO2), a hard, glassy mineral substance which occurs in sand, quartz, sandstone and granite etc. Silicon has been considered as the most important limiting nutrient for growth of diatoms.

Fig 9 Variations in silicates at station A and B Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 169 Conclusions The pH of the water is almost in moderate range. The alkalinity values are in lower range, indicating moderate productivity. There was not much difference in the values of temperature, transparency, dissolved oxygen, FreeCO2, phosphorous, silicates etc. at two sampling stations. The physico-chemical analysis of the water at two sampling stations show that the thermal regime of the study stations resemble to subtropical waters. The other parameters fall in the moderately low category indicating that the canal water is moderate productive. References • APHA (1985). Standard methods for the examination of water and waste water. 16th ed. American Public Health Association. New York. • Mohan, M., Agrawal., Sehgal, K. L. (2001). Pre-impoundment physico-chemical characteristics of river Gaula in Kumaon Himalaya. Procceding of National Symposium on fish Health Management and Sustainable A Aquaculture. 71-78. • Rahul, A., Kushawaha, M.K.S., Mathur, R., Rahul, S. and Yadav, A. (2012). Assessment of freshwater quality of Angori reservoir, Distt. Datia, (M.P). Nat. Envi. and Poll.Tech. 11(4): 667-669. • Sharma, A. P.(2000). Manual on fisheries limnology College of Fisheries Science GBPUAT. Pantnager pp.115. • Thirupathaih, M., Ch. Sampata, Chintha Sammaiah (2012). Analysis of water quality using physico-chemical parameters in lower manair reservoir of Karimnagar District, Andhra Pradesh. International J. of Environ. Sci. Vol. 3, No. 1: 172-180. • Patil, S. K., Patil, S.S. and Sathe, T.V. (2013). Limnological status of Khanapur fresh water reservoir from Ajara Tahsil, Kolhapur Distt. (M.S) India International Journal of Science, Enviroment and Technology. 2(6): 1163-1174. • Fakayode, S.O. (2005). Impact assessment of industrial effluent on water quality of the receiving Alora river in Ibadan, Nigeria. Ajeam-Ragee, 10:13. • Welch P. S. (1952). Limnology, 2nd edition, McGraw Hill Book Co. New York. • Wetzel R. G. (1983). Limnology, W. B. Saunders Company, London. • Watson, S.B. and John, L. (2003): Overview drinking water quality and sustainability. Water Qual. Res. Jour. Canada, 38 (1): 3 – 13. 170 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture Traditional Sources of Antidotes From Botanicals Sold By Herbal Vendors in North Maharashtra (India)

Y. A. Ahirrao1, M. V. Patil1 and D. A. Patil2 1S.S.V.P. Sanstha’s Arts, Commerce And Science College Shindkheda, District. Dhule (M.S.) 2Deptt. of Botany S.S.V.P. Sanstha’s L.K.P.R. Ghogrey Science College, Dhule (M.S.) Introduction Medicinal plants have been crucial in sustaining the health and well- being of mankind. It is generally agreed that major section of population especially in developing and underdeveloped countries seek healthcare from sources other than conventional medicines. They also seek help of some organized systems of medicine like Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha etc. Apart from these every community or village has a wealth of herbal folklore. Our ancestors possessed a profound understanding of healing powers of plants. They used to try and test local plants for a range of common health problems. These ancient healing practices are still vogue in a period when different well-thought and organized systems of medicine are in practice all over the world. Their knowledge has been passed orally generation-to-generation since long past. India is one such country having the oldest system of healing in the world. Moreover, tribal and rural societies in India still have their choices of indigenous drug selection and application. A review of literature indicates the Herbal Vendors (Jadibutiwalas) and their traditional knowledge about plant drugs has remained untapped. They have been always ignored in our country. In India Sinha (1998) has attempted on this line and studied Delhi and surrounding areas. The present authors investigated, some districts of north-western part of Maharashtea. viz.Dhule, Nandurbar, Nashik, Jalgaon and Buldhana. Information of 31 plants species used for various human ailments are being communicated in this paper. Methods and Metarilas Herbal vendors wandering in north Maharashtra are tapped and enquiries w.r.t. plant drug, recipe, administration plant names, precautionary tips and diseases treated are noted. Plants samples or products are purchased / collected and presented scientifically. They are identified by using various Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 171 regional, state and national floras in India. (Cook, 1958; Hooker Naik, 1998; Sharma et al., 1996 Singh et al, 2000; Patil 2003 and Kshirsagar and Patil 2008) Repeated surveys were conducted in different villages, towns and cities of North Maharashtra. Information regarding remedies related especially to the human diseases was recorded. The data adduced is based on personal interviews, observations and experiences of vendors in the region. They are presented in the Table-1 with their correct name family, local plant names, parts used, recipes and their administration Table 1: Snake Bite and Scorpion sting Sr. Plant Name & Family Vernacular Plant Part Utility No. Name Used 1 Abitulon indicum (L.) sweet. Atiwalal / Roots Roots paste is applied on site of scorpion bite to Hort. Brit. (Malvaceae) Dabala releve scorpion bite poisoning. 2 Aconitum deniorrhizum Jahar Seeds Seeds are rubbed on rough stone in water to obtained Stapf. Mohora slurry. One teaspoon of this slurry is administered (Ranunculaceae) with water to a person suffering from snake bite and scorpion sting. 3 Aconitum ferox Wall. ex Ser. Kala Roots Roots paste of this plant is applied on the part of (Ranunculaceae) Bachnag scorpion sting. To reduce poisoning of scorpion bite. 4 Alangium lamarckii Ankol / Roots Roots slurry is administered one teaspoon twice daily salvifolium (L.. f.) Wang in Akkal for five days to reduce poisoning of rat bite. Engl (Alangiaceae ) 5 Anagallis arvensis L. Jokmari Leaves One teaspoon of leaves powder is given with cupful of wine. this decoction is given to a person suffering (Primulaceae) from snake bite till it cure. 6 Anamitra cocculus Wight & Kakmaro, Leaves, Crushed leaves pest are applied on the site of snake Arn. (Menispermiaceae) Garudfal stem bark bite & scorpion bite till it cure. 7 Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. Dhavada / Stem bark Stem bark is scrapped by teeth and crushed in to Ex DC.) Wall. dhamodi paste which is applied on injury of scorpion string. (Combretaceae) 8 Aristolochia bracteolata Kidamari Leaves Fine leaves of this plant and ten seeds of piper Lamk. nigrum L. are crushed together this decoction one (Aristolochiaceae) spoon given to a person suffering from snake bite. If the person goes unconscious, few drops of this mixture are dropped into nose. 9 Artemisia nilagirica (Clarke) Bramhajata / Leaves Leaf pest is applied at the site of scorpion sting till it Pamp. Dauna cures. (Asteraceae) agnidamanak 10 Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Hingankai Fruits Fruits are boiled in water and paste consumed Del. (Balanitaceae) against scorpion string or snake bite as antidote. 11 Canna idica L. Kardal Rhizome Decoction of rhizome about half cup is given twice (Cannaceae) daily for four days against poisoning of dog bite. 12 Clematis gouriana Roxb. ex Morwel. Leaves Leaves juice about ten ml is given to a person DC. (Ranunculaceae) Morava suffering from snake bite. 13 Corchorus capsularis L. Ran-chuncha Seeds A pinch of seeds is eaten every five minutes until the (Tiliaceae) person vomits and it is helpful after snake bite. 14 Cymbopogon martini Rohis Gawat Seeds The seeds are crushed first then It is filled in cigars (Roxb.) Wats. (Poaceae) and smoked as remedy against scorpion sting. 15 Cyperus rotundus L. Nagarmotha Leaves Leaves are chewed against snake bite useful (Cyperaceae) especially aquatic snake. 16 Cucurbita maxima Duch.ex Kohala. / Stem The stem is rubbed on a stone and slurry is obtained in Lamk Encycl. Mitha Kddu is applied on affected part and then it is warmed near (Cucurbitaceae) fire for ten minutes. reduces to Poisoning of scorpion sting. 17 Diplocyclos palmatus (L.) Shivlingi Seeds Two spoonful of seeds are ground to fine powder and Jeffery. added in one cup of water and stirred to spoonful of (Cucurbitaceae) this mixture is given every hour to cure snake bite. 18 Ensete superbum (Roxb.) Jangali kela Seeds One spoon of Seeds powder consumed with piper Cheesm. (Musaceae) betel L. Leaf is helpful against dog bite.

172 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture Result and Discussion The North Maharashtra region comprising districts viz., Nasik, Dhule, Nandurbar, Jalgoan and Buldhana is Studied for the botanical sold by Herbal Vendors in public places, near government offices and temples, during festival and pilgrims, highways, squares and such other places of public gatherings. They were convinced about purpose of our investigation and interviewed for plant parts or products sold by them. Inquiry was always made to understand type of recipes, doses, diseases to be cured, plant name used by them etc. Scientific identification was made in the laboratory. There are reports earlier on exclusive plant-based antidotes for scorpion stings and bites of dogs, other insects or animals from Maharashtra (Pawar and Patil, 2006; Bhamare, 1995; Upadhye and Kulkarni, 2004; Bhogaonkar and Kadam, 2007; Vaidya and Dhumal, 2004), It was possible to record as many as 31 plant species belonging to 29 genera and 24 angiospermic families. They advised different plant parts such as leaves (09), roots (07), rhizome (01), tuber (01) stem-bark (03), fruits (02), seeds (06) or even entire plants (01). They prepared various medicinal recipes like extract (01), juice (03), oil (01), slurry (05), decoction (02), powder (05), paste (09) or even later tapped from the plants (01). The number in parenthesis indicate number of user-reparts for plant parts used and recipes advised. Recipes in the form of paste is generally advised for their administration. These are employed as antidotes for the bites of animals like, snake, dog, rabbit or scorpion-sting. Their knowledge is however traditional. They are aware about the results of applications of these crude drugs. However, use it is desirable to know chemistry, biological activities etc. on scientific ground thereby verifying their authenticity and toxicity. This is necessary and will add new or additional sources of drugs against animal bites or stings. Acknowledgements Junior Author (YAA) is thankful to the authorities of S.S.V.P. Sanstha Dhule for library and laboratory facilities. References • Bhamare, P.B. (1995) Some anit-vemon medicinal plants from tribals of dhule district, Maharashtra J. Adv. Sci Tech (1):36-27 • Bhogaonkar, P.Y. and V.N. Kadam (2007) Herbal antidots used for snakebite by Banjara People of Umarkhed region in Maharashtra, India Et zhnobotany 19:78-81. Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 173

• Cooke, T : (1958). The flora of presidency of Bombay Val. 1-III, B.S.I. Calcutta (Repr. Ed.) • Hooker, J. D. (1872-1897). Flora of British India Vols. I-VII, Reeves & Co., London. • Jain, S.K. (1991). Dictionary of Indian Folk Medicine and Ethnobotany. Deep Publication, New Delhi, India. • Jain, S.K.(1987). Ethnobotany – its scope and study. Pres. Address, Indian Bot. Soc. Patna, 1-44. • Kshirsagar, S. R. and Patil, D. A.(2008), Forest flora of Jalgaon (Maharashtra). Bishen Singh Mahend Rapal Singh, Dehradun, India. • Naik, V. N. (1998). Flora of Maharashtra Vol. 1-2. Amrut Prakashan, Aurangabad (M.S.), India. • Patil, D. A. (2003). Flora of Dhule and Nandurbra districts (Maharashtra) Bishen Singh,Mahend Rapal Singh, Dehradun, India. • Pawar, Shubhangi and Patil D.A.(2006) Indigenous anti-vemin claims in Jalgaon District of Maharashtra.Bionifolet 3(3):215-218. • Sharma, B.D. Karthikeyan, S. Singh, N. P. (1996). Flora of Maharashtra State: Monocotyledons.BSI, Calcutta, India. • Sinha Rajiv, K. (1998): Ethnobotany: The Renaissance of Traditional Herbal Medicine, INA Publishers,Jaipur. • Singh, N.P. and Karthikeyan, S. (2000). Flora of Maharashtra State : Dicotyledons. Vol. I. Bot.Surv. India, Calcutta, India. • Vaidya, R.R. and Dhuma K.N. (2004) Ethnomedicinal plant antidote used by Koil tribe. Focus on sacred Groves and Ethnobotany. Prism Publications, Mumbai, India 174 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture Effect of Humidity And Ascorbic Acid on Oil Seed Under Different Storage Regimes

Dheeraj Kumar, Geeta Rani, Shalu Sharma1, R.K.Sharma and laxman Singh Gautam2 1Deptt. of Botany, S.S.V College, Hapur 2Deptt. of Zoology, S.S.V College, Hapur Introduction One of the most important contributions to maximum agricultural crop production per unit of land is the use of good seed. Such seeds have high purity value. Many factors such as moisture, temperature gaseous exchange, seeds coat character, maturity, microflora and insect infestation, may determine longevity, of seed under natural or control storage.Airdry seed contain safe moisture contents for storage. In general, the higher the temperature the more rapid the deterioration at given moisture level (Vimala,1990).It was earlier thought that seed storage might be depleting the amounts of required growth regulators of metabolites(Barton,1961) but the reports suggest that application of such chemical replenishment instead leads to accelerated deterioration(Vimala,1982, 1984, 1990) Methods and Materials For carrying out investigation on choice of storage regimes some crucifer and treatment for retention of certain physicochemical characteristic freshly Raphanus satives cv. Chaitki were selected and procured from Beej Bhandar, Hapur.Of these Raphanus satives cv.Chaitki seeds were stored under room temperature at Humidity 5 degree calcious-100% RH,5 degree calcious-12% RH,30 degree calcious-100%RH,30 degree calcious- 12%RH,respectivaly for seeing the effect of certain chemicals during storage the seeds were applied Ascorbic acid(10 mM) besides air dry seeds as control were stored with each set in all the regimes. Following parameters were noted after Zero (initial) day, 30 days and 60 days of storage different regimes (a)Percent seed germination (b) Seed Vigour Test (c)Soil pH (d) Soil Moisture (e)Soil Nitrogen Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 175 Observations Seeds of all cultivar germinated after 1&2 months of storage with all of the given treatment at 30 degree calcious-100% RH whereas at 5 degree calcious-100% RH Raphanus sativus cv Chaitki under all treatment (Fig.1).Ascorbic acid treatment under all storage regimes, in gernal improved % germination. Adverse effect of Ascorbic acid treatment in 30 degree calcious-100% RH was remarkable after two month of storage, especially in Raphanus sativas cv. Chaitki.The seeds of cv. Chaitki initially had maximum moisture content (32-36%) but under storage none of the seeds held significant moisture content in general(Table 3b1).

Results and Discussion As, the oil seeds are poor in water contant, yet they suffer fungal attack .The treatment of Ascorbic acid an antioxidant, to mitigate lipid deterioration and also the maintain a level to prevent direct fungal attack on seeds etc.Ascorbic acid (10mM) treatment amongst the treatments under all storage regimes, in gernal, improve percent germinability of seeds. Beside the treatment of Ascorbic acid, which is an antioxidant and stress reliever, caused negative effect on germinability .The study however points out that the oil seeds can be stored in two ways-one for retaining germinability and Physical characteristic (RT or Ascorbic acid+ any Storage regime) 176 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture

References · Agrawal, P.K 1988. Seed deterioration during storage. Proceedings of the international congress of plant physiol. Vol-2: 1271-1272. · Come, D.1989. Seed organs of Survivals. Preservation of storage of grains and seed and their by product: 205-233 · Lasseren, J.C. 1989. The drying of grains, Principles, equipment energy saving and fire safty.Preservation and storage of seed and grains: 606-665 · Reimbert, M and Reimbert, A.1989. The technology of silo construction in Europe. Preservation and storage of seed and grain: 778-813 · Shejbal, J and Boislambert, J.N. 1989. Modified atmosphere storage of grains. Preservation and storage of seed and grain: 749-786 · Vimala, Y 1990. Acceleration of high temperature high moisture induced seed deterioration by chemical replenishment. J. Indian bot. Soc. 69:15-18 ·Vimala, Y. 1984. Studied on changes in the activities of certain enzymes accompanying some plant developmental process. Ph.D. Thesis, Meerut University, Meerut ·Vimala, Y 1982. Acceleration of seed deterioration and enzyme activation through pre-storage hormonal treatment of Phaseolus aureus seeds. J. Indian bot. Soc. 61: X-41 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 177 Exploring Gladiolus For Color Revolution in India

Manoj Nazir Directorate of Agriculture Jammu ( Jammu & Kashmir) Introduction The word gladiolus was coined from the Latin word gladius meaning sword lily on account of its shape of its foliage. Corn flag is it’s another name in Europe G. Illiricus was found wild as weed in corn fields. Water fall Lilly is another name given to it as G.primulinis was found growing near the Victoria Falls in the tropical forests of Africa. It was introduced into cultivation towards end of 16th century. In India cultivation dates back to 19th century, as Firmingers manual of gardening in India published in 1863 mentions that Charles Grey of coonoor grew some gladiolus from corms and seeds in his garden. Gladiolus cultivation under northern Indian plains, coastal areas of TamilNadu and Pondicherry has a potential to change the economic scenario of farmers of these areas. For generating both money as well as employment in rural areas gladiolus is such a crop suitable for establishing floriculture industry by progressive farmers and entrepreneurs and undoubtly the best bulbous flower in India. Its magnificent spikes in dazzling colours remain fresh for 10 to 22 days. Its cultivation in Northern regionof india has become an important sector as consumption of flowers is rising associated with economic development. Jammu division of J and K and U.P has a wide range of climates and micro climates different production system, socio economic diversity and consumer requirements. Mostly farmers belong to small and marginal category. Diversification to horticulture crops is now the major option to improve livelihood security of small farmers and improved employment opportunities. Jammu division of (J and K) U.P and coastal plains of India is going to play a vital role in floriculture trade which will turn the economy of these states. Floriculture scenario in Jammu province of (J and K) has changed very rapidly since 2000. In 1998 – 1999, area under gladiolus cultivation in Jammu province was 0.5 hects and its reached to 2.0 hects. In 2002 and 5.0 hects in 2004 and 10.0 hects in 2007. Now every year 25 – 50 farmers take up its cultivation in Jammu region of J and K. In 1999 40,000 spikes of gladiolus were produced, from 1999 – 2002. 1, 00,000 spikes were produced. From 2002-2004. 1, 20,000 spikes were produced 178 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture and from 2005-2007. 3, 00,000 spikes were produced from the plains of Jammu region (from October to April). Despite all this Jammu import 85% of gladiolus spikes and other cut flowers from rest of the country. Floriculture sector is expericing a rapid change the world over the globalization and its effect on income generation. Consumption of gladiolus spikes in northern plains of India and coastal plains is rising day by day and this trend will continue to increase because of its demand in the market and improvement in purchasing power. A gladiolus spike has a potential to change economic scenario of poor farmers. Objects of The Mission 1. To make this crop popular in India (666 distt.) 2. To Identify promising and stable genotypes for All locations of India 3. To help and guide the farmers about its commercial importance and how it can improve the economic status Recent trends Consumers are becoming more aware of what to buy. They are becoming professional buyers. They tend to ask for higher choices in product quality levels depending on purpose of purchase, as well for higher levels of service and a wider and deeper assortment. Now the trend has shifted from seasonal to year round production of flowers and the soil of Jammu has potential to make spikes of gladiolus available when they are most wanted (like mothers day, Valentines Day) besides marriages, birthdays and other occasions. FAQ-sponsored project on green house technology for small scale farmers should be implemented in Jammu, western U.P, and Coastal plains of Tamil Nadu which will give a confidence to farmers for green house production of flowers. Government of Jammu and Kashmir, U.P and Tamil Nadu should be instrumental in setting up of floricultural units both for export and domestic markets. Cold storage facilities for flowers for export should be set up. The improvement in gladiolus has remained more or less stationary in India in the recent past due to non- availability of germplasm of divergent forms. However, the universal approach in its breeding has been unidirectional in most of the countries. For making further improvement in number of florets per spike, there have been consistent efforts on the part of breeders and floriculturists to bring about variations in the cultivated gladiolus for the characters attributed to Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 179 number of florets per spike. In starting and improvement therefore it is essential for plant breeder to asses the population available from this point of view, as there is no report on variability estimates over different environments. Improvement of plants depends upon the magnitude of genetic variability of different quantitative characters. Therefore the measurement, evaluation and manipulation of genetic variability in desired direction becomes extremely important in any yield improvement programme. The extent of genetic variability in a specific breeding population depends upon the genotypes included in it. Heritability and genetic advance are important selection parameters and heritability estimates along with genetic advance are normally more helpful in predicting the gain under selection than heritability estimates alone. However, it is not necessary that a character showing high heritability will also exhibit high genetic advance (Johnson, et al 1955). The correlation coefficient gives ideas about the various associations, existing between yields and yield components. Path-coefficient explores that relative distribution of both direct and indirect effects of yield contributing characters on number of florets per plant. Thus the knowledge of character association and path coefficient is essential for simultaneous improvement of yield and yield components. The occurrence of genotype environment interaction has long provided a major challenge for obtaining complete understanding of the genetic control of variability. The study of genotype environment interaction in its biometrical aspect is thus not only important from the genetically and evolutionary point of view but also very relevant to the production problems of agriculture in general and plant breeding in particular (Breese, 1969). Due to high genotype environment interaction plurilocal and pluriannual experiments are required especially when the plants are grown under those conditions, which are different from the breeding area. The selection of stable varieties to be used as a parent is a prerequisite in a breeding programme. For planning and effective selection strategy understanding the inter relationship among yield and its components is of vital significance. Gladiolus, a bulbous ornamental is the second most important cut flower grown from storage organs. It is being cultivated in almost all countries of the world where spring and summer conditions are favorable, over an area of 8,429 hectares (Cohat, 1993).Ornamental flower bulbs are being grown on over 5000 hectares area in the world. The Netherlands is the 180 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture major leader, with about 55% share of the total bulb production acreage; however, bulb production accounts 75% percent. Top most genera having maximum production acreage are: Tulips (1600ha), Gladiolus (9500ha), Narcissus (7000ha), Lillium (5000ha) and Iris (2000ha). In India, out of 87,000ha area is under different floricultural crops, bulbous ornamentals are cultivated over 3500ha with maximum under Gladiolus (1200ha) followed by Tuberose (800ha). Its commercial cultivation in North Indian plains is due to congenial climatic conditions prevailing from August to March for flowering, corm and cormel production (Khanna and Gill, 1982).It is however, difficult to grow gladiolus from May to September due to higher temperature in the northern plains. However, there is tremendous scope to grow gladiolus in northern-western Himalayans region to get blooms during summer and autumn when in the northern plains it is rather impossible to get marketable blooms under natural conditions. Gladiolus is very rich in its varietal wealth and every year there is an addition of 200 new varieties, hence varietal trials become necessary to find out suitable varieties for a specific region. • A stable variety is desirable for its commercial exploitation over a wide range of agro climatic conditions. If adaptability in real sense is due to the genetic makeup, preliminary evaluation should be done to identify stable genotypes in a short span of time. The choice of suitable parents is of paramount significance for a planned hybridization to improve productivity. Therefore, efforts are to be intensified to identify the best partners with a wide genetic base from the large germplasm pool, for characters of importance to utilize their efficiency in hybridization programme. The information on heritability with the genetic advance as percentage of mean for different characters is of a paramount importance for the breeder to identify the characters to be relied upon and to decide the selection strategies to get quality blooms and maximum corm production. • cost of one corm ranges between Rs.2-3. If grown scientifically and only stable and promising varieties for that area a farmer can get 2-3 spikes per corm. Cost of cultivation per corm is 25 paisa. Market value of one spike is 3-4 rupees. Total min. amount earned is Rs. 6-9 per corm. Net profit from spikes is Rs. 6-9 minus 2.25-3 .25 = 3.75- 5.75. It means from one acre of land a farmer can earn Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 181 a net profit of Rupees 1, 20,000 – 1, 84,000. From 32000 corms planted in one acre of land. • Other surprise is that after 45 days of spike cut a farmer gets now 2-3 corms back from one planted corm which can be used for next sowing after dormancy break for three months. More so a farmer gets 5- 20 cormlets which grows into well developed corm in three – four months. That is why I have been telling that a single corm of gladiolus has a potential to change economy of our farmers. That is why I selected gladiolus crop for bringing colour revolution in India. A colourful farmer means a colorful India. Why Gladiolus has become farmer’s first choice Farmers feel secure by cultivating gladiolus as the spikes fetch then a good return in comparison to other crops and can be also intercropped with vegetables like Knolkhol, radish and floricultural crop like French marigold. Table 1. World production of gladiolus corms Country Hectare Country Hectare Country Hectare

Arrgentinaa 675 Israael 050 Brazil 433

Australlia 175 Italy 250 Canaada 400

Brazzil 433 JJaapan 245 Englaand 120

Canadaa 400 Litthuaaniiaa 021 Essttonia 07

Englland 120 Meexicco 058 Frrancee 625 Esstoniaa 07 The Nettherrlaands 2,,145 South Africaa 210

Fraancee 625 Neew ZZeealandd 015 Spaain 035 greeecce 035 Pollaand 350 Turkeey 120 Hungaryy 045 Arggeentiina 675 Uniitted statess 2,,145 Issrraell 050 Austtraaliaa 175 Total 9,,359

Why gladiolus cultivation CROP AREA (Hect.) TOTAL INCOME (Rs.) Wheat 1.6 72,000.00 Paddy 2.0 40,000.00 Radish 0.2 12,000.00 Cabbage 0.3 06,000.00 Spinach 0.1 500.00 Gladiolus 0.1 28,000.00 Knol kohl 0.5 2,000.00

182 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture

Status of gladiolus in Jammu (J and K) Year Area under Total No. of Total No. of Profit (Rs.) Cultivation Spikes Farmers (Hects.) produced engaged 1998 – 99 0.2 12000 05 18000 1999 – 2000 0.3 18000 07 27000 2000 – 01 0.5 30,000 10 60000 2001 – 02 0.5 30,000 12 65000 2002 – 03 1.0 1,20000 14 245000 2003 – 04 2.0 240000 20 480000 2004 – 05 3.0 300000 25 860000 2005 – 06 3.5 4,20000 35 12,60000 2006 – 07 4.0 4,80000 40 14,44,000 2007 – 08 4.5 5,40000 46 16,00000 2008 – 09 5.0 5,80000 50 2100000 2009 -10 6.0 6,50000 60 3000000 2010-11 8.0 7.90000 85 4100000 2011 -2012 8.2 8,20000 90 4300000

Insects and pests In comparison to diseases pests don’t damage this cut flower much. However, many insects and pests attack gladioli at different stage of growth and development. Gladioli grown in hilly regions of the country don’t encounter any pests and insects but gladioli grown in plains of India encounter some insects and pests Mites • They feed on gladiolus leaves under warm and shady conditions • CONTROL: • Spray the crop with Nuvan or Rogor • Control: Spray the crop with0.1 -0.15% Nuvacron • B. Flower thrips ( Framkliniolla species): These type of thrips invade the florets • CONTROL: Spray the crop with methyl [email protected]% • Spraying of 0.1% metasystox also checks the spread of thrips Thrips • These are tiny insects and at times are very active in sucking the plant juice from the lower under ground portion of the plants and causing the foliage to turn yellow. The attacked plants gives sickly appearance . Two types of thrips attack gladoli. Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 183 • A. Leaf thrips: ( Taeniothrips simplex) these thrips cause serious problem by feeding on leaves, spikes and florets. The leaves attacked by these insects show silver and brown streaks. They also infect corm during storage period. These are small insects invisible to the naked eye Description of the Cultivars that have potential to enhance the economics of the farmer’s throught India. Cultivar American Beauty • Beautifully ruffled rich deep salmon pink with cream white throats • Rachis length is 57.24 cms. • 15-18 florets per spike. • Not good multiplier under Jammu conditions Cultivar Tropic Sea • Spike length 60 cm • Florets light violet in colors. • 15 florets per spike • Plant height 116 cms. Cultivar Red Ginger • ruffled pink florets and two petals with yellow combination • 15-18 florets per spike • 45-58 cm. spike length Cc Poppy Tears T • 15-17 florets per spike • Florets white and compact • Spike length 65 cms. • Stable under jammu conditions Cultivar White Prosperity • Florets milky white • 15-17 florets per spike • Rachis length 70 cms. • Good for commercial growing • Can bloom up to 42 degree celcus temp. White Friendship • Whitish florets with slight red streaks 184 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture • Rachis length 53.11 cms. • 12-16 florets per spike • High temp resistant Cultivar Apollo • floret red wiyh yellow throat • 18 florets per spike • spike length 72 cms. • plant height 125 cms. • diameter of basal floret 15 cms. Cultivar Novalux • florets yellow with red and orange combinations • ruffled • spike length 45-62cms. • 15 -20florets per spike • good market value Cultivar Greenbay • florets greenish yellow in colour • rachis length 48-52 cms. • 12-15 florets per spike • good market value Cultivar Priscialla • lady pink florets with white throat • rachis length 28-59 cms • 8-16Florets per spike • Good for those areas were fast winds blow. • Plant height ranges from 60-92 cms. Cultivar Durga • an improved cultivar of congo song • rachis length 45.44 cms. • 15-17 florets per spike • 2.09 spikes per corm • 39.58 cormlets per plant • 16.02 days durablity Cultivar Jammu Pride Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 185 • It is across between Congo song and Red beauty • It bears 18.14 florets per spike. • Rachis length is 70.35 cms. • it bears 2-3 spikes per corm Cultivar Candyman • Deep maroon ruffled petals with velvety margins • Rachis length is 55.81 cms. • It bears 14-15 florets per spike Cultivar Jester • Florets yellow with red blotch • It produces 15-18 florets per spike • Rachis length is 66 cms. • It is not suitable under Jammu conditions Cultivar Conqueror • Mid season cultivar • Florets deep violet blue, lighter in throat • 10-14 florets per spike • Rachis length45-52 cms. • A poor multiplier Cultivar Congo Song • Florets pink with white streaks • Rachis length is 45 cms. • 14- 15 florets per spike Cultivar Eighth Wonder • 18-22 florets per spike • Rachis length 72.52 cms. • Bright orange, fully ruffled with velvety margin florets. • Excellent market value. Cultivar Morallo • Ruffled florets light pink with white streaks • 15-18 florets per spike • Rachis length 70 cms. • Of great demand in market 186 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture Cultivar Red Beauty • Florets red in color. • 10-15 florets per spike • Rachis length is 46.76 cms. • A poor performer under Jammu conditions Cultivar Red Majesty • It has ruffled red florets • 18-20 florets per spike • Rachis length60-67 cms. • A good performer under Jammu plains Cultivar Punjab Morning • A cross between Sancerre and snow princess • Florets light pink with yellow and red blotch on floret base • Rachis length39-55 cms. • 10-15 florets per spike True Yellow • Spike length 50-55 cms. • Florets 10-12 per spike • Florets sulphur yellow in color Cultivar Enchantress • Pink florets • Rachis length 52.59 cms • 13-16 florets per spike • Not stable under Jammu conditions Charms Flow • 15 florets per spike • Rachis length is 50 cms • Plant height is113-120 cms • Good market value • A stable genotype under Jammu conditions cost benefit ratio: Cost of one corm ranges between Rs.2-3. If grown scientifically and only stable and promising varieties for that area a farmer can get 2-3 spikes per corm. Cost of cultivation per corm is 25 paisa. Market value of Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 187 one spike is 3-4 rupees. Total min. amount earned is Rs. 6-9 per corm. Net profit from spikes is Rs. 6-9 minus 2.25-3 .25 = 3.75- 5.75. It means from one acre of land a farmer can earn a net profit of rupees 1, 20,000 – 1, 84,000. From 32000 corms planted in one acre of land. • Other surprise is that after 45 days of spike cut a farmer gets now 2-3 corms back from one planted corm which can be used for next sowing after dormancy break for three months. More so a farmer gets 5- 20 cormlets which grows into well developed corm in three – four months. That is why I have been telling that a single corm of gladiolus has a potential to change economy of our farmers. That is why I selected gladiolus crop for bringing colour revolution in India. A colorful farmer means a colorful India. 188 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture Assessment Genetic Diversity in Crop Plants Using Molecular Markers: A Review

Munnesh Kumar, Kuldeep Chandrawat, Kapil Nagar1, Bharat Bhushanand Habde Sonali2 1Deptt. of Genetics and Plant Breeding, 2Institute of Agricultural Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Introduction Diversity in plant genetic resources (PGR) provides opportunity for plant breeders to develop new and improved cultivars with desirable characteristics, which include both farmer-preferred traits (yield potential and large seed, etc.) and breeders preferred traits (pest and disease resistance and photosensitivity, etc.). From the very beginning of agriculture, natural genetic variability has been exploited within crop species to meet subsistence food requirement, and now it is being focused to surplus food for growing populations. The assessment of genetic diversity within and between populations is routinely performed at the molecular level using various laboratory-based techniques such as allozyme or DNA analysis, which measure levels of variation directly. Genetic diversity may be also gauged using morphological, and biochemical characterization and evaluation: i. Morphological characterization does not require expensive technology but large tracts of land are often required for these experiments, making it possibly more expensive than molecular assessment. These traits are often susceptible to phenotypic plasticity; conversely, this allows assessment of diversity in the presence of environmental variation. ii. Biochemical analysis is based on the separation of proteins into specific banding patterns. It is a fast method which requires only small amounts of biological material. However, only a limited number of enzymes are available and thus, the resolution of diversity is limited. iii. Molecular analyses comprise a large variety of DNA molecular markers, which can be employed for analysis of variation. Different markers have different genetic qualities (they can be dominant or co-dominant, can amplify anonymous or characterized loci, can contain expressed or non-expressed sequences, etc.). The concept of genetic markers is not a new one; in the nineteenth century, Gregor Mendel employed phenotype-based genetic markers in his experiments. Later, phenotype- Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 189 based genetic markers for Drosophila melanogaster led to the founding of the theory of genetic linkage, occurring when particular genetic loci or alleles for genes are inherited jointly. The limitations of phenotype- based genetic markers led to the development of DNA-based markers, i.e., molecular markers. A molecular marker can be defined as a genomic locus, detected through probe or specific starters (primer) which, in virtue of its presence, distinguishes unequivocally the chromosomic trait which it represents as well as the flanking regions at the 3’ and 5’ extremity [1]. Molecular markers may or may not correlate with phenotypic expression of a genomic trait. They offer numerous advantages over conventional, phenotype-based alternatives as they are stable and detectable in all tissues regardless of growth, differentiation, development, or defense status of the cell. Additionally, they are not confounded by environmental, pleiotropic and epistatic effects. An ideal molecular marker should possesses the following features: (1) be polymorphic and evenly distributed throughout the genome; (2) provide adequate resolution of genetic differences; (3) generate multiple, independent and reliable markers; (4) be simple, quick and inexpensive; (5) need small amounts of tissue and DNA samples; (6) link to distinct phenotypes; and, (7) require no prior Molecular Assessment of Genetic Diversity Analyses of genetic diversity are usually based on assessing the diversity of an individual using either allozymes (i.e., variant forms of an enzyme that are coded for by different alleles at the same locus) or molecular markers, which tend to be selectively neutral. It has been argued that the rate of loss of diversity of these neutral markers will be higher that those which are associated with fitness. In order to verify this, Reed and Frankham [5] conducted a meta-analysis of fitness components in three or more populations and in which heterozygosity, and/or heritability, and/or population size were measured. Their findings, based on 34 datasets, concluded that heterozygosity, population size, and quantitative genetic variation, which are all used as indicators of fitness, were all positively correlated significantly with population fitness. Genetic variability within a population can be assessed through: The number (and percentage) of polymorphic genes in the population. The number of alleles for each polymorphic gene. The proportion of heterozygous loci per individual. Genetic or DNA based marker techniques such as Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP), 190 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD), Simple Sequence Repeats (SSR) and Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP) are now in common RFLP and Variable Numbers of Tandem Repeats (VNTRs) markers are examples of molecular markers based on restriction- hybridization techniques. In RFLP, DNA polymorphism is detected by hybridizing a chemically-labelled DNA probe to a Southern blot of DNA digested by restriction endonucleases, resulting in differential DNA fragment profile. The RFLP markers are relatively highly polymorphic, codominantly inherited, highly replicable and allow the simultaneously screening of numerous samples. DNA blots can be analyzed repeatedly by stripping and reprobing (usually eight to ten times) with different RFLP probes. Nevertheless, this technique is not very widely used as it is time-consuming, involves expensive and radioactive/toxic reagents and requires large quantities of high quality genomic DNA. Moreover, the prerequisite of prior sequence information for probe construction contributes to the complexity of the methodology. These limitations led to the development of a new set of less technically complex methods known as PCR-based techniques. The disadvantage of being relatively expensive, time consuming and require high levels of expertise and materials in analysis. Given below is an overview of the different types of markers used for assessing genetic diversity (adapted from Spooner et al. [8]). sciences. These techniques are well established and their advantages and limitations have been documented. Molecular Markers Molecular markers work by highlighting differences (polymorphisms) within a nucleic sequence between different individuals. These differences include insertions, deletions, translocations, duplications and point mutations. They do not, however, encompass the activity of specific genes. In addition to being relatively impervious to environmental factor, molecular markers have the advantage of: (i) being applicable to any part of the genome (introns, exons and regulation regions); (ii) not possessing pleiotrophic or epistatic effects; (iii) being able to distinguish polymorphisms which not produce phenotypic variation and finally, (iv) being some of them co-dominant. The different techniques employed are based either on restriction-hybridization of nucleic acids or techniques based on Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR), or both (see Table 1 for a list of the main molecular analysis techniques). In addition, the different techniques can assess either multi-locus or single-locus markers. Multi-locus markers allow simultaneous Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 191 analyses of several genomic loci, which are based on the amplification of casual chromosomic traits through oligonucleic primers with arbitrary sequences. These types of markers are also defined as dominant since it is possible to observe the presence or the absence of a band for any locus, but it is not possible to distinguish between heterozygote (a/-) conditions and homozygote for the same allele (a/a). By contrast, single-locus markers employ probes or primers specific to genomic loci, and are able to hybridize or amplify chromosome traits with well-known sequences. They are defined as co-dominant since they allow discrimination between homozygote and heterozygote loci. Basic marker techniques can be classified into two categories: (1) non-PCR-based techniques or hybridization based techniques; and (2) PCR-based techniques. See Table for a comparison of the most commonly used markers AFLP Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism AP-PCR Arbitrarily primed PCR ARMS Amplification Refractory Mutation System ASAP Arbitrary Signatures from Amplification ASH Allele-Specific Hybridization ASLP Amplified Sequence Length Polymorphism ASO Allele Specific Oligonucleotide CAPS Cleaved Amplification Polymorphic Sequence CAS Coupled Amplification and Sequencing DAF DNA Amplification Fingerprint DGGE Denaturing Gradient Gel Electrophoresis GBA Genetic Bit Analysis IRAO Inter-Retrotrasposon Amplified Polymorphism ISSR Inter-Simple Sequence Repeats ISTR Inverse Sequence-Tagged Repeats MP- PCR Microsatellite-Primed PCR OLA Oligonucleotide Ligation Assay RAHM Randomly Amplified Hybridizing Microsatellites RAMPs Randomly Amplified Microsatellite Polymorphisms RAPD Randomly Amplified Polymorphic DNA RBIP Retrotrasposon-Based Insertion Polymorphism REF Restriction Endonuclease Fingerprinting 192 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture REMAP Retrotrasposon-Microsatellite Amplified Polymorphism RFLP Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism SAMPL Selective Amplification of Polymorphic Loci SCAR Sequence Characterised Amplification Regions SNP Single Nucleotide Polymorphism SPAR Single Primer Amplification Reaction SPLAT Single Polymorphic Amplification Test S-SAP Sequence-Specific Amplification Polymorphisms SSCP Single Strand Conformation Polymorphism SSLP Single Sequence Length Polymorphism SSR Simple Sequence Repeats STMS Sequence-Tagged Microsatellite Site STS Sequence-Tagged-Site TGGE Thermal Gradient Gel Electrophoresis VNTR Variable Number Tandem Repeats RAMS Randomly Amplified Microsatellites Non-PCR-Based Techniques Restriction-Hybridization Techniques Molecular markers based on restriction-hybridization techniques were employed relatively early in the field of plant studies and combined the use of restriction endonucleases and the hybridization method [14]. Restriction endonucleases are bacterial enzymes able to cut DNA, identifying specific palindrome sequences and producing polynucleotidic fragments with variable dimensions. Any changes within sequences (i.e., point mutations), mutations between two sites (i.e., deletions and translocations), or mutations within the enzyme site, can generate variations in the length of restriction fragment obtained after enzymatic digestion. RFLP and Variable Numbers of Tandem Repeats (VNTRs) markers are examples of molecular markers based on restriction-hybridization techniques. In RFLP, DNA polymorphism is detected by hybridizing a chemically-labelled DNA probe to a Southern blot of DNA digested by restriction endonucleases, resulting in differential DNA fragment profile. The RFLP markers are relatively highly polymorphic, codominantly inherited, highly replicable and allow the simultaneously screening of numerous samples. DNA blots can Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 193 be analyzed repeatedly by stripping and reprobing (usually eight to ten times) with different RFLP probes. Nevertheless, this technique is not very widely used as it is time-consuming, involves expensive and radioactive/toxic reagents and requires large quantities of high quality genomic DNA. Moreover, the prerequisite of prior sequence information for probe construction contributes to the complexity of the methodology. These limitations led to the development of a new set of less technically complex methods known as PCR-based techniques. Markers Based on Amplification Techniques (PCR-Derived) The use of this kind of marker has been exponential, following the development by Mullis et al. [15] of the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR). This technique consists in the amplification of several discrete DNA products, deriving from regions of DNA which are flanked by regions of high homology with the primers. These regions must be close enough to one another to permit the elongation phase. The use of random primers overcame the limitation of prior sequence knowledge for PCR analysis and being applicable to all organisms, facilitated the development of genetic markers for a variety of purposes. PCR-based techniques can further be subdivided into two subcategories: (1) arbitrarily primed PCR-based techniques or sequence non-specific techniques; and, (2) sequence targeted PCR-based techniques. Based on this, two different types of molecular markers have been developed: RAPD and AFLP. Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) RAPDs were the first PCR-based molecular markers to be employed in genetic variation analyses [16,17]. RAPD markers are generated through the random amplification of genomic DNA using short primers (decamers), separation of the obtained fragments on agarose gel in the presence of ethidium bromide and finally, visualization under ultraviolet light. The use of short primers is necessary to increase the probability that, although the sequences are random, they are able to find homologous sequences suitable for annealing. DNA polymorphisms are then produced by “rearrangements or deletions at or between oligonucleotide primer binding sites in the genome” [17]. As this approach requires no prior knowledge of the genome analyzed, it can be employed across species using universal primers. The major drawback of this method is that the profiling is dependent on reaction conditions which can vary between laboratories; even a 194 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture difference of a degree in temperature is sufficient to produce different patterns. Additionally, as several discrete loci are amplified by each primer, profiles are not able to distinguish heterozygous from homozygous individuals [18]. Arbitrarily Primed Polymerase Chain Reaction (AP-PCR) and DNA Amplification Fingerprinting (DAF) are independently developed methodologies, which are variants of RAPD. For AP-PCR [16], a single primer, 10–15 nucleotides long, is used and involves amplification for initial two PCR cycles at low stringency. Thereafter, the remaining cycles are carried out at higher stringency by increasing the annealing temperatures. Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP) To overcome the limitation of reproducibility associated with RAPD, AFLP technology was developed by the Dutch company, Keygene [19,20]. This method is based on the combination of the main analysis techniques: digestion of DNA through restriction endonuclease enzymes and PCR technology. It can be considered an intermediate between RFLPs and RAPDs methodologies as it combines the power of RFLP with the flexibility of PCR-based technology. The primer pairs used for AFLP usually produce 50–100 bands per assay. The number of amplicons per AFLP assay is a function of the number selective nucleotides in the AFLP primer combination, the selective nucleotide motif, GC content, and physical genome size and complexity. AFLP generates fingerprints of any DNA regardless of its source, and without any prior knowledge of DNA sequence. Most AFLP fragments correspond to unique positions on the genome and hence can be exploited as landmarks in genetic and physical mapping. The technique can be used to distinguish closely related individuals at the sub-species level [21] and can also map genes The origins of AFLP polymorphisms are multiple and can be due to: (i) mutations of the restriction site which create or delete a restriction site; (ii) mutations of sequences flanking the restriction site, and complementary to the extension of the selective primers, enabling possible primer annealing; (iii) insertions, duplications or deletions inside amplification fragments. These mutations can cause the appearance/disappearance of a fragment or the modification (increase or decrease) of an amplified-restricted fragment. Sequence Specific PCR Based Markers A different approach to arbitrary PCR amplification consists in the Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 195 amplification of target regions of a genome through specific primers. With the advent of high-throughput sequencing technology, abundant information on DNA sequences for the genomes of many plant species has been generated [22-24]. Expressed Sequence Tags (EST) of many crop species have been generated and thousands of sequences have been annotated as putative functional genes using powerful bioinformatics tools. ESTs are single-read sequences produced from partial sequencing of a bulk mRNA pool that has been reverse transcribed into cDNA. EST libraries provide a snapshot of the genes expressed in the tissue at the time of, and under the conditions in which, they were sampled [25]. Despite these advantages, however, EST-SSRs are not without their drawbacks. One of the concerns with SSRs in general is the possibility of null alleles, which fail to amplify due to primer site variation, do not produce a visible amplicon. Because the cDNA from which ESTs are derived lack introns, another concern is that unrecognized intron splice sites could disrupt priming sites, resulting in failed amplification. Lastly, as EST-SSRs are located within genes, and thus more conserved across species, they may be less polymorphic than anonymous SSRs. Although the use of EST possesses these limitations, several features of EST sequence libraries make them a valuable resource for conservation and evolutionary genetics. ESTs are an inexpensive source for identifying gene-linked markers with higher levels of polymorphism, which can also be applied to closely related species in many cases [26-28]. EST libraries are also a good starting point for developing tools to study gene expression such as microarrays or quantitative PCR assays [22]. Microsatellite-Based Marker Technique Microsatellites or Simple Sequence Repeats (SSR) are sets repeated sequences found within eukaryotic genomes [29-31]. These consist of sequences of repetitions, comprising basic short motifs generally between 2 and 6 base-pairs long. Polymorphisms associated with a specific locus are due to the variation in length of the microsatellite, which in turn depends on the number of repetitions of the basic motif. Variations in the number of tandemly repeated units are mainly due to strand slippage during DNA replication where the repeats allow matching via excision or addition of repeats [32]. As slippage in replication is more likely than point mutations, microsatellite loci tend to be hypervariable. Microsatellite assays show extensive inter-individual length polymorphisms during PCR analysis of unique loci using discriminatory primers sets. 196 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture Microsatellites are highly popular genetic markers as they possess: co-dominant inheritance, high abundance, enormous extent of allelic diversity, ease of assessing SSR size variation through PCR with pairs of flanking primers and high reproducibility. However, the development of microsatellites requires extensive knowledge of DNA sequences, and sometimes they underestimate genetic structure measurements, hence they have been developed primarily for agricultural species, rather than wild species. Initial approaches were principally based on hybridization techniques, whilst more recent techniques are based on PCR [33]. Major molecular markers based on assessment of variability generated by microsatellites sequences are: STMSs (Sequence Tagged Microsatellite Site), SSLPs (Simple Sequence Length Polymorphism), SNPs (Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms), SCARs (Sequence Characterized Amplified Region) and CAPS (Cleaved Amplified Polymorphic Sequences). Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs) Single nucleotide variations in genome sequence of individuals of a population are known as SNPs. SNPs are the most abundant molecular markers in the genome. They are widely dispersed throughout genomes with a variable distribution among species. The SNPs are usually more prevalent in the non-coding regions of the genome. Within the coding regions, when an SNP is present, it can generate either non-synonymous mutations that result in an amino acid sequence change [34], or synonymous mutations that not alter the amino acid sequence. Synonymous changes can, however, modify mRNA splicing, resulting in phenotypic differences [35]. Improvements in sequencing technology and an increase in the availability of the increasing number of EST sequences have made analysis of genetic variation possible directly at the DNA level. The majority of SNP genotyping analyses are based on: allele-specific hybridization, oligonucleotide ligation, primer extension or invasive cleavage [36]. Genotyping methods, including DNA chips, allele-specific PCR and primer extension approaches based on SNPs, are particularly attractive for their high data throughput and for their suitability for automation. They are used for a wide range of purposes, including rapid identification of crop cultivars and construction of ultra high- density genetic maps. Markers Based on Other DNA than Genomic DNA There are also other highly informative approaches used to study genetic variation based on organelle microsatellite sequences detection; in Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 197 fact, due to their uniparental mode of transmission, chloroplast (cpDNA) and mitochondrial genomes (mtDNA) exhibit different patterns of genetic differentiation compared to nuclear alleles [37,38]. Consequently, in addition to nuclear microsatellites, marker techniques based on chloroplast and mitochondrial microsatellites have also been developed. The cpDNA, maternally inherited in most plants, has proved to be a powerful tool for phylogenetic studies. Due to increasing numbers of recent examples of intraspecific variation observed in cpDNA, there is additional potential for within-species genetic variation analysis [39,40]. CpDNA has been preserved well within the genome, and consequently has been employed widely for studying plant populations through the use of PCR-RFLP and PCR sequencing approaches [40]. They are also employed in the detection of hybridization/introgression [41], in the analysis of genetic diversity [42] and in obtaining the phylogeography of plant populations [43,44]. Transposable Elements-Based Molecular Markers Although transposon insertions can have deleterious effects on host genomes, transposons are considered important for adaptative evolution, and can be instrumental in acquiring novel traits [45-49]. Retrotransposons have so far received little attention in the assessment of genetic diversity, despite of their contribution to the genome structure, size, and variation [50]. Additionally, their dispersion [51,52], ubiquity [53,54] and prevalence in plant genomes provide an excellent basis for the development of a set of marker systems, to be used alone or in combination with other markers, such as AFLPs and SSRs. Retrotransposon-based molecular analysis relies on amplification using a primer corresponding to the retrotransposon and a primer matching a section of the neighbouring genome. To this type of class of molecular markers belong: Sequence-Specific Amplified Polymorphism (S-SAP), Inter-Retrotransposon Amplified Polymorphism (IRAP), Retrotransposon-Microsatellite Amplified Polymorphism (REMAP), Retrotransposon-Based Amplified Polymorphism (RBIP) and finally, Transposable Display (TD). RNA-Based Molecular Markers Studies of mechanisms which control genetic expression are essential to better understand biological responses and developmental programming in organisms. PCR-based marker techniques such as cDNA- SSCP, cDNA-AFLP and RAP-PCR are used for differential RNA studies, using selective amplification of cDNA. 198 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture Real-Time PCR Real-time polymerase chain reaction is a laboratory technique based on the polymerase chain reaction, amplifying and simultaneously quantifying a targeted DNA molecule [55].The procedure follows the general principle of polymerase chain reaction; its key feature is that the amplified DNA is quantified as it accumulates in the reaction in real time after each amplification cycle. Two common methods of quantification are: (i) the use of fluorescent dyes that intercalate with double-stranded DNA, and (ii) modified DNA oligonucleotide probes that fluoresce when hybridized with a complementary DNA. The major advantage of this technique consists in its sensitivity and speed due to the system of detection (spectrophotometric respect to ethidium bromide) and the quick changes of temperature. Real- time PCR is, therefore, particularly suitable for molecular markers based on PCR amplifications. In fact, the number of conservation and phylogenetic studies are now increasingly using real-time PCR for assessment of genetic variation [56]. Diversity Arrays Technology (DArT) DArT is a generic and cost-effective genotyping technology. It was developed to overcome some of the limitations of other molecular marker technologies such as RFLP, AFLP and SSR [57]. DArT is an alternative method to time-consuming hybridisation-based techniques, typing simultaneously several thousand loci in a single assay. DArT is particularly suitable for genotyping polyploid species with large genomes, such as wheat. This technology generates whole-genome fingerprints by scoring the presence/absence of DNA fragments in genomic representations generated from samples of genomic DNA. DArT technology consists of several steps: (i) complexity reduction of DNA; (ii) library creation; (iii) the microarray of libraries onto glass slides; (iv) hybridisation of fluoro-labelled DNA onto slides; (v) scanning of slides for hybridisation signal and (vi) data extraction and analysis. The microarray platform makes the discovery process efficient because all markers on a particular DArT array are scored simultaneously. For each complexity reduction method, an independent collection of DArT markers can be assembled on a separate DArT array. The number of markers for a given species, therefore, is only dependent on: (i) the level of genetic variation within the species (or gene pool); and (ii) the number of complexity reduction methods screened. Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 199 New Generation of Sequencing Technology The recent development “high throughput sequencing” technologies make DNA sequencing particularly important to conservation biology. These technologies have the potential to remove one of the major impediments to implementing genomic approaches in non-model organisms, including many of conservation relevance, i.e, the lack of extensive genomic sequence information. Conclusions Molecular markers represent a class of molecular tools that are particularly sensitive to new genome-based discoveries and technical advancements and are, therefore, subject to continuous evolution. Most molecular marker techniques are employed in the evaluation of genetic diversity and construct ruction of genetic and physical maps. Physical mapping of linked markers helps in relating genetic distances to physical distances. Correlating patterns of inheritance in a meiotic-mapping population to those of individually-mapped genetic markers has led to construction of genetic linkage maps by locating many monogenic and polygenic traits within specific regions of the plant genome. Greater and greater amounts of sequence data, genomic and cDNA libraries, and isolated chromosomes will be increasingly available with time. This information and material will be of major importance in the future due to the present rate of extinction and diversity reduction. For example, they could be used to draw genes coding for potentially useful traits. Data obtained through PCR analysis of DNA fragments from ancient DNA samples have shown evolutionary changes within the genepool over long time periods. The information available is now also key in devising suitable conservation strategies. It is highly unlikely, however, that these data and molecular sample collections can replace the germplasm conservation of whole organisms. Most agronomically important characters are coded by polygenes, and it would be virtually impossible, with our current knowledge state, to reconstitute all the implied gene blocks with their regulatory elements. Molecular markers are used also to assess plant response to climate change, which is a major issue at a global level. Changes, such as rapid warming, have been seen to cause a decrease in the variability of those loci controlling physical responses to climate [63]. Jump and Peñuelas [63] conducted a review of climatic factors correlated with microgeographical genetic differences, and the various molecular markers used for each study. They concluded that although 200 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture phenotypic plasticity buffers against environmental changes over a plant’s life cycle, it will weaken over time as climatic event become more extreme and over longer time spans. 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(2009), 1162, 357-368. · Provan, J.; Russell, J.R.; Booth, A.; Powell, W. Polymorphic chloroplast simple- sequence repeat primers for systematic and population studies in the genus Hordeum. Mol. Ecol. (1999), 8, 505-511. · Provan, J.; Soranzo, N.; Wilson, N.J.; Goldstein, D.B.; Powell, W.A. Low mutation rate for chloroplast microsatellites. Genetics (1999), 153, 943-947. · Reed, D.H.; Frankham, R. Correlation between fitness and genetic diversity. Cons. Biol. (2003), 17, 230-237. · Richard, I.; Beckman, J.S. How neutral are synonymous codon mutations? Nat. Genet. 1995, 10, 259. · Shaw, J.; Lickey, E.B.; Beck, J.T.; Farmer, S.B.; Liu, W.; Miller, J.; Siripun, K.C.; Winder, C.T.; Schilling, E.E.; Small, R. The tortoise and Hare II: relative utility of 21 noncoding chloroplast DNA sequences for phylogenetic analysis. Am. J. Bot. (2005), 92, 142-166. · Sobrino, B.; Briona, M.; Carracedoa, A. SNPs in forensic genetics: a review on SNP typing methodologies. Forensic Sci. Int. (2005), 154, 181-194. · Southern, E. Detection of specific sequences among DNA fragments separated by gel-electrophoresis. J. Mol. Biol. (1975), 98, 503. · Spooner, D.; van Treuren, R.; de Vicente, M.C. Molecular Markers for Genebank Management. Bioversity International: Rome, Italy, (2005). Guarino, L. Approaches to Measuring Genetic · Sunyaev, S.; Hanke, J.; Aydin, A.; Wirkner, U.; Zastrow, I.; Reich, J.; Bork, P. Prediction of nonsynonymous single nucleotide polymorphisms in human disease- associated genes. J. Mol. Med. (1999), 77, 754-760. · Suoniemi, A.; Anamthawat-Jonsson, K.; Arna, T.; Schulman, A. Retrotransposon BARE-1 is a major, dispersed component of the barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) genome. Plant. Mol. Biol. (1996), 30, 1321-1329. · Volis, S.; Mendlinger, S.; Turuspekov ,Y.; Esnazarov, U.; Abugalieva, S.; Orlovsky, N. Allozyme variation in Turkmenistan populations of wild barley Hordeum Spontaneum. Koch. Annals. Botany (2001), 87, 435-446. Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 203 · Vos, P.; Hogers, R.; Bleeker, M.; Reijans, M.; van de Lee, T.; Hornes, M.; Frijters, A.; Pot, J.; Peleman, J.; Kuiper, M.; Zabeau, M. AFLP: a new technique for DNA fingerprinting. Nucleic Acids Res. 1995, 23, 4407-4414. · Voytas, D.F.; Cummings, M.P.; Konieczny, A.; Ausubel, F.M.; Roderme, S.R. Copia- like retrotransposons are ubiquitous among plants. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1992, 89, 7124-7128. · Welsh, J.; McClelland, M. Fingerprinting genomes using PCR with arbitrary primers. Nucleic Acids Res. (1990), 18, 7213-7218. · Williams. J.G.K.; Kubelik, A.R.; Livak, K.J.; Rafalski, J.A.; Tingey, S.V. DNA polymorphisms amplified by arbitrary primers are useful as genetic markers. Nucleic Acids Res. (199), 18, 6531-6535. · Zabeau, M.; Vos, P. Selective Restriction Fragment Amplification:a General Method for DNA Fingerprinting. European Patent EP0534858, September 24, 1992. 204 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture Wind Energy A Source of Clean Energy: Future in India

Manika Barar and Kaviraj Asstt. Prof., SIMT College, U.P Agriculture Deptt. Introduction Wind Energy Basics Wind is caused by the uneven heating of the atmosphere by the sun, variations in the earth’s surface, and rotation of the earth. Mountains, bodies of water, and vegetation all influence wind flow patterns[2], [3]. Wind turbines convert the energy in wind to electricity by rotating propeller-like blades around a rotor. The rotor turns the drive shaft, which turns an electric generator. Three key factors affect the amount of energy a turbine can harness from the wind: wind speed, air density, and swept area.[4] Table 1. List of Top windpower electricity producing countries in 2012 Country Windpower % of World Total Production United States 140.9 26.4 China 118.1 22.1 Spain 49.1 9.2 Germany 46.0 8.6 India 30.0 5.6 United Kingdom 19.6 3.7 France 14.9 2.8 Italy 13.4 2.5 Canada 11.8 2.2 Denmark 10.3 1.9 (rest of world) 80.2 15.0 World Total 534.3 TWh 100% Source:Observ’ER – Electricity Production From Wind Sources [2012] [60] Equation for Wind Power

·Wind speed The amount of energy in the wind varies with the cube of the wind Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 205 speed, in other words, if the wind speed doubles, there is eight times more energy in the wind ( ). Small changes in wind speed have a large impact on the amount of power available in the wind [5]. ·Density of the air The more dense the air, the more energy received by the turbine. Air density varies with elevation and temperature. Air is less dense at higher elevations than at sea level, and warm air is less dense than cold air. All else being equal, turbines will produce more power at lower elevations and in locations with cooler average temperatures[5]. · Swept area of the turbine The larger the swept area (the size of the area through which the rotor spins), the more power the turbine can capture from the wind. Since swept area is , where r = radius of the rotor, a small increase in blade length results in a larger increase in the power available to the turbine[5]. Advantages of wind energy - Clean Source: The production of wind energy is “clean”. Unlike using coal or oil, creating energy from the wind doesn’t pollute the air or require any destructive chemicals. As a result, wind energy lessens our reliance on fossil fuels from outside nations as well, which helps our national economy and offers a variety of other benefits as well. Renewable: Wind is free. In the event that you live in a geological area that gets a lot of wind, it is ready and waiting. As a renewable asset, wind can never be drained like other regular, non-renewable assets. The expense of delivering wind energy has dropped fundamentally lately, and as it becomes more popular with the general population, it will just continue to be cheaper. You will recover the expense of obtaining and introducing your wind turbine over time.[9] Winds are caused by rotation of the earth, heating of the atmosphere by sun, and earth’s surface irregularities. We can harness wind energy and use it to generate power as long as sun shines and wind blows. Cost Effective: Wind turbines can give energy to numerous homes. You don’t actually have to possess a wind turbine keeping in mind the end goal to harvest the profits; you can buy your power from a service organization that offers wind energy for a specific area. That means, you don’t even necessarily have to invest any cash in order to reap the benefits of wind 206 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture energy for your home or business.[8] Extra Savings for Land Owners: Land holders who rent area to wind homesteads can make a considerable amount of additional cash, and wind energy likewise makes new employments in this developing engineering field. Government organizations will also pay you if they can install wind turbines on your land. Also, in some cases, the electric company may wind up owing you. If you produce more power than you require from wind power, it may go into the general electric matrix, which in turn will make you some extra cash. A win all around![7] Use of Modern Technology: Wind turbines are considered by some to be incredibly attractive. The newest models don’t look like the clunky, rustic windmills of old. Instead, they are white, slick, and modern looking. That way, you don’t have to worry about them becoming an eyesore on your land. Rapid Growth and Huge Potential: Wind energy has seen enormous growth in last decade. According to U.S. department of energy, cumulative wind power capacity increased by an average of 30% per year. Wind energy accounts for about 2.5% of the total worldwide electricity production. Wind turbines are available in various sizes which means vast range of people and businesses can take advantage of it to produce power for their own use or sell it to utility to reap some profits.[10] Can be Built on Existing Farms: Wind turbines can be installed on existing farms or agricultural land in rural areas where it can be a source of earning for the farmers as wind plant owners make payment to farmers for use of their land for electricity generation. It doesn’t occupy much space and farmers can continue to work on the land. Disadvantage of Wind energy Wind Reliability Wind doesn’t generally blow reliably, and turbines usually function at about 30% capacity or so. In the event that the weather is not going to support you, you may wind up without power (or at any rate you’ll need to depend on the electric company to take care of you during those times). Serious storms or high winds may cause harm to your wind turbine, particularly when they are struck by lightning. Threat to Wildlife The edges of wind turbines can actually be unsafe to natural life, Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 207 especially birds and other flying creatures that may be in the area. There isn’t really a way to prevent this, but it’s definitely something that you want to make sure that you are aware of be possible consequences that may come up as a result of it.[11] Noise and Visual Pollution Wind turbines can be a total and complete pain to install and deal with on a regular basis. Wind turbines make a sound that can be between 50 and 60 decibels, and if you have to put it next to your home. Some individuals believe that wind turbines are ugly, so your neighbors may also complain about them. While most people like how wind turbines look, few people like them but with NIMBY(“not in my backyard”) attitude, but for the rest, wind turbines remain unattractive as they have concern that it may tarnish the beauty of landscapes. Expensive to Set Up Wind turbines and other supplies needed to make wind energy could be extremely costly in advance, and relying upon where you live, it might be hard to find someone to sell them to you and somebody who can maintain it over time.[11] Safety of People Severe storms and high winds can cause damage to the blades of wind turbine. The malfunctioned blade can be a safety hazard to the people working nearby. It may fall on them causing life term physical disability or death in certain cases. Suitable to Certain Locations Wind energy can only be harnessed at certain locations where speed of wind is high. Since they are mostly setup in remote areas, transmission lines have to be built to bring the power to the residential homes in the city which requires extra investment to set up the infrastructure.[6] Effect on Environment It obliges a ton of open area to set up wind turbines, and chopping down trees kind of eliminates the whole green thing that you’re trying to do with them. Places that may be good for it may be difficult to get to and use. Consistence with city codes and mandates may be irksome when you are attempting to install a wind turbine. Sometimes, height confinements may keep you from installing one on your property as well.[7] 208 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture Wind energy in India The Indian wind energy sector has an installed capacity of 23,439.26 MW (as on March 31, 2015). In terms of wind power installed capacity, India is ranked 5th in the World. Today India is a major player in the global wind energy market.[13] The potential is far from exhausted. Indian Wind Energy Association has estimated that with the current level of technology, the ‘on-shore’ potential for utilization of wind energy for electricity generation is of the order of 102 GW. The unexploited resource availability has the potential to sustain the growth of wind energy sector in India in the years to come. Conclusion Wind energy, with an average growth rate of 30%, is the fastest growing source of renewable energy in the world. India occupies the fifth place in the world in wind energygeneration after USA, Germany, Spain, and China and has an installed capacity of more than 9756 MW as of January 31, 2009. New technological developments in wind energy design have contributed to the significant advances in wind energy penetration and to get optimum power from available wind. References · Abbess, Jo (28 August (2009)). “Wind Energy Variability and Intermittency in the UK”. Claverton-energy.com. Archived from the original on 25 August 2011. · Fthenakis, V.; Kim, H. C. ((2009)). “Land use and electricity generation: A life- cycle analysis”. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 13 (6–7): 1465. doi:10.1016/j.rser.(2008).09.017. · Gasch, Robert and Twele, Jochen (ed.) (2013) Windkraftanlagen. Grundlagen, Entwurf, Planung und Betrieb. Springer, Wiesbaden 2013, p. 569 (German). · Gipe, Paul ((1993)). “The Wind Industry’s Experience with Aesthetic Criticism”. Leonardo. 26 (3): 243–248. doi:10.2307/1575818. JSTOR 1575818. · “GWEC, Global Wind Report Annual Market Update 2011” (PDF). Gwec.net. Retrieved 14 May 2011 · Holttinen, Hannele; et al. (September (2006)). “Design and Operation of Power Systems with Large Amounts of Wind Power” (PDF). IEA Wind Summary Paper, Global Wind Power Conference 18–21 September (2006), Adelaide, Australia. · Huang, Junling; Lu, Xi; McElroy, Michael B. (2014). “Meteorologically defined limits to reduction in the variability of outputs from a coupled wind farm system in the Central US” (PDF). Renewable Energy. 62: 331–340. doi:10.1016/ j.renene.2013.07.022. Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 209 · “Impact of Wind Power Generation in Ireland on the Operation of Conventional Plant and the Economic Implications”. eirgrid.com. February 2004. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 August 2011. Retrieved 22 November 2010. · Nicola Armaroli, Vincenzo Balzani, Towards an electricity-powered world. In: Energy and Environmental Science 4, (2011), 3193–3222, p. 3217, doi:10.1039/ c1ee01249e. · Platt, Reg (21 January 2013) Wind power delivers too much to ignore, New Scientist. · Platt, Reg; Fitch-Roy, Oscar and Gardner, Paul (August 2012) Beyond the Bluster why Wind Power is an Effective Technology. Institute for Public Policy Research. · Walwyn, David Richard; Brent, Alan Colin (2015). “Renewable energy gathers steam in South Africa”. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 41: 390. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2014.08.049. · “Wind power is cheapest energy, EU analysis finds”. the guardian. Retrieved 15 October 2014. 210 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture Soil Erosion, Soil and Water Conversation

Archana Sharma Deptt. of Home Science, R.G. P.G.College, Meerut Introduction When the Federal Homestead Act passed Congress in 1862, and, later, when American Indians, early whites (legal and illegal), and African Americans (legal and illegal) occupied Indian Territory, Oklahoma had fertile and productive soils that supported lush native grasslands and forests. Land was abundant and labor scarce. Many farmers plowed their land up and down hills, left the soils bare after harvest, and did not replenish the depleted nutrients. Much of the soil soon washed away as gullies developed. Consisting of small terraces that easily broke after rain, early conservation efforts were piecemeal, uncoordinated, and localized. Over 15 percent of the land had been taken out of production by the 1930s when the first soil surveys revealed that more than six million acres of land in Oklahoma had erosion problems. From Washington, D.C., at the U.S. Department of Agriculture Bureau of Soils, Hugh Hammond Bennett, soil scientist and father of soil conservation, challenged agricultural practices that contributed to soil degradation. In 1929, when erosion was shown to be a national problem, Congress appropriated $160,000 to initiate a nationwide effort to arrest it. Ten regional soil conservation experiment stations were established to measure soil loss, conduct surveys to determine the extent of erosion damage, and develop control methods. The Red Plains Research Station in Guthrie was the first experiment and demonstration station in Oklahoma. N. E. Winters, the first director, established other demonstrations on Stillwater Creek (Stillwater), Pecan Creek (Muskogee), Elk Creek (Elk City), Camp Creek (Seiling), Tulip and Henry creeks (Ardmore), Little Washita Creek (Chickasha), Taloga Creek (Stigler), Coon Creek (Duncan), Guymon Creek (Guymon), and Pryor Creek (Pryor). Successful lessons were transferred to privately owned land in the state and the nation. The National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933 authorized $5 million for erosion control and employment programs. On September 19, 1933, Bennett became the director of the new Soil Erosion Service (SES) in the Department of the Interior. On March 25, 1935, the SES was transferred to Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 211 the Department of Agriculture, and through the Soil Conservation Act of April 27, 1935 (Public Law 75-46), reorganized into the Soil Conservation Service (SCS, now called the Natural Resource Conservation Service, or NRCS). The mission of the SCS was to control and prevent soil erosion, flooding, and other threats to natural resources. Bennett became the first chief. Abused land, a prolonged drought, overgrazing, and little use of cultural, structural, and vegetative conservation practices produced barren rangelands that were highly susceptible to wind and water erosion in the 1930s. Dust storms captured national attention. The term “Dust Bowl” was coined to describe the conditions of the land in Oklahoma, Kansas, Colorado, New Mexico, and Texas. Many farmers migrated elsewhere. The rest of the nation took the dust storms seriously on May 11, 1934, and April 14, 1935, when they reached the eastern seaboard. In March 1933 Congressional legislation established the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) to provide employment for young men and veterans of World War I and help people cope with the Great Depression. Dr. N. E. Winters directed over 1,100 workers in thirty-seven Oklahoma communities, including Ardmore, Beaver, Checotah, Gasker, Idabel, Mountain View, Nowata, Sayre, and Wilburton. CCC workers freely developed conservation practices on farms. By means of the Standard State Soil Conservation Districts Act of February 1937, states were strongly encouraged to legislate mandatory soil conservation in order to qualify for SCS benefits. Oklahoma passed such a law in April of that year. Thus, Soil Conservation Districts were created, and SCS specialists worked through the districts. In 1936 the Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act established the Agricultural Conservation Program (ACP). The Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service (ASCS) and the SCS administered the first cost-sharing “green” program designed to encourage farmers to restore and improve soil fertility, minimize wind and water erosion, and conserve resources and wildlife. Floods, another means of soil loss, led to the destruction of crops, productive land, fences, livestock, homes, and human lives. Interest in flood control began in spring 1934 when the Washita River flooded, killing seventeen people. On June 22, 1936, Congress passed the Omnibus Flood Control Act 212 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture (PL 74-738), to protect watersheds, prevent floods, and complement the downstream flood control program. Farmers signed five-year agreements to install grassed outlets and grassed waterways, to vegetate gully areas, to build grade stabilization structures and contour terraces, to practice pasture management, strip-cropping under longer rotation, and reforestation, to grow hay crops into crop rotations, and to fence off woodland from grazing.The construction of small dam structures on eleven watersheds around the nation started with the Flood Control Act of 1944 (PL 78-534). The first flood control dam to be completed in the nation under that federal legislation was on Cloud Creek, a tributary of the Washita. With more than five million acres of agricultural land, the Washita River Watershed is the world’s largest contiguous land area treated with conservation practices. By 1977 the Washita and its sixty-four subwatersheds had over 1,200 dams. Oklahoma was the first state to develop a watershed flood control dam, have an entire watershed project completed (the Sandstone Creek Watershed), develop a multipurpose flood control structure (Lake Humphrey), complete 1,500 upstream flood control dams, and complete 1,776 watershed structures. The Watershed Protection and Flood Prevention Act of 1954 (PL 83-566), or the Small Watershed Program, was passed to protect rural communities and small towns, provide recreation and water supply for municipalities and rural districts, and provide irrigation and drainage in upstream tributary watersheds of less than 250,000 acres. In 1963 the 120,980-acre Bear, Fall, and Coon creeks project in Lincoln, Logan, and Oklahoma counties was completed. By 1998, 1,604 projects had been authorized around the nation under the 1954 act. Although the government required matching funds, it was possible to have the SCS pay 100 percent of the costs. Local people initiated the projects, SCS provided the funds, and the districts maintained the structures. Following the 1954 floods the state charged a one-cent-per-gallon gasoline tax to pay for the repairs to bridges. At the end of the twentieth century Oklahoma had 2,094 small watershed structures, and more than $172 million had been spent on watershed development. During the fiftieth anniversary celebration for Cloud Creek, calls were made to reinvest in the watershed program. Present were U.S. Rep. Frank Lucas, Gov. Frank Keating, and NRCS chief Pearlie Reed. Later, in 2000 Lucas authored the Small Watershed Rehabilitation Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 213 Amendments Act, which authorized $90 million over five years in cost- share arrangements to rehabilitate watershed dams. On August 7, 1956, Congress established the Great Plains Conservation Program (GPCP) to develop conservation methods. Later adopted nationwide, these practices included strip-cropping, windbreaks, waterways, terraces, diversions, erosion control dams, grade stabilization structures, and water-spreading systems. Forty-three Oklahoma counties west of U.S. Highway 81 were in the GPCP. Farmers signed contracts to participate for up to ten years. Oklahoma had the largest number of active contracts among the GPCP states. More than $29 million was spent, more than 184,000 acres of grass planted, 3,700 wells drilled, 3,200 ponds built, 7,000 acres of waterways established, 52 million feet of terraces built, 1,475 erosion control dams built, and 15,000 acres leveled for irrigation. The GPCP stabilized American agriculture. Grain exports doubled when the grain price quadrupled between 1970 and 1974. Farmers removed wide windbreaks, established center-pivot irrigation systems and narrower windbreaks, and put large tracts of land into production. However, wind erosion increased, and the government was advised to stop payments to those who farmed fragile lands. By the 1980s and 1990s conservation efforts concentrated on retiring highly erodible lands (HEL), maintaining wetlands, conservation tillage, windbreaks, pasture and range management, wildlife enhancement, water quality, and small dams (creating more than 205,000 ponds). The NRCS (formerly the SCS), Farm Service Agency, Cooperative Extension Service, and conservation districts promoted the increased use of conservation tillage, windbreaks, rotational grazing, and prescribed burning. The Food Security Act of 1985 linked soil conservation to eligibility for USDA programs. To remain eligible, farmers signed contracts to implement conservation plans by 1995. HEL land was retired through the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP). Farmers received annual rent payments for the land they retired from production for ten years. Environmentalists wanted the program continued, but agribusiness wanted land reverted to production. The 1990 Farm Bill put more emphasis on water quality through the Wetland Reserve Program and the Water Quality Incentives Program. The 1996 Farm Bill combined the Great Plains Conservation Program, the Agricultural Conservation Program, the Water Quality Incentives Program, and the Colorado River Basin Salinity Program into the Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP). The EQIP program addressed conservation 214 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture issues in areas with significant natural resource problems. Top priority was given to areas with state or local government support through financial, technical, or educational assistance and in which agricultural improvements would help meet water quality objectives. Landowners and tenants were issued five- to ten-year contracts (payments) and cost-sharing incentives (up to 75 percent of the cost) to establish conservation practices such as manure management, pest management, and erosion control systems. Started in 1997, by March 2000 the program had 2,470 EQIP contracts with $12,108,106 obligated funds, and 25,411 conservation practices on 671,393 acres. Thus, at the dawn of the twenty-first century soil and water conservation remained a high priority in Oklahoma and elsewhere Drought Drought is a period during which precipitation is insufficient to meet the usual needs of a region. It is a natural part of the climate cycle that occurs at intervals of several months to several years. During summer, drought is often accompanied by heat waves. Drought’s long time scale and its potential to impact a large area make it the costliest weather-related hazard, capable of billions of dollars in damage in Oklahoma. Drought affects different socioeconomic sectors to varying degrees, depending on the timing, duration, and intensity of each event. Localized, short-term (one- to two- month) events are common in Oklahoma and tend to occur somewhere in the state during most years. These events can stress municipal water distribution systems and increase the danger of wildfire. Seasonal droughts can occur during any time of the year, and those that resonate with crop cycles can cause billions of dollars in agricultural losses in the state. Water supply is more sensitive to multiseason or multiyear events. During the twentieth century Oklahoma’s major multiyear and multiregional droughts occurred during the spans of 1909 to 1918, 1930 to 1940, 1952 to 1958, and, to a lesser extent, 1962 to 1972. The Great Plains drought of 1988 and 1989 was the costliest natural disaster in the history of the United States, causing about $40 billion dollars in direct agricultural damages. A 1998 summer drought (a four- to five-month event) caused about $2 billion dollars of damages (including multiplicative effects) in Oklahoma. Soil erosion is one form of soil degradation. The erosion of soil is a naturally occurring process on all land. The agents of soil erosion are water and wind, each contributing a significant amount of soil loss each year. Soil Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 215 erosion may be a slow process that continues relatively unnoticed, or it may occur at an alarming rate causing serious loss of topsoil. The loss of soil from farmland may be reflected in reduced crop production potential, lower surface water quality and damaged drainage networks. While erosion is a natural process, human activities have increased by 10-40 times the rate at which erosion is occurring globally. Excessive (or accelerated) erosion causes both “on-site” and “off-site” problems. On- site impacts include decreases in agricultural productivity and (on natural landscapes) ecological collapse, both because of loss of the nutrient-rich upper soil layers. In some cases, the eventual end result is desertification. Off-site effects include sedimentation of waterways and eutrophication of water bodies, as well as sediment-related damage to roads and houses. Water and wind erosion are the two primary causes of land degradation; combined, they are responsible for about 84% of the global extent of degraded land, making excessive erosion one of the most significant environmental problems world-wide Soil erosion can be conserved in several ways: · Planting wind breaks can be effective. A wind break is a line of plants that are planted to stop or slow the wind. A thick row of bushes planted next to a field of plants can stop the wind from blowing the soil away. This method also helps against water erosion, as the soil gets caught up against the roots of the bushes, rather than washing away. · Terraces are level places that have been made on hill sides. They are used for Terrace farming. · If the crops are growing on a slope, then one should plant them in lines that run across, the slope, rather than up and down. So, if the slope goes downhill to the south, then the plants should be in rows that run from east to west. · To prevent decomposition of the soil, the government can put up groynes (wooden planks) along the beaches, or they could build sea walls against the cliffs. 216 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture

The Contribution of Livestock in Sustainable Agricultural Systems

Om Prakash Deptt. of Animal Husbandry & Dairying, Amar Singh (P G) College, Lakhaoti, Bulandshahr (U.P.) INDIA Introduction Sustainable agriculture is an integrated system of plant and animal production which is done by using a specific application that will last over a long term for the next generation. There are 5 most important factors for the successful agricultural practices with optimum yield of the crops: sunlight, air, soil, nutrients, and water. Sunlight and air are still available everywhere on our planet, blue earth. Soil, nutrients, and the availability of water are getting scarcity and make us worried. Crop and livestock farming complement each other since in the beginning of the ancient human history. Based on the research of the pre-historic human life, it has been proven that there was a big leap on the evolution of the human intelligence after they consumed the meat and milk.Livestock production is a major component of the agricultural economy of developing countries and goes well beyond direct food production. Sales of livestock and their products provide direct cash income to farmers. Livestock are the living bank for many farmers and have a critical role in the agricultural intensification process through provision of draught power and manure for fertilizer and fuel. They are also closely linked to the social and cultural lives of millions of resource-poor farmers for whom animal ownership ensures varying degrees of sustainable farming and economic stability. Official statistics often underestimate the overall contribution of livestock and especially their multipurpose contributions to food and agricultural production in developing countries. An adequate quantity of balanced and nutritious food is a primary indicator of quality of life, human welfare and development. Animals are an important source of food, particularly of high quality protein, minerals, vitamins and micronutrients. The value of dietary animal protein is in excess of its proportion in diets because it contains essential amino acids that are deficient in cereals. Eating even a small amount of animal products corrects amino acid deficiencies in cereal-based human diets, permitting more of the total protein to be utilized because animal proteins are more digestible and Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 217 metabolized more efficiently than plant proteins (Winrock, 1992, De Boer et al, 1994). Livestock as suppliers of inputs and services for crop production 1. Livestock as a draught power Bovines, equines, camels and elephants are used in draught operations as diverse as pulling arable implements and carts, lifting water and skidding logs. The number of animals used for draught is estimated at 400 million. About 52 per cent of the cultivated area in developing countries (excluding China) is farmed using draught animals against 26 per cent with hand-tools. During the past ten years there has been a 23 per cent increase in the numbers of cattle and buffalo used for draught as well as meat and milk production. At the same time the number of equines used primarily for draught and transport has not significantly changed.It is expected that draught animal use will decline slightly by the year 2000 in all regions except Africa. In Latin America and the Near East, tractor use will increase slightly while use of human power will increase slightly in Asia (Alexandratos, 1988). In areas such as semiarid and sub-humid West Africa, where crop-livestock mixed farming is evolving and expanding, increased use of animal traction will help intensification and contribute to higher output and income (McIntire et al, 1992) and therefore to greater food security. In the 1960s and 1970s, rapid urban and coastal economic growth encouraged migration and increased the opportunity cost of using cattle for traction. In recent years, however, this cost has been decreasing due to coastal economic stagnation and it is likely that the situation is now more conducive to development of mixed farming and increased use of traction in the inland countries (Delgado, 1989). At farm level, draught animal ownership patterns have implications for food production and security. There are positive correlations between draught animals and cereal crop production (Gryseels, 1988; Omiti, 1995). In many developing countries ownership is skewed. Many small and marginal farmers own none or an inadequate number of traction animals (BBS, 1986; Gryseels, 1988; Asamenew, 1991). Crop production of these farmers suffers due to late planting, poor quality tillage, use of low value crops needing less tillage and an inability to cultivate all available land. These problems may be aggravated after natural calamities such as flood or drought due to death or poor health of animals and increased draught animal prices (Jabber, 1990). Draught power economics are improved if one animal is used instead of 218 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture two and if a cow is used instead of a male. This strategy reduces the cost of maintaining the larger herd necessary to satisfy replacements and milk production. Draught cows need, however, to be given additional feed if milk production and reproduction are not to be affected. 2. Linkages between livestock and soil productivity The poor fertility of the sandy soils found has always ensured a role for ruminant livestock in traditional soil management practices. These soils have very low soil organic matter (SOM) contents and low buffering and nutrient exchange capacities. They are deficient in nitrogen (N), and especially phosphorus (P) (Breman and DeWitt, 1983). These soils also have poor structure, are susceptible to crusting, and have low water holding capacities. Sustaining their productivity is fundamental to the well being of the region. A well-known linkage between livestock and soil productivity is the cycling of biomass (natural vegetation, crop residues) through animals (cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goats) into excreta (manure, urine) that fertilizes the soil (Figure 1). Manuring increases SOM and nutrient availability. It also improves nutrient exchange and water holding capacities, and increases crop and forage yields. The link between crop residues (cereal stovers, legume hays and weeds) and animal feeding during the long dry season is vital to the sustained productivity of livestock in mixed farming systems. However, the continuous removal of crop residue by grazing, trampling by animals, degradation by termites, and removals for fuel and construction leaves soil surfaces under protected during the early part of the rainy season. The resulting high soil temperatures, erosion by wind, and sand blasting of young plants can pose severe limitations to crop production.

Figure 1: Ruminant livestock-soil productivity linkages in mixed farming systems Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 219 Manuring cropland involves the night time corralling of animals directly on fields and/or hauling manure from homesteads. The advantage of corralling animals on cropland is that it returns both manure and urine to soils and requires little additional labour in animal management and no labour in manure handling, storage and spreading. In addition to livestock owned by farmers, herds of transhumant pastoralists have long been an important source of manure for cropping. Various exchange relationships between pastoralists and farmers exist that allow animals to graze crop residues and animals to manure farmers’ fields (McCown et al, 1979; Toulmin, 1983). These practices appear to be declining in many areas, however, due to sedentarization of pastoralists, increasing conflicts between pastoralists and farmers over land rights, transfer of cattle to non pastoralist owners, and, in some areas, the increasing availability of chemical fertilizers. During drought years, the loss of animals through death or forced sales can greatly decrease the ability of farmers to manure cropland. Reconstruction of herds, especially cattle, may take years and consequently cause reductions in manure availability and cropland productivity. 3. Livestock as renewable source of soil Long term application of the chemical fertilizer will harm the environment and makes the soil harder to support life. Without natural replenishment of soil nutrients, land will suffer from nutrient depletion and becomes either unusable or reduced yields. Recycling the crop waste and livestock manure through composting and vermin-composting can replenish the loss of the nutrients in soil, increase the yield of the crop and optimize the contribution of livestock in sustainable agriculture systems. 4. Livestock as essential source of organic fertilizer or Manure As farmers grow and harvest crop, they remove some of the nutrients from the soil. Most farmers use chemical fertilizer (nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium) to replace the loss of the nutrients in soil and that is not enough to replace the complex system of soil. Moreover, chemical fertilizer is getting more expensive and it needs a lot of non-renewable resources such as fossil fuel (used in converting atmospheric nitrogen into synthetic or chemical fertilizer), mineral ores (source of phosphate), mining (extraction of potassium salts from potash) to make.The important issues for the disadvantages of the intensive animal farming are forest clearing, using more than 30% of the global arable land to produce feed for livestock, 220 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture producing harmful greenhouse gas as global warming potential carbon dioxide from manure, water pollution and shortage. However, global livestock sector is growing faster in many countries than any other agricultural sub- sector and contributes about 40% to global agricultural output. For many farmers in developing countries livestock are also a source of renewable energy and an essential source of organic fertilizer for their crops. Nutrient recycling is an essential part of any strategy for sustainable agriculture. Integration of livestock and crops allows for efficient recycling through use of crop residues and by-products as animal feeds and for animal manure as crop fertilizer. Cattle dung contains about 8 kg of nitrogen, 4 kg of phosphate and 16 kg of potash per tonne of dry matter (Ange, 1994). In addition, manure returns organic matter to the soil, helping to maintain its structure as well as its water retention and drainage capacitiesThroughout the developing world, manure is the primary source of plant nutrients for traditional rainfed crops. Chemical fertilizers are expensive and applied mainly to high yielding varieties especially in irrigated conditions. A massive currency devaluation in the West and Central African countries in 1993 increased prices of fertilizers so much that farmers responded by applying more manure, by making compost in a systematic manner and by developing a market for manure (Sanders et al, 1995). In areas where crop-livestock mixed farming is emerging manure is an important link. Manure is of paramount importance in these areas because most soils are fragile and of low inherent fertility. Only a small fraction of crop land receives adequate manure, however, and availability in a given year depends on the livestock population arid its species composition, location at manuring time, feed supply from range and crop land and efficiency of manure collection. Since crop and livestock production are not yet integrated on a wide scale, there is considerable loss of nutrients in the process of transfer from range-based livestock to crop fields. Nutrient flow may be further affected by drought-induced changes in livestock populations, species composition and animal mobility. For these reasons, it has been estimated that, in present production systems, animal manure is not adequate to sustain the current level of crop production in the semiarid areas because it requires a very high pasture area per unit of crop area (Fernandez-Rivera et al, 1994; McIntire and Powell, 1994: Williams et al, 1994). Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 221 This is probably an interim problem because population pressure and market conditions will drive intensification in the future and crops and livestock will be more integrated. Loss of manure will then be minimized as it becomes critical for sustaining soil productivity. It has also been suggested that efficiency of manure use can be increased by joint application of manure and fertilizer and manipulation of the relative amounts and times of application of manure (Brouwer and Powell, 1994; Murwira et al, 1994). Improved feeding, such as using urea-treated straw, improves manure quality which in turn gives higher crop yields. It is recognized, however, that achieving higher productivity in agriculture will require increased use of chemical fertilizers. 5. Need to increase biomass productivity: The role of fertilizers. Sustainable increases in biomass production are fundamental to livestock and soil productivity. The proper use of chemical fertilizers will be crucial in obtaining greater yields. This, however, will depend on fertilizer availability, pricing policies, and extension services largely external to farmer control. For the foreseeable future, fertilizers will continue to be costly and unavailable to many. In the meantime, options exist to combine high and low input technologies to enhance the output of indigenous practices. 6. Livestock as weed controller Livestock, particularly sheep, are efficient in controlling weeds and thus help to increase crop production. They are used in many countries in the Mediterranean basin to reduce forest undergrowth in order to reduce fire risk during summer. In Malaysia, it has been shown that, in rubber and oil palm plantations, the use of livestock on the ground cover under the tree canopy increases overall production and can save up to 40 per cent of the cost of weed control (Chen et al, 1988). Sheep have also been used to control weeds in sugar cane fields in Colombia (Carta Asolucerna, 1993), lowering the cost of herbicides, reducing by half the total cost of weed control and providing an additional income from meat production. Such systems also safeguard the environment and avoid chemical pollution while supplying additional organic material to the soil. References • Alexandratos N. (1988). World agriculture toward 2000. Food and Agriculture Organization / Belhaven Press: London, UK. • Ange AL. (1994). Integrated plant nutrition management in cropping and 222 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture

farming systems - A challenge for small farmers in developing countries. Food and Agriculture Organization: Rome, Italy. • Asamenew G. (1991). A study of the fanning systems of some Ethiopian highland vertisol areas. International Livestock Centre for Africa: Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (mimeo). • BBS (1986). The Bangladesh census of agriculture and livestock - 1983/84. Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, Ministry of Planning: Dhaka, Bangladesh. • Breman, H. and C.T. DeWit. (1983). Rangeland productivity and exploitation in the Sahel. Science221:1341–1347. • Brouwer J and Powell JM. (1995). Soil aspects of nutrient cycling in a manure application experiment. In: Powell JM, Fernandez-Rivera S. Williams TO and Renard C (eds) Livestock and sustainable nutrient cycling in mixed farming system of sub-Saharan Africa. International Livestock Centre for Africa: Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 2: in press. • Carta Asolucerna. (1994). Los ovinos de pelo: una herramienta pare el control de malezas en los cultivas (carta Asolucerna N° 32). Asociación Colombiana de Criadores de Ganado Lucerna: Bogota, Colombia. [reprinted in Livest. Res. Rur. Devt. 6 (1).] • Chen CP, Ahmad Tajuddin Z. Wam Mohamed WE, Tajuddin I, Ibrahim CE and Moh Salleh R. (1988). Research and development on integrated system in livestock, forage and tree crops production in Malaysia. In: Proceedings of the FAD/MARDI international livestock-tree cropping workshop, 5-9 December 1988, Serdang, Malaysia. 55-71. • De Boer AJ, Yazman JA and Raun NS. (1994). Animal agriculture in developing countries. Winrock International: Morrilton, USA. • Delgado C. (1989). The changing economic context of mixed farming in savannah West Africa: A conceptual framework applied to Burkina Faso. Quart. J. Int. Agric. 28:351-364. • Fernandez-Rivera S. Williams TO, Hiernaux P and Powell JM. 1994. Faecal excretion by ruminants and manure availability for crop production in semi-arid West Africa. In: Powell JM, Fernandez-Rivera S. Williams TO and Renard C (eds) Livestock and sustainable nutrient cycling in mixed farming system of sub- Saharan Africa.International Livestock Centre for Africa: Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 2: in press. • Gryseels G. (1988). The role of livestock in the generation of smallholder farm income in two vertisol areas of the central Ethiopian highland. In: Jutzi SC, Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 223

Haque I, McIntire J and Stares JES (eds) Management of vertisols in sub-Saharan Africa. International Livestock Centre for Africa: Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. • Jabbar MA. (1990). Floods and livestock in Bangladesh. Disasters 14: 358- 365. • McCown, R.L., G. Haaland and C. de Haan. (1979). The inter-action between cultivation and livestock production in semi-arid Africa. In: Hall, A.E., G.H. Cannell, and H.W. Lawton(Eds). Agriculture in Semi-Arid Environments. Berlin: Springer. p 297–332. • McIntire J and Powell JM. (1994). African semi-arid agriculture cannot produce sustainable growth without external inputs. In: Powell JM, Fernandez-Rivera S. Williams TO and Renard C (eds) Livestock and sustainable nutrient cycling in mixed farming system of sub-Saharan Africa. International Livestock Centre for Africa: Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 2: in press. • McIntire J. Bourzat D and Pingali P. (1992). Crop-livestock interaction in sub- Saharan Africa. The World Bank: Washington DC, USA. • Omiti J. (1995). Economic analysis of crop-livestock integration: the case of the Ethiopian highlands (Ph. D. Thesis). Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics, University of New England: Armidale, Australia. • Sanders JH, Ramaswamy S and Shapiro BI. (1995). The economics of agricultural technology in semi-arid sub-Saharan Africa. Johns Hopkins University Press: Baltimore, USA. • Toulmin, C. (1983). Herders and farmers or farmer-herders and herder-farmers? PastoralDevelopment Network Paper 15d. London: Overseas Development Institute. • Williams TO, Powell JM and Fernandez-Rivera, S. (1994). Manure utilization, drought cycles and herd dynamics in the Sahel: implication for cropland productivity. In: Powell JM, Fernandez-Rivera S. Williams TO and Renard C (eds) Livestock and sustainable nutrient cycling in mixed farming systems of sub-Saharan Africa..International Livestock Centre for Africa: Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 2: in press. • Winrock. (1992). An assessment of animal agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa. Winrock International: Morrilton, USA. 224 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture Analysis of Automobile Pollution of Different Roadside Soils in Meerut City, U.P. India

Shiv Kumari and Ila Prakash Deptt. of Botany, D.N. College, Meerut Introduction Automobiles generate around 75% of the observed air pollution. The automobile pollution has become an intangible and veritable threat to the citizens of our country, as the number ‘of vehicles and their harmful emissions and consequent respiratory diseases, incidence of lung cancer and cardio pulmonary deaths are rapidly increasing. It is time to act swiftly and decisively to minimize automobile emissions by a prudent course of action, to save the people from slow, silent and sure poisoning. The air pollution load, due to automobiles, at any given point is a function of three factors, namely vehicles, fuel and town planning/dispersion capacity of the ambient air. Our environment is a complex mixture of a number of constituents like air, water, soil, plants and animals, all of which maintain a dynamic inter-relationship and interdependence. But now a day’s these becomes disrupting due to interference in environment by the use of jets airplanes, A.C, Freeze, microwaves etc. Objective The present study covers the soil pH, soil moisture percentage and lead content at different roadsides plants of Meerut city and find out which was most polluted road due to heavy pollution load. Hypothesis I assumed that these road sites due to pollution load and heavy traffic density selected study sites would show negative results on the roadside soils. There would have been a negative effect. Methods For the present research work different roadsides were selected at Meerut city compared with control. And in present investigation soil samples were taken from different selected study sites and were analyzed soil pH, Soil Moisture Percentage and Lead content in soil. Soil pH Soil samples were collected from selected area i.e. polluted area Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 225 and control area under investigation, analysed for pH values. Fixed amount (20g) of soil was thoroughly mixed with 50 ml distilled water and solution was kept till the clear supernatant fluid was obtained. The clear supernatant was filtered through filter paper to avoid suspended impurities. The pH of the soil supernatant samples was recorded on digital electronic pH meter (Mc Lean, 1986). Moisture Content The survey was conducted to know the appropriate humidity of the selected sites. The soil samples were collected and brought to socratory from the selected sites. About 50-100 gm of soil samples were taken at 10- 20 cm depth weighed each samples and recorded the fresh weight. Dry the soil in crucible/ desicator at 1050 C for about 24 hours up to the constant weight and then reweighed.

Wt of fresh soil − W t of dry soil Soil Moisture % = × 1 0 0 W t of dry soil Lead Content

Soil samples were digested with HNO3- H2O2-HCl using US EPA1986 method 3050. The US EPA SW 846 method 3050 developed for total sorbed heavy metal in soils, gives a reliable measure of the amount of the metals added to soils as non silicates that is potentially available for natural leaching and biological processes. The concentration of lead in the digestion solution were determind with a unicam 969 AAS- Solar in the flame mode. A total elemental analysis usually not necessary for an assessment of soil contamination with heavy metals. However, if such an analysis is desired, a rapid and reasonably precise method that includes Cd, Cr, Ni and Pb is an aqua regia-HF digestion for 1 h at 1000 C In a Teflon- lined bomb. In addition of strong acid extratants such as concentrated HNO3 and aqua regia are often used to determine total metals in contaminated soils. The method is discussed below. Reagents 1. Nitric acid : Concentration and 1:1 dilution in deionized water (>10 mega ohm-cm resistivity) 2. 30% hydrogen peraoxide. 3. Hydrochloric acid: concentrated Method:

1. Add 10 ml of 1:1 HNO3 to 2g of air dried soil (<1 mm) in a 150 ml 226 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture beaker. 2. Place the sample on a hot plate, cover with a watch glass, and heat (reflux) at 95 0C for 15 min.

3. Cool the digest and add 5 ml of conc. HNO3 .Reflux for an additional 30 min at 95 0C. 4. Repeat the last step, and reduce the solution to about 5ml without boiling (by only partially covering the beaker). 5. Cool the sample again and add 2 ml of deionized water and 3 ml of

30% H2O2. 6. With the beaker covered. Heat the sample gently to start the peroxide reaction. If effervescence becomes excessively vigorous, remove

the sample from the hot plate. Continue to add 30% H2O2 in 1- ml increments, followed by gentle heating until the effervescence subsides. 7. Add 5 ml of conc. HCl and 10 ml of deionized water and reflux the sample for an additional 15 min without boiling. 8. Cool and filter the sample through a Whatman No. 42 filter paper Dilute to 50 ml with deinized water. Analysis for Cd, Cr, Ni, and Pb by atomic absorption Spectrophotometer. Data was subjected to analysis of variance test using SPSS/PC+ programme for micro computer (SPSS/PC+, 1986). Result and Implication Automobile pollution affects not only the vegetation of roadsides but also affect the roadside soil in different manner. The pH is defined as “the logarithm of reciprocal of H+ ion concentration is called as pH”. Mathematically pH is expressed as: [H+] =10- pH Or pH = - log [H+] = log 1/ [H+] soil pH at different study site was less acidic or almost neutral, the values varied from the pH value of control was 7.1 whereas on polluted site 6.250 at Delhi road it is acidic and at University road the pH value 6.95, slightly acidic in comparison to control area. Moisture content in soil 14.0266 in control As compared to road sites, soils from the green belt sites contained more moisture. Therefore maximum moisture content was recorded 10.5844 at University road and minimum was 4.9295 at Delhi road. Lead content recorded was a maximum of 16.76 ug /g, 10.23 ug/ g, 7.09 ug/ g and 4.13 ug/g at Delhi road, Garh road, Railway road and University road. it was maximum at Delhi road and Garh road and moderate at railway road and Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 227 minimum at University road (Table 1). The air samples along the roadsides showed maximum concentration of heavy metals as lead. Lead concentration was found to be more along the motorways in the site. The control site showed lowest Pb concentration in soil. Lead concentration was quite low in the areas as compared to those reported from urban area (Hewitt and Candy, 1990; Pandey, 1993). High concentrations of heavy metals have been found to inhibit the activity of acid phosphatase enzyme (Tyler, 1976) leading to reduced decomposition of organic phosphorus. The trends with the findings of Wagela et al., 2002 who also reported Lead released into the environment attenuates with distance from the source and environmental contamination depends upon the traffic density reported maximum lead content in soil during summer on roadsides. Similar findings were observed by (Goldsmith et al., (1976); Rodriguez and Rodriguez, (1982). Dubey (1990)., Bhatia and Choudhri (1991), and Wagela et al. (2002). High soil contents of toxic heavy metals in the soil have been observed along roadside (Bradford et al., (1975); Mehta and Barhate, (1991); Sarin, (1996). Roadside vegetation and soil are the immediate receptors of autoexhaust lead emission. Taranath et al. (2005) observed that Cynodon dactylon a phytocol to monitor heavy metal pollution in roadside environment. Thus increased circulation of toxic metals in soils and grasses may result in the inevitable buildup of such toxins in food chains. In present study lead content was quite high in the polluted area. At Delhi road there is maximum transportation of heavy vehicles. So the above contents in soil were high in comparison to other sites as well as control site. The increased values of lead in the soils of vehicular and mixed polluted areas are directly influenced by the amount of lead in the ambient air. Similar findings were observed by Lepp, 1981; De Temmerman and Hoenig, 2004; Finster et al., 2004; and Del Rio –Celestino et al., 2006. Combustion of oil, coal and refuse also contribute to increase in lead content in the environment. Lead content was quite high in the area because of combustion of leaded gasoline. Motto et al., (1970) and Deborrah and Muthu Subramanian, (1991) reported similar findings in road sites. Soil pH was also affected by automobile pollution due to much contamination of gaseous pollutant mixture. Soil pH was found to be slightly acidic due to gaseous exhaust pollution because of gases are not mixed with soil particles due to in much amount of acidity of soil pH. Soil pH may be depends upon the traffic density of roadside. Similar findings also observed by Goldsmith et al., (1976). Soil pH values of different roads 228 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture under investigation were almost neutral and no significant difference in soil pH was observed between different sites under investigation. Only at Delhi road soil pH is significant at 5% level in comparison to other road site was observed. The neutral pH of the soil is mainly due to abundance of base cations like Ca2+ which plays important role in buffering the soil acidification by proton exchange with Ca2+ at exchange sites in a reversible and rapid reaction (Ulrich, 1983). Similar results were also observed by (Rodriguez and Rodriguez 1982), Neelima et al. (2006), and Dilmac et al, (2008). Maximum contamination of soil and plants was found to be within five meters of the road. It also depends upon the direction and velocity of wind. Similarly Abechi et al., (2010)., David et al, (2012)., Fehmiya Celenk and Fatma Tilay Kiziloglu (2015) also showed the similar results of effect of the lead accumulation in roadside soils due to vehicular pollution. Present study investigates that soil pH was slightly acidic at university road and more acidic at Delhi road in comparison to control. And soil moisture percentage was reduced at highly polluted sites as compared to control. Whereas at green belt site showed much soil moisture Percentage. Present results also showed maximum lead content at Delhi road, moderate at Garh road and Railway road and it was less at University road. However this site was found to be more polluted and vehicular pollution needs to control and it can be suggested that automobile pollution tolerant plants should be planted in this area.

Table 1. Soil analysis in terms of soil pH, soil humidity % and lead content in different study side soil samples in Meerut city. Different Study Sites Statistical Value Plant Species Delhi Garh Railway Universit Control Road Road Road y Road CD 5% CD 1% 7.1 6.250* 6.56 6.875 6.95 Soil pH 0.7907 1.8847 + 0.2708 + 0.057 + 0.043 + 0.05 + 0.1 Soil 8.5562 humidity 14.0266 4.9295* 9.8500 10.5844 + 6.5466 15.6043 percenta + 2.2420 + 1.2472 + 1.2812 + 1.0581 0.5677 ge Lead 6.60 16.76 10.23 7.09* 4.13** content + 0.10 + 0.10 + 0.10 + 0.06 + 0.03 0.292 0.696

Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 229

pH values of roadside soil

40 7.1 6.95 . 6.56 6.875 ty ti 30 n 6.250* a u Q 20

10

0 Control Delhi road Garh road Railway road University . road

References • Abechi, E.S., Okunola, O.J., Zubairu, S.M.J., Usman, A.A. and Apene, E. (2010): Evalation of heavy metals in roadside soils of major streets in Jos Metropolis, Nigeria. Journal of Environ. Chem. and Ecotoxico. vol, 2 (6), PP: 98-102. • Bhatia, I. and Choudhri, G.N. (1991). Impact of automobile effusion on plant and soil. Int. J. Eco. Environ. Sci. 17: 121-127. • Boralkar, D.B., Tyagi, S.K. and Singh, S.B. (1992). Autoexhaust lead pollution of roadside ecosystem in Delhi.J.IAEM 19: 21-27. • Bradford, G. R., Page, A. L., Lund, L.J. and Olmstead, W. (1975). Trace element concentrations of sewage treatment plant effluent and suedges, their interactions with soils and up take by plants. J. Environ. Qual. 4: 123-127. • David, O, Olukanni and Sundy, A. Adebiyi (2012): Assessment of vehicular pollution of roadside soils in Ota Metropolis, Ogun state, Nigeria, International Journal of Civil and Environ Engineering (IJCEE-IJENS) Vol.12 No. 04 PP: 40- 46. • Deborrah, S.P.M. and Muthusubramanian, P. (1991): Air borne lead in the environment of Mudurai. Ind. J. Environ. Prot. 11: 817-821. • De Temerman, L and Hoeing, M. (2004). Vegetable crops for biomonitoring lead and cadmium deposition. J. of Atm Chem 49: 121-135. • De Rio-Celestino, M., Font, R. Moreno- Rojas, R. and De Haro- Bailon, A. (2006). Uptake of lead and zinc by wild plants growing on contaminated soils. Industrial Crops and Products 20: 230-237. • Dilmac, Y., Tulin, G., and Sarica, Y. (2008). Determination of airborne lead contamination in Cichorium intybus L. in urban environment. Dept of Biological Sci. The scientific and Technical Research Council of Turkey. 32: 319-324. 230 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture

• Dubey, P.S. (1990). Study and assessment of plant response against air pollution in industrial environments. Final technical Report, All India Coordinated Programme on air pollution and plants. Min. of Env., Forests and wild life Govt. of India, New Delhi Project NO. 14/ 260/ 85/ MBA/ RE. • Fehmiya, Clenk, Fatma Tilay Kiziloglu (2015): Distribution of lead accumulation in roadside soils: A case study from D100 Highway in Sakarya, Turkey. Int. J. Of Research in Agriculture and Forestry. Vol 2. (5): PP: 10-10. • Finster, M.E., Gray, K.A. and Binns, H. J. (2004). Lead levels of edible grown in contaminated residential soils: a field survey. Sci Total Environ 32-: 245-257. • Goldsmith, C.D., Scanlon, J. R. P.F. and Pirie, W.R. (1976). Lead concentration in soil and vegetation associated with highways of different traffic densities. Bulletin of Environmental Concentration and Toxicology. 16: 66-70. • Hewitt, N.C. and Candy, G.B.R. (1990). Soil street dust metal concerntration in and around cuenca, Ecuador. Environ. Pollut. 63: 129-136. • Lepp, N. W. (1981). Effect of heavy metal pollution on plants. Applied Science 1 and 2: 111-114. • Mc. Lean, E. O. (1986). Soil pH and lime requirement. In: Methods of Soil Analysis. Page, A. L. ed. American Society of Agronomy 1: 199-204. • Mehta, B. H. and Barhate, K. D. (1991). Mineral content of cow pae cultivated in polluted water of Bombay. Journ. Ecotoxicol Environ. Monit. 1: 225-229. • Motto, H. l., Danies, R. H.Chilko, D.M. and Motto, C.K. (1970). Lead in soils and plants, its realationship to traffic volume and proximity to high ways. Environ. Sci. technol. 4: 231-238. • Neelima, P. Jaganmohan, R. K. (2006). Bioabsorption of some heavy metals in different plant species. Nature Env Polln Techno, 5(1): 53-56. • Pandey, S. (1993). Effect of air pollution on plants in the vicinity of thermal power plant. Ph.D. Thesis. Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi. • Rodriguez, F.M. and Rodriguez, E. (1982). Lead, cadmium levels in soil and plants near high way and their correlation with traffic density. Environ. Pollut. Ser. Bio. Chem. Phys. 4: 281- 290. • Sarin, R. (1996). Chemical speciation and bioavailability of heavy metals in aquatic environment. Ab. Proc. 83rd Ind. Sci. Cong. 19. • Smith, W. H. (1976). Lead contamination of roadside ecosystem. J. Air Pollut. Cont. Assoc. 26: 753-766. Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 231

• Taranath, T.C. Ratageri, R.H., Mulgund, G.S., Giriyaparavar, B.S. (2005). Cynoadon dactylon a phytotool to monitor heavy metal pollution in roadside environment. Nature Env Pollu Techno, 4(3): 367-371. • Tyler, G. (1976). Heavy metal pollution, phosphatase activity and mineralization of organic phosphorus in forest soils. Soil Biol. Biochem. 8: 327-332. • Ulrich, B. (1983). A concept of forest ecosystem stability and of acid deposition as driving force for destabilization. In : Effects of accumulation of air pollutants in forest ecosystem. Ulrich, B. and Parkrath, J. Eds. D. Reidel Publishing Company, Dordrecht, Holland. 1-29. • U.S. EPA (1986). Environmental Protection Agency Environmental Monitoring and support Laboratory. Cincinnate, OH 45268. U.S. • Wagela, D.K., Pawar, K., Dube, B. and Joshi, O.P. (2002). Lead monitoring in air, Soil and Foliar deposites at India city with special reference to automobile pollution. J. Environ. Bol. 23: 417-421. 232 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture Chitosan-Cellulose Hydrogel Beads As Adsorbent For Dyes

Anuja Agarwal1 and Vaishali2 1Deptt. of Chemistry, J.V. Jain College, Saharanpur, 2Research Scholars, Deptt. of Chemistry, J.V. Jain College, Saharanpur. Introduction The application of biopolymers like chitin and cellulose in the form of small beads is one of the emerging adsorption technique for the removal of dyes, heavy metal ions and other pollutants even at low concentrations (1). Chitin and cellulose are the most abundant polymers in nature. Chitosan is a natural polyaminosaccharide, obtained from deacetylation of chitin a poly saccharide containing unbranched chains of â (1’! 4) 2- amino 2-deoxy 5ØýÞ– D glucose. Chitosan beads can be used as an adsorbent to remove heavy metals and dyes due to presence of –NH2 and –OH groups which can serve as active sites (2). Chitosan is very sensitive to pH as it can either form gel or dissolve depending on the pH values. (3). To improve chitosan’s performance as an adsorbent, crosslinking agents like, glutaraldehyde, glycol, glyoxal have been used (4). Crosslinking stabilize chitosan in acid solutions and form it insoluble and also enhance mechanical properties of chitosan beads to some extent. Cellulose is a polydisperse linear homoplymer consisting of regio-enantioselective 5ØýÞ-1- 4 glycosidic linked D-glucose units. It contains three reactive –OH groups at C-2, C-3 and C-6 in each 5ØýÞ-D glucopyranose unit which one able to intract with one another forming intra and intermolecular H-bonds and form various types of supra-molecular semicrystalline structure (5). The crystallinity and H-bonding patterns have a strong influence on the whole chemical behavior of cellulose. Cellulose is also modified by grafting on chitosan in which side chain grafts of cellulose are covalently attached to the main chain of chitosan polymer backbone to form a branched copolymer (6). There are some reports showing stabilization of cellulose immobiliezed on chitosan to form chitosan-cellulose composite beads. (7, 8). Li and Bai, 2005 reported the improved acid resistance and mechanical strength of the chitosan-cellulose beads. Methods and Materials Chitosan, a natural polymer of animal origin was purchased by India Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 233 Sea Food, Kerala, and was used as received. Its percentage of deacetylation after drying was 89%. Glutaraldehyde was procured from Loba Chemie Pvt. Ltd., India and used as a crosslinking agent between chitosan chain units of polymer. All other chemicals like acetic acid, methanol, NaOH,

HCl, KCl, KH2PO4 etc. used were of analytical grade. Double distilled water was used throughout the studies. Preparation of cellulose The waste newspaper was torn up into small pieces and immersed in water for 2 days. The water-saturated paper material was disintegrated in the grinder to obtain the waste newspaper fibers (crude cellulose) which was then treated with an aqueous solution containing 1.5% NaOH, 3.0% 0 H2O2 and 1.5% surfactant for removing black ink at 65 C for 1 h. Finally cellulose was washed several times with distilled water until the supernatant pH was 6.5 to 7.0. The dried cellulose was crushed and analysed for chemical composition. Which is as follows- Moisture – 4.2% Holocellulose – 82.5% Lignin – 12.3 % Pentosan – 5.2 % Preparation of chitosan-cellulose beads 1.8 g of chitosan and 0.2 g cellulose were dissolved in 80 ml of 2 percent acetic acid under stirring condition for 3h at room temperature The homogenous mixture was extruded in the form of droplets using a syringe into NaOH-methanol (1:20 (w/w)) under stirring condition at 400 rpm. The resultant beads were then placed in a water jacket. Containing predecided concentration of glutaraldehyde (12.5 %) maintained 50 0C for about 10 minutes. The beads were washed with hot and cold water successively. Finally obtained beads were vacuum dried and stored in dessiccator and anhydrous CaCl2, at room temperature. Swelling studies Swelling behavior of chitosan-cellulose beads was studied in different pH (2.0, 7.4 and 10.0) solutions. A known weight (2.0 gm) of the prepared beads were placed separately in the conical flasks containing media for required period of time. After predecided time period the swollen beads were collected and their net weight were determined after blotting the beads with filter paper to remove adsorbed water on the surface. The percentage 234 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture of swelling for each sample at time t was calculated using the following formula-

Percentage of swelling = {(Wt–Wo)/Wo} x 100

Where, Wt = weight of the beads at time t after emersion in the solution.

Wo= weight of the dried beads. Color removal efficiency (CRE) 50 ml dye solution of known concentration with 1.0 g of beads was taken in conical flasks at desired temperature. It was shaken for 10 min and then kept for 24 h and lastly the remaining concentration of dye was estimated spectrophotometrically at ëmax of used dye. The CRE (%) for CS- Cellulose beads was calculated by given formula - CRE (%) = (1 – Ac/Ai) X 100 Where, Ai and Ac are the absorbance of the dye solution before and after the adsorption process. Fourier transformed infra red (FTIR) spectroscopy Dried samples were ground into powder and crushed with KBr for homogenization. A Nicolet economy sample press was used to obtain optically clear pellets. Pellets were analyzed using transmission FTIR using a Thermo Nicolet Avatar 370 FT-IR spectrometer system. Dry air was used as the chamber purge stream for all samples. The FTIR spectra were obtained at room temperature over a spectral frequency range of 400-4000 cm-1. IR bands are expressed in terms of frequency (cm-1). The background was obtained against a pure KBr pellet and the data was analyzed by Omnic software. Functional groups present in the raw material and products were determined. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) The shape and surface morphology of the beads were examined using FESEM QUANTA 200 FEG model “(FEI, The Netherlands make)” with operating voltage ranging from 200 V to 30 kV. FESEM micrographs were taken after coating the surfaces of bead samples with a thin layer of gold by using BAL-TEC-SCD-005 Sputter Coater (BAL-TEC AG, Balzers, Liechtenstein Company, Germany) under argon atmosphere to make the sample conducting. The surface appearance, shape and size of scanning electron micrograms were used to perform textural characterization of full and cross sectioned IPN beads. Magnifications were applied to each sample Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 235 in order to estimate the morphology and interior of the bead. X-ray diffraction (XRD) X-ray diffraction studies were performed by using Bruker AXS D8 Advance using CuKá Nickel filter and Copper as target at wavelength of 1.54 Å with goniometer and speed was kept at 2°/min. Wide angle X- Ray scattering patterns of the samples were obtained using DIFFRAC plus XRD commander software and analysis was done by DIFFRAC plus (version 8.0) software. The range of scanning angle for the sample was kept in the range 2è of 10 – 60. Results And Discussion The obtained beads are almost round in shape when freshly prepared but drying results them in uneven shape and also decreased their volume. The original shape of beads was restored after swelling. The colour of uncrosslinked beads was creamy which was changed into yellow after crosslinking with glutaraldehyde. The yellow colour of crosslinked beads was turned into brown after air drying or oven drying. Fourier transform infra red spectroscopy (FTIR) FTIR curve for chitosan exhibited a broad peak at 3450 cm-1 which was assigned to –NH– stretching vibration which might be due to deacetylation of chitosan. The peak at around 3500 cm-1 merged with – NH- stretching peak due to hydrogen bonded O-H vibrational frequencies and O-H bond stretch of glucopyranose units. Peaks at 1639 cm-1 and 1319 cm-1 were observed due to >C=O stretching of amide bond. The peak at 1613 cm-1 was assigned to strong N-H bending vibrations of secondary amide (9). Bands at 2919 cm-1and 2810 cm-1 represent the aliphatic C-H -1 stretching vibrations. The observed sharp peak at 1384 cm is due to CH3 symmetrical deformation mode (10, 11). Two peaks around 894 cm-1and 1171 cm-1 appeared in spectra corresponding to saccharide structure (12). -1 A broad band appearing near 1083 cm indicated the >CO-CH3 stretching vibration of chitosan. FTIR curve for cellulose produced peaks at 3460 cm-1 for hydrogen bonded alcoholic and –OH groups of pyranose structure, peaks at 2896 cm-1 and 2952 cm-1 assigned for aliphatic C-H stretching, at 1380 cm-1 for aliphatic and C-H bending. Two peaks at 1175 cm-1 and 890 cm-1 represented saccharide structure and a peak at 1600 cm-1 was assigned for glucopyranose six membered ring structure in cellulose (13). FTIR of 236 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture chitosan-cellulose beads exhibited all peaks as shown by both polymer of chitosan and cellulose and a new peak at 1576 cm-1 assigned for imine (C=N) group. It was concluded that imine bond was formed during crosslinking involved a reaction between the amino group of chitosan chain with aldehyde group of glutaraldehyde.

24 CHITOSAN Sun Oct 20 22:16:42 2002 (GMT-05:00) 22

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0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 2 Theta Figure 3- XRD of chitosan (a), cellulose (b) and chitosan-cellulose beads (c).

X-Ray diffraction The diffraction pattern of pure chitosan has the characteristic peaks at 2è of 12 to 16, 20 and 29 and diffractogram of cellulose fiber has peaks at 10, 15-18, 23, 28 to 32 and 35. X ray diffractogram of beads clearly shows the presence of similar peaks in chitosan powder as well as in cellulose fiber. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) Scanning electron micrograms were used to perform textural 238 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture characterization of surface and interior of IPN beads. Magnifications were applied to each sample in order to estimate the morphology and interior of the bead.

(a) (b)

(c) (d) Figure 3– SEM micrographs of full chitosan-cellulose bead (a), magnified bead cross sectioned bead (b) SEM micrographs for external surface of dried beads with their magnified surface morphology are shown in Figure-3a and b. It was concluded that the beads had rough, rubbery fibrous and folded surfaces with wrinkles.

Figure 9- Graphs presenting effect of pH on swelling behavior of chitosan-cellulose beads. Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 239 The micrographs showing internal structure of beads with their magnification are obtained by cross sectioned beads Figure 3c and d. Interior of the beads appeared to have micropores and micro tube like interior spaces which confirms the highly porous structures of polymeric beads, although they appeared solid externally. Swelling studies The percentage swelling of pure chitosan beads cross linked with glutaraldehyde in solution of pH 2.0, 7.4 and 10.0 is shown in Figure 4. It was observed that swelling rate increases with increasing pH. When the cross linked beads were placed in the solution, the solution penetrates into the bead and the bead subsequently tries to swell. Generally, the swelling process of the beads in pH<6 involves the protonation of amino/imine groups in the beads and mechanical relaxation of the coiled polymeric chains. Initially during the process of protonation, amino/imine groups of the bead surface were protonized which led to dissociation of the hydrogen bonding between amino/imine group and other groups. Afterward, protons and counter ions diffused into the bead to protonate the amino/imine groups inside the beads and dissociating the hydrogen bonds (14,15). Color removal efficiency (CRE) It was clear from table 1 that chitosan beads removed color of studied dyes in aqueous effluents to a reliable extant and also % CRE of dyes increases with increasing temperature. Table 1: CRE of dyes on CS beads

Dye λmax (nm) Initial conc. % CRE (pH 5.0) % CRE (pH 7.0) x 10 -4M 30 oC 40 oC 30 oC 40 oC Congo red 497 3.59 36.82 48.53 33.68 45.36 7.18 65.3 83.9 55.4 78.14 Methyl orange 365 1.795 43.5 52.22 35.58 49.3 Methyl red 410 3.59 44.6 61.36 37.82 50.23 Fluorescein 494 3.59 39.8 54.6 34.35 43.68 It is further notable that % CRE decreases with increasing pH of the dye solution and this behavior is also indicated by swelling studies.The % CRE increased with increasing temperature in case of congo red dye. Color removal of dyes occurred due to the adsorption of dye molecules by chitosan beads hence adsorption of dye on chitosan beads increased with increase of initial concentration of dye and temperature while decreased with increase of pH. 240 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture Conclusions The chitosan cellulose beads are quite suitable for removal of dyes in waste water effluents due to their good adsorbing capacity towards dye. Further studies are required to study adsorption and adsorption kinetics. References · Chiou, M. S, Ho, P. Y., & Li, H. Y. (2004). Adsorption of anionic dyes in acid solutions using chemically cross-linked chitosan beads. Dyes and Pigments, 60, 69–84. · Crini, G. ((2006)). Non-conventional low-cost adsorbents for dye removal: A review.Bioresource Technology, 97, 1061–1085. · Crini, G., & Badot, P. M. ((2008)). Application of chitosan, a natural amino polysaccharide, for dye removal from aqueous solution by adsorption process using batch studies: A review of recent literature. Progress in Polymer Science, 33, 399–447. · David, W. O., Thomas, F. O., & Colin, B. ((2008)). Heavy metals adsorbents prepared from the modification of cellulose: A review. Bioresource Technology, 99, 6709–6724. · Dhanikula, A.B., Panchagnula, R, 2004,AAPS J 6(3) 1-27, article 27. · Diana Ciolacu, Florin Ciolacu and Voletin I. Popa. (2011). Amorphous cellulose-structure and characterization Cellulose chem.. Technol., 45 (1-2), 13-21. · K.C.,Gupta, Ravi Kumar, M.N.V.,(2000)a,Biomaterials 21, 1115-1119. · K.C.Gupta, Ravi Kumar, MNV. (2001)aJ. Applied Polymer Science 80, 639- 649. · Li, N., & Bai, R. ((2005)). Copper adsorption on chitosan–cellulose hydrogel beads: Behaviors and mechanisms. Separation and Purification Technology, 42, 237–247. · Liu, X. W., Hu, Q. Y., Fang, Z., Zhang, X. J., & Zhang, B. B. ((2009)). Magnetic chitosan nanocomposites: A useful recyclable took for heavy metal ion removal. Langmuir, 25, 3-8. · Oh, S. Y., Yoo, D. I., Shin, Y., Kin, H. C., Kim, H. Y., Chuang, Y. S., et al. ((2005)). Crystalline structure analysis of cellulose treated with sodium hydroxide and carbon dioxide by means of X ray diffraction and FTIR spectroscopy. Carbohydrate Research, 340, 2376–2391. · Peng, T., Yao, K.D., Chen, and Goosan, M.F, 1994, J. Poly. Sci. Part A Polymerchemistry 32, 591-596 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 241

· Sannan, T., Kurita, K., Ogura, K., and Iwakura Y, 1978, Polymer 19, 458- 459. · Wu, F. C., Tseng, R. L., & Juang, T. S. ((2001)). Enhanced abilities of highly swollen chitosan beads for color removal and tyrosinase immobilization.Journal of Hazardous Materials, 81, 167–177. · Yoshioka, T., Hirano, R., Shioya, T.,andKako, M, (1990),35, 66-72. 242 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture Environment Pollution Control and Management

Shweta Tyagi Deptt. of Home Science, R.G.P.G,College, Meerut Introduction Over the course of the twentieth century, growing recognition of the environmental and public health impacts associated with anthropogenic activities (discussed in the chapter Environmental Health Hazards) has prompted the development and application of methods and technologies to reduce the effects of pollution. In this context, governments have adopted regulatory and other policy measures (discussed in the chapter Environmental Policy) to minimize negative effects and ensure that environmental quality standards are achieved. The objective of this chapter is to provide an orientation to the methods that are applied to control and prevent environmental pollution. The basic principles followed for eliminating negative impacts on the quality of water, air or land will be introduced; the shifting emphasis from control to prevention will be considered; and the limitations of building solutions for individual environmental media will be examined. It is not enough, for example, to protect air by removing trace metals from a flue gas only to transfer these contaminants to land through improper solid waste management practices. Integrated multimedia solutions are required. The Pollution Control Approach The environmental consequences of rapid industrialization have resulted in countless incidents of land, air and water resources sites being contaminated with toxic materials and other pollutants, threatening humans and ecosystems with serious health risks. More extensive and intensive use of materials and energy has created cumulative pressures on the quality of local, regional and global ecosystems. Before there was a concerted effort to restrict the impact of pollution, environmental management extended little beyond laissez-faire tolerance, tempered by disposal of wastes to avoid disruptive local nuisance conceived of in a short-term perspective. The need for remediation was recognized, by exception, in instances where damage was determined to be unacceptable. As the pace of industrial activity intensified and the understanding of cumulative effects grew, a pollution control paradigm Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 243 became the dominant approach to environmental management. Two specific concepts served as the basis for the control approach: · The assimilative capacity concept, which asserts the existence of a specified level of emissions into the environment which does not lead to unacceptable environmental or human health effects · The principle of control concept, which assumes that environmental damage can be avoided by controlling the manner, time and rate at which pollutants enter the environment Under the pollution control approach, attempts to protect the environment have especially relied on isolating contaminants from the environment and using end-of-pipe filters and scrubbers. These solutions have tended to focus on media-specific environmental quality objectives or emission limits, and have been primarily directed at point source discharges into specific environmental media (air, water, soil). Applying Pollution Control Technologies Application of pollution control methods has demonstrated considerable effectiveness in controlling pollution problems - particularly those of a local character. Application of appropriate technologies is based on a systematic analysis of the source and nature of the emission or discharge in question, of its interaction with the ecosystem and the ambient pollution problem to be addressed, and the development of appropriate technologies to mitigate and monitor pollution impacts. The challenge of water pollution control is addressed by Herbert Preul in an article which explains the basis whereby the earth’s natural waters may become polluted from point, non-point and intermittent sources; the basis for regulating water pollution; and the different criteria that can be applied in determining control programmes. Preul explains the manner in which discharges are received in water bodies, and may be analysed and evaluated to assess and manage risks. Finally, an overview is provided of the techniques that are applied for large-scale wastewater treatment and water pollution control. A case study provides a vivid example of how wastewater can be reused - a topic of considerable significance in the search for ways that environmental resources can be used effectively, especially in circumstances of scarcity. Alexander Donagi provides a summary of the approach that has been pursued for the treatment and groundwater recharge of municipal 244 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture wastewater for a population of 1.5 million in Israel. Comprehensive Waste Management Under the pollution control perspective, waste is regarded as an undesirable by-product of the production process which is to be contained so as to ensure that soil, water and air resources are not contaminated beyond levels deemed to be acceptable. Lucien Maystre provides an overview of the issues that must be addressed in managing waste, providing a conceptual link to the increasingly important roles of recycling and pollution prevention. In response to extensive evidence of the serious contamination associated with unrestricted management of waste, governments have established standards for acceptable practices for collection, handling and disposal to ensure environmental protection. Particular attention has been paid to the criteria for environmentally safe disposal through sanitary landfills, incineration and hazardous-waste treatment. To avoid the potential environmental burden and costs associated with the disposal of waste and promote a more thorough stewardship of scarce resources, waste minimization and recycling have received growing attention. Niels Hahn and Poul Lauridsen provide a summary of the issues that are addressed in pursuing recycling as a preferred waste management strategy, and consider the potential worker exposure implications of this. Shifting Emphasis to Pollution Prevention End-of-pipe abatement risks transferring pollution from one medium to another, where it may either cause equally serious environmental problems, or even end up as an indirect source of pollution to the same medium. While not as expensive as remediation, end-of-pipe abatement can contribute significantly to the costs of production processes without contributing any value. It also typically is associated with regulatory regimes which add other sets of costs associated with enforcing compliance. While the pollution control approach has achieved considerable success in producing short-term improvements for local pollution problems, it has been less effective in addressing cumulative problems that are increasingly recognized on regional (e.g., acid rain) or global (e.g., ozone depletion) levels. The aim of a health-oriented environmental pollution control programme is to promote a better quality of life by reducing pollution to the Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 245 lowest level possible. Environmental pollution control programmes and policies, whose implications and priorities vary from country to country, cover all aspects of pollution (air, water, land and so on) and involve coordination among areas such as industrial development, city planning, water resources development and transportation policies. Thomas Tseng, Victor Shantora and Ian Smith provide a case study example of the multimedia impact that pollution has had on a vulnerable ecosystem subjected to many stresses - the North American Great Lakes. The limited effectiveness of the pollution control model in dealing with persistent toxins that dissipate through the environment is particularly examined. By focusing on the approach being pursued in one country and the implications that this has for international action, the implications for actions that address prevention as well as control are illustrated. As environmental pollution control technologies have become more sophisticated and more expensive, there has been a growing interest in ways to incorporate prevention in the design of industrial processes - with the objective of eliminating harmful environmental effects while promoting the competitiveness of industries. Among the benefits of pollution prevention approaches, clean technologies and toxic use reduction is the potential for eliminating worker exposure to health risks. David Bennett provides an overview of why pollution prevention is emerging as a preferred strategy and how it relates to other environmental management methods. This approach is central to implementing the shift to sustainable development which has been widely endorsed since the release of the United Nations Commission on Trade and Development in 1987 and reiterated at the Rio United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) Conference in 1992. The pollution prevention approach focuses directly on the use of processes, practices, materials and energy that avoid or minimize the creation of pollutants and wastes at source, and not on “add-on” abatement measures. While corporate commitment plays a critical role in the decision to pursue pollution prevention draws attention to the societal benefits in reducing risks to ecosystem and human health—and the health of workers in particular. He identifies principles that can be usefully applied in assessing opportunities for pursuing this approach. 246 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture Air Pollution Management Air pollution management aims at the elimination, or reduction to acceptable levels, of airborne gaseous pollutants, suspended particulate matter and physical and, to a certain extent, biological agents whose presence in the atmosphere can cause adverse effects on human health (e.g., irritation, increase of incidence or prevalence of respiratory diseases, morbidity, cancer, excess mortality) or welfare (e.g., sensory effects, reduction of visibility), deleterious effects on animal or plant life, damage to materials of economic value to society and damage to the environment (e.g., climatic modifications). The serious hazards associated with radioactive pollutants, as well as the special procedures required for their control and disposal, also deserve careful attention.

The importance of efficient management of outdoor and indoor air pollution cannot be overemphasized. Unless there is adequate control, the multiplication of pollution sources in the modern world may lead to irreparable damage to the environment and mankind. The objective of this article is to give a general overview of the possible approaches to the management of ambient air pollution from motor vehicle and industrial sources. However, it is to be emphasized from the very beginning that indoor air pollution (in particular, in developing countries) might play an even larger role than outdoor air pollution due to the observation that indoor air pollutant concentrations are often substantially higher than outdoor concentrations. Beyond considerations of emissions from fixed or mobile sources, air pollution management involves consideration of additional factors (such as topography and meteorology, and community and government Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 247 participation, among many others) all of which must be integrated into a comprehensive programme . For example, meteorological conditions can greatly affect the ground-level concentrations resulting from the same pollutant emission. Air pollution sources may be scattered over a community or a region and their effects may be felt by, or their control may involve, more than one administration. Furthermore, air pollution does not respect any boundaries, and emissions from one region may induce effects in another region by long-distance transport. Air pollution management, therefore, requires a multidisciplinary approach as well as a joint effort by private and governmental entities. Sources of Air Pollution The sources of man-made air pollution (or emission sources) are of basically two types: · stationary, which can be subdivided into area sources such as agricultural production, mining and quarrying, industrial, point and area sources such as manufacturing of chemicals, nonmetallic mineral products, basic metal industries, power generation and community sources (e.g., heating of homes and buildings, municipal waste and sewage sludge incinerators, fireplaces, cooking facilities, laundry services and cleaning plants) · mobile, comprising any form of combustion-engine vehicles (e.g., light-duty gasoline powered cars, light- and heavy-duty diesel powered vehicles, motorcycles, aircraft, including line sources with emissions of gases and particulate matter from vehicle traffic). In addition, there are also natural sources of pollution (e.g., eroded areas, volcanoes, certain plants which release great amounts of pollen, sources of bacteria, spores and viruses). Natural sources are not discussed in this article. Water Pollution Control Definition of water pollution Water pollution refers to the qualitative state of impurity or uncleanliness in hydrologic waters of a certain region, such as a watershed. It results from an occurrence or process which causes a reduction in the utility of the earth’s waters, especially as related to human health and environmental effects. The pollution process stresses the loss of purity through contamination, which further implies intrusion by or contact with an 248 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture outside source as the cause. The term tainted is applied to extremely low levels of water pollution, as in their initial corruption and decay. Defilement is the result of pollution and suggests violation or desecration.

As a reference for water quality, distilled waters (H2O) represent the highest state of purity. Waters in the hydrologic cycle may be viewed as natural, but are not pure. They become polluted from both natural and human activities. Natural degradation effects may result from a myriad of sources - from fauna, flora, volcano eruptions, lightning strikes causing fires and so on, which on a long-term basis are considered to be prevailing background levels for scientific purposes.

Human-made pollution disrupts the natural balance by superimposing waste materials discharged from various sources. Pollutants may be introduced into the waters of the hydrologic cycle at any point. For example: Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 249 atmospheric precipitation (rainfall) may become contaminated by air pollutants; surface waters may become polluted in the runoff process from watersheds; sewage may be discharged into streams and rivers; and groundwaters may become polluted through infiltration and underground contamination. This shows a distribution of hydrologic waters. Pollution is then superimposed on these waters and may therefore be viewed as an unnatural or unbalanced environmental condition. The process of pollution may occur in waters of any part of the hydrologic cycle, and is more obvious on the earth’s surface in the form of runoff from watersheds into streams and rivers. However groundwater pollution is also of major environmental impact and is discussed following the section on surface water pollution. When deleterious waste materials from the above sources are discharged into streams or other bodies of water, they become pollutants which have been classified and described in a previous section. Pollutants or contaminants which enter a body of water can be further divided into: · degradable (non-conservative) pollutants: impurities which eventually decompose into harmless substances or which may be removed by treatment methods; that is, certain organic materials and chemicals, domestic sewage, heat, plant nutrients, most bacteria and viruses, certain sediments · non-degradable (conservative) pollutants: impurities which persist in the water environment and do not reduce in concentration unless diluted or removed through treatment; that is, certain organic and inorganic chemicals, salts, colloidal suspensions · hazardous waterborne pollutants: complex forms of deleterious wastes including toxic trace metals, certain inorganic and organic compounds radionuclide pollutants: materials which have been subjected to a radioactive source. Water pollution control regulations Broadly applicable water pollution control regulations are generally promulgated by national governmental agencies, with more detailed regulations by states, provinces, municipalities, water districts, conservation districts, sanitation commissions and others. At the national and state (or province) levels, environmental protection agencies (EPAs) and ministries of health are usually charged with this responsibility. In the discussion of regulations below, the format and certain portions follow the example of the 250 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture water quality standards currently applicable for the US State of Ohio. Waste Management In the past, industry has developed along the line of an increase of the efficiency of production, p. Currently, in the late 1990s, the price of waste disposal through dispersion into the atmosphere, into bodies of water or into soils (uncontrolled tipping), or the burial of waste in confined deposit sites has increased very rapidly, as a result of increasingly stringent environmental protection standards. Under these conditions, it has become economically attractive to increase the effectiveness of recycling (in other words, to increase r). This trend will persist through the coming decades. One important condition has to be met in order to improve the effectiveness of recycling: the waste to be recycled (in other words the raw materials of the second generation) must be as “pure” as possible (i.e., free of unwanted elements which would preclude the recycling). This will be achieved only through the implementation of a generalized policy of “non-mixing” of domestic, commercial and industrial waste at the source. This is often incorrectly termed sorting at the source. To sort is to separate; but the idea is precisely not to have to separate by storing the various categories of waste in separate containers or places until they are collected. The paradigm of modern waste management is non-mixing of waste at the source so as to enable an increase in the efficiency of recycling and thus to achieve a better ratio of goods per material drawn out of the environment. Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 251 Effect of Holding Size on Production and Quality of Milk of Cross-Bred Cows And Murrah Buffaloes

M.L. Bhaskar Deptt. of A.H. & Dairying, R.B.S. College Bichpuri, Agra. Introduction The milk production is one of the important economic indicators of the dairy animals. Since it is the milk yield that ultimately gives the returns to the cattle keepers. The total milk production per milch animal in a lactation depends on the daily milk producing efficiency of the animal, duration in milk, herd size of animals, holding size of families, species and breeds of the animals and its level of feeding. (Bhaskar and Gupta, 1992). The chemical quality of milk for different constituents, which it contains, is indicative of the nutritional value of the milk. The assessment of quality of milk provides a basis of determining its richness, healthfulness and other usefulness which are of utmost significance from the consumers view point, who want to get the excellent response of what they pay for the purchase of the milk. As buffalo milk is more rich in fat and SNF, it is liked more, it fetches more money and technologically better utilized for conversion into dairy products than the cow milk. (Bhaskar et.al. 2007). In India, dairying is by and large in the hands of small/marginal landholders and agriculture labours who rear one or two and rarely more than two animals. (Rao et.al. 2000). Objectives The present study was therefore, undertaken with the following twin objectives : 1. To estimate the milk production performance of cross-bred cows and Murrah buffaloes. 2. To determine the effect of holding size on quality of milk of cross-bred cows and murrah buffaloes. Methods and Materials The present investigation was conducted in five villages of community development block, Bichpuri, Agra. In the selected villages, families maintaining cross-bred cows and murrah buffaloes were classified into five groups on the basis of holding size maintained by them viz. 1. Landless(No land) 252 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 2. Marginal(0-1.0 acre) 3. Small (1.1-2.0 acre) 4. Medium (2.1-3.0 acre) 5. Large(Above 3 acre) The data pertaining to milk production were collected from 55 cross-bred cows and 55 murrah buffaloes through prepared schedules and questionnaires’. The milk sample were collected from morning milking of cross-bred cows and murrah buffaloes from village producers and analysed for different constituents. The total solids (TS) content was determined by analytical method as recommended by AOAC (1965) and fat was determined by the standard Gerber’s method. The solid-not fat (SNF) was calculated by difference. The percentage of fat was subtracted from the percentage of total solids estimated gravimetrically, to get the values of SNF. The statistical analysis of various data were carried out according to snadecor and cochran (1989). Results and Discussion It is evident from table-1 that the lactation milk yield of cross-bred cows and murrah buffaloes in different holding size groups viz; landless, marginal, small, medium and large were found to be 2506.60±34.2 and 2013.31±41.3, 2548.92±28.6 and 2088.62±34.2, 2606.33±42.3 and 2116.45±31.7, 2661.28±38.1 and 2203.18±43.5 and 2682.16±40.5 and 2244.24±40.2 liters, respectively. These observations indicated that the cross-bred cows elicited significantly greater milk production than that of murrah buffaloes in all holding size groups. The table further revealed that the milk production tended to increase with increase in holding size in cross- bred cows as well as murrah buffaloes but holding size had, however, insignificant effect on milk production of these animals. With increase in the holding size it is expected that more feeds and fodders should be more available to the animals with concomnitant increase in milk production. It is clear that landless labours and farmers with small area of land i.e. marginal and small pay more heed to their animals than those having large area of land. The milk production performance of murrah buffaloes under field conditions of study was found to be better than those already reported(Raut,1977, Rao et.al 2000). The quality of milk of these animals in respect to fat, SNF and T.S content under different holding size groups was also investigated and found Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 253

Table 1: Milk production (litre) per lactation in different holding size groups. Milk Production/lactation Holding Size Cross-bred cows Murrah buffaloes Test of significance Landless 2506.60±34.2 (6) 2013.31±41.3 (8) 8.761 ++ Marginal 2548.92±28.6 (8) 2088.62±34.2 (10) 11.243 ++ Small 2606.33±42.3 (14) 2116.45±31.7 (14) 9.674 ++ Medium 2661.28±38.1 (15) 2203.18±43.5 (12) 14.211 ++ Large 2682.16±40.5 (12) 2244.24±40.2 (11) 12.634 ++ Overall average 2601.06±36.1 (55) 2133.16±36.2 (55) Variance ratio 0.886 NS 1.038 NS Note : Figure in parenthesis indicate number of animals ++ = Significant ? = 0.01. NS = Non significant. that the fat percentage of cross-bred cows and murrah buffaloes milk in landless, marginal, small, medium and large holding size groups was 4.30±0.03 and 6.85±0.21, 4.28±0.06 and 6.77±0.24, 4.26±0.04 and 6.77±0.27, 4.20±0.08 and 6.52±0.19 and 4.19±0.10 and 6.50±0.25, respectively. The statistical analysis revealed that the percentage of fat was significantly higher in milk of murrah buffaloes as compared to that of cross-bred cows, in all five

Table-2 : Quality of milk under different holding size groups. Holding Size Cross-bred cows Murrah Buffaloes Test of significance fat percentage Landless 4.30±0.03 (6) 6.85±0.21 (8) 11.246 ++ Marginal 4.28±0.06 (8) 6.77±0.24 (10) 9.825 ++ Small 4.26±0.04 (14) 6.77±0.27 (14) 8.375 ++ Medium 4.20±0.08 (15) 6.52±0.19 (12) 10.264 ++ Large 4.19±0.10 (12) 6.50±0.25 (11) 12.281 ++ Overall average 4.25±0.07 (55) 6.68±0.23 (55) 10.349 ++ Variance Ratio 1.063 NS 1.208 NS

S.N.F. Percentage Landless 8.90±0.11 (6) 9.41±0.21 (8) 2.488 ++ Marginal 9.00±0.06 (8) 9.48±0.18 (10) 2.763 ++ Small 9.18±0.09 (14) 9.53±0.16 (14) 2.963 ++ Medium 8.82±0.13 (15) 9.46±0.22 (12) 3.612 ++ Large 9.04±0.10 (12) 9.56±0.13 (11) 2.916 ++ Overall average 8.99±0.10 (55) 9.49±0.16 (55) Variance Ratio 0.896 NS 0.369 NS

T.S. Percentage Landless 13.20±0.06 (6) 16.26±0.43 (8) 7.437 ++ Marginal 13.28±0.09 (8) 16.25±0.52 (10) 6.896 ++ Small 13.44±0.16 (14) 16.30±0.31 (14) 7.372 ++ Medium 13.02±0.20 (15) 15.98±0.26 (12) 5.332 ++ Large 13.23±0.11 (12) 16.06±0.38 (11) 7.963 ++ Overall average 13.24±0.12 (55) 16.17±0.39 (55) Variance Ratio 0.348 NS 0.406 NS Note : Figure in parenthesis indicate number of animals, NS = Non Significant, ++ = Significant p = 0.01.

254 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture holding size groups. Different holding size groups, however, appeared to have little effect on the fat content of either cross-bred cows or murrah buffaloes milk as indicated by the above table. It is explicit from the above results that the fat content of cross-bred cows and murrah buffaloes milk was greater than the minimum requirement as laid down under prevention Food Adulteration (PFA) act for cows and buffalo milk. These results compared favourably with the results of Pruthi (1987) and Prasad (2001). The SNF percentage of milk samples from different holding size groups of the animals varied from 8.90±0.11 to 9.18±0.09 in cross-bred cows and 9.41±0.21 to 9.56±0.13 in Murrah buffaloes. It is observed from the study that no appreciable difference was observed in SNF contents of milk of both species of animals during different holding size group. The statistical analysis indicated that the difference in the level of SNF between cross-bred cows and murrah buffaloes milk was significant at p d” 0.01. The SNF content of cow milk was significantly lower than that of buffalo milk. The table, however further revealed that the holding size had insignificant effect on the SNF content of milk of both rumminents. Fat and SNF are the two major components of total solids (TS) content of milk. The T.S content in cross-bred cows and Murrah buffaloes was varied from 13.02±0.20 to 13.44±0.16 and 15.98±0.26 to 16.30±0.31 percent, respectively. Murrah buffaloes milk contain significantly more T.S percentage than that of cross-bred cows milk. The S.N.F. and T.S content of buffalo milk is decidedly higher than that of cow milk, as the former contains higher percentage of protein, lactose and salts. The present study further revealed that like fat and SNF contents, the TS content of either cross bred cows or murrah buffaloes remained unaffected by holding size. References ·AOAC 1965, official methods of Analysis. Association of official Analytical chemists. Washington, D.C. ·Bhaskar M.L. and Gupta, M.P. (1992). Effect of herd size on production and quality of milk of cross-bred cows and Murrah buffaloes. J.Agrc. Sci. Res. 34: 29-32. ·Bhaskar, M.L; Gupta,M.P and Singh, K.P (2007). Effect of loctation number on production and quality of milk of cross-bred cows and Murrah buffaloes. Indian J. Dairy Sci. 60 (6) : 427-431. ·Prasad, V.(2001). Effect of corss-breading on the composition of cow milk and its socio-economic aspects. Indian J. Dairy Sci. 54:339-343. Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 255

·Pruthi, T.D; Khatri, T.R. and Singh, H.K. (1987) Effect of cross-breeding of cows on composition of milk. Indian Dairyman 39:225-229. ·Rao, S.J; Rao, B.V.R and Rao, G.N. (2000). Performance of cross-bred cows and buffaloes under village condition of Visakapatanam district of A.P. Indian J. Dairy Sci. 53:222-226. ·Raut, K.C. (1977). Production pattern of buffalo milk according to order of lactation. Indian J. Ani. Sci. 47:57-59. 256 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture Crop Diversification And Its Relevance Climate Change In Indian Context

H. S. Jatav, Y.V.Singh, Hemant Jayant, S.S. Jatav, Baby Sonam, Suryakant Dhawal Sukirtee Chejara1 and Sunil Kumar2 1Deptt. of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, 2Deptt. of Agronomy Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, (U.P.) Introduction India has to produce 300 Mt of food grains by 2020 to feed growing population. The net cultivated land (142.5 M ha) is limited and pressure for production of food grains is increasing, therefore, maintenance of soil fertility is a prime issue for farmers (Jatav et al., 2016). Generally developing countries are dependent on agriculture for their economic as well as industrial development. Agriculture is the backbone of the economy in India. Crop production can be increased by increasing the extents of agricultural land but reduction in land holdings has made it an impossible task. Another way to enhance crop production is to extent the land area by converting uncultivated land, adoption of innovative technologies, crop diversification etc (Joshi et al., 2002; Joshi, 2003). Technologies continue to be developed will have an impact on future crop production. In the future the potential for yield improvement will be through technological innovations. The crop production could be enhanced with the use of modern technologies like improved seed, fertilizer and crop protection chemicals. Diversified agro ecosystems became more important for agriculture due to increased climate fluctuations. Studies show that crop yields are highly sensitive to changes in temperature and precipitation, especially during growth stages like flower and fruit development. Maximum and minimum temperatures along with seasonal shifts have large effects on crop growth and production. Variability of precipitation, flooding, drought, and more extreme rainfall events have affected food security in many parts of the world (Parry et al., 2005). Environmental changes also have affected many different aspects of agricultural production. Crop and ecosystem responses are getting affected with greater climate variability, shifting temperature, precipitation patterns, and other global change components which will affect integral agricultural processes. It results in changes in nutrient cycling, soil moisture, shifts in Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 257 pest occurrences and plant diseases ultimately affect food production and food security (Fuhrer, 2003; Jones and Thornton, 2003). Thus, these changes have impact on abiotic and biotic stress, forcing agricultural systems to function under greater levels of perturbation in the future. Because of the impacts that climate change may have on agricultural production, the need to consider diversified agricultural systems is ever more pressing. Thus, crop diversification in context to resilient climate change has numerous challenges. Some important challenges are pest, disease and nutrient management Crop diversification strategies could help to meet out these challenges to feed the burgeoning population. Here attempt has been made to suit crop diversification for the changing scenario of climate change. Under such situation agriculture has to be strengthened from the unexpected incidences of insect and pests. Thus agricultural production has to face several challenges in terms of shrinking land, increasing food demand, control of insect, pest and disease. Agricultural Diversification Agricultural diversification is slowly picking up momentum in favor of high-value food commodities primarily to augment income rather than the traditional concept of risk management. The nature of diversification differs across regions due to existence of wide heterogeneity in agro-climatic and socio-economic environments. It was considered interesting to delineate the key regions and sub-sectors of agriculture where diversification was catching up fast. Crops, livestock, fisheries and forestry constitute the core sectors of agriculture. The crop sector is the principal income-generating source in agriculture followed by the livestock sector. A strong synergy exists between these two sectors as they are complementary to each other. The fisheries sector has a prominence in the coastal areas and forestry dominates in the hilly regions. What is Crop Diversification? Crop diversification can be a useful means to increase crop output under different situations. Crop diversification can be approached in two ways. The main form and the commonly understood concept is the addition of more crops to the existing cropping system, which could be referred to as horizontal diversification. For instance, cultivation of field crops in rice fields or growing various types of other crops in uplands have been defined as crop diversification. The systems of multiple cropping have been able to 258 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture increase food production potential to over 30 t/ha, with an increase of the cropping intensity by 400-500%. The other type of crop diversification is vertical crop diversification, in which various other downstream activities are undertaken. This could be illustrated by using any crop species, which could be refined to manufactured products, such as fruits, which are canned or manufactured into juices or syrups as the case may be. Vertical crop diversification will reflect the extent and stage of industrialization of the crop. It has to be noted that crop diversification takes into account the economic returns from different crops. This is very different to the concept of multiple cropping in which the cropping in a given piece of land in a given period is taken into account. Besides the above, some other terminologies are also used to define crop diversification. There are terms such as -crop substitution and -crop adjustment . It is necessary to indicate here that crop substitution and adjustment are linked to the main concept of crop diversification and are strategies often used to maximize profit of growing varieties of crops. Concepts of Diversification At the national level, diversification is concerned with the inter sector transfer of resources, production, and income in an economy (agriculture, industry, services, etc.) Within the agriculture sector, diversification is a shift from one crop to another crop or from one enterprise to another, in terms of area, production, income, uses, and transfer of resources (Joshi, 2003). It is an additional complementary of supplementary enterprise to the main enterprise, e.g., mixed crop livestock system. Thus, the nature of diversification can be classified as (Joshi, 2003): 1. A shift from farm to non-farm activities; 2. A shift from less profitable crops or enterprises; 3. Use of resources in diverse and complementary activities. Benefits of Diversification Micro-level studies on diversification showed that a shift towards high-value crops benefited the poor by directly generating employment and raising agricultural productivity. The producers who diversify their production as well as the hired laborers receive direct income benefits. Similarly, diversification in the rain fed and marginal environments is an insurance scheme that diffuses risk, arrests resource degradation, and reduces biotic and abiotic losses. Diversification of agriculture in favor of commercial Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 259 crops leads to greater market orientation of farm production and progressive substitution of non-traded inputs in favor of purchased inputs (Joshi et al., 2002). Now, the world is gradually diversifying with some inter-country variation in favor of high-value commodities (fruits, vegetables, livestock and fisheries). Agricultural diversification is strongly influenced by price policy, infrastructure development (especially markets and roads), urbanization and technological improvements. Rain fed areas is benefited more as a result of agricultural diversification in favor of high-value crops by substituting inferior coarse cereals. A sound and empirical understanding about nature of agricultural diversification and the constraints in accelerating its speed are needed. This would support in crafting appropriate policies for the evolution of required institutional arrangements and creation of adequate infrastructure development. There are several advantages of crop diversification, namely · Comparatively high net return from crops · Higher net returns per unit of labour · Optimization of resource use · Higher land utilization efficiency · Increased job opportunities. In order to achieve the above benefits the process of diversification should be changed from very simple forms of crop rotations, to intensive systems such as relay cropping and intercropping or specialization by diversifying into various crops, where the output and processing etc., could be different. This process could be similar at farm level and national level. Factors Affecting Crop Diversification Primary constraints for achieving food security are the low yield per unit area, high population pressure, and negligible scope for expansion of the area of land for cultivation. Under such situation available options will be crop intensification and diversification through the use of modern technologies, especially seeds, fertilizer, irrigation, mechanization of agricultural production, post-harvest processing, storage, marketing and development of new technologies by research. 1. Irrigation Water was considered a free resource in many countries. It has suddenly become a scarce commodity. Now it is treated as an agricultural 260 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture input with a major threat to food production and food security. Irrigation is highly important to have efficient crop diversification. Water use efficiency could be enhanced with judicious use of water resources. The principle of micro-irrigation to deliver water to the root zone as the crop needs it is no less valid for fertilizer. The combination of irrigation water with fertilizer, known as fertigation will be an obvious solution to get maximum benefits from their inputs while conserving the environment. Micro-irrigation will be an efficient tool to increase water use efficiency and its adoption is increasing. The micro-irrigated area has increased from 10,000 ha in 1975 to 104,000 ha in 1999 in Israel, reported Gunasena. Therefore, fertigation helps to economize both water and nutrient thereby conserve natural resources and protect the environment. 2. Use of Improved Seed Quality seed like certified seed, breeder‘s seed, is important for optimum plant stand in the farmers‘field. Improved seed is one of the major contributors to crop diversification through development of appropriate cropping systems. The quality seed development at national level will be essential for yield improvement. The increase in annual yield of rice and wheat was attributed to use of improved seed coupled with better management practices. In India, estimated area planted to HYVs has increased from 62% in 1989 to 70% in 1999. Wheat has highest coverage under modern varieties among other cereals. It is estimated that more than 70% of the wheat acreage is under improved varieties in major wheat producing countries i.e. Bangladesh, China, India and Pakistan. In other crops, use of improved varieties is not extensive, but there is plenty of scope as farmers are quite responsive to the new varieties and have increasingly adopted them as and when they are released for cultivation. 3. Agricultural Mechanization Farm power includes human, animal and mechanical sources. In developing countries 80 percent of the farm power comes from humans. There is a trend for the shift of labor from agriculture to industry in most of the developing countries. This has already taken place in the developed countries. It will also use appropriate farm machinery in the production chain to make farming more efficient and enable farmers to diversify cropping by growing more crops. In many countries mechanization of agriculture has led to improved yields and high labour productivity. It is reported that in Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 261 China use of mechanization has led to 10% yield enhancement and 5% additional when irrigation was included. Thus, use of machinery for harvesting and processing increases yield by simply reducing crop losses. The post- harvest losses are reported as 20-40% in developing countries. Saving this amount is equal to increasing the yield without any added costs. Use of agricultural machinery shows an upward trend in our country. 4. Crop Nutrition Fertilizers and manures are major contributors to enhance yield and sustained production. The amount of fertilizers is generally lower in the developing countries than in developed countries. However, danger of overuse has not been a problem in the highly industrialized countries. Organic matter usage has been less in most countries. Its incorporation into the agricultural systems will make the soils fertile and less degradable. But use of organic manures has several constraints such as the volume required, time, labour and opportunity costs. Another recent development is in the development of crop rotations, a strategy towards diversification of agricultural systems to increase productivity and crop yields. This involves the inclusion of green manure cover crops or other legumes in the cropping systems. The popular crop mixes are legumes in maize and other cereals. Along with fertilizers it is also necessary to encourage the use of organic manures to renovate soils and improve their physical and chemical properties and biological activity. Similarly, use of slow release organic fertilizers is also advisable to enhance nutrient use efficiency. 5. Organic Farming Organic farming is the process of producing food naturally without the use of chemicals. This method avoids the use of synthetic chemical fertilizers and genetically modified organisms to influence the growth of crops. The main idea behind organic farming is zero impact‘on the environment. The main aim of the organic farmer is to protect the earth‘s resources and produce safe, healthy food. Organic farming includes all types of agricultural production systems, which are environmentally, socially, and economically sound. It is also different to traditional farming in that it involves a holistic approach to sustainable agriculture. This form of crop diversification has spread on the continent, particularly in Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Denmark, Sweden and Finland and is spreading into the Asian and African continents. The demand for organically grown food is gaining momentum all over the world. 262 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 6. Role of Farming Community The farmer participation is very important for successful in adoption and implementation of new technologies. It is also necessary to combine farmers’ traditional knowledge with the contribution of sciences. It strengthens the crop by taking into account their needs, values and objectives. Crop diversification strategies have failed in most cases due to ignorance of farmer involvement and external and internal factors that affect the system. One of the major issues is also crop selection. In rice-based crop diversification, crop selection does not pose a severe problem as it depends on the soil type. In upland crop diversification, crop selection and management depends on market values and past experience. A sustainable programmed of diversification could be achieved only through farmer participation in the planning process. Under changing scenario of climate, farmers‘needs strategic and contingency crop planning. Under such situation, they prefer to go for short duration and low input responsive crop cultivars. 7. Protected Agriculture The most recent addition to crop diversification is the introduction of crop production under controlled environments. Weather parameter like relative humidity, temperature, moisture level need to grow crops under controlled. Thus protected agriculture has made rapid headway and became popular among middle income agriculturists. In these systems various factors of the environment such as air, temperature, humidity, atmospheric gas composition, nutrient factors etc., are controlled. These technological developments coupled with use of high quality crop varieties are integrated into a system of agricultural production, which is referred to as protected agriculture. The main forms of protected agriculture include the use of mulches, row covers and poly-tunnels. It has been a common practice to use organic mulches such as straw, dead leaves, coir dust etc., to modify the environment to make soil more favorable (weed and moisture control) for plant growth. Plastic mulches are also used for the production of high- value crops. Plastic mulches with drip irrigation are widely used as irrigation water and fertilizers (fertigation) helps in reducing cost of production. The use of polyester sheets over rows of plants help to prevent crop damage by insects, sunlight and sometimes frost in cooler areas. Now-a-days hydroponics and drip irrigation are the major areas of protected agriculture practiced in different countries. Thus, the high yields are achieved by practicing controlled environment agriculture. Similarly, the diversification Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 263 into selection of high-value crops such as tomato, sweet corn, red, green and yellow bell peppers, strawberry, cauliflower, cucumbers, cantaloupe, lettuce, green peas and ornamentals/cut flowers those have markets both locally and overseas could be adopted. Thus these crops with high genetic potential for yield and quality will be essential for success of crop diversification. 8. New Technology Development Modern biotechnology in which characteristics based on single genes can be transferred from any organism to plants has resulted in transgenic plants combining disease or insect or herbicide tolerance. Therefore, the emerging genetic technologies could be beneficial to farmers due to their cost effectiveness. However, use of transgenic crops has come under severe scrutiny in recent times and some countries have completely banned their import until the actual situation is clarified. It is now widely acknowledged that conventional technologies will be less than adequate to double food production, and biotechnology will be an essential strategy to achieve food security in India. 9. Impact on rice-wheat system of IGPs The effect of climatic changes on productivity and production in a rice-wheat system is generally accepted. What has not received sufficient attention is the effect of the rice wheat system on local and global climate changes. A shift to, or intensification of, rice-wheat systems in the Indo- Gangetic Plains has resulted in seasonal wet and dry crop cycles, a heavy reliance on irrigation and an increased fertilizer usage accompanied by indiscriminate burning of crop residues. The emission of greenhouse gasses

CO2, CH4 and N2O in rice-wheat systems and other environmental concerns associated with foodgrain production now beg for attention. 10. Climate Change and its Impact on Crop Production Diversified agro ecosystems have become more important for agriculture as climate fluctuations have increased. Research has shown that crop yields are quite sensitive to changes in temperature and precipitation, especially during flower and fruit development stages. Temperature maximums and minimums, as well as seasonal shifts, can have large effects on crop growth and production. Greater variability of precipitation, including flooding, drought, and more extreme rainfall events, has affected food security in many parts of the world (Parry et al. 2005). 264 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture Agricultural vulnerabilities have been found in a number of important crop species. · Rice: Observations of rice production in the Philippines during an El Niño drought season showed reductions in seed weight and overall production (Lansigan et al. 2000). · Wheat: Studies of wheat have demonstrated that heat pulses applied to wheat during anthesis reduced both grain number and weight, highlighting the effect of temperature on spikes grain fill (Wollenweber et al., 2003) · Maize: In maize, researchers observed reduced pollen viability at temperatures above 36oC, a threshold similar to those in a number of other crops (Porter and Semenov, 2005). Such observed agricultural vulnerabilities to changes in temperature and precipitation point to the need to develop resilient systems that can buffer crops against climate variability and extreme climate events, especially during highly important development periods such as anthesis. 11. Inter-relationship of CO2, Temperature and Yields Long-term experiments in the region have shown that degradation of soil fertility has led to decline in yields of rice and stagnation in wheat production. In particular, soil organic matter decline has been of importance because it impacts on both soil fertility and soil structural stability. However, soil organic matter decline seems inevitable given the farmers‘ practices of burning virtually all crop residues and manure generated by livestock, fed thereon. Decline in soil structure compounds yield decline due to nutrient deficiencies. Addition of 15 t/ha/annum of organic inputs (farmyard and green manure) in conjunction with NPK fertilizers consistently increased yields of wheat compared to NPK fertilizers alone in a 39 year experiment, but rice yields declined regardless (Wanjari and Singh, 2010). The role of tillage under warm, wet conditions in fostering rapid soil organic matter loss and the consequence for CO2 emissions into the atmosphere also needs to be taken into account. Crop Diversification Strategies for Climate Change The climate change will affect both (i) biotic (pest, pathogens) and (ii) (ii) abiotic (solar radiation, water, temperature) factors in crop systems, threatening crop sustainability and production. More diverse agroecosystems with a broader range of traits Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 265 and functions will be better able to perform under changing environmental conditions (Matson et al., 1997; Altieri, 1999), which is important given the expected changes to biotic and abiotic conditions. The following are a few of the major ways that the greater functional capacity of diverse agroecosystems has been found to protect crop productivity against environmental change. 1. Date of Sowing Studying the effect of weather variability on field crops through different date of sowing is considered as a simplest technique to predict the probable crop responses to the climate change/ variability (Bhatt et al., 2012). It will be helpful to make contingency planning to fit proper variety to extreme weather conditions like raising and decreasing temperatures, varying rainfall and other weather components. Thus, best performing crop variety will be screened through crop variety trial. The suitable variety would be adopted on large scale on farmers‘ field by testing these crop varieties on farmer‘s fields. 2. Crop Rotation Increasing diversification of cereal cropping systems by alternating crops, such as oilseed, pulse, and forage crops, is another option for managing plant disease risk (Krupinsky et al., 2002). Disease cycles could be interrupted through crop rotation by interchanging cereal crops with broadleaf crops that are not susceptible to the same diseases. Although changes in disease spread and severity are uncertain under climate change, greater genetic variation across space and time could potentially reduce adverse disease transmission impacts that may accompany climate change.It is well documented that continuous mono-cropping (rice-wheat) for longer periods with low system diversity (Dwivedi, 2003). It resulted in loss of soil fertility due to emergence of nutrient deficiencies, deterioration of soil physical properties decline in factor productivity and crop yields in high productivity areas (Saha et al., 2012). Introduction of legume crop in rice-wheat cropping system helps in addition of nitrogen, nutrient recycling from deeper soil layers, minimizing soil compaction, increase in soil organic matter, breaking of weed and pest cycles and minimizing harmful allelopathic effect (Saha et al., 2012). 3. Reduced Tillage: 266 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture Reduced tillage could enhance soil biodiversity thereby leading to greater disease suppression. It helps to establish crop stand so that densities could be adjusted to allow for better microclimatic adjustments to disease growth. These examples show that farmers can take advantage of greater crop diversification to reduce disease susceptibility in agricultural systems, thereby limiting the amount of production loss as a result of crop diseases. 4. Pest Management Pest management is a perennial challenge to farmers, and it is a very important ecosystem service. In agricultural systems, as in natural ecosystems, herbivorous insects can have significant impacts on plant productivity. The challenges of pest suppression may intensify in the future as changes in climate affect pest ranges and potentially bring new pests into agricultural systems. It is expected that insect pests will generally become more abundant as temperatures rise as a result of range extensions and phonological changes. This abundance will be accompanied by higher rates of population development, growth, migration, and overwintering (Cannon, 1998; Lin, 2011). Farmers may be able to assist in creating biotic barriers against new pests by increasing the plant diversity of their farms in ways that promote natural enemy abundance. Crop diversity is critical not only in terms of production but also because it is an important determinant of the total biodiversity in the system (Matson et al., 1997). With greater plant species richness and diversity in spatial and temporal distribution of crops, diversified agroecosystems mimic more natural systems and are therefore able to maintain a greater diversity of animal species, many of which are natural enemies of crop pests (Altieri, 1999). Many examples of pest suppression have been shown within agricultural systems possessing diversity and complexity, especially in comparison with less-complex systems (Cannon, 1998). 5. Disease Management Losses caused by pathogens can contribute significantly to decline in crop production. Climate changes potentially could affect plant disease distribution and viability in new agricultural regions. The effect of climate change on disease prevalence is therefore much less certain. Climate change could have positive, negative, or no impact on individual plant diseases (Chakraborty et al., 2000). However, it is suspected that milder winters may favor many crop diseases, such as powdery mildew, brown leaf rust, Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 267 and strip rust, whereas warmer summers may provide optimal conditions for other diseases, such as cercosporea leaf spot disease (Patterson et al., 1999). The loss of genetic diversity in crop production has led to a hypothesized increase in crop disease susceptibility as a result of higher rates of disease transmission. Many mechanisms reduce the spread of disease in agricultural systems with greater varietal and species richness. Barrier and frequency effects occur when other disease-resistant varieties or species block the ability of a disease or virus to transmit and infect a susceptible host. Multiline cultivars and varietal mixtures have been used to effectively retard the spread and evolution of fungal pathogens in small grains and to control some plant viruses (Matson et al. 1997). One well- known example of barrier effects in rice production showed that genetic variation within species and within populations can increase the ability of an agricultural system to respond to pathogen diseases. 6. Habitat Management It is one method used within agricultural systems to alter habitats to improve the availability of the resources natural enemies require for optimal performance (Landis et al. 2000). Such management techniques have been developed for use at within-crop, within-farm, or landscape scales, and some have been proven to be very economical for farmers. Gurr et al. (2003). Studies found that many degrees of complexity exist in increasing biodiversity for pest management. Simply diversifying the plant age structure of a monoculture or strip-cutting fields such that natural enemies have a temporal refuge can improve in-field habitats for natural enemies. Larger- scale changes, such as integrating annual and perennial noncrop vegetation; increasing crop diversity within the field; or increasing farm wide diversification with silvoculture, agroforestry, and livestock may also provide a variety of other functions to the system (Gurr et al., 2003). The diversity of plant species within the agro ecosystem therefore provides long-term pest suppression for agricultural systems by building up a bank of potential natural enemies for any future pest outbreaks in the system.

7. Agro forestry Systems To grow agricultural crops with forest trees and other agroforestry system is one of the strategies of crop diversification to combat climate change. Agroforestry systems also protect crops from extreme storm events (e.g., hurricanes, tropical storms) in which high rainfall intensity and hurricane 268 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture winds can cause landslides, flooding, and premature fruit drop from crop plants. In a comparative study of farming systems in Sweden and Tanzania, two locations where agriculture has suffered from climate variation and extreme events, it was found that agricultural diversity increased the resilience of the production systems. Sweden suffered from cold-tolerance issues, whereas Tanzania suffered from problems of heat tolerance and irregular El Niño cycles. Both locations experienced greater seasonal drought. In these cases, incorporating wild varieties into the agricultural system and increasing the temporal and spatial diversity of crops has been found as the successful management practice (Tengö and Belfrage, 2004). Diversification of agricultural systems can significantly reduce the vulnerability of production systems to greater climate variability and extreme events, thus protecting rural farmers and agricultural production. 8. Reducing Greenhouse Gases Positive changes in agronomic practices like tillage, manuring and irrigation can help reduce greatly the release of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. Adoption of zero tillage and controlled irrigation can drastically reduce the evolution of CO2 and N2O. Reduction in burning of crop residues reduces the generation of CO2, N2O and CH4 to a significant extent. Saving on diesel by reduced tillage and judicious use of water pumps can have a major role to play. Changing to zero tillage would save 98 liter diesel per hectare. With each liter of diesel generating 2.6 kg, about 3.2 Mt. CO2/ ammum (about 0.8 MMTCE) can be reduced by zero -tillage in the 12 million ha under rice- wheat systems in the Indo-Gangetic Plains alone. Reference · Altieri MA. (1999). The ecological role of biodiversity in agro ecosystems. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 74: 19-31. · Cannon RJC. (1998). The implications of predicted climate change for insect pests in the UK, with emphasis on non-indigenous species. Global Change Biology 4: 785-796. · Chakraborty S, Tiedemann AV, Teng PS. (2000). Climate change: Potential impact on plant diseases. Environmental Pollution 108: 317-326.

· Fuhrer J. (2003). Agroecosystem responses to combinations of elevated CO2, ozone, and global climate change. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 97: 1-20. Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 269

· Gurr GM, Wratten SD, Luna JM. (2003). Multi-function agricultural biodiversity: Pest management and other benefits. Basic and Applied Ecology 4: 107-116. · Jasbir Singh, Dhillon SS (2002). Agricultural Geography. Tata Mc Graw Hill Publishing Co. Ltd, New Delhi (2nd Edition). · Jatav, H.S., Singh S.K., Singh, Y.V., Paul, A. Kumar, V. Singh, P. and Jayant H, (2016). Effect of biochar on yield and heavy metals uptake in ricegrown on soil amended with sewage sludge 10(2), p. 1367-1377 · Jones PG, Thornton PK. (2003). The potential impacts of climate change on maize production in Africa and Latin America in 2055. Global Environmental Change 13: 51-59. · Joshi PK, (2003). In: Addressing Resource Conservation Issues in Rice-Wheat Systems of South Asia: A Resource Book. March, 2003; Rice-Wheat Consortium for Indo-Gangetic Plains, CIMMYT. · Joshi PK, Ashok G, Birthal PS, T Laxmi. (2002). Nature and Speed of Agricultural Diversification in South Asian Countries. Paper Presented at the ICRIER ICAR IFPRI Conference on Economic Reforms and Food Security. The Role of Trade and Technology. 24-25 April 2002, New Delhi, India. · Krupinsky JM, Bailey KL, McMullen MP, Gossen BD, Turkington TK. (2002). Managing plant disease risk in diversified cropping systems. Agronomy Journal 94: 198-209. · Landis DA, Wratten SD, Gurr GM. (2000). Habitat management to conserve natural enemies of arthropod pests in agriculture. Annual Review of Entomology 45: 175-201. · Lansigan FP, de los Santos WL, Coladilla JO. (2000). Agronomic impacts of climate variability on rice production in the Philippines. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 82: 129-137. · Lin BB, Perfecto I, Vandermeer J. (2008). Synergies between agricultural intensification and climate change could create surprising vulnerabilities for crops. Bio. Science 58: 847-854. · Lin BB. (2007). Agroforestry management as an adaptive strategy against potential microclimate extremes in coffee agriculture. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 144: 85-94. · Lin, Brend B. (2011). Resilience in agriculture through crop diversification: Adaptive management for environmental change. Bio. Science 61(3): 183-193. · Matson PA, Parton WJ, Power AG, Swift MJ. (1997). Agricultural intensification and ecosystem properties. Science 277: 504-509. 270 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture

· Parry M, Rosenzweig C, Livermore M. (2005). Climate change, global food supply and risk of hunger. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 360: 2125-2138. · Patterson DT, Westbrook JK, Joyce RJV, Lingren PD, Rogasik J. (1999). Weeds, insects, and diseases. Climatic Change 43: 711-727. · Porter JR, Semenov MA. (2005). Crop responses to climatic variation. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 360: 2021-2035. · Tengo M, Belfrage K. (2004). Local management practices for dealing with change and uncertainty: A cross-scale comparison of cases in Sweden and Tanzania. Ecology and Society 9: 4. · Wanjari RH and Muneshwar Singh. (2010). Yield trend, nutrient efficiency and sustainability in major cropping system under long term experiments. Indian Journal of Fertilisers 6(12);122-136. · Wollenweber B, Porter JR, Schellberg J. (2003). Lack of interaction between extreme high-temperature events at vegetative and reproductive growth stages in wheat. Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science 189: 142-150. Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 271 Challenges of Climate Change In Agricultural Sustainability & Food Security

Dalip Kumar Senior Executive (Projects) , National Council of Applied Economic Research, New Delhi, Introduction Climate change is one of the biggest man made global environmental challenges in front of the world. It is a change in the statistical properties of the climate system when considered over long period of time, regardless of cause. It is also a fundamental threat to the future of sustainable development . There are so many aspects of impact of climate change. The United Nations framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) defines climate change as “a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods”.This is undoubtedly the greatest environmental threat that humanity has to face in the coming years. Climate change directly affects the agricultural productivity. Climate change is a broader term which embraces in its ambit many things like changes in atmosphere, temperature, sea level and ocean acidification. Atmosphere change denotes change in the proportion of Carbon dioxide(CO2),

Methane(CH4), Nitric Oxide(N20), Ozone(O3), Choloroflouro Carbon(CFCs) and other green houses gases like fluorinated gases, black carbon etc. Temperature change means changes in surface temperature, tropospheric and stratospheric temperatures. Sea level change is related to natural phenomenon like sea level rise, flooding the coastal areas, cyclones,

Tsunamis, etc.. Ocean acidification affects CaCO3 saturation which has adverse impacts on marine organism, crabs, marine mammals and changes in the ocean chemistry resulting into the loss of livelihoods of nearly 30 millions of world’s poorest people who directly depend on coral reef eco system. All these have of adverse impacts on food security and public health. Sustainable agriculture, by its very definition, reduces harm to the environment, for example through the reduction or elimination of polluting substances such as pesticides and nitrogen fertilisers, water conservation practices, soil conservation practices, restoration of soil fertility, maintenance 272 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture of agricultural biodiversity and biodiversity etc. An Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) review summarizes many of these environmental benefits in relation to organic agriculture (Scialabba and Hattam, 2002). Climate change first gained significant attention in 1988. Not long afterward, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was adopted by various government representatives in May 1992 and came into force in 1994. The UNFCCC is an international environmental treaty produced at the United Nations conference on Environment and Development (UNCED, informally known as the Earth Submit, held in Rio de Janeiro from 3-14 June 1992. Today, the UNFCCC is one of the most widely supported international environment agreements and as of December 2009, UNFCCC had 192 parties. The decision- making authority of the UNFCCC is the Conference of the Parties (CoP), which is established as the supreme body of the convention. The convention of climate change sets an overall framework for intergovernmental efforts to tackle the challenge posed by climate change. The CoP meets annually. One major agreement that was reached at the Third Conference of the parties at Kyoto, Japan in 1997 is now called the Kyoto Protocol (KP). i. Status of CO2 Emission in the Major Countries

The trends in per capita CO2 emissions can be seen in Table-1. The figure of USA and Japan show declining trends but other countries like China , Russia and India emitting more than in 2004 in terms of per capita emission. USA per capita CO2 emissions was 23.3MT in 2004 and it was reduced up to 16.6 MT in 2013. Same situation was also in Japan. But

China , Russia and India per capita CO2 emissions trends is gradually increased.

Table 1: Trends of CO 2 Emission in the Major Countries Countries CO 2 Emission in per capita(in metric ton) CO 2 Emission Change 1990 2000 2004 2006 2008 2010 2011 2012 2014 in 2014 in 1990 (Metric ton) to 2014 USA 19.6 20.6 23.3 18.67 18.5 17.6 17.3 16.3 16.5 5,330 -3.1 EU 9.2 8.4 8.3 8.3 8.1 7.7 7.1 7.1 6.7 3,420 -2.5 CHINA 2.1 2.8 3.6 4.18 5.7 6.2 7.2 7.2 7.6 10,590 5.5 JAPAN 9.5 10.2 13.0 10.14 9.91 8.9 9.8 10.8 10.1 1,280 0.56 RUSSIA 16.5 11.3 10.0 11.03 11.9 11.8 12.8 12.7 12.4 1,770 -3.7 INDIA 0.8 1.0 1.0 1.29 1.4 1.7 1.6 1.6 1.8 2,340 1.1

Sources: Population Data, UNPD, 2013(United Nations Population Divisions) and Trends in Global CO 2 Emissions: 2015 Report © PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency The Hague, 2015

The above data show China’s CO2 emissions currently to be twice as high of those in the United States. China is the world’s largest hydraulic cement producer. The main reason for the curbing of global CO2 emissions is the change in the world’s fossil-fuel use due to the structural change in Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 273 the economy and in the energy mix of China. China’s CO2 emissions have grown extraordinarily rapidly since it started on its fast industrialisation path and after it joined the World Trade Organization in 2003. In 2008 China produced over 1.38 billion metric tons of hydraulic cement, almost half of the world’s production. Emissions from cement production account for 9.8 per cent of China’s 2008 total industrial CO2 emissions. India experienced dramatic growth in fossil-fuel CO2 emissions averaging 5.7 per cent per year and becoming the world’s third largest fossil-fuel CO2-emitting country.

A CO2 emission from the Russian Federation still is the fourth largest. Japan is the world’s largest importer of coal (184 million metric tons) and liquefied petroleum gas (13.2 million metric tons) and the second largest importer of crude oil (191 million metric tons). India’s CO2 emissions in 2014 continued to increase by 7.8 per cent to about 2.3 Gt CO2. This increase, about 170 million tonnes, made India the largest contributor to global emissions growth in 2014. India is the fourth largest CO2 emitting country, following closely behind the European Union, and ahead of the Russian Federation. 1. Climate Change, Agricultural Sustainability Climate change is also affecting the natural systems like forest, river, land, ponds, tanks etc. Agricultural sustainability is also depends on forest, river, land, ponds, tanks etc.. Agriculture has to adapt to significant impacts of climate change, while at the same time providing food for a growing population. Our societies depend on food, fuel, fiber , water and other services which are available in the natural system. Climate Change will make future water resources less predictable and complicated. Sustainable agriculture is the efficient production of safe, high quality agricultural products, in a way that protects and improves the natural environment, the social and economic conditions of farmers, their employees and local communities, and safeguards the health and welfare of all farmed species. Sustainable agriculture seeks to provide more profitable farm income, promote environmental stewardship, and enhance quality of life for farm, families and communities. As a more sustainable agriculture seeks to make the best use of nature’s goods and services, technologies and practices must be locally adapted and fitted to places. Climate change will depress agricultural productivity. It will add several conflicting pressures on agricultural production. Climate Change will affect agricultural sector in the Indian sub-continent in many ways (Babu and Bhalachandran, 2009). Impacts on agriculture due to climate 274 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture change have received considerable attention in India as they are closely linked to the food security and poverty status of a vast majority of the population (Kumar, 2009). It will affect agriculture productivity directly through higher temperatures, greater crop water demand, more variable rainfall, cold spells and extreme climate events such as floods and draughts. Most of developing countries have reducing global average productivity. (World Bank, 2010). (i) Indicators of Agriculture Sustainability Sustainability in agriculture is a complex concept. A large number of indicators have been developed but they do not cover all dimensions and levels. Some argue that the concept of sustainability is a “social construct” (David 1989; Webster 1999) and is yet to be made operational (Webster 1997). According to Altieri (1995), farmers can improve the biological stability and resilience of the system by choosing more suitable crops, rotating them, growing a mixture of crops, and irrigating, mulching and manuring land. According to Lynam and Herdt (1989), sustainability can be measured by examining the changes in yields and total factor productivity. Beus and Dunlop (1994) considered agricultural practices such as the use of pesticides and inorganic fertilizers, and maintenance of diversity as measures of sustainability. Gowda and Jayaramaiah (1998) used nine indicators, namely integrated nutrient management, land productivity, integrated water management, integrated pest management, input self-sufficiency, crop yield security, input productivity, information self-reliance and family food sufficiency, to evaluate the sustainability of rice production in India Reijntjes et al. (1992) identified a set of criteria under ecological, economic and social aspects of agricultural sustainability. Ecological criteria comprises the use of nutrients and organic materials, water, energy, and environmental effects, while economic criteria includes farmers’ livelihood systems, competition, factor productivity, and relative value of external inputs. Food security, building indigenous knowledge, and contribution to employment generation are social criteria (Rasul and Thapa 2003). The concept of sustainability centre on the need to develop agricultural technologies and practices that: (i) do not have adverse effects on the environment; ii) are accessible to and effective for farmers; and (iii) lead to both improvements in food productivity and have positive side effects on Environmental goods and services. Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 275 Main goal of Agricultural sustainability centre on the following factors:- Increase grain yield, ensure food security and eliminate famine; increase peasants’ income, eliminate poverty and stimulate comprehensive agricultural development; Protect and enhance the environment and natural resources; Control the negative effects of climate change; Improvement in the welfare and quality and Quantity of Human , wildlife and farm animals; Minimize use of non-renewable resources and use green energy The key principles for sustainability are to: i. integrate biological and ecological processes such as nutrient cycling, nitrogen fixation, soil regeneration, allelopathy, competition, predation and parasitism into food production processes, ii. minimize the use of those non-renewable inputs that cause harm to the environment or to the health of farmers and consumers, iii. make productive use of the knowledge and skills of farmers, thus improving their self-reliance and substituting human capital for costly external inputs, and iv. make productive use of people’s collective capacities to work together to solve common agricultural and natural resource problems, such as for pest, watershed, irrigation, forest and credit management. Zhen and Routray (2003), proposed operational indicators for measuring agricultural sustainability:- A. Economic Indicators are:- Crop productivity; Net farm income; Benefit-cost ratio of production Per capita food grain production B. Social Indicators are:- Food self sufficiency; Equality in income and food distribution; Access to resources and support services; Farmers, knowledge and awareness of resource conservation C. Ecological Indicators are:- Amount of fertilizers / pesticides used per unit of cropped land; Amount of irrigation water used per unit of cropped land; Soil nutrient content; Depth of groundwater table; Quality of groundwater for irrigation; Water use efficiency; Nitrate content of groundwater and crops. 276 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture (ii) Climate Change and Water Managment Drought is expected to increase in frequency and severity in the future as a result of climate change. It can be caused by not receiving rain or snow over a period of time . A drought is a long period of dry weather, when no rain falls for weeks, months or even years. Drought can have serious health, social, and economic impacts . Drought often creates a lack of clean water for drinking, public sanitation and personal hygiene. Where temperatures are higher, losses of water from soil and reservoirs due to evaporation are likewise higher than they would otherwise be. Many parts of the world expect drought every year. A shortage of water makes water management a crucial part of protecting both the environment and the economy in India. Watersheds heavily influenced by groundwater, rates of surface water and groundwater exchange can also change along a river reach The process of watershed development consists in harvesting rainwater wherever it falls, regenerating the environment, increasing green cover and adopting sustainable land and husbandry practices in the watershed. It implies making bunds, digging trenches, building gullies etc in a way that will arrest the rapid water runoff from hill slopes to the ground. This is necessary because during the days of rainfall, the tendency of water is to gush down the slopes and also take the top soil cover along with it. This means that there is no water conservation and precious fertile soil is lost due to erosion. When this flow is reduced or made to go through steps, water percolates into the ground at various spots and increases the underground water table. At the bottom of the hills, it collects to form water reservoirs. And while flowing down slowly it helps turn patches of land green. Watershed provides safe drinking water, provides food, enables us to adapt to the impacts of climate change more easily by cooling the air and absorbing greenhouse gas emissions, and provides natural areas for people to keep active and recharge our batteries. Watershed produces energy and supplies water for agriculture, industry and households. Forests and wetlands help to prevent or reduce costly climate change and flooding impacts, manages drought, contributes to tourism, fisheries, forestry, agriculture and mining industries and introducing sustainable agricultural practices for hilly and plan areas. I. Agricultural Sustainability and Food Security Food Security issues depend on availability, accessibility and affordability of food to all the people round the year. This paper explains Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 277 the indicators which affect the status of food availability, accessibility and affordability. Food availability must be improved by providing the irrigational facilities. Accessibility and affordability will improve by the policies for enhancing minimum agricultural wages, absorption of food by the better health facility and better transport and marketing networks. The food security implications of changes in agricultural production patterns and performance are of two kinds (FAO-2008). Impacts on the production of foodgrain will affect food supply at the global and local levels. Past year to year variations in climate and agricultural outcomes, yields of major crops in India are projected to decline by 4.5 to 9 per cent within the next three decades. (Guiteras, 2007) Human health depends on people having enough food and safe water, a decent home, protection against disasters, a reasonable income and good social and community relations. Climate change is projected to have mostly negative and adverse health impacts on many population groups, especially the poorest, in large areas of India. These could include direct health impacts such as heatstroke, and indirect impacts such as increased diarrhoea risk due to water contamination via flooding, or higher risk of mortality leading to large-scale loss of livelihoods. Temperature rise due to solar ultraviolet radiation can have several adverse health impacts on human beings. It may cause encephalitis, and other eye related diseases like Cancer of Cornea, Cataract, Uveal melodrama, mascular degeneration etc.. Its impacts on skin may surface in the form of malignant melanoma, Sunburn, Chronic sun damage and Photodermatoses. It can damage immunity by suppressing cell mediated immunity, increase susceptibility to infection, impairment of prophylactic immunization and activation of virus infection. Its other health hazard ramifications are caused by indirect effects of climate change like disruption in food supply, infectious disease, air pollution, loss of vegetation, land and water degradation etc.. Climate change has also effects on heart, tuberculosis, breast cancer, prostate cancer and decreased risk of mental problem like schizophrenia etc.. Climate is likely to have effects on agricultural production. Negative impact includes more frequent droughts and floods, heat stress, increased outbreaks of diseases and pests, shortening of crop growing periods and in coastal region increased flooding and salinisation due to sea level rise and impeded drainage. This also directly affects the livelihoods of millions of people through impacts on agricultural yield and productivity. The rise in 278 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture use of chemical inputs has also had adverse environmental and health impacts on farm workers and consumers. A substantial portion of pesticide residues ends up in the environment, causing pollution and biodiversity decline (Znaor et al. 2005). The extensive use of pesticides has also resulted in pesticide resistance in pests and adverse effects to beneficial natural predators and parasites (Pimentel, 2005). Sustainable agricultural approaches can be of many forms, such as agro ecology, organic agriculture, ecological agriculture, biological agriculture, etc. (Pretty and Hine, 2001). Sustainable agriculture should make best use of nature’s goods and services by integrating natural, regenerative processes e.g. nutrient cycling, nitrogen fixation, soil regeneration and natural enemies of pests and minimise non-renewable inputs (pesticides and fertilisers) that damage the environment or harm human health. There is need to rely on the knowledge and skills of farmers, improving their self-reliance. · Promote and protect social capital - people’s capacities to work together to solve problems. · There should be dependence on locally-adapted practices to innovate in the face of uncertainty. Climate Change reduces quantity and quality of crop produced; Crop and fodder productivity, livestock health and fish catch; increasing susceptibility to pests. Direct crop damages due to water logging results into nutrient loss, frost, hail storm, salinity and water stress, crop acreage and diseases, shift in cropping patterns. This also directly affects the livelihoods and food security of millions of people due to impacts on agricultural productivity. The impacts of climate change will include changing agricultural productivity and livelihood patterns, economic losses, and impacts on infrastructure, markets and food security. Diseases affecting livestock or crops can have devastating effects on food availability. In totality, climate change affects all three components of food security-Availability, Accessibility and Affordability. II. Challenges ahead in Agriculture Sustainability Some important challenges are as under:- Increasing Population and rapidly growing urbanization; Climate change and impact on agriculture; Inadequate Food Storage facilities; growing demand for foodgrains, vegetables, fruits, milk, fish etc; decreasing Agricultural land ; continuing crop loss, declining crop production; Small and Fragmented land holdings and Operational Holdings; reducing food and Nutritional Security; Shrinking Number of Livestock; Quality of Soil and its fertility detoriation ; Rising Cost of agricultural inputs ; Inadequate Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 279 Water storage/ Water shade; Government Policies (Subsidies/ Tax etc.); Lack of Rural Infrastructure etc. Climate change is one of the most serious challenges and problems faced by the economy. It refers to any significant change in all measures of climate (such as temperature, precipitation, or wind) lasting for an extended period (decades or longer). There have been periods of warming and cooling on the earth over the last billions of years but the changes have not been so extreme as is witnessed in the present. This change affects people, plants, and animals. Effects of climate change include sea level rise, shrinking glaciers, changes in the range and distribution of plants and animals, trees blooming earlier, lengthening of growing seasons, ice on rivers and lakes freezing later and breaking up earlier, and thawing of permafrost. Based on current trends, energy-related CO2 emissions would more than double by 2050 and put the world on a catastrophic trajectory that could lead to temperatures more than 5°C warmer than pre-industrial era. Concerted global action is urgently needed to limit global warming to around 2°C. Climate change is also likely to have significant effect on the quality of plantation and cash crops such as cotton, fruits, vegetables, tea, coffee, aromatic & medicinal plants, etc. While the effects of climate change impact the country and the globe at large, those who will be seriously affected and most hit are the poor and rural dwellers. Already, climate variation is affecting the people, especially those living in dry zones, who depend on rain-fed agriculture and livestock for a living. The recent severe droughts, changing rainfall patterns as well as floods have resulted in severe crop, livestock, and livelihood losses, destruction of homes and property and large scale uprooting of villagers. Rising temperature, increasing droughts, water shortages and pest attacks are expected to cause a decline in agriculture productivity particularly in dry land areas. The incidence and spread of diseases in both humans and animals will rise and thus further add to the burdens and deprivations of the poor The impact of climate change on soil quality, water resources, temperature and growing season’s duration and rising sea level directly affect the productivity of food grain. Impact of changes in carbon dioxide in ecological environment also affects the yields and food productivity. Agricultural production, a requirement for food security, also emits greenhouse gases. Emissions associated with land use change and land 280 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture degradation are greatly detrimental to developing countries, which are generally food-insecure. Climate change affects the quality and quantity of land and water resources available for production in agriculture and other climate dependent sectors like social forestry and fisheries. Sea levels are projected to rise by around 0.4 m during the 21st century. Rising sea levels are associated with increased flooding, land loss in costal areas resulting in decreases in food supplies and rise in food prices. Impact of climate change leads to lengthening of growing season which is an important component of agricultural productivity. They also indicate that these changes probably affect food security in India. Matter of serious concern is the imbalance in the ecosystem, declining soil fertility due to excessive use of fertilizer and pesticides and faulty water management. If this trend is not arrested, the 125 million bellies will have to face the acute shortage of food for survival . Drought and temperature variation increase vector born diseases, heat stock, malnutrition, fever etc. Dengue and Chikenginia are the other climate sensitive diseases which outbreak due to high temperature. Changing temperatures and patterns of rainfall are expected to alter the geographical distribution of insect vectors that spread infectious diseases. like malaria , dengue and chikengunia. Health and food security are worth consideration because they are basic to life and because they have been at all times in specific contexts. Undernourishment, Iron deficiency anemia and malnutrition are the likely outcomes of hunger and food insecurity. India’s per capita water availability is expected to fall from 1820 million cubic meters per year in 2001 to 1140 in 2050. “The projected decrease in winter precipitation over the Indian sub-continent would reduce the total seasonal precipitation during December, January and February implying lesser storage and greater water stress,” he said, while predicting more erratic monsoon. (Pachauri, 2007). There appears to be scope for increasing the productivity of water in rain fed agriculture, which provide some food security for the majority of the poor, generate more than half of the gross value of the world’s crop, and accounts for 80 per cent of the world’s crop water use.(Molden-2007). No one is accepting the crude fact that the ongoing climate change will bring the dooms day as it will have serious consequence resulting from complete disruption of water management and food insecurity which will be dangerous enough to annihilate the age long human civilization on the Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 281 earth. Need of the hour is to listen to the warning that human activities in the name of rapid developments are resulting into increasing greenhouse emission leading to higher temperature and rise in sea levels, greater stress on water supply, change in eco system and disruption in the network of availability, accessibility and affordability of food to all the people all the time. Need of the hour is to develop the genetic engineering to convert C3 crops, to the more carbon responsive and C4 crops to achieve greater photosynthetic efficiency for obtaining increased productivity . Adoption of strategies for low input sustainable agriculture by producing crops with enhanced water and nitrogen use efficiency may also result in reduced emissions of greenhouse gases, and crops with greater tolerance to drought, high temperature, submergence and salinity stresses. Appropriate use of bio-technology, nano-technology and microbiology can mitigate the adverse impacts of climate change on agriculture sustainability and food security. a. Increasing Distribution of Operational Holdings The average size of land holdings is very small , fragmented and scattered due to land ceiling acts, disintegration of joint family and in some cases, family disputes. The operational holdings will be further getting smaller which may reduce the scope for intensive agriculture The number of operational holdings has been consistently increasing since the first Agriculture Census in 1970-71. The number of holdings in India which was 71.0 million in 1970-71 went up to 81.6 million, 88.9 million, 97.2 million, 106.6 million, 115.6 million, 119.9 million ,129.2 million and137.8 in the census from 1970-71 to 2010-11. These changing trends of operation holding in India can be seen in the below chart-1. Chart-1

100000Numbers of Operational Holding in India -All Social Group rs e 90000 b 80000 m u 70000 N 60000 0 50000 0 40000 in 30000 g in 20000 ld 10000 o 0 H al 1970-71 1976-77 1980-81 1985-86 1990-91 1995-96 2000-01 2005-06 2010-11 n o ti Marginal 36200 44523 50122 56147 63389 71179 75408 83694 92356 ra e Small 13432 14728 16072 17922 20092 21643 22695 23930 24705 p O Semi_Medium 10681 11666 12455 13252 13923 14261 14021 14127 13840 Medium 7932 8212 8068 7916 7580 7092 6577 6375 5856 Large 2766 2440 2166 1918 1654 1404 1230 1096 1000 282 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture (b) Distribution of Operated Area The operated area in India which was 162.1 million hectares in 1970-71 initially increased to 165.5 million hectares in 1990-91 and thereafter declined to 159.1 million hectares in 2010-11.Details changing trends can be seen in the below chart-2. Chart-02 Operated Land Area In India

The issue of climate change is very much linked to the living condition on the planet earth or better to say the very existence of life. It is very much related to the issue of food security which has been a matter of concern to humanity from very time immemorial. Hence, it is imperative for all countries whether developed, under developed or developing to join hands and make genuine, relentless and collective efforts to contribute their best in protecting our environment otherwise the environment will suffer and there will be worst casualty will be, our development and overall our own very survival will be at serious stake. Development should never be at the cost of our environment. Developed countries should accept the harsh truth that they are more responsible and they can better afford, so they must play more active and productive role to protect the environment and the entire earth from natural disaster resulting out of human actions motivated by boundless greed. ( c ) Climate Change and Sea Level Rise Sea-level rise, and coastal erosion are the major challenge for costal agricultural sustainability. These effects will include coastal erosion, saline intrusion, and sea flooding, among other impacts. Significant infrastructural damage could result into any increase in the frequency or intensity of extreme Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 283 events such as floods, tropical storms etc.. Damage to important infrastructure (e.g., coastal roads, bridges, Railways , electricity, sea walls etc.). Coastal erosion severely affects infrastructure facilities such as the railway, road system and that disturbs economic activities along the coast such as fishing, recreational and other coast-related activities. Floods, landslides, cyclones, droughts, wind storms, coastal erosion, tsunami, sea surge, and sea level rise are the main natural hazards that cause disasters. Rising sea levels could also increase the salinity of ground water and push salt water further upstream. This salinity may make water undrinkable without desalination, and also harms to agricultural crops and productivity. Current sea level rise has occurred at a mean rate of 1.8 mm per year for the past century and more recently, at rates in the range of 2.9-3.4 to 0.4-0.6 mm per year from 1993–2010. . World sea levels could rise by between 26 and 82 cm (10 to 32 inches) by the late 21st century. Marine ecosystem will be highly affected due to sea level rise. Apart from increase of soil salinity and the deterioration of water quality, there will be many other adverse impacts of sea level rise. Global sea-level change results from mainly two: processes anthropogenic change in land hydrology and the atmosphere. They alter the volume of water in the global ocean through I) thermal expansion and ii) through exchange of water between oceans and other reservoirs (glaciers and ice caps, ice sheets, other land water reservoirs).

Table 1: Mean -Sea -Level -Rise Trends along the Indian Coast Tide Gauge Station Number of Trends Glacial Isostatic Net Sea level years of (mm/yr) Adjustment (GIA) rise(mm/yr) Available data corrections (mm/yr) trends Mumbai 113 0.77 -0.43 1.20 Kochi 54 1.31 -0.44 1.75 Vishakhapatnam 53 0.70 -0.39 1.09 Diamond Harbour(Kolkata) 55 5.22 -0.52 5.74 Source: - GOI (2010), Climate Change and India: A 4 X4 Assessments, Ministry of Environment & Forest

284 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture

Chart -3 Net Sea Level Rise (Mm/Yr) In Year 2010

Net Sea Level Rise(mm /yr)Trends 7 5 .7 4 6 5 4 3 1 .7 5 2 1 .2 1 .0 9 1 ) 0 ta m ka i i a o l b a h tn K m o c p a r( u K a o u M k h b a ar s h H V i d o n m ia D Source: - GOI (2010), Climate Change and India: A 4 X4 Assessments, Ministry of Environment & Forest Table-1 has been prepared to show the mean sea-level- rise trends along the Indian Coast. The figure indicates very alarming trend for Diamond Harbour (Kolkata) Coast with 5.74 mm/year which is the most densely populated region of India. It can be seen in Chart3. (d)Sea Level Rise and Tsunamis/ Cyclone Climate change is likely to be a major factor in coastal flooding. Flooding accounts for 40 per cent of all natural disasters worldwide and causes about half of all deaths. Most floods occur in developing regions and tropical regions where the impact on public health is substantial, the number of people displaced is often large, and the number of deaths is very high. The Phailin Cyclone hit Andhra Pradesh and Odisha cost in the mid of October 2013. Cyclone Phailin made landfall near Gopalpur, with a wind speed of around 210-220kmph (picture-I,II&III). Extensive damage was caused to kutcha houses, some damages to old buildings due to heavy rainfall and high speed storms. Storm surges flood in low-lying areas, damage property, disrupt transportation systems, destroy habitat, and threaten human health and safety. Sea level rise can magnify the impacts of storms by raising the water level that storm surges affect. Thanks to the level of public awareness and well coordinated and effective rescue and relief operations, the number of deaths has been reduced to the negligible level, but the large scale devastation to crops and physical infrastructures show its intensity and potential to destroy.(Picture-I). Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 285

Picture I: Cyclone Damage Infrastructure in Odisha There have been extensive damages in costal part of West Bengal, Odisha and Andhra Pradesh. According to Weather and Disaster Management officials around 12 million people in the path of Phailin got affected. In both Odisha and Andhra Pradesh, more than 900,000 people were evacuated for safety and sheltered in government buildings and temples. Five lakh hectares of farmland were damaged, and 9 lakh trees were uprooted across seven coastal districts, with Ganjam again being the worst sufferer. November 1999, Orissa cyclone of similar strength had killed 8900 people.(Picture-II&III)

Picture II: Tsunamis Damage To Costal Kutcha Houses The weather is getting worse due to the cyclone. Extensive damage to kutcha houses, some damage to old buildings, large scale disruption of 286 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture power and communication lines, rail and road traffic due to extensive flooding, and extensive damage to agricultural crops. Paradip Port has also suffered from extensive losses of consumers good, fertilizers and about 40,000 trees were uprooted due to Cyclone Phailin. Tsunamis have the potential to cause an enormous damaging impact upon the health. Since 1945, more people have been killed by tsunamis than by earthquakes(Noji,1997; McCarty,2002) The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami killed nearly 300,000 and affected over 2,000,000 people in twelve nations (U.S. Geological Survey,2005) . According to a survey conducted by Oxfam (2005), four times as many women as men were killed in the tsunami affected areas of Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and India. More women died because they stayed behind to look for their children and other dependents. (Keim, 2006).

Picture III:Tsunamis Damage the Coastal Trees Coastal tree and plants prevents not only tsunami but also sea wind and windblown sand. If the tsunamis passing with high speed through the costal way, damage the costal tree and plants. When the tsunamis attack the coastal forest, the trees formed forest would be destroyed, up rooted and washed away (Picture III) , III. Actions Required for Policy Implications For sustainable environment and improvement of deteriorating climatic condition, developed, under developed or developing Countries must join hands and make genuine, relentless and collective efforts to reduce the carbon emissions. Developed countries are more responsible, so they must Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 287 play more active and productive role to protect the environment. There is need of concerted efforts by all countries according to the principle of proportionate share. World Bank should establish the climate fund and ask for proportionate share by the countries or may fix as per GNP. Every country should formulate Forest Management Policies. Every country has fix emission target every five years and it should be monitored by World Bank. For sustainability of agricultural , production is required to Nutrient or fertilizer balancing. Proper fertilization is an essential condition for high productivity and crop quality. Cultivation of crop requires Rotation pattern, fuel efficient technology and clean sources of energy. For this there is need to promote organic farming, which has the potential to reduce the emission of Green House Gases and improve the soil fertility by retaining crop residues and reducing soil erosion. It has the potential of reducing the use of irrigation . water and sequencing CO2 Organic farming has a stabilizing effect on the soil structure, improving moisture retention capacity and protecting soil against erosion. For food security there is need to establish of a water security system, and improve the traditional water harvesting. Improved agriculture and Irrigation practices achieve ‘more crop per drop’. India needs Income Security not Food Security, needs empowerments not entitlement. Public Distribution System should be governed properly and there is need to maintain Rainbow Revolution. . But sustainable agriculture, especially organic agriculture, itself cannot meet India’s food demands, primarily because of low yields and insufficient organic fertilizer but in the long run organic agriculture will be better, because of being environmentally, socially and economically sustainable in the long run. The government can encourage farmers by producing some financial assistance in initial year and need to promote and establish the market for organic products. Several countries (USA , Europe, Germany) have proved that organic farming increases the crop productivity ,better and nutritious food with sustaining the eco-system. References · Altieri, M. (1995), Agro Ecology: The Science of Sustainable Agriculture. West View Press, Boulder. · Babu, Suresh Chandra and G. Balachandran (2009),” Three Programms that could Effectively Reduce Poverty and Malnutrition”, The Hindu, Survey of Indian Agriculture 2009, pp 111-114. · Beus C E and RE Dunlop (1994) Agricultural Paradigms and the Practice of 288 Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture

Agriculture. Rural Sociology 59(4):pp 620–635. · David S.( 1989), Sustainable Development: Theoretical Construct on Attainable Goal? Environ, Censer 16: pp 41–48. · FAO (2008), Climate Change and Food Security, a Frame work Document, Food and Agricultural Organisation, Rome. · Guiteras, R.(2007),” The impacts of Climate Change on Indian Agriculture” , Development of Economics, Working Paper, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA. · Gowda MJC and KM Jayaramaiah (1998), Comparative Evaluation of Rice Production Systems for their Sustainability. Agric Ecosyst Environment 69: Pp 1–9. · Keim, M.E. (2006), Cyclones, Tsunamis, and Human Health: The Key Role of Preparedness, Oceanography, Vol.79, No.2 June, 2006.pp-40-49. · Kumar, K.S. Kavi (2009), Climate Sensitivity of Indian Agriculture, South Asian Network for Development and Environmental Economics (SANDEE), Working Paper No, 45-09, Madras School of Economics, Chennai, November. · Lynam J. K. and R. W. Herdt (1989), Sense and Sustainability: Sustainability as an Objective in International Agricultural Research. Agriculture Economics, 3: pp381–398. · McCarty, D.(2002),Tsunamis, Pp-229-234 in Disaster Medicine, D. Hogan and J. Brustein J.ed al. Lippincott William and Wilkins, Philadelphia, PA. · Molden, D. (2007), Water for Food, Water for Life: A Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture, London: Earthscan and International Water Management Institute. · Noji, E.K.(1997), Earthquakes, In Public health Consequences of Disaster, E. Noji, ed. Oxford University Press, New York, NY. · Oxfam, (2005), The Tsunami’s Impact on Women, Oxfam Briefing Note, Oxfam International,pp1-14. · Pachuari R.K .(2007) Climate change may impact India’s food security, Hindustan Times, April 10, 2007. · Pimentel, D.( 2005). Environmental and Economic Costs of the Application of Pesticides Primarily in the United States. Environment, Development and Sustainability , 7: PP 229-252. · Pretty, J. & R. Hine, (2001),. Reducing food poverty with sustainable agriculture: a summary of new evidence. UK: University of Essex Centre for Environment and Society. Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Agriculture 289

· Rasul G, G.B. Thapa (2003) Sustainability Analysis of Ecological and Conventional Agricultural Systems in Bangladesh. World Development, 31(10):PP 1721–1741. · Reijntjes C, H .Bertus, A .Water-Bayer (1992) Farming for the Future: An Introduction to Low External Input and Sustainable Agriculture. Macmillan, London. · Scialabba, N.E-H. and C. Hattam, (eds). 2002. Organic Agriculture, Environment and Food Security. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organisation. · Webster JPG (1997) Assessing the Economic Consequences of Sustainability in Agriculture. Agric Ecosystem Environment 64: pp 95–102. · Webster P. (1999) The Challenge of Sustainability at the Farm Level: Presidential Address. J Agric Econ, 50(3): pp 371–387 . · World Bank (2010), World Development Report, 2010, Development and Climate Change, The World Bank, Washington DC, Pp-40. · Zhen L, J.K. Routray (2003) Operational Indicators for Measuring Agricultural Sustainability in Developing Countries. Environment Management 32(1):34– 46. · Znaor, D., J., Pretty, J.Morrison, & S.K. Todoroviæ, (2005), Environmental and Macroeconomic Impact Assessment of Different Development Scenarios to Organic and Low-input Farming in Croatia. UK: University of Essex, Centre for Environment and Society.