Water Resources of the Mardoowarra (Fitzroy River) Catchment by Associate Professor Ryan Vogwill, University of Western Australia Acknowledgments:
Please note that, although the author of this report respects that the correct name of the Fitzroy River according to Traditional Owners is Mardoowarra, ‘Fitzroy River’ will be used throughout this document to maintain consistency with the published literature, with one exception: In the ‘Indigenous Value and Cultural Significance’ section, ‘Mardoowarra’ will be used.
Associate Professor Vogwill would like to acknowledge the Wilderness Society for funding this report, and the valuable peer reviews of Dr Michael Smith and Associate Professor Matthew Hipsey. Dr Anne Poelina’s input on Indigenous cultural heritage was invaluable also.
www.wilderness.org.au/campaigns/kimberley
cover image: Mardoowarra in flood | Kimberley Media ISBN: 978-0-646-94928-4 December 2015
2 Foreword: Dr Anne Poelina
Every time we sing the Warloongarriy song, we remind the people, young and old, this is the Law of the Mardoowarra, this is the First Law we have inherited from Bookarrarra, from the beginning of time. — Lucy Marshall, Senior Nyikina Elder
Bookarrarra is the essence of our being — locating the past, present and future into this moment now, in which we must act. This First Law for the Mardoowarra, the Warloongarriy river law, is manifested inter-generationally, inherited as the knowledge of connectivity between people, land, animals, birds, plants and living water systems. Everyone who has an association with the river, whether they are Indigenous or not, talks about the importance of this river. The Mardoowarra is the ‘River of Life’.
We are at a critical point in our history where some of the proposed developments present a real threat to the land, to water and food security, as well as to our image: Anne Poelina at Gantheaume | Ian Perdrisat Kimberley way of life. Unless we can manage our most precious resource — water — wisely, the future of the region is likely to be very different to the past.
This report by Associate Professor Ryan Vogwill makes a strong case for Mardoowarra Catchment Water Stewardship to facilitate transparent participatory planning which values existing natural, cultural and environmental assets and includes Kimberley people. A regional operational framework of engagement is urgently needed to reveal the real impacts of projects and the cumulative effect of all of the industries proposed for the Kimberley. I commend this report, as I am in agreement that any water allocation and planning of the Mardoowarra Fitzroy Catchment must be grounded in the collective wisdom of our complementary knowledge systems, cultures and laws — our Bookarrarra — in order for the River of Life to sustain us all for thousands of years to come.
1 Executive Summary
Based on the literature, it is clear that our The volumes of water that would be needed for understanding of the biota and other culturally proposed developments (200GL/year) require a significant natural assets of the Fitzroy River is not specific level of hydrological and hydrogeological complete. We have yet to comprehensively map and understanding, including the linkages between water describe the biota, link them to Indigenous heritage use and subsequent impact. This does not yet exist values and predict the impact of increased water use. in the public domain. A sound understanding of the The work that has been completed highlights the impact of surface or groundwater allocation must high value people place on this relatively undisturbed be developed before any substantial allocations system. Our understanding of the hydrology of the should be granted, particularly in such an important Fitzroy River is limited by a low gauging density, biogeographic region. There are several examples of almost no information on salinity concentrations/ environmental and economic damage in Australia loads and inadequate groundwater monitoring. and overseas caused by improper allocation of water Some environmental water requirements have been resources, owing to a failure to apply a rigorous developed for the aquatic fauna of the lower Fitzroy, planning process. Impacts to the biota will impact but these can be considered preliminary and do not upon Indigenous heritage values, in addition to cover the range of species already identified. No commercially relevant activities and occupations such environmental water requirements information exists as tourism and both commercial and recreational in the public domain for flora, the terrestrial fauna or fisheries. the King Sound Estuary. The recommendation of this report is that a more The prospect of large-scale development of irrigated rigorous assessment is required prior to any agriculture represents a significant potential increase significant water allocation in the Fitzroy Basin. If in consumptive water use in the lower Fitzroy valley the process of developing the water resource of this (currently 2GL/year). The collection and storage catchment is conducted in the correct order, with an of large quantities of surface water has also been appropriate level of understanding acquired first, proposed — requiring dams, diversions, and off- the existing environment, cultural, and other water stream storage facilities. Agriculture typically requires users can be protected while supporting responsible application of fertilisers and agricultural chemicals long-term agricultural development. This will, such as herbicides and pesticides. Nutrients and however, take 10 years or more if the resources to agricultural chemicals are known to cause significant conduct comprehensive investigations are available impacts to aquatic ecosystems in particular. Altered immediately. flow regimes affect the extent of flooding and water temperatures, which can impact both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Increased erosion, altered sediment loads, and subsequent increased sediment deposition has the potential to impact critical dry season and drought refugia habitat.
2
Contents
1 Introduction 4
2 Background 4
2.1 Regional context and impetus for this study 4 2.2 Study area 5 Physical Geography 5 Human Geography 6 Ecology and the Natural Environment 6 Indigenous Value and Cultural Significance 7 Climate and Hydrology 8 Hydrogeology 9 Surface water 10 Current Water Allocations 11 Ecohydrology 12
3 Proposed Water Usage — Water for Food Initiative 13
3.1 Knowledge Gaps Identified In Previous Investigations 13
4 Legislative Requirements and Level of Investigation 16
4.1 Legislative Requirements 16 4.2 Allocation Planning Process — Use Versus Management 17 4.3 Surface-Groundwater Interaction 19 4.4 Numerical Modelling 19 4.5 Impacts on Dependent Ecosystems 20
5 Discussion 21
6 Conclusion 23
7 References 24
3 1 Introduction 2 Background
This report aims to evaluate the current 2.1 Regional context and impetus understanding of the implications of developing water resources of the Fitzroy River catchment given for this study the current, publicly available information. The State and Federal Governments have declared that The Fitzroy River is in northern Western Australia in the there are vast, underutilised water reserves that western Kimberley, in the eastern to central Canning will support development initiatives in northern Basin, and discharges into King Sound near the town Australia, as explored in the Northern Australian of Derby. The river catchment is arid most of the year White Paper (Australian Government, 2015) and the with wet season rains providing the majority of runoff Water for Food projects funded by the Royalties for and recharge. The fluvial environment of the Fitzroy Regions program (Western Australian Government, River is underlain by an alluvial aquifer that roughly 2015). The potential for impact from the proposed follows the modern stream route. The Lower Fitzroy allocations, given current water allocation River is underlain by the deeper and older waters management of the area, will be discussed. Examples of the Canning Basin regional aquifers. The alluvial of the consequences of allocating large amounts of aquifer is recharged by rainfall, surface water exchange water prior to obtaining sufficient information will and deep aquifer discharge. Water resources in the also be given. The State and Federal legislative and catchment have considerable economic potential industry best practise requirements for the level of due to the fresh surface water and alluvial aquifer understanding required for water allocation will be groundwater (Harrington et al., 2011). detailed and compared to the level of understanding that currently exists. Funded by Royalties for Regions, the Water for Food project is part of the Seizing the Opportunity agricultural initiative through which Western Australia will attempt to meet its goal to diversify and strengthen the state and regional economies by doubling the amount of agricultural exports by 2025 (Department of Regional Development, 2015). Although it is clear that a significant volume of water would be consumed by any major agricultural development in the Fitzroy River area, the availability of a sustainable supply has not been ensured (Harrington et al., 2011). The Federal Government has made statements that developing North Australia is “an essential part of our plan to build a strong, prosperous economy and a safe, secure Australia … We will fix the roads and telecommunications, build the dams and deliver the certainty that landholders and water users need.” (Australian Government, 2015). The Australian Government (2015) have also stated, in reference to the Kimberley, that “60,000ha could be developed for medium-scale mosaic irrigated agriculture, utilising overland flow and groundwater”. While the State and National Governments have been declaring the availability ‘underutilised’ waters in the catchment, the estimates are based upon relatively basic assessments and preliminary studies conducted 5-10 years ago — which have all identified large data gaps and considerable uncertainty (Harrington et al., 2011; CSIRO 2009; Lindsay and Commander 2005).
Although it’s outside the scope of this report to review all case studies where significant allocations have 4 been made prior to obtaining sufficient knowledge 2.2 Study area of cause and effect, two pertinent examples are the Murray-Darling Basin and the Ord River Catchment. During the last 5-10 years, there has been a Physical Geography considerable effort to try and fix the over-allocation of surface and groundwater issue in the Murray-Darling The Fitzroy River catchment has an area of 95,000km2, Basin to protect the water resource and environment, which encompasses more than 20 percent of the at a substantial cost to the Australian taxpayer (Nevil, Kimberley Region. It covers a geologically and 2009; MDBA, 2010). This cost has come in the form of topographically diverse area — from uplifted and recouping water entitlements from irrigators of the exposed igneous and metamorphic rocks in the north- Murray-Darling Basin, with a cost of $1.5 billion from east, to a low-lying and relatively flat south and west 2008-9 to 2010-11 alone (Connell and Grafton, 2011). that overlie the deep sediments of the Canning Basin. The river is 733km long, flowing from a headland Significant impacts have occurred in the nearby elevation of greater than 450mASL to discharge into Ord River Catchment as a result of surface water the Timor Sea through its river mouth at King Sound. impoundment (damming) prior to a detailed The tidal range in the lower Fitzroy is usually between understanding of cause and effect in water allocation. eight and ten meters as measured at Derby (Harrington The lower Ord River was once a highly variable, et al., 2011), allowing for a large estuarine zone. intermittent river system, similar to the lower Fitzroy River. It is now, post-river regulation, a perennial The major tributaries include the Upper Fitzroy, system in the dry season due to water releases for Leopold River, Margaret River and Christmas Creek. irrigation and power generation. All but the largest The sources of this surface water discharge include floods are now captured by the dam. This has not only the rainfall collected within the topographic divides, negatively impacted in stream and riparian ecologies, runoff and groundwater discharge along the surface but has impacted banana prawn fisheries in the tributaries to the main channel (Centre of Excellence in estuary (Warfe et al., 2011; Robson et al., 2014). Natural Resource Management, 2010).
image: Fitzroy River catchment | ©EcoMap 2006
5 Human Geography The Fitzroy River provides habitat for a great diversity of terrestrial and aquatic biota that thrive within Approximately 7,000 people live in the catchment, both the minor and major streams, riparian zones with the majority living within the two major towns and floodplains (e.g. the Camballin floodplain). of Fitzroy Crossing and Derby and the remainder An understanding of the interdependence of these living in small communities. The catchment is made connected habitats is imperative to any attempt to up of parts of three different shires: Wyndham/East successfully manage the catchment and its wildlife in Kimberley, Halls Creek and Derby/West Kimberley. The perpetuity. The riparian vegetation zone in particular catchment contains 57 Aboriginal communities, with contains rich sources of food and traditional medicine an overall demographic of approximately 80 percent (Storey, 2006). Aboriginal (Centre of Excellence in Natural Resource Management, 2010) Of the 35 fish species that are found in the freshwater rivers and streams (only 43 fish species have been The primary industries are tourism, pearling and documented in the entire Kimberley), 18 are endemic extensive cattle grazing. The 44 pastoral properties in and at least two of the fish species are endangered the catchment make up a vital industry that is integral (Storey, Froend, and Davies, 2001). Significant to the economy and culture of the area. The pastoral waterbird populations are found in the Camballin (grazing) industry was first established in the region in floodplain (Department of Water, 2009) and Le Lievre the late 19th century, famously meeting with resistance Swamp System, which together have been nominated from local Indigenous people (Woorunmurra and for listing as a Ramsar wetland of international Pedersen, 2011). While the regional economy is significance (Department of Environment and bolstered by the practicing of traditional arts, fishing, Conservation, 2009). food collecting and hunting by Aboriginal people, newer industries such as mining and tourism are Other notable threatened animal species in the Fitzroy increasing their presence and influence (CSIRO, 2009). River and its catchment include the Red Goshawk, Purple-crowned Fairy-wren, Gouldian Finch, Peregrine Falcon, Northern Quoll, Freshwater Crocodile, Sawfish and Northern River Shark. The permanent pools Ecology and the Natural Environment are fed by groundwater during the dry season and are the only persistent water source for terrestrial, The Kimberley is considered one of the most aquatic, and avian fauna. They also provide a important biogeographic regions in the world, with significant resource for the local people (Lindsay and high endemism and deep ecological divergences Commander, 2005). The seasonal flooding of the river (Pepper and Keogh, 2014). The Fitzroy catchment is in valley is vital to sustain wetlands in the floodplains, the Dampierland bioregion and is made up of the two and the groundwater baseflow is vital to the existence distinct habitat types – ranges and plains. The Oscar of the permanent pools (Lindsay and Commander, and Napier Ranges make up the north-east upper 2005). reaches of the Fitzroy River and have considerable environmental, cultural and geoheritage significance. Given no recent references on the biota of the These Devonian limestone deposits were formed by area exist in the public domain, a request to barrier reefs that are now eroded into gorges and karst the Department of Parks and Wildlife (DPaW) to features that include the Brooking, Geikie, Windjana search their databases for Threatened Ecological Gorges and Tunnel Creek. Extensive plains comprise Communities (TECs), Priority Ecological Communities red sands and alluvials of grey-brown clays with low- (PECs), Threatened and Priority Flora and Declared lying uplands of sandstone and limestone shallow Rare/Endangered Fauna for the Region was soils (Beard, 1990). The catchment is characterised undertaken. The Fitzroy Catchment has 1,758 by acacia thickets with sparse trees, grasslands and individual recordings of Declared Rare/Endangered savannahs. Spinifex steppes dominate the centre Fauna (G. Anderson, pers comm, 9 September 2015). and east of the bioregion, with a transition to sparse The Kimberley has five Threatened, 273 Priority 1, tree steppe over spinifex and hummock grasses in 113 Priority 3 and eight Priority flora taxa (Jones, the north and east (Thackway and Cresswell, 1995). 2014), 203 of which occur in the Fitzroy Catchment Current conservation reserves include Windjana (A. Jones, pers comm, 1 September 2015). The Fitzroy Gorge, Tunnel Creek, Geikie Gorge and Point Coulumb Catchment contains a number of mapped TECs/PECs National Parks, but represent less than five percent of (W. Huddleston, pers comm, 1 September 2015). the bioregion (CSIRO, 2009).
6 ● Five occurrences of the Organic Mound It is unknown the extent to which these species Spring Sedgeland Community of the North or communities are groundwater-dependent, Kimberley Bioregion (Vulnerable Class B). and therefore the degree to which they would ‘Organic mound spring sedgeland community be threatened by any proposed development or of the North Kimberley Bioregion. Sedgelands additional water allocation until more details become with sparse emergent Melaleuca sp., available. The flora and fauna of King Sound have Pandanus spiralis or Banksia Savanna. These also not been assessed for dependence on freshwater organic mound springs support sedgelands inflow from the Fitzroy River. Warfe et al. (2011) with sparse emergent Melaleuca nervosa, highlight the risk that excessive water use presents to Pandanus spiralis, and/or Banksia savanna. wet-dry river systems and to their associated estuaries Among the diverse and abundant sedges and as well. They also refer to the high geoheritage value of herbs is Eriocaulon inapertum. Other mound King Sound. springs surveyed in the Kimberley Region are vegetated by forest/woodland. Most of the sedges present on these mound springs are restricted to the periphery of wetlands Indigenous Value and Cultural Significance and creeks, or broad drainage depressions on sandier soils where grasses are dominant. Indigenous people make up 50% of the population This particular type of mound springs is only and 90% of people living outside of major towns in the known from four Pastoral Stations in the Kimberley Region (Bergmann, 2006). The people of the North Kimberley Bioregion.’ (W. Huddleston, Mardoowarra share many traits, but are not culturally, pers comm, 1 September 2015) based on an linguistically, or politically homogenous (Toussaint et unpublished DPaW internal report. al., 2001). The number of language groups provides a good example of the variations through the river ● Two occurrences of the Vegetation Association system area and include Nyikina, Mangala, Ngarinyin, 67 (Priority Class 3): grasslands, tall bunch Bunuba, Gooniyandi, Walmajarri and Wangkajunga. grass savannah and sparse low tree; ribbon These groups retain strong relationships with the grass and paperbarks. As defined by John land and water in the area (Toussaint et al., 2001). Beard’s original vegetation mapping for the The riparian environment also has the potential for Kimberley (Beard, 1979). business development in areas such as ecotourism.
DPaW are currently inputting data on additional Indigenous people in the area value terrestrial and vegetation associations into their spatial records aquatic ecosystems in several inter-related ways. They and database, so there are some more vegetation provide bush foods, art and craft materials, medicines associations in the area of interest that have not been and are culturally significant to the landscape. Water mapped yet. These are: is a sacred and basic source and symbol of life to Australian Indigenous people (Langton, 2006). Aquatic ● Vegetation Association 759 (Priority Class resources are part of the customary economy and 3 iii). Grasslands, tall bunch grass savanna an invaluable component of local experiences. The woodland and coolabah over ribbon/blue aquatic species themselves continue to be vital to the grass (Botriochloa spp.). As defined by John livelihoods of the people. Traditional fishing, hunting Beard’s original vegetation mapping for the and gathering activities significantly contribute to Kimberley (Beard, 1979). financial income and diet (Altman, 1987; Jackson and Altman, 2009). ● Vegetation Association 834 (Priority Class 3 iii). Grasslands, tall bunch grass savanna, and The economic and cultural values of river systems to mitchell and blue grass. As defined by John the various Indigenous groups are currently poorly Beard’s original vegetation mapping for the understood by environmental managers and water Kimberley (Beard, 1979). planners (A. Poelina, pers comm, 19 October 2015). ● Vegetation Association 1271 (Priority Class 3 Some of these values are difficult to analyse with iii). Bare areas; claypans. As defined by John respect to different river stages and flow patterns, Beard’s original vegetation mapping for the making water allocation decisions problematic Kimberley (Beard, 1979). (Jackson, 2008). Few quantitative investigations on the use of resources by Indigenous people have been conducted and the values of non-traded goods and services in these societies have not been evaluated (Jackson et al., 2011).
7 image: Mardoowarra floodplain | Magali McDuffie
In recognition of Mardoowarra’s outstanding cultural Climate and Hydrology significance, on 31 August 2011 the Federal Minister for Environment and Heritage included the river as The Fitzroy catchment receives an average rainfall of part of the West Kimberley National Heritage area. 577mm per year, most of which (534mm) falls in the The National Heritage values of the Mardoowarra were wet season between November to April. There is also stated as: a significant annual rainfall gradient across the region, from 383mm in the south to 963mm in the north. From “The Fitzroy River and a number of its tributaries, 1930 to 1970, annual rainfall was relatively constant, together with their floodplains and the jila sites at approximately 450mm. Since then, the annual (waterholes) of Kurrpurrngu, Mangunampi, average has increased to approximately 650mm, with Paliyarra and Kurungal, demonstrate four distinct the maximum of 1,127mm in 2000. For the period of but complementary expressions of the Rainbow 1996 to 2007, rainfall across the region has increased Serpent (Yoongoorrookoo) tradition associated with over historical rates (1930 to 1996) between 10 and 60 Indigenous interpretations of the different ways in percent (CSIRO, 2009). which water flows within the catchment and are of outstanding heritage value to the nation under Potential evapotranspiration in the region is very criterion (d) for their exceptional ability to convey high, with moderate seasonal variation. At an average the connectivity of the Rainbow Serpent tradition rate of 2,023mm, it usually exceeds rainfall over the within a single freshwater hydrological system.” — September to August water year. Runoff is ~14 percent Commonwealth of Australia (2011). of rainfall, at an annual average of 76mm, creating an average annual streamflow of approximately 10,000 GL/year — primarily from the high surface water runoff rates that exceed evapotranspiration during the wet season. There is, however, considerable inter-annual variability in the stream flow (CSIRO, 2009), which will be described below.
8 Hydrogeology aquifer is likely. Flow in the northeast is probably to the northwest, discharging to the Meda River. The Fitzroy Catchment spans the Kimberley Groundwater salinity in the group is generally Block (fractured rock aquifers) and Canning Basin marginal to brackish except in areas that recharge (sedimentary aquifer). The four primary aquifer occurs, such as Le Lievre Swamp. Salinity generally types in the region are: alluvial, underlying the major increases westwards, but depends heavily on the river/stream channels; sedimentary, Canning Basin particular formation within the group (Laws, 1990). stratigraphy; Devonian reef limestone; and fractured rock (CSIRO, 2009). The Noonkanbah Formation consists of siltstone, limestone and minor sandstone. It has a wide Regional Aquifers distribution throughout the catchment, with very The major regional aquifers of the Canning Basin little exposure — mostly limited to in the river channel underlie the majority of the Fitzroy catchment. The at Noonkanbah Crossing where it outcrops as fine Wallal Sandstone and Alexander Formation are in sandstone, siltstone and shale (Middleton, 1990). The hydraulic connection, so are effectively a single formation is not a good aquifer and salinity ranges aquifer consisting of sandstone with minor siltstone, from brackish to saline (Laws, 1990). conglomerate and lignite. They occur in the western part of the catchment, with only minor outcrops and The Poole Sandstone and Grant Group are generally a maximum thickness of 500m in the Fraser River considered as one aquifer, due to their similar structure. While the Wallal and Erskine Sandstones, sandstone-dominated composition and high level of and the Liveringa and Grant Group aquifers, have connectivity. Recharge is through the outcrop areas been shown to have low salinity, the Jarlemai of the Grant and St George Ranges on the northern Siltstone, Blina Shale and Noonkanbah Formation edge of the Canning Basin. With the majority of the are generally brackish to saline (Crowe and Towner, formations confined by the Noonkanbah Formation 1981; Gibson and Crowe, 1981; Laws, 1990; Lindsay elsewhere, the precise nature of discharge is and Commander, 2005; Playford, 1992). The Wallal unknown. Salinity is low near the recharge areas, Aquifer is confined (under pressure) below the but increases to 500-2,000mg/L elsewhere with Jarlemai Siltstone, allowing some coastal bores to little variation with depth. The thickness (maximum flow freely, but is largely unconfined to the southwest combined 2,100m (Laws, 1990)) and distribution of of the river. The groundwater salinity is variable, with this aquifer throughout the basin, with high-yielding the unconfined areas generally less than 1,000mg/L, bores in several locations, make it potentially a increasing to 2,000mg/L below the Jarlemai and significant groundwater resource (Lindsay and from 2,800 to 3,800mg/L west of the Logue River. The Commander, 2005). There is uncertainty over flow aquifer provides pastoral water to the area southwest directions, with Laws (1990) and Ghassemi (1991) of the Fitzroy River (Laws, 1990). disagreeing over flow directions in some parts of the Grant-Poole Aquifer. The Blina Shale consists of dark grey-green shale and siltstone with minor sandy claystone and fine Recharge to the Regional Aquifers only occurs during sandstone. The Blina Shale confines the Liveringa rainfall events that can overcome the soil moisture Group and has a maximum thickness of 462m. While deficit and create deep percolation. Although some fresh water has been sourced from coarse- outcropping aquifer units and surface depressions grained sections of the unit, it is generally saline would make recharge locally efficient, rainfall, and (Playford, 1992). therefore recharge, decreases with distance from the coast (CSIRO, 2009). There have been no empirical The Liveringa Group consists of interbedded investigations identified in this review aiming to sandstones, siltstones and shales that is generally quantify the recharge rate in the basin. 600m thick in the central part of the catchment. The Liveringa Group conformably lies on the Noonkanbah Although these aquifers have been geologically Formation, is disconformably overlain by the Blina investigated, their detailed hydraulic Shale that is unconformably overlain by the Wallal characteristics — including shallow to deep Sandstone. The Condren Sandstone is the best aquifer connectivity — have not been addressed, with of the group, but has limited distribution in the east, connectivity likely to be highly variable depending pinching out in the Noonkanbah area (Middleton, on the location and nature of structural controls such 1990). The group is recharged from rainfall on the as faults and fractures (CSIRO, 2009). Fractured rock outcrop areas and from runoff and vertical leakage aquifers underlie the upper reaches of the Fitzroy from Le Lievre Swamp east of Camballin near the River north-east of the Canning Basin. Fitzroy River. Groundwater flow is west in the Grant Range area and discharge to the Wallal Sandstone west of the river, local wetlands and the alluvial 9 These Precambrian aquifers have highly variable thirds of the river (Lindsay and Commander, 2005). hydraulic properties due to fracture variability. Limited Groundwater head decline (drawdown) typically information is available from the few water supply occurs due to groundwater abstraction and has led bores, which produce a range of water salinities to instances of seawater intrusion near the Broome (CSIRO, 2009). The majority of high quality water and Derby water supply borefields (Laws, 1990). The supplies for the major towns of Broome, Derby and alluvial aquifer has freshwater immediately underlying Fitzroy Crossing are sourced from the Broome and the modern river course, but in areas where site- Wallal Sandstones (Laws, 1990; Laws, 1991). specific investigations have been undertaken, there is brackish water in close proximity. This area of Alluvial Aquifer freshwater will swell and shrink naturally as a function The Fitzroy Alluvium mainly consists of Quaternary of recharge from river flows and evapotranspiration sands and gravels. The alluvium is generally 20 to (Harrington et al., 2011). This seasonal response in the 30m thick, typically with a discontinuous 10m thick alluvial aquifer is similar to that of the Lower Gascoyne aquitard of silt and clay above it. It underlies the river River alluvium, where there have been substantial for approximately 275km in length with an area of problems with abstraction causing ingress of brackish approximately 3,200km2 (Lindsay and Commander, to saline water into the river bed alluvium – due to 2005). Similar aquifers are thought to exist for the abstraction during prolonged periods of low/no river other major streams in the system, including in the flow (Dodson, 2009). north-east of the region, but little information has been documented for these (Playford, 1992). The Fitzroy Alluvium is recharged from the river during the wet season and from discharge of the Canning The Alluvial Aquifer that underlies the stream channel Basin regional aquifers, generally during the dry is variably connected with both the river and the season. Groundwater discharge is particularly likely regional aquifers. During the wet season, surface water to come from the Liveringa Group that underlie a percolates downward and laterally into the aquifer. substantial part of the alluvium. Although exchange Only parts of the aquifer that contain sand or gravel with regional aquifers leads to local scale discharge to above the river level will be able to store additional the river, most of the basin scale discharge is to and water either from natural or managed recharge. Once beyond the coast. surface water flows decrease during the early part of the dry season, groundwater discharge to the river (base flow) begins then progressively declines until the river stops flowing. Groundwater generally maintains pools — with some being pseudo-permanent — but levels decline and salinity increases with increasing evaporation. The rate at which the water table within the aquifer drops may reduce once the river bed dries up, due to reduced evaporation. The alluvial aquifer may then reach short-term equilibrium with the regional aquifers. Groundwater storage in the alluvium is estimated over the floodplain area of 3,200km2, with an average saturated thickness of 20m and a porosity of 0.2 to be 13,000GL or ~50 GL per kilometer length of river (Lindsay and Commander, 2005). IMAGE: Mardoowarra floodplain near Derby | Kimberley Media
Historically, salinity in the alluvial aquifer has only been measured in Western Australia Geological Survey investigation bores near Willare Crossing (Smith, Surface water 1992). The salinity ranged from 690mg/l near the river channel to 2,910mg/L in the areas that are likely Streamflow stagnant and possibly tidally influenced during the Runoff is the primary source of flow in the rivers and dry season. The salinity of the river during low-flow tributaries of the Fitzroy River catchment. Runoff is conditions may be a good indicator of groundwater highly variable with 50mm/year over the permeable salinity (Lindsay and Commander, 2005). Recent work sands of the southern plains and up to 150mm/year using airborne geophysics has highlighted the complex over the fractured rock and exposed bedrock of the distribution groundwater salinity in alluvium along the northern extents of the system (Ruprecht and Rogers, course of the river (Harrington et al., 2014). 1998). Runoff heavily depends on the antecedent The alluvial aquifer is in hydraulic connection with conditions of location of rainfall; soils and topography; the river, and discharge from the regional confined intensity; duration; and, to a lesser extent, seasonal 10 and unconfined aquifers occurs in the lower two variations in evapotranspiration. Table 1 — Annual discharge summaries for the three gauging stations which span the Lower Fitzroy River.
Site Data Period Minimum Maximum Mean Median Fitzroy Crossing 1955-2014 369.1 37,840 7,202 3,845 Fitzroy River — Noonkanbah 1997-2014 815 23,060 7,082 5,890 Fitzroy River — Willare 1998-2014 819 20,410 7,606 5,272
Flow is seasonally variable due to the strong wet/dry Myroodah due to groundwater inflow salinity, and season rainfall contrast, with flooding of the plains and fresh again from Myroodah to Willare due to tributary recharging of the alluvial groundwater during the wet inflows. The variations with location are related to season (December to March), and recession of water baseflow contribution from the underlying formations to low-flow or only separated pools in the dry season such as the Noonkanbah and Blina Shale. If the dry (June to October) (Lindsay and Commander, 2005). season salinities — which are above the desirable The annual flow volume recorded at Fitzroy Crossing drinking water limit — are directly attributed to has ranged from 300GL in 1992 to almost 25,000GL in baseflow from the alluvial aquifer, that resource would 2000 (CSIRO, 2009). not be a good source of potable water (Lindsay and Commander, 2005). Streamflow gauge data has been collected from 18 locations throughout the Fitzroy catchment — the majority only measuring river stage height for flood Current Water Allocations warning only, or have less than a 10 year record. All sites have very little (if any) salinity/salt load data At the time of the release of the Kimberley Regional recorded (Harrington et al., 2011). There are 14 Water Plan working discussion paper (Department of gauging stations currently operating in the Fitzroy Water, 2009), there were only 25 active groundwater Catchment (including the Lennard catchment) at a licenses in the Fitzroy River catchment area. The density of one gauge for every 9,400km2. The Fitzroy licenses allow total abstraction of less than 2GL/year Catchment has an average density of current gauging and were granted for Aboriginal community bores, stations comparable to other regions across northern pastoral bores, and limited horticulture. The pastoral Australia; however, it is low relative to the Murray- bores are for “diversified activities” (other than Darling Basin. The mean density of current stream livestock and domestic use). Abstraction occurs from gauging stations across the entire Murray-Darling livestock and domestic bores of the pastoral industry, Basin is one gauging station for every 1,300km2 (CSIRO, to support tourism, and to supplement the Aboriginal 2009; Petheram et al., 2014). A summary of publicly community supplies. Due to the historically low usage available data (Table 1) shows the considerable and demand, no allocation limits have been set for the annual discharge variability in the Fitzroy River in the region. proposed irrigation area. CSIRO, (2009) modelling both surface and groundwater but given data constraints, Current surface water management in the catchment could only do so with very low confidence levels — i.e. appears focussed on collecting additional data, high levels of uncertainty. For example, “There is including gauging stations at Willare, Fitzroy Crossing, a great uncertainty in estimating representative Dimond Gorge, Phillips Range and MeNoSavy — with aquifer parameters for this analysis… One can define temporary monitoring at Mt. Winifred and Mt. Krauss. upper and lower limits for this uncertainty and hence Additional stations to support flood management were estimate corresponding upper and lower bounds for set up at Fitzroy barrage, Christmas Creek, Margaret impacts” CSIRO, (2009). Gorge, Noonkanbah, Looma and Willare (Department of Water, 2009). Salinity Salinity in the river is often less 250mg/L in the Groundwater monitoring is almost nonexistent outside wet season and ranges as high as 900mg/L in the of development areas such as regional centers and dry season. Dry season salinity is likely related to large-scale mining operations. In the only substantial groundwater salinity as baseflow dominates river evaluation of the Fitzroy alluvial aquifer as a water input over runoff, and wet season salinity drops in resource, Lindsay and Commander (2005) state that response to dilution from rainfall runoff. The river further field investigations need to be conducted to salinity changes with location and is fresh (<500mg/L) properly assess the potential for increased abstraction between Fitzroy Crossing and Noonkanbah, marginal of groundwater. (500–1000 mg/L TDS) between Noonkanbah and 11 image: Endangered Purple-crowned fairy wren | Hans and Judy Beste/Lochman Transparencies
Ecohydrology The river contains a high diversity of fish, including
some that are listed as threatened species — for Although the ecohydrology of the area is not well example, the Northern River Shark and the Freshwater understood, CSIRO (2009) selected four environmental Sawfish (Storey et al., 2001 and Morgan et al., 2002). assets from the Kimberley — including two from the The middle reaches of the Fitzroy River contain the Fitzroy River Catchment — in the Directory of Wetlands Camballin Barrage, and Morgan et al. (2005) have in Australia (Environment Australia, 2001), to assess shown that it presents a considerable barrier to fish for changes to their hydrogeological regimes from migration. They found that in most years (~80 percent) climate and development effects. These wetlands since 1987, the Barrage was only negotiable by fish are important for a variety of ecological reasons and for up to three months a year. There is therefore a because they have high cultural value, particularly to considerable bottleneck at the Barrage affecting Indigenous people. The following characterisations of fish passage that may disrupt the natural ecological these environmental assets is based on the description balance of the river. of the assets given by Environment Australia (2001). Geikie Gorge is in the upper Fitzroy catchment, The Camballin Floodplain is in the central reaches of approximately 30km upstream of Fitzroy Crossing. It the Fitzroy River and includes the Le Lievre Swamp is a permanent pool on the Fitzroy River, about 13km System and numerous other seasonal wetlands long and 100m wide. The gorge is an important refuge (Environment Australia, 2001). Halse and Jaensch area for fish and other aquatic fauna during periods of (1998) have reported that the Camballin Floodplain is drought (van Dam et al., 2008). The gorge’s permanent an important bird habitat and that there are at least 67 water and food resources are valuable to Indigenous recorded species, with bird numbers often exceeding people, who are now involved in promoting the park’s 20,000. The Fitzroy River channel is an important cultural values to tourists. habitat for fish, especially as its large deep pools provide dry season refuges.
12 According to the CSIRO report on surface water storage 3 Proposed Water potential (Petheram et al., 2014), the development of surface water storage would require a detailed Usage — Water for catchment-scale study to determine the feasibility of this — to access how water could be sourced to support Food Initiative an estimated 60-80,000ha along the Fitzroy River. To realise this would require extensive damming, which is limited by the inappropriate valley morphology or geology of most stretches of the stream channel. Off- stream storage in the alluvial floodplains of the river The Government of Western Australia has disclosed is possibly suitable from an economic perspective, development plans for economic growth in the region, but will require dedicated feasibility and impact with the aim to increase regional employment in the assessment studies. Petheram et al. (2014) estimate West Kimberley through the Water for Food initiative. the water available from potential dams, which The initiative is a four-year, 40 million dollar, Royalties are located in areas that are geologically suitable for Regions-funded, State Government program with and upstream of large contiguous areas potentially a predominant focus on supporting landholders to suitable for irrigated agriculture, to be 600-1,200GL at develop irrigation projects. The State proposes to the dam wall in 85 percent of years. It is worth noting exploit the region’s ‘underutilised’ water resources, that these numbers are greater than total river flow in claiming that, “much is known about water availability dry years and 10-20% of river flow in median years. in the Fitzroy Valley” (Government of Western Australia, 2014). Irrigation projects are expected Based on the work of Lindsay and Commander (2005), to require a combination of storing and harvesting Petheram et al. (2014) classified the groundwater surface water, and abstracting groundwater from the from the Fitzroy alluvial aquifer to be of ‘moderate alluvial aquifer. potential’ and conservatively estimates it at 10-100GL/ year. Total abstraction from the entire length of the According to the State Government, “The project will river alluvium of 200 GL/year would be possible during build on existing Department of Water data along the normal flood years, but would result in an additional Fitzroy River between Willare and Fitzroy Crossing, drawdown of 0.5 m at the river bed by the end of the which has identified a potential 200 billion litres (or dry season, and is a “theoretical proposition, based on 200GL) per year of available water in the alluvium, very limited data” (Lindsay and Commander, 2005). with a yield of 25-50 billion litres per year in the 50 Petheram et al. (2014) further clarifies the situation kilometres upstream from Willare” (Government of by stating that “under normal flood conditions, it Western Australia, 2014). has been estimated the alluvium may be able supply 200GL of water, but actual yield will be limited by The prospect of large-scale development of irrigated the quality of groundwater and low-flow years in agriculture represents a significant potential increase the Fitzroy River (i.e. need to maintain dry season in consumptive water use in the lower Fitzroy valley waterholes).” (currently 2GL/year). The collection and storage of large quantities of surface water has also been proposed — requiring dams, diversions, and off- stream storage facilities. Agriculture typically requires 3.1 Knowledge Gaps Identified In application of fertilisers and agricultural chemicals such as herbicides and pesticides. Nutrients and Previous Investigations agricultural chemicals are known to cause significant impacts to aquatic ecosystems in particular. Altered The NASY project report (CSIRO, 2009) states that, flow regimes affect the extent of flooding and water “Groundwater data is very sparse for most aquifers temperatures, which can impact both aquatic and across the (Fitzroy) drainage division and there are terrestrial ecosystems. Increased erosion, altered large uncertainties regarding the volumes that might sediment loads, and subsequent increased sediment be safely extracted. This uncertainty is greater than the deposition has the potential to impact critical dry variability inherent in any possible changes expected season and drought refugia habitat (Bunn and due to climate change. Increased groundwater Arthington, 2002; Harris, 2001; Köhler and Triebskorn, extraction will have detrimental consequences on both 2013; Woodward et al., 2012). groundwater levels and flows in nearby rivers that currently cannot be fully evaluated.”
13 The key findings of the report that are directly relevant The report specifically lists data and knowledge gaps to the Fitzroy catchment are: for the Fitzroy River catchment:
● Shallow groundwater provides opportunities ● Inadequate error surfaces for meteorological for development, but its dynamic behaviour data poses risks of impacting local streamflow ● Poor rating curves available from the ● Groundwater recharge is complex and not streamflow gauging stations directly proportional to rainfall ● Too few gauging stations in the region (14) ● Floods are essential to sustain ecosystems, ● Inadequate long-term groundwater level but there are few ecosystem response and water quality information for the alluvial indicators for changes in flow regimes aquifer ● The consequences of flow changes on ● Lack of quantitative relationships between ecological systems are largely unknown flow and specific ecological entities to determine environmental impacts CSIRO (2009) state that surface water storage is limited ● Further information about flood stage and in the lower reaches of the catchment where floods discharge for most environmental assets dominate and estuaries experience high tidal ranges. The shallow alluvial aquifer has variable thickness ● Insufficient understanding of low streamflow and is limited by recharge from the river. Development conditions (hydrological models that combine of the alluvial groundwater would be the primary surface and groundwater regimes are source for any expanded water usage, but further required) investigation and research will be required to enable ● Potential impact of climate change and distributed small-scale developments. Groundwater development on groundwater-dependent quality in the alluvial aquifer is high, but due to ecosystems the insufficient existing data, the analysis of likely yields is very preliminary. They suggest a substantial ● Reproduction or migration triggers
program — including aerial geophysical survey, drilling ● Timing, duration and rate of rise and fall in and pumping tests — is needed to define the extent flow rates at critical times and properties of the aquifer before the sustainable extraction can be determined.
14 image: Geikie gorge — where Mardoowarra cuts through the 350 million-year-old Devonian Reef | Eve Chaloupka The CSIRO report Surface Water – Groundwater The Kimberley Regional Water Plan (draft) (2009) Interaction (Harrington et al., 2011) discusses suggests several actions to meet the key objectives for recharge from the regional aquifers through multiple the Fitzroy River subregion: mechanisms. This report states that, “depending on location along the valley and the aquifer being ● Clearly identify the ecological and cultural pumped, groundwater abstraction from either the values shallow alluvium or the deeper Canning Basin aquifers ● Investigate the surface water/groundwater is likely to cause a reduction in stream flow during interactions (it is noted that work began the dry season. Such reductions may have adverse in 2008 on surface water-groundwater and potentially irreversible impacts on the riparian interactions in the lower Fitzroy River by and in-stream ecology of this iconic river system.” The Harrington et al. (2011), but was not as in- knowledge gaps and recommendations for further depth as recommended in Kimberley Regional work in these reports are summarised below. Water Plan (draft) (2009)) Identify the water regime required to maintain ● Identify the environmental habitats and ● their dependence on surface water and the Fitzroy River’s ecological and cultural groundwater through time and space values including flows, heads and water quality ● Investigate the most appropriate form and location of water development to support ● Conduct pumping tests and monitoring programs small- and medium-scale irrigated agricultural activity ● Conduct monthly water balance calculations ● Develop a policy to enable Indigenous access ● Conduct further investigations into the to water for commercial purposes piezometric heads, the location and impacts of faulting, and the chemistry of the major ● Prioritise the Fitzroy River for more detailed aquifers water management planning
The hydrogeological assessment of the Fitzroy CSIRO (2009) states “Over the next several years, the alluvium (Lindsay and Commander, 2005), states department intends to complete current studies, that the potential water supply of 200GL/yr from the carry out further investigations where possible and alluvial aquifer is a ‘theoretical proposition, based develop suitable conservative allocation limits (or on very limited data’. To assess both the hydraulic where appropriate, consumptive pools) for this style of parameters of the river alluvium and the groundwater development in the region”. Little work has been done resource potential for the Fitzroy alluvium, the since then to address the recommendations from any following field investigations are required: of the significant studies by Lindsay and Commander (2005), CSIRO (2009), Harrington et al. (2011), and furthermore the draft regional water plan (Department ● Test the suitability of transient electromagnetic techniques to map the of Water 2009) has not been finalised. Some studies thickness and distribution of the alluvium are currently underway, however precise details are not publicly available and it seems premature to talk ● Drill bore transects across the river to about allocation of any water until these studies are establish the thickness and characteristics complete, peer-reviewed and extensive stakeholder of the alluvial aquifer, and the groundwater consultation undertaken. salinity and chemistry ● Monitor groundwater levels through years of river flow events to determine the aquifer storage and estimate recharge under different flow regimes ● Pump test a bore to determine the bore yield and estimate transmissivity and storage ● Establish ecological water requirements for the riverine environment
image: Boabs in the Mardoowarra catchment landscape | Martin Pritchard 15 4 Legislative Requirements and Level of Investigation
4.1 Legislative Requirements The purpose is to:
The Western Australian allocation planning process is ● maximise how much water is available to an important part of meeting the State Government’s allocate; statutory responsibility to manage water. This ● maintain the integrity of the resource and the requirement is legislated in the Rights in Water environment; and and Irrigation Act 1914 (RIWI Act) and the National Water Initiative (NWI) has further refined the Federal ● establish the required licence conditions for Government’s expectations and provides additional a local area, to protect other water users and tools to assist State Governments in managing water the environment. allocation. There are five clauses of the National Water Initiative (clauses 36-40 inclusive) that are specific to Their process is further clarified to: allocation planning. These are: ● apply a transparent and consistent process to ● Clause 36 — allocation decision making develop water allocation plans; ● Clause 37 — meeting ecological and resource ● seek advice from stakeholders throughout the security outcomes planning process; ● Clause 38 — deciding when to plan ● put the necessary effort and funding into an area, depending on the current level of ● Clause 39 — the content of a plan as per allocation and the risk to the resource and its Schedule E users; ● Clause 40 — implementing the plan ● use the best-available information; and It must be noted that, in general, the inclusion of ● provide for ongoing plan review and, if these clauses by the NWI were not intended to be required, adapt management to meet plan particularly prescriptive, therefore requiring State objectives. Governments to determine the timing and rigor of their own impact assessment used in allocation The allocation planning process is an iterative planning. one, in that the level of understanding of a water resource (including impacts the environment) that is The Department of Water in Western Australia required increases as the level of use or threat to the administers surface and groundwater allocation environment increases. through issuing licences, under clauses 5C and 26D of the RIWI Act. Water allocation plans themselves however are not statutory documents, but are the Department’s statement of how they will support licence assessment, and how much water has been (and can be) sustainably allocated in a proclaimed area (Department of Water, 2011).
Department of Water (2011) expand on the purpose and process by which this is undertaken.
16 4.2 Allocation Planning Process — (2) Intensive plans are developed where demand is high (C3 and C4), during which new studies Use Versus Management are commissioned to reduce uncertainty in the allocation limit; these will include water The allocation planning process assesses risk to the resource and ecohydrological modelling environment and the water resource sustainability and broad stakeholder consultation. An in order to determine allocation limits. However, important part of C3 level planning is to different levels of scientific rigor are applied establish environmental water regimes or depending on the amount of use as a proportion of the environmental water requirements (EWRs). allocation limit. The Category/Response Model is used Over half of the proclaimed water areas in the to assess the required level of assessment (R1-R4) as state are at, or approaching, full allocation function of level of use (C1-C4), as shown in Table 2. (C3) (Department of Water, 2011). Table 3 further summarises the level of investigation required as a Management Response (Department of Although this process is considered to be generally Water, 2011). sound, the level of scientific investigation and subsequent rigor in the allocation limit can create The level of uncertainty during the early parts (C1-R1) issues in areas where there is rapid changes in water of this iterative allocation planning process is high; demand/licenses. Figure 1 shows a problematic consequently there is considerable uncertainty over (A) and ideal (B) water use versus allocation limit the allocation limit — and no plan is produced, only an trajectory. Under trajectory A, the level of allocation allocation limit. The level of uncertainty then becomes rises rapidly during the initial period where the links reduced as the level of scientific rigor is increased. between cause and effect are poorly understood. This For other areas (C2–C4 and R2-R4), the Department of has the potential to jeopardise the sustainability of Water produces three types of water allocation plans the resource, risking loss of human value associated (Department of Water, 2011): with impacts to dependent biota and water. Under this trajectory, there may be a need for an urgent (1) Standard plans, which are developed for correction accompanied by environmental, social and medium-demand areas (C2); these require a economic consequences. Trajectory B is the desired low level of planning investment. C2 plans are course where the level of use stays within not only based on the use of existing information — the allocation limit, but the uncertainty of it at every applying simple, local management rules, and level of management response. There will always be existing state-wide policies. some level of uncertainty and risk, but this process is about minimising this risk and making the process as transparent as possible.
Table 2 — Category/response water allocation planning model, taken from Department of Water (2011).
Category (C) Response (R)
Allocation Maximum New Specific Specific Impact from limits Licensed % of Risk to in- Licences availability information rules regimes further Plan type protect allocation limit situ values required from developed for protect protect licences in-situ resource plan values valuess values
Low C1 Low Low R1 0 < 30
Medium C2 Med Med R2 Standard 30 < 70
High C3 High High R3 Intensive 70 < 100
Over C4 VHigh VHigh R4 Intensive >100 17 Table 3 — Work required in plan development, taken from Department of Water (2011).
Resource assessment Values
Response Aim Surface water Groundwater Ecological Economic Social Cultural
R1 Basic Flow estimate Basic rainfall • Existing info • Existing use • Existing info • Existing info Limits only approach to from gauge recharge, • Regional info • Important sites no plan avoid potential data throughflow mapping • Licence impact or discharge analysis or estimate
regional model
R2 Standard Flow estimate Detailed • Existing info • Existing use • Existing info • Existing info Standard plan approach to from gauge recharge, • Important sites info • Important sites avoid impacts data throughflow or • Risk areas • Licence and prepare discharge analysis for C3 or or regional model regional model
R3 Detailed Flow estimate Regional • Environmental • Use analysis • Sites • Sites Intensive plan approach to from gauge model water • Current and • Flow/level • Flow\level maintain C3 data requirements future use requirements requirements status and and/or • Buffer zones trends • Risk maps • Risk maps begin impact or • Scenarios management local • Risk maps calibrated, models localised model
R4 Detailed Flow estimate Regional • Environmental • Impact/cost • Sites • Sites Intensive plan approach from gauge model water analysis for • Flow/level • Flow/level to return data requirements recoup requirements requirements resource to C3 and/or • Buffer zones • Remediation • Remediation or • Scenarios measures measures local • Remediation calibrated, models measures localised model
Figure 1 — Visual interpretation of the category/response water allocation planning model including approximate uncertainty at each stage of Management Response.
Visual approximation of uncertainty in methods used for determining allocation limits Use Use CategoryC3 C4 ?
? 100% Allocation limit
? 70% % of Allocation Limit Allocation of %
C2 Worst case allocation limit during R1
30%
C1
0%
R1 R2 R3 R4
18 Management Response Categories - Increasing Level of Assessment Undertaking the Resource Assessment in the allocation “Future groundwater management in the lower planning process requires application of a number of Fitzroy River valley must consider and account for scientific techniques of increasing complexity (Tables the impacts that extracting groundwater will have 2 and 3). Basic desktop-style evaluations at low levels on reducing discharge to this river during the dry of resource evaluation give way to detailed flow season. This project has shown that, depending gauging, assessments of surface water/groundwater on location along the valley and the aquifer being interaction, numerical modelling, ecohydrological pumped, groundwater abstraction from either the assessment and precise determination of groundwater shallow alluvium and/or the deeper Canning Basin dependence of ecosystems, including EWRs. These aquifers is likely to cause a reduction in streamflow are resource-intensive and challenging projects that during the dry season. Such reductions may have require long-term data sets, the requirements of which adverse and potentially irreversible impacts on the are briefly described next. riparian and in-stream ecology of this iconic river system.” Harrington et al., (2011).
At time of writing this report, there is no newer 4.3 Surface-Groundwater information available in the public domain to suggest that a comprehensive analysis of surface water Interaction groundwater interaction (including the environmental implications of water allocation) of the Fitzroy River The water management issues surrounding exists. Harrington et al. (2014) utilised airborne surface and groundwater interaction were first electromagnetic geophysical data which mapped comprehensively summarised by Winter et al. (1998). alluvial aquifer salinity and reinforced their 2011 In this discussion paper (a US Geological Survey findings. More recent work is underway, but the details Circular) the impact of surface and groundwater are not publicly available (Department of Regional use on surface water groundwater interaction in the Development, 2015). It is considered unlikely that the United States of America was summarised, including knowledge gaps identified in Harrington et al. (2011) water quality impacts from land use and impacts to and Harrington et al. (2014) and other relevant reports the environment. There have also been major issues have been filled. Numerical modelling, including in Australia, particularly in the Murray-Darling Basin surface water groundwater interaction, is an important (MDB), relating to the allocation of groundwater part of being able to allocate water resources. Once and surface water separately without adequate correctly parameterised and calibrated, numerical identification of their interaction. This has led to an models are the best tools we have to assess future over-allocation of these resources with impacts to the impacts of water use, but this analysis should include water resources, as well as dependent environmental uncertainty. and social assets.
The issues in other jurisdictions (see Section 1) set the scene for why a detailed understanding of cause 4.4 Numerical Modelling and effect is very important for the Fitzroy River in the context of water allocation. The main area Surface water and groundwater modelling are widely proposed for irrigation projects is also the main area of accepted techniques for assessing hydrological connectivity between surface water and groundwater. impacts, and the best practice guideline for the During some parts of the area’s annual hydrological application of groundwater modelling in Australia is cycle, surface water becomes groundwater and vice Barnett et al., (2012). Although these are not formal versa. The nature of interaction between surface water guidelines or standards, they are more a point of and groundwater varies depending on the location reference of what is considered to be good practice in along the river reach, timing within the annual this field. Groundwater modelling is frequently applied cycle and the magnitude of flow in any given year to assess the impact of changes in surface water, (Harrington et al., 2011; Harrington et al., 2014). groundwater interaction and subsequent impacts to dependent ecosystems — which are critical in the Harrington et al., (2011) used a combination of context of the Fitzroy River. existing data, longitudinal sampling of river water for geochemical tracers and groundwater infrastructure Although it is outside the scope of this report to installation and monitoring. Their conclusions and summarise the contents of Barnett et al., (2012), their recommendations summarise the (then) current state statements on two particularly pertinent issues are of understanding, noting that there are still more highlighted. gaps in our understanding than concrete knowledge suitable to facilitate management of broadscale allocation. 19 The first one is the length of data available for 4.5 Impacts on Dependent calibration versus the length of model predictions. Ecosystems “Transient water resource management models will be run for the duration of the planning period. Where Groundwater and surface water dependent long-term sustainability is a management objective, ecosystems of high conservation value have the the model should be run over a longer timeframe potential to be impacted by the proposed allocations. than the immediate planning period, limiting the There are considerable gaps in our understanding of duration of predictive model runs to less than five the distribution of biota and other culturally important times the duration of the calibration is recommended assets, let alone their vulnerability to impacts due to wherever possible.” Barnett et al., (2012). altered hydrological regimes. Richardson et al. (2011), describe the process of assessing impact including Given that no comprehensive data set exists that determining Environmental Water Requirements covers surface water-groundwater interaction (see (EWRs) – the intrinsic water quantity and quality previous section) within the context of the associated needs of individual biodiversity assets. It also ecohydrology and the impacts on the system’s biota describes the transition from EWRs to Environmental and other culturally significant assets, it is difficult to Water Provisions (EWPs), which are a water quantity see how a robust allocation limit can be determined and quality regime that will protect a subset of even at R2 – let alone an R3 – level of management dependant assets. EWPs are determined through response in the next several years. Given that the an extensive stakeholder consultation, covering State Government is collecting new information Indigenous heritage and western values regarding (Department of Regional Development, 2015), this trade-offs between social and economic implications suggests that Department of Water considers the of resource use – an important part of the allocation current investigations are working towards an R3 level planning process. This requires preferably long-term of management. The second issue to be discussed ecohydrological data sets, robust EWRs, deterministic from Barnett et al. (2012) is the use of coupled surface tools (models) based on distributed models or expert water-groundwater flow models. opinion to document and predict the cause and effect.
“Guiding Principle 11.6: A modelling approach Recent work by Warfe et al., (2013) highlight the based on linking or coupling surface water models linkages between the systems biota, the realisation of to groundwater flow models should be used when people’s value and flow regime. Prasad et al., (2012) surface water dynamics are significantly affected by highlight the risk to macroinvertebrates (an important exchange flows. When surface water dynamics are building block of the food web) from increased salinity likely to be unaffected, or only slightly affected, an in a similar tropical river (Fitzroy River in Queensland), approach based on groundwater flow modelling with which is a potential result of an altered flow regime standard boundary conditions may be adequate.” through surface or groundwater allocation. They Barnett et al. (2012). identified the 95% ecosystem protection salinity toxicant trigger value to be 2.0mS/cm. For the The Fitzroy River presents a significant problem protection of 99% of the species, the salinity has to be in this regard, due to the highly variable nature of reduced by more than 50% to 0.9mS/cm. Morgan et its flow. Given the recorded total annual discharge al., (2005) showed how even a simple barrage in the varies from 369 to 37,840 (average 7,202) GL/year at Fitzroy River has had a measurable and significant Fitzroy Crossing, the amount of water available for impact on sawfish. The current low level of EWR data allocation (either as surface water through diversion in the public domain suggests it will be difficult to or groundwater from the alluvium) will also likely vary determine broad EWPs with any level of scientific rigor, significantly on an inter annual basis. 200 GL/year as trade-offs between economic, social and EWRs of abstraction from the alluvium would drastically are not clear. It is believed that there is some work impact surface water flows in low-flow years with being planned in this area, however details are not yet unknown impacts. In flood years however, the impacts publicly available. It is hoped, however, that this report of 200 GL/year are likely to be minor. This suggests that will be of assistance in that process. a high level of impact assessment – Level 3 including coupled surface water-groundwater interaction according to Rassam and Werner (2008) – is required for any groundwater allocation due to the impacts of this allocation both on resource sustainability and dependant ecosystems, in particularly low-flow years.
20 5 Discussion
Surface water diversions, groundwater abstraction Current public statements suggest there is significant and underground dams may all be possible from additional water available, but the allocation planning an engineering perspective, but need detailed documents (including the supporting scientific impact assessments to ensure they won’t degrade assessments) are not available publicly for scrutiny. water resources and the associated social and The only publicly available information (http://www. environmental values. Development of EWPs will water.wa.gov.au/planning-for-the-future/meeting- only be possible once a link between cause and effect demand/water-for-food/fitzroy-valley-groundwater- can be established using defendable, best practice investigation) suggests that these investigations are (preferably peer-reviewed) science, so stakeholders just in their initial stages. The Department of Water can be informed about the risks of increased water needs to be given time and resources to complete use or increased agricultural activity. Although some the allocation planning process which will, in many excellent preliminary work has been completed, cases, require 5-10 years of data collection, followed much more is needed. The current level of resourcing by extensive analysis and stakeholder consultation of investigations in the Fitzroy River may sound to ensure impact predictions meet best practice substantial (multiple millions of dollars), but more is guidelines for the Allocation Planning Process. needed and over a prolonged period of investigation (preferably 5–10 years) prior to making significant Warfe et al. (2011), outline a detailed conceptual decisions about additional water allocation. This is ecohydrological model for the wet-dry tropics of assuming a low level of risk of impact is desired by the northern Australia, which qualitatively assesses community. impacts as a function of altered hydrology from water extraction from both surface and groundwater (Figure The Allocation Planning process has been developed 2). They assess the broad risks of environmental and widely tested for the south west of Western impact throughout the annual cycle for a typical Australia, where interannual variability is relatively wet-dry season year, including the transition periods. low. Is the allocation planning process and current They also outline the use of the “Ecological Limits licensing (a permanent water allocation) suited to of Hydrological Alteration” or ELOHA framework the Pilbara and Kimberley, where there is much more for undertaking robust and responsible impact interannual variability? There hasn’t been a need to assessment in the allocation planning process, which develop any R2-R3-R4 response level allocation plans is encouraged by this report. (with the exception of the Lower Gascoyne River which is at C3-C4 level of usage). Fixed allocation limits are an issue in areas with high interannual variability in hydrology, as a permanent allocation is typically required for an economically viable business. If a single or series of dry years occurs, some or all water use may need to cease causing economic impacts, or if water use at the proposed level continues there will be a considerable risk to biodiversity and dependent social values.
21 Figure 2 — Conceptual ecohydrological model, illustrating the predicted hydrological and ecological responses of water extraction for each of the key flow features comprising flow regimes in the wet–dry tropics of Australia. Arrows within boxes indicate an increase or decrease in that particular component. Boxes areuncertainty at each stage of Management Response.
Flow drivers of tropical Australian rivers 2185
Dry to wet Wet to dry Dry season Wet season transition transition
Water extraction Water extraction Water extraction Water extraction
↓ GW ↑ Hydrological Early ↑ Hydrological ↓ Flush connectivity and disconnection waterhole disconnection magnitude recharge during dry disconnection
Altered ↓ Waterhole ↓ Flushing of metabolic size, no. and poor WQ ↓ Waterhole ↓ Sediment persistence processing size, no. and and persistence nutrient loads ↓ S ediment , Altered rip veg OM and nutrient ↓ Baseflows in composition loads perennial ↓ Aquatic 1° rivers production ↓ Rip veg ↓ P eak flow structural ↑ Delayed magnitude heterogeneity ↑ Encroachment waterhole Encroachment terrestrial veg reconnection terrestrial veg ↓ Rip veg ↓ Opportunity width ↓ Instream for biotic habitat movement ↓ Faunal recruitment ↓ Sediment ↓ Wood and Delayed provision and nutrient loads recolonisation turnover aquatic ↓ Opportunity ↓ Aquatic 1° habitats for biotic production ↓ Opportunity ↓ Channel movement for biotic structural ↓ Faunal movement heterogeneity ↓ Faunal recruitment recruitment and diversity ↓ Aquatic ↓ Instream biodiversity habitat
↓ FW inflows to coasts ↓ Floodplain ↓ Waterhole inundation connection
↑ Saltwater ↓ FW inflows Altered peak intrusion ↓ Floodplain to coasts flow timing structural heterogeneity Driver
↓ Fisheries Flow regime Disruption life catch and ↓ Aquatic 1° shifts to history cues recruitment production intermittency Stressor
↓ Waterbird and faunal ↑ recruitment Encroachment Hydrological ↓ Instream ↓ Aquatic terrestrial veg response habitat biodiversity
↓ Waterbird and faunal Ecological recruitment response
22 Fig. 6 Conceptual ecological model based on the information reviewed in this paper, illustrating the predicted hydrological and eco- logical responses of water extraction for each of the key flow features comprising flow regimes in the wet–dry tropics of Australia. Arrows within boxes indicate an increase or decrease in that particular component. Boxes are defined by their shape in the lower right corner.
Ó 2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Freshwater Biology, 56, 2169–2195 6 Conclusion
Flow drivers of tropical Australian rivers 2185 The volumes of water that would be needed for A statement made by the Northern Territory Branch of proposed developments (200GL/year) require a the International Association of Hydrogeologists (IAH) Dry to wet Wet to dry Dry season Wet season transition transition specific level of hydrological and hydrogeological (IAH, 2015) to the Northern Territory Government is understanding, including the linkages between water directly applicable to the situation in the Kimberley use and subsequent impact. This does not yet exist in Region of Western Australia: the public domain. A basic, but sound, understanding of the impact of surface or groundwater allocation “In light of the recently revealed development plans, Water extraction Water extraction Water extraction Water extraction must be developed before any substantial allocations the regional water planning process needs urgent should be granted – particularly in such an important attention. The failure of the regulator to complete the biogeographic region. There are several examples of regional water plan or create a new framework to environmental and economic damage in Australia allow appropriate allocation of the water resources
↓ GW ↑ Hydrological Early and overseas caused by improper allocation of water could lead to a loss of confidence in the system as it ↑ Hydrological ↓ Flush connectivity and disconnection waterhole disconnection magnitude resources, owing to a failure to apply a rigorous has, according to the IAH, in the Northern Territory recharge during dry disconnection planning process. Government. Changes to government has caused
Altered several changes in policy that have not allowed ↓ Waterhole ↓ Flushing of metabolic size, no. and poor WQ ↓ Waterhole ↓ Sediment The conclusion drawn in this report is that the the majority of recommendations for further persistence processing size, no. and and persistence nutrient loads potential for impacts requires more rigorous investigations to be undertaken. To ensure water ↓ S ediment , assessment prior to any significant water allocation security in the region, data and knowledge gaps Altered rip veg OM and nutrient ↓ Baseflows in composition in the Fitzroy Basin. If the process of developing must be filled so that the allocation planning process loads perennial ↓ Aquatic 1° rivers production the water resource of this catchment is conducted is thorough and not rushed or neglected.” ↓ Rip veg in the correct order – with an appropriate level ↓ P eak flow structural ↑ Delayed magnitude of understanding acquired first – the existing heterogeneity ↑ Encroachment waterhole Encroachment environment, cultural, and other water users can terrestrial veg reconnection terrestrial veg be protected while supporting responsible long- ↓ Rip veg ↓ Opportunity width term agricultural development. This will, however, ↓ Instream for biotic habitat movement ↓ Faunal take 10 years or more if the resources to conduct recruitment ↓ Sediment ↓ Wood comprehensive investigation are available now. and Delayed provision and nutrient loads Although costing this is outside the scope of this recolonisation turnover aquatic ↓ Opportunity report, it appears that this would require a significant ↓ Aquatic 1° habitats for biotic additional investment on top of existing resources production ↓ Opportunity ↓ Channel movement for biotic structural available for the Fitzroy River. ↓ Faunal movement heterogeneity ↓ Faunal recruitment recruitment and diversity ↓ Aquatic ↓ Instream biodiversity habitat
↓ FW inflows to coasts ↓ Floodplain ↓ Waterhole inundation connection
↑ Saltwater ↓ FW inflows Altered peak intrusion ↓ Floodplain to coasts flow timing structural heterogeneity Driver
↓ Fisheries Flow regime Disruption life catch and ↓ Aquatic 1° shifts to history cues recruitment production intermittency Stressor
↓ Waterbird and faunal ↑ recruitment Encroachment Hydrological ↓ Instream ↓ Aquatic terrestrial veg response habitat biodiversity
↓ Waterbird and faunal Ecological recruitment response
23 Fig. 6 Conceptual ecological model based on the information reviewed in this paper, illustrating the predicted hydrological and eco- logical responses of water extraction for each of the key flow features comprising flow regimes in the wet–dry tropics of Australia. Arrows within boxes indicate an increase or decrease in that particular component. Boxes are defined by their shape in the lower right corner.
Ó 2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Freshwater Biology, 56, 2169–2195 7 References
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