ANALECTA ROMANA INSTITUTI DANICI
XLIV
ANALECTA ROMANA
INSTITUTI DANICI
XLIV
2019
ROMAE MMXX ANALECTA ROMANA INSTITUTI DANICI XLIV © 2020 Accademia di Danimarca ISSN 2035-2506
Scientific Board
Mads Kähler Holst (Bestyrelsesformand, Det Danske Institut i Rom) Jens Bertelsen (Bertelsen & Scheving Arkitekter) Iben Fonnesberg-Schmidt (Aalborg Universitet) Karina Lykke Grand (Aarhus Universitet) Thomas Harder (Forfatter/writer/scrittore) Morten Heiberg (Københavns Universitet) Hanne Jansen (Københavns Universitet) Erik Vilstrup Lorenzen (Den Danske Ambassade i Rom) Mogens Nykjær (Aarhus Universitet) Vinnie Nørskov (Aarhus Universitet) Niels Rosing-Schow (Det Kgl. Danske Musikkonservatorium) Erling Strudsholm (Københavns Universitet) Lene Østermark-Johansen (Københavns Universitet)
Editorial Board Marianne Pade (Chair of Editorial Board, Det Danske Institut i Rom - 31.08.19) Charlotte Bundgaard (Chair of Editorial Board, Det Danske Institut i Rom) Patrick Kragelund (Danmarks Kunstbibliotek) Sine Grove Saxkjær (Det Danske Institut i Rom) Gert Sørensen (Københavns Universitet) Anna Wegener (Det Danske Institut i Rom) Maria Adelaide Zocchi (Det Danske Institut i Rom)
Analecta Romana Instituti Danici. — Vol. I (1960) — . Copenhagen: Munksgaard. From 1985: Rome, «L’ERMA» di Bretschneider. From 2007 (online): Accademia di Danimarca.
ANALECTA ROMANA INSTITUTI DANICI encourages scholarly contributions within the Academy’s research fields. All contributions will be peer reviewed. Manuscripts to be considered for publication should be sent to: [email protected] Authors are requested to consult the journal’s guidelines: www.acdan.it Contents
Signe Buccarella Hedegaard & Cecilie Brøns: Lost in Translation: An Introduction to the Challenging Task of Communicating Long-lost Polychromy on Graeco - Roman Marble Sculptures 7
Lærke Maria Andersen Funder: Continuity and Reception: The Life of the Spinario 29
Claus Asbjørn Andersen: What is Metaphysics in Baroque Scotism? Key Passages from Bartolomeo Matri’s Disputations on Metaphysics (1646-1647) 49
Costantino Ceccanti: “Andre udmærkede Bygmestre”: Hermann Baagøe Storck e lo stile toscano nella Danimarca dell’Ottocento 73 Philology Then and Now Proceedings of the Conference held at the Danish Academy in Rome, 16 July 2019
Introduction: Making Sense of Texts: From Early Modern to Contemporary Philology 95
Minna Skafte Jensen: The Emic-Etic Distinction: a Tool in Neo-Latin Research? 99
Šime Demo: Getting Help from a Daughter: Linguistic Methodology and Early Modern Philology 113
Paolo Monella: A Digital Critical Edition Model for Priscian: Glosses, Graeca, Quotations 135
Johann Ramminger: Stylometry in a Language without Native Speakers: A Test Case from Early Modern Latin 151
Marianne Pade: Imitation and Intertextaulity in Humanist Translation 169
Julia Haigh Gaisser: Philology and Poetry in the Humanism of Giovanni Pontano 187
Karen Skovgaard-Petersen: Philological Pessimism: Henrik Ernst’s Treatise on Textual Criiticism (1652) 205
Trine Arlund Hass: The Meaning of Jul (Christmas) according to Pontanus, Vedel and Worm: Etymology, Controversy, and Foundation Myths of the Danes 217
Report
Jan Kindberg Jacobsen, Claudio Parisi Presicce, Rubina Raja & Massimo Vitti:
Excavating Caesar’s Forum: Present Results of the Caesar’s Forum Project 239
Lost in Translation: An Introduction to the Challenging Task of Communicating Long-lost Polychromy on Graeco-Roman Marble Sculptures
by Signe Buccarella Hedegaard & Cecilie Brøns
Abstract. Focusing on different types of colour representations, this paper discusses the material, perceptual, and articulate challenges related to the communication of polychromy research. The vestiges of paint on ancient marble surfaces are far too scarce and too degraded to allow factual reconstructions. However, when communicating long-lost polychromy, it is necessary to use colour representation in order to illustrate current interpretations of paint traces. Although measures are taken to explain the shortcomings of the colour representations, they are often mistakenly perceived as actual reconstructions. The paper aims to clarify why the illustrative representations are so easily mistaken for reconstructions and proposes simple measures that can help reduce misunderstandings.
Introduction including a growing number of researchers, White marble is often considered a typical academic disciplines, and scientific method- image of ancient Greece and Rome. However, ologies. Realising the potential of introducing the lack of colour has no relation to ancient their audiences to ancient polychromy, an in- aesthetics. In fact, faint traces of paint still creasing number of museums and university present on marble sculptures and architectural collections are eager to exhibit reconstructive elements attest to the polychrome (i.e. representations. Coupled with scholarly inter- multicoloured) expressions cultivated in est, their demand has led to a boom in recon- Antiquity. Unfortunately, due to millennia of structive initiatives of varying substantiation.1 disadvantageous conditions of preservation The diversity of approaches to interpretation as well as persistent attempts at cleaning, the of ancient paint traces reflected by these rep- vast majority of the ancient paint layers have resentations emphasises the necessity of clari- been lost, giving rise to the mistaken notion fying the difficulties related to the dissemi- of white marble as a classical ideal. nation of polychromy research. The com- In recent years, polychromy research has plexities of the issue are acknowledged and been gaining momentum sparking interest debated within the International Polychromy in academia and among the general public Network.2 However, due to the oral nature of alike. The research field is expanding rapidly, this ongoing debate, the inherent difficulties
1 For example, a number of new initiatives were Museum Nov. 9-10 2018. presented by new researchers in the field at the th9 2 The International Polychromy Network includes International Round Table On Polychromy In An- polychromy researchers from e.g. Ny Carlsberg cient Sculpture and Architecture held at the British Glyptotek, Liebieghaus Skulpturensammlung, 8 Signe Buccarella Hedegaard & Cecilie Brøns are not made plain to either lay or academic remarkably well-preserved paint layers thus outsiders – including researchers who are new dispelling any remaining doubts about the to the research field. The aim of this paper is existence of ancient polychromy. The finds therefore to discuss the various challenges re- from the Acropolis in particular, inspired lated to the task of communicating long-lost the German architect Gottfried Semper to polychromy. argue for the case of “total” polychromy Since we realise that the term “reconstruc- where architecture and sculpture were both tion” is somewhat misleading, representations completely covered in colour.4 based on paint traces are termed “reconstruc- Research into ancient polychromy has al- tive representations” in this paper. This alter- ways been inextricably linked with colour re- native phrasing serves to emphasise the chal- productions for documentation, dissemina- lenges inherent in deciding on a term for re- tion, and research purposes. The colours may constructive undertakings, the production of be reproduced using different formats rang- which is much too dependent on interpreta- ing from watercolours and coloured prints tion to qualify them as actual reconstructions. via painted copies to digital two- and three- The issue of terminology is discussed in more dimensional simulations. Each format has its detail in the paper. It should be noted that the strong points and its weak ones which should technical aspects of identification and docu- be taken into consideration when deciding on mentation of ancient paint traces lie outside a format for a given purpose. the scope of the paper and are thus not dis- Among the earliest reconstructive ini- cussed here.3 tiatives are watercolours and coloured prints produced by artists, architects, art historians, Historical introduction: depictions of ancient poly- and other scholars concerned with ancient art. chromy During the late 19th century many travelled to The study of ancient polychromy is not a new Italy and Greece to see the recently excavated phenomenon: scholars have been aware that artworks and to depict them for scholarly pub- ancient sculpture was polychrome since the lications. This was a new phenomenon since 19th century. This began with the excavations no intrinsic tradition of colour reproductions of Pompeii from 1748 onwards, which revealed for archaeological publications existed before the colours of Antiquity in wall-paintings and 1880, given the earlier, widespread percep- mosaics as well as in architecture and sculpture. tion that ancient marble sculpture was not Yet the excavations of the Athenian Acropolis painted.5 The colourations are solely based on at the end of the 19th century were still observations of the preserved colours on the something of a revelation. Intentionally buried artworks. Some colourations document the on the Acropolis after the Persian sack of the remaining polychromy (Figs. 1 & 2) whereas city, the architecture and sculpture retained others are reconstructive representations
British Museum, the Louvre, the Uffizi Gallery, lished: Brøns et al. 2016; Skovmøller et al. 2016; the Acropolis Museum, and the Metropolitan Brøns & Skovmøller 2017; Rodler et al. 2017; Brøns Museum of Art. Programmes and abstracts from et al. 2018a; Brøns et al. 2018b; Hedegaard 2018; the preceding nine conferences are available via this Skovmøller et al. 2018; Rodler et al. 2019; Brøns link:
Figs. 1 & 2. Examples of colourations solely depicting visible traces of paint. The two watercolours render preserved polychromy on the so-called Peplos Kore and Chios Kore (Athens, Acropolis Museum, inv. no. 679 and 675), respec- tively. They were painted by Émile Gilliéron in 1909. Gilliéron produced many similar illustrations for scholarly publi- cations in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
providing a complete colour interpretation destroyed the remaining polychromy, plaster largely relying on extrapolation and inspired casts were made from meticulously modelled imagination (Fig. 3). Evidently, the expression clay replicas of the original works.7 Like the varies considerably depending on the purpose colourations, the early painted copies were ei- of the depiction as well as subjective choices ther made in order to document observed ves- made by the artists. tiges of paint or to illustrate more or less well- The remarkably well-preserved Acropoli- founded notions of the original polychromy.8 tan sculptures also created a great demand for The Danish artist Anne Marie Carl-Nielsen painted copies among the newly established (1863-1945) was among the first to make such cast collections in Europe, the United States, exact polychrome copies of ancient Mediter- and Australia.6 Since direct casting would have ranean artworks. She practiced two forms of
6 For information on painted copies in permanent 7 Houby-Nielsen 2000, 160-161. exhibitions see Østergaard 2020. 8 Houby Nielsen 2000. 10 Signe Buccarella Hedegaard & Cecilie Brøns
Fig. 3. This coloured print depicting the Parthenon frieze, Attic grave stelae, and the portrait statue of Augustus from Prima Porta (Rome, Vatican Museums, inv. no. 2290) is an example of complete colour interpretation. The illustra- tions was made by Ludvig Fenger for his book Dorische Polychromie: Untersuchungen über die Anwendung der Farbe auf dem dorischen Tempel published in 1886 (photo: © Heidelberg University Library – CC-BY-SA 3.0). Lost in Translation 11
Figs. 4a-4b. Two painted copies made by the Danish artist Anne-Marie Carl Nielsen. The copies shown here are an “antiquarian” (The Royal Cast Collection, Denmark, inv. no. KAS 1381) and an “artistic” copy (Odense City Museums, inv. no. CNM/1984/1351) of the largest bull’s head recovered at the Athenian Acropolis, where it pro- bably originally formed part of the gable decoration for the Archaic Temple of Athena (photos: Fig. 4a: SMKfoto. © National Gallery of Denmark. Fig. 4b: Niels Ulrich Hansen/Galleri VENT. © Odense Bys Museer). 12 Signe Buccarella Hedegaard & Cecilie Brøns
Fig 5. Plaster copy of the Temple of Zeus at Olympia with renderings of the original polychromy. The copy was made by Georg Treu in 1882-1886. H: 201 cm. W. 285 cm (Scale: 1:10). Albertinum, Dresden, inv. no. ASN 4829 (photo: © Skulpturensammlung, Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden). copying polychromy: an “antiquarian” form with the renderings of the preserved poly- showing the preserved colours as they were chromy as well as a polychrome reconstruc- observed on the artefact, and an “artistic” tion of the east front of the Temple of Zeus form representing the polychromy as she be- in Olympia in the collections of the museum lieved it would have appeared originally (Figs. (Fig. 5).11 The archaeologist Adolf Furtwäng- 4a-4b). It would appear that these copies are, ler (1853-1907), Director of the Glyptothek first and foremost, expressions of her skill and in Munich, was another leading figure in the interest as an artist. Thus, they were seemingly early stages of depicting ancient polychromy. not produced out of scholarly interest or in A model of the east front of the Temple of order to meet an existing demand. In fact, she Athena with the proposed reconstruction of had difficulties selling them at first.9 Neverthe- the polychromy by Furtwängler was displayed less, her copies were eventually sold to muse- in the collections of the museum next to the ums in Berlin, Dresden, Erlangen, Leipzig, the originals.12 Sorbonne, and Copenhagen.10 However, polychromy research was Depictions of ancient polychromy were disrupted by a combination of factors including also initiated by scholars such as the Ger- the late-19th-century modernist attitude man archaeologist Georg Treu (1843-1921), towards the classical tradition and the World Director of the Albertinum in Dresden, who Wars.13 After having lain dormant for about included a cast of the Greek Stele of Aristion 80 years, the study of ancient polychromy was
9 We thank the anonymous peer-reviewer for this in- 12 Unfortunately, the model was destroyed during formation. WWII. Østergaard 2020. 10 Houby-Nielsen 2000, 161. 13 Østergaard 2018. 11 Østergaard 2020; Knoll 1994, 71.
Lost in Translation 13
Figs. 6a-6b. An example of the painted copies carried out by the Brinkmann team is their polychrome representations of a helmeted head of a warrior from the pediment of the Aphaia Temple on Aegina, c. 480 BCE (Glyptothek, Mu- nich). The helmet is decorated with scales, arranged in a rhomboid net pattern, which is still visible to the naked eye. Only very sparse traces of colour have been identified on the back of the helmet (Egyptian blue), but some of its original polychromy is recorded in publications from the early 20th century. The two representations are both plaster casts and follow different colour schemes: one where the dominant colour of the helmet is green (a) and one where the dominant colour is blue (b). Both colour schemes are hypothetical, and primarily based on inspiration from com- parative art works, as well as the painter’s subjectivity rather than identification of pigments on the original artefact (Brinkmann et al. 2017, 107). © Liebieghaus Sculpture Collection, Frankfurt (Polychromy Research Project), inv. no. ST.P692 & ST.P705. gradually resumed by German pioneers. A to provide as detailed and reliable information group of researchers at the Goethe University as possible. Given the heterogeneous nature, and the Doerner Institute optimised ultraviolet the deteriorated state, and the severely limited (UV) photography to capture faint traces of amount of ancient paint traces, this is by no polychromy on sculpture. Introduced to the means an easy task. technique as a student in the early 1980s, Since the early 1980s Brinkmann and classical archaeologist Vinzenz Brinkmann fellow classical archaeologist Ulrike Koch- continued using and further developing Brinkmann have produced numerous painted photographic techniques for discovering and copies combining interpretation of analytical enhancing traces of lost decoration on ancient results and extrapolation of these with inspi- marble sculptures.14 His introduction of ration from written sources and other works technical photography for the identification of art. In some cases more than one painted and documentation of incisions and paint copy has been made by the team, illustrating traces ushered in a new era in polychromy how differently representations can appear research focusing on scientific analysis depending on the analytical data available and and interdisciplinary collaboration. Today the interpretation thereof (Figs. 6a-6b).15 polychromy research includes a continuously From the very beginning the Brinkmann growing list of analytical techniques adjusted team has made a point of using pigments and
14 Brinkmann 2017, 20. 200; Skovmøller & Therkildsen 2014, 270-271. 15 Brinkmann 2007, 92-97; Skovmøller 2016b, 199- 14 Signe Buccarella Hedegaard & Cecilie Brøns binding media known to have been available terpretations are supplemented with infor- to painters in the Graeco-Roman world.16 mation derived from other ancient works of This focus on historically accurate materi- art or written records. Although the painted als is another important aspect introduced copies and the computerised representations to the research field by the team which has share some common features, the formats inspired other polychromy research teams to differ significantly. In fact, it can be argued produce painted copies.17 In some cases re- that the computerised representations are searchers have expanded the concept to in- more akin to colourations such as watercol- clude all aspects of materials and production ours because these types of format are all il- of polychrome sculpture (Fig. 7).18 Although lustrations, the expression of which is rooted extremely labour-intensive and therefore ter- in notions of material properties rather than ribly costly, these experience-acquiring experi- actual material properties. Excluding the com- ments19 are an invaluable source of informa- plicating aspects of material similarity sim- tion on historical materials and techniques. plifies the production process considerably, There is a limit to what we can learn from making these formats comparatively simple, compiling scientific information and theoris- inexpensive, and readily available. Computer- ing to join up the dots. There is an obvious generated representations have a few impor- need for verification of theory-based notions tant advantages over traditional colourations. in order to make sure that they are, in fact, ap- First and foremost, digital representations can plicable in real life. easily be adapted to suit different purposes or The last decade has seen several comput- to incorporate new information. Moreover, er-generated, reconstructive initiatives incl. they can easily be copied and shared without images,20 projection mapping,21 and three- affecting their expression. These features are dimensional simulations.22 Like the modern a great advantage when there is a need to dis- painted copies, the two- and three-dimension- cuss different interpretation possibilities (Fig. al reconstructive representations are typically 8)23 or to give a step-by-step explanation of based on interpretation of scientific data and the production process of a reconstructive extrapolation of these. In some cases the in- representation (Fig. 9).24
16 Since it is incredibly expensive to reproduce origi- of activities employed in the communication of nal artworks in marble the Brinkmann team has the past on a practical, ‘bring the past to life’ basis been experimenting with a range of casting mate- that one can find at historical workshops and edu- rials incl. plaster, crystalline acrylic glass, artificial cation centres. This may be illustrated as follows. marble, and Keramit. Experimental archaeology starts off with analyses 17 These include the painted copy of the so-called Au- of archaeological data A to form a hypothesis B, gustus Prima Porta produced by Vatican conserva- which is being tested with an experiment C, which tors in 2003: Liverani 2004; Santamaria & Morresi then leads to the conclusion that either B is equal 2004. The Lateran portrait of Ariadne: Liverani to A, or B is not equal to A. Those tests that create 2014, 282-283. The Acropolis Kore 682: Schmaltz experiences also start with analyses of archaeologi- 2016. cal data A, which lead to preparations of a test B, 18 Skovmøller 2016b, 212-218; Skovmøller & which is tested in a process C, which leads to result Therkildsen 2014. D. The result D then goes into an interpretation of 19 Hansen, 2014, 168: According to Hans-Ole Han- the archaeological data A. What happens is the cre- sen, founder of Lejre Experimental Centre “Exper- ation of experience that may be useful for archaeo- imental archaeology should be defined as a scien- logical, historic[al] or ethnographic[al] research but tific method that follows the principles of research is of particular value to popular, living history pre- and a hypothesis concerning a physical process sentations of the past.” in the past should be proved or disproved using 20 Abbe 2013; Dyer et al. 2014; Verri et al. 2014; Wil- a methodology appropriate to the task. (…) One liams et al. 2007. should not mistake the experimental archaeologi- 21 Foresta 2011; Foresta 2012; Rossini 2010. cal research method for those tests where the aim 22 Graham 2012; Siotto et al. 2015a-b. is to create experiences or ‘ideas’ of past physical 23 Abbe 2013; Dyer et al. 2014; Frischer 2013. situations. These are by far the most common kind 24 Verri et al. 2014; Williams et al. 2007. Lost in Translation 15
Fig. 7. Painted marble copy of a portrait depicting a Roman youth c. 235 CE (NCG, inv. no. IN 821). The copy, which was made at the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek in 2014, is based on scientific analyses of the original portrait and similar works of art. The painted copy was made in scale 1:1 and involved two reconstruction phases: 1) the copying of the portrait in white marble, 2) the painting of the portrait. It should be noted that the process of making the painted copy was highly in- formative whereas the physical result is considered less successful. The project was led by Dr. Amalie Skovmøller (Skovmøller & Therkildsen 2014; 2015). © Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek (photo: Ole Haupt).
Fig. 8. Digital reconstructive representations of a marble statue of Caligula from the 1st century CE recovered from an Imperial shrine at Bovillae, near Rome (Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, inv. no. inv. no. 71.20). The traces of ancient polychromy on the statue are extremely fragmentary and consist of isolated, heavily weathered vestiges of ancient colouration with no discernible stratigraphy. Since the traces of polychromy are so sparse, three experimental recon- structions were made of the statue depicting the Emperor wearing three different types of toga. From left to right: Toga praetexta, toga purpurea, toga picta (Abbe 2013). © Virginia Museum of Fine Arts (photo: Direct Dimensions and the Virtual World Heritage Laboratory, University of Virginia). 16 Signe Buccarella Hedegaard & Cecilie Brøns
Fig. 9. Digital reconstructive representation of the so-called Treu Head, a life-sized, ideal female por- trait carved in Parian marble, dated to the 2nd century CE (British Museum, inv. no. 1884,0617.1). Me- ticulous technical analyses were carried out on the object. Although the portrait has considerable traces of polychromy, the extent of surviving pigment on the head was considered too small to allow for a satisfactory reconstruction. With the aim of excluding a modern re-interpretation of ancient painting techniques, the research team proposed a reconstructive representation created by digitally stretching and deforming images of ancient sculptures and mummy portraits showing paint layers similar to tho- se observed on the Treu Head. One of the major advantages of this kind of representation is the clear illustration of each step of the process from start to finish (Verri et al. 2014, Fig. 17). © The Trustees of the British Museum Lost in Translation 17
Joining up the dots terspersed with massive lacunae. Finding a few It is imperative to stress that all attempts to traces of ancient paint on an otherwise bare reconstruct archaeological artefacts and sites marble surface tells us that the surface used involve a degree of speculation and uncer- to be painted. This is a very important piece tainty.25 The reliability of any reconstructive of information. However, such sparse paint endeavour depends on the particulars of the traces do not tell us exactly how extensive an data obtainable. The inclusion of scientific area the paint used to cover or whether the data does by no means eliminate the element tone of the paint layer was affected by addi- of subjectivity; every single step of the way tional paint layers or surface treatments. They from idea to end product is still based on do not inform us of the extent of the poly- countless subjective interpretations and deci- chromy; the artefact in question might have sions influenced by aesthetic criteria, precon- been partly or completely covered in paint. ceptions, and interests.26 However, there is a The entire surface might have been painted world of difference between data-based inter- in one colour, a few colours or a vast number pretation and mere speculation introduced to of nuances. Due to our lack of knowledge join up the dots where no data are available. concerning the binding media used, the textu- In the case of painted marble sculptures, re, saturation, gloss, and transparency of the our knowledge of the original polychromy is polychromy remain equally elusive.30 In addi- severely limited; the traces of paint are scarce tion, we often do not know if the painter ai- and considerably degraded, leaving us with a med at actual verisimilitude or an imaginative, somewhat incomplete picture of the original somewhat exaggerated or stylised expression. decoration. Regrettably, there are no surviving We also have to consider the probability that written records describing the ancient prac- different painting styles and methods were in tices of painting marble surfaces which can use simultaneously.31 Thus, findings on one help fill the gaps in our knowledge.27 This is artefact are not necessarily transferable to particularly problematic with regard to easily other similar artefacts. degradable, organic substances such as egg, Considering the overwhelming number casein, animal glues, oils, waxes, and gums of unknown factors, any attempt to recon- which might have been used as adhesives, se- struct such polychromy is necessarily based alants, binding media, and surface coatings.28 on a considerable degree of extrapolation Sealants are applied directly to the substrate of the data available. This is in turn coupled prior to the ground and paint layers in order with suppositions drawing on our current to seal the surface. Binding media hold the knowledge of other contemporary painting pigment grains together. The choice of binder techniques and on the availability of materials is of the utmost importance to the handling in ancient Greece and Rome.32 Thus, the re- properties as well as the optical characteristics presentations which we are capable of pro- of the paint. Likewise, surface coatings have a ducing based on our limited insight are highly significant impact on the saturation and gloss hypothetical, prone as they are to oversimpli- of the polychromy.29 fication as well as other interpretative errors Basically, we are left with very few data in- related to the process of joining up the dots.33
25 Stone & Planel 1999; Pitcaithley 2004, ix; 30 Brinkmann 2009, 26; Frischer 2013; Kiilerich 2016, Skovmøller 2016b, 201-203. 2-4; Scharff 2013, 84-85; Verri et al. 2014, 150, 172; 26 Brecoulaki 2015. Skovmøller 2016a, 55; Skovmøller 2016b, 202-203. 27 Verri et al. 2014, 172; Skovmøller 2016b, 200, 202- 31 Verri et al. 2014, 163. 203; Brinkmann 2004, 39. 32 Blume-Jung 2016, 97; Brinkmann 2004, 38-39; 28 Verri et al. 2014, 150; Skovmøller 2016a, 55, 69-73. Brinkmann et al. 2010; Verri. et al. 2014, 171-176. 29 Skovmøller 2016a, 69-73. 33 Kiilerich 2016, 2-4. 18 Signe Buccarella Hedegaard & Cecilie Brøns
The expression which we can produce proba- bitions and popular publications are focused bly does not do the ancient craftsmen justice. on the importance of communicating the fact Considering the impressive skills attested to that the white marble we have come to asso- by ancient sculptures and paintings alike, it ciate with ancient Greece and Rome was poly- is only reasonable to assume that the crafts- chrome originally.39 The opponents, however, men who painted the skilfully carved marble are deeply concerned about the highly hypo- surfaces possessed a similar level of crafts- thetical nature of these colourful representa- manship.34 As emphasised by classical archae- tions. Realising the rather potent risk of repla- ologist Dr. Amalie Skovmøller: cing one misguided conception with another, they believe it best to exclude painted copies The reconstructions represent the current from public view. Criticising the methodologi- ‘trends’ in the research into colour on mar- cal approach, the opponents contend against ble sculptures according to media and for- the validity of the scientific data as well as the mat; but they do not reflect what the sculp- level of speculation involved in bridging the tures actually looked like.35 substantial gap between faint traces of origi- nal polychromy and complete decoration.40 The Gordian Knot Introducing scholarly accomplishments to The potential of reconstructions of ancient the general public requires simplification of polychromy is a much debated topic. Scho- complex research questions and results. When lars do agree that our knowledge of ancient simplifying scientific research so as to achieve polychromy is much too limited to allow ac- more digestible explanations, the picture is so- tual reconstructions.36 Nevertheless, they also mewhat obscured by the omission of nuances agree that experience-acquiring experiments, and reservations. This is a basic condition of such as the reconstructive representation of popular science, sparking debate in various the Roman youth in the NCG (Fig. 7), are of other lines of scientific research. In fact, the great value to polychromy research.37 Further- ongoing debate within polychromy research more, there is unanimity on the importance bears a great resemblance to the one in prehi- of informing the generally interested public storic archaeology and related fields whose about ancient polychromy.38 access to data is similarly limited and whose However, opinions are strongly divided need for reconstructive initiatives is equal- regarding the use of representations of long- ly essential to research and education. The lost polychromy in public contexts. This espe- decade-long debate on the reconstruction of cially applies to painted copies. The advocates prehistoric as well as other archaeological si- of including painted copies in museum exhi- tes is often referred to as a Gordian Knot.41
34 Blume-Jung 2016, 91, 97; Brinkmann 2004, 38-39; tions for research-related and educational purposes Østergaard 2004b, 14; Skovmøller 2016b, 215-217. are often debated during the International Round 35 Skovmøller 2016b, 201-202. Table on Polychromy in Ancient Sculpture and 36 Brinkmann 2004, 38-39; Skovmøller 2016b, 200; Architecture. At the meeting hosted by Centre de Verri, G. et al. 2014, 171-172; Østergaard 2020. Recherche et de Restauration des Musées de France 37 Zimmer 2016, 6; Skovmøller 2016b, 201-204, 212- (C2RMF), 15-16 Nov. 2016, Jan Stubbe Østergaard 218; Brinkmann 2009, 27; Brinkmann 2014, 37; addressed the issue as an introduction to debate Brinkmann et al. 2015, 13-14; Østergaard 2017, 165. under the heading “Reconstruction of the poly- 38 Østergaard 2000, 148; Østergaard 2014, 14-20; chromy of ancient sculpture: a necessary evil?” Brinkmann et al. 2015, 1-2; Østergaard 2020. The presentations from the 8th International Round 39 Blume-Jung 2016, 95-97; Østergaard 2004b, 12-14; Table are to be published in the 2019 volume of the Østergaard 2014, 20; Brinkmann 2014; Østergaard C2RMF journal Technè.. 2017, 165-166; Østergaard 2020. 41 Woodman 1989, 1; Culleton 1999, 85; Pitcaithley 40 Brecoulaki 2015; Østergaard 2020. The advantages 2004, x. and disadvantages of reconstructive representa- Lost in Translation 19
Similar to the debate in polychromy research, supposition needed in order to present the the main concern of the proponents is the audience with fully painted representations.47 education of the public. The opponents, on the other hand, express reservations about the Issues of perception validity of the reconstructive initiatives and point out the risk of misinforming the public The best reconstructions evoke a strong in their eagerness to educate them.42 The di- sense of the past; the worst evoke a sense lemma is perfectly summed up by archaeolo- of the past that never was. 48 gist Marion Blockley: Reconstructive representations interpreting Archaeological reconstructions are an easy paint traces are essential when communica- target for criticism by academics, but they ting current notions of ancient polychromy. are undoubtedly popular with the wider The various formats available are suitable for public for a number of reasons. Foremost different purposes: drawings made by hand as of these is that they ‘fill the gaps’ or com- well as virtual simulations in 2D and 3D are plete the conceptual jigsaw of ‘this is what solely made for illustrative purposes. General- it was like’. The danger, of course, is that ly associated with the realm of imagination, the more massive and durable a reconstruc- these formats clearly convey the subjective tion appears, the higher its credibility with nature of concepts, notions, and ideas, thus the public. Further, reconstructions suffer inviting contemplation. Painted copies, on the from the fact that, as with all interpretation, other hand, draw on material qualities. They they are a reflection of the time in which thus imitate rather than illustrate subjecti- they were created. 43 ve interpretations of the original appearan- ce, and seem somewhat final and conclusive Despite fundamental disagreements, the re- to the observer.49 With the introduction of construction debate within polychromy re- spatiality and tactility into the equation, the search is fairly lively. Thus, recognising the representations have been moved from the need for visual means, some opponents are abstract realm of ideas and imagination into experimenting with virtual reconstruction44 physical reality. This fundamental shift in the and laser scanning of original sculpture with perceptual situation raises the expectations of three-dimensional representations with edu- material accuracy. Considering the many re- cational use in mind.45 Likewise, acknowled- servations related to interpretative represen- ging the need for a more scientific basis for tations of long-lost polychromy, this presents their reconstructive efforts, the proponents a serious challenge to the communication of are gradually including more reliable scientific painted copies. analyses.46 Obviously, a more scientific appro- Within polychromy research, as well as re- ach including two or more advanced methods lated fields dealing with reconstructive issues, for pigment identification results in more re- it is unanimously stressed that when attempts liable data. However, this shift does not ad- are made to reconstruct long-lost artefacts dress the main concern of the critics, namely and structures, it is of the utmost importance the fairly extreme degree of extrapolation and that museum visitors are made aware of the
42 Woodman 1989, 1; Blockley 1999, 15-16; Culle- 46 Brinkmann & Koch-Brinkmann 2010, 115; Brink- ton 1999, 84-85; Stone & Planel 1999; Jameson Jr. mann 2012, 15-17; Brinkmann 2014. 2004, 1-13. 47 Brecoulaki 2015. 43 Blockley 1999, 15. 48 Pitcaithley 2004, ix. 44 Dyer et al. 2014, 101; Verri et al. 2014, 176. 49 Skovmøller 2016b, 203-205; Ulmann 2010, 385. 45 Verri et al. 2014, 176. 20 Signe Buccarella Hedegaard & Cecilie Brøns extent of extrapolation and supposition. It Although numerous scientific studies point should thus be made abundantly clear to them to the less immediate nature of our sense of that attempts to reconstruct the past rest on hearing compared to our senses of sight and varying degrees of subjective interpretation.50 touch,54 oral communication generally stands As stated by prehistoric archaeologists Ma- a much better chance of engaging museum rianne Rasmussen and Bjarne Grønnow: visitors than exhibition labels do.
It is important to pass on to the public the Issues of articulation: terminology sense that archaeological interpretation is Whatever the perceptual challenges, it is a continuous, ongoing process and that worthwhile considering how reconstructive re- reconstructions do not represent a definite presentations are articulated. The widely used and certain ‘truth’ but rather ‘physical term ‘reconstruction’ is misleading in that it ideas’ about the past. These ideas – and supports the immediate, somewhat misconcei- consequently our reconstructions – change ved understanding of the physical representa- through time spurred by new directions in tions.55 The communicative challenge is only the discipline of archaeology and new finds.51 increased by calling representations “recon- structions” whilst trying to explain that they are However, it has proven to be an exceedingly not actual reconstructions. The same applies difficult task to successfully communicate what to the terms “restoration”, “re-creation”, “re- are readily perceived as reliable reconstructions production”, “restitution”, and “realization” as mere interpretive illustrations. The crux of which all imply a level of knowledge of the ori- the matter is the intense perceptual impact of ginal artefact or structure which is far beyond the physical representations. When it comes to our current grasp.56 In acknowledgement of comprehension there is a world of difference the need for a more suitable terminology, se- between visual perception and reading: veral alternative suggestions have been propo- sensory perception is instantaneous whereas sed. Gottfried Semper and Georg Treu hum- reading requires deliberate engagement bly referred to their colourations as “experi- and effort.52 The more convincing and self- ments” or “attempts” (Versuche).57 More recent explanatory the physical representation terms – or rather descriptions – used within appears, the less necessary the textual polychromy research include “reconstruc- explanation seems to be. And the longer tion experiment”,58 “possible appearance”,59 and more complex the accompanying text is, “modern construction”,60 and “approxima- the greater the risk that the visitors will skip tion” (Annährungen).61 Looking at the termi- it.53 Thus, textual communication has rather nological debate in related fields we find more long odds when competing with physical idiomatic suggestions such as “simulation”,62 representations such as painted copies. “construction”,63 and “interpretation”.64
50 Zimmer 2016, 6; Pitcaithley 2004, ix; Rasmussen & 55 Stone & Planel 1999, 2. Grønnow 1999, 142, 142; Stone & Planel 1999, 2; 56 Hobley 1982, 223; Stone & Planel 1999, 2. Skovmøller 2016b, 202. 57 Semper 1836; Treu 1885. 51 Rasmussen & Grønnow 1999, 142. 58 Brinkmann & Koch-Brinkmann 2010, 126; Brink- 52 Lowenthal 1985, 245; Blockley 1999, 16. mann et al. 2015, 13-14. 53 Bitgood 2013, 83-91. 59 Verri et al. 2014, 172. 54 Bigelow & Poremba 2014. Studies comparing our 60 Skovmøller 2016b, 201. senses of hearing and sight generally focus on reten- 61 Brinkmann 2009, 27. tion of information rather than comprehension. Re- 62 Hobley 1982, 223. cent experiments suggest that the way the mind pro- 63 Stone & Planel 1999, 2. cesses and stores sound may be different from the 64 Rasmussen & Grønnow 1999, 141. way it processes and stores other types of memories. Lost in Translation 21
Despite the wide range of suggestions, we of the methodology, these methods, inclu- are still far from reaching consensus regar- ding their limitations and sources of error, ding the terminology. It is obviously essential should obviously be included when presen- to choose a terminology which conveys the ting ancient polychromy. However, when in- interpretative nature of reconstructive ini- terpreting scientific data for reconstructive tiatives as correctly as possible. However, in purposes, the interpretation constitutes the order to ensure a successful transition from most important part of the methodological one term to another, it is equally imperative approach. It is thus imperative to emphasise that the term is readily decodable by the wider and explain the calculations made to proceed public. Until scholars agree on a more suitable from data to representation. term and use it invariably, “reconstruction” The issue of articulating the extension of will, in all likelihood, continue to be applied interpretation applies in all formats. It is, ho- to reconstructive representations in public as wever, particularly important with regard to well as scholarly contexts. At this point, the painted copies based on scientific analyses. only alternative term used on a wider scale is When the focus is on material similarity rather ‘simulation’ which is often applied to virtual than mere representation of colour values, the representations in 2D and 3D.65 Derived from quality of the painted copies is heavily depen- the terminology surrounding virtual reality, dent on the validity of the scientific approach. the term is primarily used to characterise the Complying with the mounting criticism of the format of the reconstructive undertaking. So scientific basis for these imitative representa- far, ‘simulation’ is often applied interchange- tions, the proponents have gradually adopted ably with (virtual or digital) ‘reconstruction’ a more scientific approach including two or without addressing the terminological issues. more scientific techniques in order to cross- However, it may just be that this manner of check the data obtained.66 However, besides linking two terms results in the perfect for- increasing the attention paid to more reliable mula for gradually replacing ‘reconstruction’ data collection, the criticism also appears to with a more suitable term. have created a need among the proponents to validate their methodology. Thus, when Issues of articulation: methodology introducing visitors to their representations, Besides the terminology, there is another they often put a lot of effort into elaborating serious issue related to the articulation of on the scientific methods used, emphasising reconstructive representations of ancient their high degree of accuracy. In many cases, polychromy. The methodological approach however, the great emphasis on the reliability is key to understanding reconstructive un- of the data leaves very little if any attention dertakings and should therefore form part devoted to the limitations of, and sources of of any introduction to such representations. error in the physical and chemical analyses Due to the lack of written information on employed.67 Leaving such information out of ancient painting techniques and the scarcity the picture makes the scientific methods ap- and deteriorated state of ancient polychromy, pear more scientifically sound. Paradoxically, researchers are heavily dependent on various the very decision to omit such essential infor- physical and chemical techniques in order to mation renders the approach unscientific. assess paint traces. Forming an essential part Even more importantly, the massive
65 Beale & Earle 2011; Graham 2012; Pollini 2013; 67 Liverani 2004; Brinkmann & Koch-Brinkmann Siotto et al. 2015a; Siotto et al. 2015b. 2010; Brinkmann et al. 2010; Piening 2010; Brink- 66 Brinkmann & Koch-Brinkmann 2010, 115; Brink- mann et al. 2015. mann 2014. 22 Signe Buccarella Hedegaard & Cecilie Brøns attention attached to the physical and exhibition “Bunte Götter. Die Farbigkeit chemical methods in the articulation of the antiker Skulptur”69 as well as the two methodology overshadows the crucial aspects polychromy exhibitions “ClassiColor: The of interpretation including the extension Color of Greek and Roman Sculpture” (2003) of extrapolation and supposition. Unlike and “Transformations: Classical Sculpture in the detailed explanations of the scientific Colour” (2014) both held at the Ny Carlsberg techniques used, mention of interpretive Glyptotek in Copenhagen, firmly attest to this aspects is generally very brief and somewhat fact (Fig. 10a-b). Certainly, painted copies are superficially treated. Generally constituting a efficient in spreading the message that marble diminishing proportion of the information sculptures and architectural elements were offered to visitors and peers alike, interpretative polychrome. Unfortunately, it would appear considerations usually appear toward the end that they are equally efficient at spreading false of introductory texts as a closing remark notions of what ancient polychromy actually added some type of disclaimer.68 Thus, the looked like. Emphasising the interpretative interpretative aspects are usually mentioned aspects in the articulation of painted copies but they are not presented as an essential part is likely to help the audience to approach of the methodology. Whether intentional or them with greater contemplation. Still, the unintentional, such biased articulation is bound sheer perceptual impact of these imitative to influence the museum visitor’s experience. representations is so powerful that it easily The massive attention paid to the validity of overrides any accompanying text – however the data collection prompts the impression sensibly it may be phrased.70 It is therefore to that the reconstructive representations be expected that many a visitor will perceive themselves are scientifically valid, which is far painted copies as actual reconstructions from the case. In actual fact, they rely much regardless of how correctly they are presented. more on interpretative aspects than they do As mentioned above, there is a consensus on data obtained via physical and chemical that it is important that the general public is analyses. The validity of the data obtained via made aware of our colourful past in as accessible scientific analysis isnot directly transferable to and factual a way as possible. The approach reconstructive initiatives based on the data. taken appears to depend on the degree of It is a highly interpretative exercise, joining speculation the individual researcher is willing the dots in order to create more complete to accept in their pursuit of this aim. Thus, representations. This point must be made the format chosen reflects individual attitudes abundantly clear to the audience if the aim towards the importance of accessibility is to give them a true, fair introduction to weighed against the importance of factuality.71 reconstructive representations. If the Gordian Knot is to be cut, accessibility and factuality must be considered equally Public interest at heart important and treated accordingly. Although Painted copies are undoubtedly popular with the different opinions voiced by polychromy the public at large. The great success of researchers are based on personal experiences Brinkmann and Koch-Brinkmann’s travelling with museum visitors,72 no actual museum
68 Liverani 2004, 238; Piening 2010; Brinkmann et al. 72 Østergaard 2009, 6; Skovmøller 2016b, 200-201. As 2015, 13-14. mentioned, the matter is almost exclusively debated 69 Brinkmann 2014, 41. orally amongst polychromy researchers. Presenting 70 Zimmer 2016, 6. the challenges of reconstructing ancient polychro- 71 Woodman 1989, 1; Blockley 1999, 15-16; Culle- my to museum visitors as well as colleagues within ton 1999, 84-85; Stone & Planel 1999; Jameson Jr. classical archaeology, it is the authors’ clear impres- 2004, 1-13. sion that painted copies are generally understood as Lost in Translation 23
Fig. 10a-b. Views from the special exhibitions ‘ClassiColor: The Color of Greek and Roman Sculpture’ and ‘Transfor- mations: Classical Sculpture in Colour’, held at the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek in Copenhagen in 2004 and 2014 respecti- vely. Both exhibitions were curated by Jan Stubbe Østergaard (photos: Ana Cecilia Gonzalez).
visitor survey has been carried out as yet. It Conclusion would appear that a more systematic approach Given the material, perceptual, and articu- to the assessment of visitor experiences late circumstances, the task of informing would yield valuable insights which could be the public in a clear, unbiased manner about of decisive importance to how findings are ancient polychromy poses quite a challenge. communicated in the future. Thus, it would However, making well-informed, conscious appear that it is time for conducting actual choices regarding formats, terminology, and museum visitor surveys assessing painted the articulation of the methodology improves copies and other formats of reconstructive the chances of clearly conveying current con- representations. Since insights from such ceptions of long-lost polychromy. Firstly, the surveys obviously reflect the questions asked, communicative situation will benefit from it would be beneficial to the process if scholars choosing illustrations such as drawings and in the field could agree on the phrasing of a digital simulations which are readily perceived questionnaire. It is quite possible that these as illustrations rather than imitations or re- surveys will vindicate the proponents as well as constructions. Secondly, it is advantageous to the opponents regarding their assessments of emphasise the illustrative purpose of recon- visitor experiences. After all, there is no actual structive representations when verbally intro- contradiction in pointing out that “painted ducing them. Thirdly, the methodology, i.e. copies are very efficient at conveying the fact the data collection as well as the deductions that ancient marble sculptures were originally made to proceed from data to colour repre- painted” and “that many visitors mistake some sentation, should be presented to the audi- formats for actual reconstructions”. ence in as accessible a manner as possible.
actual reconstructions. Most people respond with tion and supposition involved in the reconstructive surprise when informed of the level of extrapola- initiatives. 24 Signe Buccarella Hedegaard & Cecilie Brøns
Although painted copies can cause misun- Foundation for generously funding the derstandings, they have been very successful research project Transmission and Transformation. at spreading the rather simple, yet to many Ancient Polychromy in an Architectural Context of overwhelming, message that ancient Greek which this study forms a part. Thanks are and Roman marble sculptures and architecture also due to the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek for were originally polychrome. Indeed, “Bunte housing the project. We would like to express Götter” alone has succeeded in informing our gratitude to Jan Stubbe Østergaard millions of museum visitors of our colour- for sharing his insights and to Dr. Amalie ful past. Thus, however problematic painted Skovmøller and Rikke Hoberg Therkildsen copies may be, their ability to make an impact for their examination and involvement in the cannot be ignored. Perhaps, it may even turn reconstructive initiative regarding the Roman out to be an advantage in the long run: Simple youth in the NCG collection. Last, but not messages are easier to communicate than in- least, a special thank goes to Neil Stanford for tricate ones. By first introducing the public to his meticulous proofreading ensuring that the ancient polychromy in a simplified yet highly complexity of the issues treated in the paper efficient manner, the painted copies may just are not lost in translation. have paved the way for the much more com- plex explanations required to fully grasp the limitations of our current insight into the Signe Buccarella Hedegaard manufacture and appearance of polychrome Cecilie Brøns marble surfaces in Antiquity. Now that the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek public at large has become aware of ancient Dantes Plads 7 polychromy, the time is ripe to modify the 1556 Copenaghen message and rectify misconceptions. Denmark [email protected] Acknowledgements We are very grateful to the Carlsberg
ABBREVIATIONS
ASMOSIA: Association for the Study of ERCIM: The European Research Consor- Marble & Other Stones in Antiquity tium for Informatics and Mathematics
BAR: British Archaeological Reports NCG: Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek Lost in Translation 25
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