economic activities, 4 Index future of natural resource management, 197–201 adat Indonesian, 3, 4, 5 communities, 100, 170, 171 Malaysian, 3, 4, 5 in Kayan Mentarang National boundaries Park, 164–168 administrative, 102, 103 criteria for natural resource ancestral, 102, 104 management, 166–168 delineation of, 106 (customary) law and practice, 36, 37, British North Company, 142 90, 163 Brooke, James, 46, 113, 114, 115 ‘lieutenant customary law’, 93 family, the, 45 leaders, 11, 79, 99, 117 period, the, 27, 33, 34, 41, 58 land managed under (), 13 cash crops, 35, 147, 188, 189 social, environmental and legal Central Land Council (Australia), 95 dimensions, 163–180 Centre for International Forestry Research rights, 89 (CIFOR), 65, 99, 101 Agrarian Law 1960, 82 cockfight, 124, 125 Agreed Forest Land Use Plan, 7 coconut, 71 agricultural policies, 51–52 collaboration with government partners, alienation of land, 52, 53, 157 154–155, 159, 177 Alimuddin, Sultan, 75 colonial period, 35, 36, 41 Animal Husbandry Improvement Scheme, commercial crops, 150 189 communal lands Application of Law Ordinance 1949, 47 and biodiversity, 155–156 Association of Indonesian Timber community-based management, 96, 106, Concession Holders, 78 107, 134, 148–150 community–conservation partnerships, Ba Kelalan by-election, 30, 38 134, 147–150, 157–159 balok, 121, 127 community cooperatives in West Basic Forestry Law, 7, 91, 92, 116 Kalimantan, 111–132 Belize, 95 ‘directly liaised’, 119–120 bicycle logging, 120–121, 127 ‘indirectly liaised’, 119–120 biodiversity Community Empowerment Team, 166 and community interests, 134 community forestry, 79–81, 84, 155, 200 and communal lands, 155–156 Community Forestry Permit, 81 conservation, 157, 158, 163 community mapping, 14, 15, 16, 89–110, loss of, 157, 200 124, 172 seeking spaces for, 133–162 as tool to reduce conflict, 101–102 Bock, Carl, 69 for protected area management, 98–99 borderlands, 112, 127 for recognising indigenous rights, 100 Upper Kapuas, 112–117, 118 for research objectives, 99–100 ‘borderlanders’, 11, 112–113, 115, 128 implications, 94–106 borders, 4 vested interests behind, 104–106 Borneo community participation, 14, 95 conservation interventions in, 3–21

203 risks to, 14 development conflict, 89, 150 alternative approaches to, 5 between communities, 103 and Native Customary Land, 35–38 of interest, 97 community, 10 over land and natural resources, 91–94, economic, 134 101, 107, 111, 124, 182 large-scale activities, 90, 94 resolution, 4, 89–110 participatory, 10 tenurial, 95 social and political, 11 with logging companies, 105, 140 state-driven, 5–9 with state, 89 sustainable, 11 conservation, 9, 14, 95, 151, 157, 176 the state and localities, 41–42 as ‘neo-colonial’ project, 9 top-down, 4, 10, 38 as umbrella, 14 Directorate General of Forest Protection biodiversity, 133 and Nature Conservation, 175, 177 community support for, 136 District Land Use Plan, 70 management of, 170 donors, 78, 83 on community lands, 155–159 Dutch, the, 75, 91, 113, 114 through land tenure security, 143–144 Dutch– rivalry, 116 under adat in , 163–180 cooperatives, 169 East Kalimantan ‘co-optation’, 11, 39 changes to adat tenure in, 92–94 corruption, 14, 111, 123 division of, 66 ‘counter-mapping’, 90 districts of, 66 customary councils, 165, 166, 174 economic crisis (1997), 111 élites, 94, 106, 111, 120 Danau Sentarum National Park, 117, 124 English common law, 47 Danish Agency for Cooperation and estate crops Development, 135 agro-industrial, 71–74 Dayak Benuaq villages, 72 decentralisation and forests in Kutai Dayak groups/peoples, 26, 28, 30, 31, 36, Barat, 65–86 37, 115, 164 ethnic difference, 15 backwardness, 32, 33 ‘vulnerability’, 31, 32, 33 Federal Land Development Authority decentralisation, 3, 25, 83, 198 (FELDA), 51 and management of National Parks, Federation of , 116 172–173 fish ponds, 189 forests and estate crops, 65–86 forest conversion, 90, 124 laws, 77 forest degradation, 6, 123, 133, 150, 154 oil palm, 81–83 forest fires, 70, 90, 94, 106 deforestation, 66, 200 Forest Land Use Consensus Plan, 70, 91 Department of Agriculture, 189 forest products, 164, 188 Department of Environmental collection of, 166 Conservation, 156 non-timber, 14, 127 Department of Lands and Surveys, 142, forest release permits, 82 145, 154 forest regeneration, 187 depersonalisation of social life, 26 forest resources, 77, 81, 158

204 State, Communities and Forests in Contemporary Borneo Forest Utilisation and Forest Product Harvesting in Production Forests, 77, 128 Japanese conglomerates, 182 Forestry Law 1999, 170–172 joint ventures, 28, 37, 190 forests and estate crops, 65–86 as new model, 52–54, 59 Forum Musyawarah Masyarakat Adat, economic viability of, 39–40 173–177 questions of proof under, 60–61 gaharu trees, 167, 168 Kalimantan, 5, 8 geographic information systems (GIS), 97, Kayan Mentarang National Park, 15, 98, 99, 100 100, 163, 172, 173, 174, 176, 177 geomatics, 97, 98 adat communities in, 164–168 globalisation, 32, 81 kerangas forest, 135, 142 gold mining, 76, 77 Konfrontasi, 116 Government Regulations on Conservation Konsep Baru (New Concept), 9, 13, 26, 27, and Protected Areas, 168 28, 30–42 government, role as trustee, 28 krismon (economic crisis), 117, 118, 120, GPS, 100, 104 123 Habibie government, the, 91 Kutai Barat, 11, 66, 83 Hak Pemungutan Hasil Hutan (HPHH) decentralisation, forests and estate crops concessions, 66, 77, 78, 79, 83, 84, 94, 105 in, 65–86 Hak Pengusahaan Hutan (HPH) district finances, 74–77 concessions, 70, 71, 75, 78, 84 forest resources in, 69–71, 175 headhunting, 115, 137, 144 Kutai Kartanegara, 66, 68, 83, 102 High Modernism in Sarawak, 27–31 Kutai Timur, 66 hunting and trapping, 166 Hutan Tanaman Industri (HTI), 71 labour migration, 119, 127, 189 hypermodernist ideologies, 198 Land (Classification)Ordinance (1948), 35, 47, 151 Iban communities /peoples, 115, 124, 182 zones, 47–48 impact of logging on, 183 Land Code 1958, 34, 35, 36, 48, 49–51 socio-economic conditions in, 188–189 Subsection 5(2)(f), 37, 38, 49 Iban concession, 117 1974 amendments to, 7 ‘illegal squatters’, 36, 37 1988 amendment, 52 illipe nut tree, 189 Amendment of 2000, 27, 28, 30, 49 income-generation schemes, 15, 189 Land Consolidation and Development indigenous Authority (LCDA), 52, 59 cultural traditions, 12 Land Consolidation and Development land rights, 13 Authority Ordinance 1981, 52 management systems, 90, 94 land on being, 12–16 alienation of, 52 certificates, 28, 29, 30 management of National Parks in, community access, 15 168–170 conflict over, 89, 106 Indonesian Institute of Sciences, 172 customary access to, 13 International Tropical Timber Organisation, customary/indigenous tenure of, 4, 29, 183 49, 137

Index 205 ambiguities in interpretation, urban, 145 145–146 changes to, 92–94 Mahakam River, 75, 78 complexity of, 103 Malaysian Human Rights Commission, 30 development schemes and agricultural Malinau River, 99, 100, 101 policies, 51–52 map making, 14 ‘idle’, ‘unoccupied’, ‘waste’, 13, 27, 32, Marhum Pemarangan, 102 33–35, 105 migration, 12 indiscriminate clearing of, 150 Ministry of Environment, 91 individual claims, 165 Ministry of Forestry and Estate Crops, 79, individual titles, 152 92, 122, 168 native customary rights to, 45–51 Ministry of Forestry and Plantations, 172, registration of, 28 177 reserved forest (see also ‘pulau’), 47 Ministry of Home Affairs, 91 tenure Ministry of Tourism and Environmental conflict over natural resources, Development, 135 91–94 Model Forest Management Area (MFMA), conservation through, 143–144 15, 183–185, 186, 188 insecurity of, 13, 29, 142, 154, 200 modernity vs. conservatism, 31 virgin, 46 Muara Begai community, 103 Land Regulations 1863, 34 Land Surveyors Ordinance 2002, 61 National Development Planning Agency Land Use Delineation Law, 99 (BAPPENAS), 82, 91 log ponds, 75 National Land Agency, 82 logged-over forest, 6, 190 Native Customary Land (Sarawak), 3, 13, logging, 4, 35, 69 25, 27, 28, 30, 61 camps, 142, 149, 189 and ‘development’, 35–38, 55–56 coexistence with shifting cultivation, ‘idle’, 25–44 181–193 registration of, 36 concessionaires (see also ‘tukei’), 12, 15 security of tenure of, 39 concessions, 7, 30, 71, 116, 126 trusts as device for land development, disputes on Indonesian–Malaysian 45–64 border, 125–126 Native Customary Rights Land (Sarawak), environmental impact, 6 181, 183, 187 illegal, 7, 70, 93 Native Reserve, 152, 153, 154 ‘illegal’, 11, 126, 197 Native Title Land (), 152, 155 in , 111–132 natural resource management, 197–201 and regional autonomy, 117–126 Natural Resource Management Project, 79, interests, domination of, 16 172 low-mechanised, 112, 187 localised models of, 197–199 Malaysian companies, 118 natural resources, new guidelines for use selective, 186–187 of, 169 longhouse communities, 39, 40, 41, 46, 124, ‘neo-colonialism’, 10 141, 183, 184, 187 Netherlands Indies Government, 115 Lotaq community, 103, 104, 105 NGOs, 10, 77, 83, 90, 97, 154, 155 Lundayeh, 12, 134, 137, 144, 146, 151 Indonesian, 100

206 State, Communities and Forests in Contemporary Borneo international, 102, 199 PT Yamaker, 116 local, 102, 105, 128, 129 pulau, 25, 36, 47, 50 role of, 4 ‘Nine Cardinal Principles of the Rule of the Rajah in Council, 47 English Rajahs’, 58 Rama Alexander Asia, 67, 79 rattan, 93, 94, 165, 166 off-farm jobs, 186 ‘realisable utopias’, 27 oil palm sector recreational hunters, 142, 149 decentralisation and, 81–83 regional autonomy, 78, 122 as economic saviour, 9 in West Kalimantan, 111–132 as environmental vandal, 9 and ‘illegal’ logging, 117–126 ‘green gold’, 9 Regional Land Use Plan, 92 plantations, 117, 126 relevant research, 199–200 production, 4, 8, 25, 35, 66, 71 resource management Orang Asli, 58 adat criteria for, 166–168 otonomi daerah, 111, 126 by state, 15 ‘outside investors’, 146 participatory, 14 overseas entrepreneurs, 82 top-down, 15 padi farming (temuda), 36, 50 rubber, 35, 71 participation, 14, 15, 200 partnership(s), 5, 200 Sabah, 5, 6, 8 community–conservation, 134 Sabah Biodiversity Conservation Project, pepper, 15, 35, 118, 127 135, 152 Permanent Forest Estate, 183, 187, 190 Sabah Conservation Strategy, 135, 140 Permits to Use and Harvest Timber, 94 Sabah Forest Industries (SFI), 140, 141 place Sabah Land Ordinance 1930, 141 as a commodity, 12, 31 Sarawak, 5, 6, 7 attachment to, 12, 13 hypermodernist tradition, 36, 38 plantation agriculture, 25, 32 land-development policy, 3, 45–64 plantation companies (see also ‘HTI’), 31, Sarawak Forest Department, 183 71 Sarawak Land Consolidation and plantation estates, 76 Rehabilitation Authority (SALCRA), 51, PLASMA scheme, 73, 79 52 post-colonial era, 35 Sarawak Land Development Board (SLDB), power relations, unequal, 11, 12, 15 51, 52 power-sharing arrangements, 198 shifting cultivation, 7, 34, 164, 185 property, 89 coexistence with commercial logging, Provincial Forestry Service, 69, 70 181–193 Provincial Land Use Plan, 70 negative attitudes towards, 182 PT Kelian Equatorial Mining (PT KEM), 76, siltation, 188 77, 83 Special Directive on the Management of PT London Sumatra International Tbk (PT National Parks, 168 LonSum), 72, 73, 82, 83 state, the plantation area, 74 control over land, 35 PT Sarana Trirasa Bakti, 99 institutions as agents of change, 16

Index 207 management of natural resources, 15 and Native Customary Land strategies of control, 42 development, 55–56 State Land, 142, 145, 146, 150, 190 and protection of property, 54–62 state ‘persuasion’ processes, 27, 31–33, 41, as device for land development, 45–64 198 breach of and remedies for, 59–60 limits of, 38–41 nature of, 62 state spaces trustees expanding, 25–44 fiduciary relationship, 57–59 strategies for, 26–27 powers and duties of, 56–57 Suharto tukei, 12, 118, 120, 123, 125, 126 era, 90, 9 fall of, 94, 117, 123, 126 Ulu Padas, 135, 149, 150, 156, 158 family, 7 logging interests in, 140 government, 69, 71 State Land, 150, 152 New Order regime, 11, 14, 111, 116 Ulu Padas Commercial Forest Reserve, 137, Sukarno, President, 116 139, 156 Sulaiman, Sultan Mohammed, 74 Ulu Teru longhouses, 39, 40, 41 sustainable forest management, 112, 176, United States Agency for International 182, 200 Development (USAID), 79, 172 sustainability, 163, 197, 200 swidden farming, 46, 47, 103, 127, 137, ‘virgin jungle’, 36, 49 141, 150, 197 West Kutai Regional Forestry Program taukeh (see tukei) Working Group (KKPKD), 79, 200 Temporary Occupation Licence, 146 wet-rice farming, 127, 164 tenure systems Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF), 164 state-imposed, 91–92 WWF Indonesia, 98, 99, 100, 172, 175 traditional, 144–145, 157 WWF Malaysia, 133, 134, 135, 141, 143, tenurial rights 147, 148, 151, 158 community mapping and, 89–110 and conflict resolution, 89–110, 156 zonation system, 168, 176 territorialisation, 26 timber, 5 concessions, 89 large-scale production, 4, 6, 70 low-impact harvesting, 121, 127 smuggling of, 111, 126 state-run companies, 75 Toledo Alcaldes’ Association, 95 Toledo Maya Cultural Council, 95 Torrens system, 35 tourism, 156, 157 ecological, 12 trade-offs, 31, 38–41 transmigrant settlements, 89 trust

208 State, Communities and Forests in Contemporary Borneo