Creation Matters

Volume 19 Number 1 A publication of the Creation Research Society th January / February 2014 50 Anniversary (1963 – 2013)

Unique Trackway in Middle Jurassic Rocks Defies Evolution by Terry P. Beh R ecently, while on a was made by a creature that was not camping trip to Slick a dinosaur, such as a large feline. Rock, Colorado, I saw Cat-like and bear-like footprints an unusual trackway in Jurassic have previously been reported in sandstone, which locals have al­ Cretaceous limestone (Morris, ways called “cat tracks.” This by 1980). itself would be a major blow to evolution. But the most signifi­ Geology of the area cant thing about them is that they The geology surrounding the aban­ do not lie on a single layer or doned uranium-mining town of bedding plane of sediment but Slick Rock in southwestern Colora­ ascend vertically, crossing a do is characteristic of the canyon number of distinct depositional country of the Colorado Plateau, layers (Figure 1). spanning much of the Jurassic Peri­ The presence of these tracks od. In fact, the mine there was contradicts the uniformitarian be­ among the earliest sources of urani­ lief that the formation is eolian, um for the atomic bomb in the 1940s or wind-formed, and took a long (Davis, 2013). As in much of the time to form. Absent evolution­ FIGURE 1. Three distinct trackways in Jurassic sandstone “uranium country” of western Col­ ary preconceptions, we are also near Slick Rock, Colorado. orado and eastern Utah, this radio­ free to consider that the tracksite ... continued on p.6

Making Predictions in Biology Using the YEC Model by Jean K. Lightner, DVM, MS s a reliable source of natural his­ information from the Bible and the patterns A tory, the Bible provides some im­ of living things we observe today, there are portant information related to some conclusions we can make. As I re­ biology. Animals were created according searched the sheep and goat kind, I began to their kinds (Genesis 1:21; 24–25). They to realize that an enormous amount of vari­ were to reproduce and fill the earth (Genesis ability has arisen since the population bot­ 1:22; 8:17; Isaiah 45:18). At the time of tleneck at the Flood. This includes different the Flood, terrestrial and flying animals growth patterns in horns, variation in char­ were reduced to very small populations; acteristics of the hair coat, and some differ­ only two individuals of each kind in the ences in chromosome number. Yet these case of unclean animals. In biology, a traits are not associated with obvious dis­ severe reduction in a population is known ease or deformity. It did not make sense to as a population bottleneck. me that they arose from neo-Darwinian IGURE With my background in animal science F 1. The red color of Irish setters mechanisms: random genetic errors plus is the result of a mutation and veterinary medicine, I am primarily ... continued on p. 2 interested in mammals. Using the historical in the MC1R gene. Predictions Consequently, where we see more than four as would I. However, it is possible that the alleles today, we know there has been mu­ precise mechanism to effect such change ...continued from page 1 tation in that gene. Additionally, alleles involves a bias in what type of changes from the animals coming off the Ark should actually occur at the gene level. This bias natural selection. So I predicted that a be widespread in their descendants today. seems to be further supported by a pattern mechanism exists for germ-line mutations Different DNA sequences that are only of in-frame deletions in several kinds of (i.e., changes in the DNA sequence which found in a smaller segment of the kind can animals. are heritable) in response to environmental also be inferred to be the result of mutation. Remember, amino acids in proteins are signals (Lightner, 2006). The melanocortin-1-receptor gene coded genetically by codons, which are Forming and testing (MC1R) affects coat color in animals, and specific sequences of three nucleotides. hypotheses both skin and hair color in humans (Light­ Deletions of nucleotides in multiples of ner, 2008). Consideration of the MC1R three are thus termed “in-frame.” In general, To follow up on this idea, I began studying gene in light of the Flood bottleneck sug­ if the deletions are in-frame, some amino genes for which there are many alleles (dif­ gests several important points. First, there acids are removed from the protein, but the ferent versions). Not all genes are highly is clearly more variation in this gene today remaining amino acids are unchanged. In variable; some have only one or a few than can be attributed to the limited number the case of the MC1R gene, this often results alleles. Changes in these genes may be of ancestors on the Ark. This is true for in a protein that was always switched ON associated with serious problems or death, humans (where a maximum of 10 alleles to produce the darker pigment, eumelanin. at least if they become common enough in could have been present, unless Noah’s sons Deletions that are not in-frame will shift a population so individuals inherit a mutated carried mutations not present in their par­ the reading frame. This frame-shift will copy from each parent. Other genes, how­ ents) and a number of other mammals. ever, tolerate mutation quite well. Some cause the remaining codons to be read in­ examples of the latter include a gene in­ Secondly, this gene codes for a single correctly, producing a nonfunctional pro­ volved in pigmentation (MC1R), and genes protein which can be modified without caus­ tein. So where are all the deletions that are associated with immune function (MHC ing serious damage. Clearly that was no not in-frame, which should be much more genes). accident. These changes can be adaptive common? If they are lethal or seriously and contribute to interesting variety within debilitating, the neo-Darwinian model ap­ Several important questions came to kinds. It seemed clear that I was seeing pears to provide a reasonable explanation mind. Is the variability in these genes really evidence of God’s provision in this gene in for this pattern — those deletions were from mutation? Couldn’t it be from created that it was designed to be able to change in removed by natural selection. diversity? The biblical history was essential useful ways. to answer these questions. Regardless of Deletions in the MC1R gene which are how much diversity was initially created, Finally, there are some strange, non­ not in-frame should destroy the function of only a limited amount could have made it random patterns that seem to indicate that the protein, producing only the lighter pig­ through the Flood bottleneck. I tried to these changes themselves were not acciden­ ment, pheomelanin. However, this is not focus on unclean animals, such as dogs or tal. For example, identical mutations were lethal or debilitating. In fact, red hair in pigs, where a maximum of four alleles (two found in different kinds of animals. Evolu­ humans and Irish setters is from mutation per individual) could have made it through tionists would attribute this to convergent resulting in a non-functional MC1R protein. the population bottleneck at the Flood. evolution as opposed to common ancestry, So there is no reason to believe natural Creation Matters

ISSN 1094-6632 Contents Volume 19, Number 1 January / February 2014 Copyright © 2014 Creation Research Society All rights reserved. Unique Trackway in Middle Jurassic Rocks Defies Editor: Evolution...... 1 Glen W. Wolfrom Making Predictions in Biology Using the YEC Model .1 Assistant Editors: Jean K. Lightner Math Matters: Random Walk ...... 4 Robert Hill …without excuse! The Testimony of Fire Ants...... 5 For membership / subscription information, advertising rates, and information for authors: Speaking of Science Glen W. Wolfrom, Editor Surprising Things Science Didn’t Know...... 8 Tropical Trees Found in Antarctica...... 9 P.O. Box 8263 Three New and Different Biomimetics Stories...... 9 St. Joseph, MO 64508-8263 Hummingbird Metabolism:Marvel of Evolutionary Engineering..10 Reporter Says Scientists Are Like Cattle...... 10 Email: [email protected] Trillions of Helpers in Your Body and Brain...... 11 Phone/fax: 816.279.2312 All by Design: No Wake Zone...... 12 Creation Research Society Website: www.creationresearch.org Articles published in Creation Matters represent the opinions and beliefs of the authors, and do not necessarily reflect the official position of the CRS.

2 | Creation Research Society selection is the explanation for this bias will drag on the ground, which is very There are two examples I want to de­ towards in-frame mutations. Further inves­ undesirable for the health of the cow and scribe here. The first involves humans and tigation into other variable genes has shown quality of the milk. Or the cow’s feet will the MC1R gene. In one study, over 100 similar patterns that don’t fit well with the become too stressed and she will go lame. Africans were tested and no variations were standard neo-Darwinian explanation (Light­ So not only does one trait depend on others, found affecting the amino acid sequence of ner, 2009a). but the progress towards increased milk the protein (Harding et al., 2000). In con­ production will be significantly slowed as trast, there is variation in the amino acid A closer look the producer adds other traits, such as udder sequence in other human populations, espe­ The basic mechanisms of neo-Darwinian support and soundness, to what he wants cially where skin color is lighter. This lack evolution are random genetic changes acted for his herd. of variation in Africans was explained as constraint; natural selection was supposedly on by natural selection. The genetic changes Contrast this reality to the way biolo­ eliminating variants in the African popula­ are essentially believed to be random errors. gists imagine that natural selection can si­ tion, but they were tolerated in other popu­ When mutations appear in non-random pat­ multaneously fix mutations, as needed, to lations. terns, natural selection is believed to be the support their naturalistic stories — not to explanation. Superficially, this can make a mention the miraculous chance appearance However, there is no logical reason why great sounding story. In fact, some creation­ of the appropriate mutations on which nat­ this should be the case. Dark skin is cer­ ists have assumed that these mechanisms ural selection could work at the appropriate tainly believed to protect Africans from the can account for the changes that have oc­ time. high level of UV exposure characteristic of curred within kinds as they diversified and where they live, but fair skinned people Mathematically, it has been shown that filled the earth. don’t just die or fail to have children if they natural selection is not effective at eliminat­ live in these parts of Africa. The risk of However, this naturalistic explanation ing most deleterious mutations or preserving skin cancer is greater for fair skinned people, rarely holds up well when investigated in beneficial ones. Most mutations entering a but the average age of onset if it does de­ detail. In other words, neo-Darwinian population are lost due to genetic drift, even velop is over 50, after the child bearing mechanisms fail to explain these patterns. when they are beneficial. For those muta­ years! Natural selection cannot account for There are two problems: (1) it is known that tions surviving the effects of drift, they must this pattern. Instead, it points to a wise and mutations do not occur randomly, and (2) have dramatic effects on fitness for natural caring Creator who has graciously provided natural selection is not as powerful in the selection to significantly impact their fre­ a means by which these people could be real world as it is in evolutionary story-tell­ quency in the population. ing. protected from the harmful effects of UV If mutations are really the result of radiation. My doubts about natural selection are random errors, deleterious mutations would tied to my familiarity with ‘artificial’ selec­ arise with much greater frequency than The second example involves leaf-eat­ tion, particularly as it applies to livestock. beneficial ones. Since most mutations are ing monkeys (Lightner, 2009b). It appears

Many genetic diseases are recessive, and near neutral (i.e., they do not have dramatic that the gene for an important digestive there is not an obvious problem if an animal effects on fitness) and natural selection has enzyme has been duplicated and a series of has only one mutated gene. In these cases little effect on them, the deleterious muta­ mutations has occurred in one copy that it is almost impossible to eliminate the tions are fixed with much greater frequency allows the enzyme to function more opti­ deleterious allele from the herd based on than are beneficial ones, and this occurs mally on the specialized diet of these mon­ how the animal looks or behaves (pheno­ largely by genetic drift (Rupe and Sanford, keys. Again, naturalistic processes cannot type). In the same way, natural selection is 2013). explain this. However, given that animals not a mechanism by which recessive dele­ adapt so well in the short term by physio­ terious alleles can be eliminated. When a God’s provision logic changes (e.g., adjusting to high altitude producer selects, he can use good records or increased exercise), it seems reasonable Neo-Darwinian mechanisms were con­ and/or genetic testing to help eliminate del­ that creationists should expect God to have ceived as a way to explain the diversity of eterious alleles from his herd. This requires provided the means by which his creatures life we see today without recognizing the intelligence and foresight, something absent can adapt genetically too. work of a Creator. When examined in depth, from valid natural selection explanations. it appears these mechanisms have little to What mechanisms could cause Secondly, I know that good progress do with reality. From a biblical worldview, this? can be made in selecting for a trait as long it is clear that adaptive mutations have as individuals with the desired trait contrib­ arisen. It is also clear that in most cases, at When I proposed the idea of directed genetic ute genetically to the herd. However, when least in mammals, if mutations arise purely changes in animals, I was challenged by a more than one trait is desired, progress is by chance they will not occur in a timely fellow creationist about the mechanism for significantly slowed. For example, a dairy fashion, and natural selection is not a mech­ such changes. At first it did not seem too producer may want to select for increased anism that can effectively fix them in a important. Physiologic adaptation is well milk production. Using artificial insemina­ population. This is exciting, because it documented and we are only now learning tion he can bring the genetics for this trait means the mechanisms by which life has about the underlying mechanisms. It into his herd. adapted as creatures have filled the earth seemed obvious to me that interpreting the will point more clearly to our awesome current genetic data within a biblical frame­ However, all that milk weighs a lot in Creator. “He is before all things, and in work led to the conclusion that such a phe­ the udder of the cow as she is waiting for him all things hold together.” (Colossians nomenon exists. the next milking. Sometimes a cow’s udder 1:17) will be unable to support the weight and Upon further reflection, I realized that homologous recombination may explain Creation Matters Vol. 19 No. 1 January / February | | 3 some changes. Crossing over occurs during process are quite susceptible to mutation. Jackson, M. A. Birch-Machin, and J. L. Rees. 2000. Evidence for variable selective pressures meiosis (gamete formation), and can change These mutations do not appear to be just at MC1R. American Journal of Human Genet­ the nucleotide sequence in a gene. Unequal accidents. Instead, there seems to be tem­ ics 66:1351–1361. crossing over may result in duplication or plate switching, which requires specific en­ Lightner, J.K. 2006. Identification of species within deletion of segments of DNA. Gene con­ zymes to be present. In some cases of the sheep-goat kind (Tsoan monobarmin). Jour­ version, where the sequence on one chro­ template switching, complex rearrange­ nal of Creation 20(3):61–65. mosome was “written over” the ments such as duplications occur. Lightner, J.K. 2008. Genetics of coat color I: The corresponding sequence on the other, could melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R). Answers Re­ We have much to learn about what affect the frequency of an allele. In fact I search Journal 1:109–116. induces these changes in DNA sequence had predicted that gene conversion may Lightner, J.K. 2009a. Karyotypic and allelic diversity and how the cell controls the process. What have been involved in increasing the adap­ within the canid baramin (Canidae). Journal of is clear is that certain enzymes are required Creation 23(1):94–98. tive alleles in leaf-eating monkeys, even for these processes, so they appear designed, though I was not aware of any studies that Lightner, J.K. 2009b. Gene duplications and nonran­ as opposed to the naturalistic proposal that dom mutations in the family Cercopithecidae: showed this could happen. they are haphazard accidents. I also found Evidence for designed mechanisms driving A series of articles came out in 2012 it exciting to learn that biased gene conver­ adaptive genomic mutations. CRSQ 46(1):1–5. about meiosis which confirmed much of sion has been documented in mammals (see Lightner, J.K. 2013. Meiotic recombination — de­ what I had suspected (see review by Light­ review by Lightner, 2013). In mice the signed for inducing genomic change. Journal of Creation 27(1):7–9. ner, 2013). They summarized much of what double stranded break initiating homolo­ Rupe, C.L. and J.C. Sanford. 2013. Using numerical has been learned about homologous recom­ gous recombination occurred more com­ simulation to better understand fixation rates, bination over the last decade or so. Homol­ monly at one allele, leading to an and establishment of a new principle: Hal­ ogous recombination is now considered an over-transmission of the other. This is a dane’s ratchet. Proceedings of the Seventh In­ essential step in meiosis, the cell division designed mechanism by which an allele can ternational Conference on Creationism. responsible for the next generation of life become more frequent in a population. Pittsburgh, PA: Creation Science Fellowship. in most animals. There are specific enzymes From here the future looks bright for the Photo credit: Irish Red Setter by Adam Ziaja, 2009, which cut the DNA to begin this process, biblical model. published under Creative Commons. Retrieved November 14, 2013 from and others which influence whether crossing References http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Irish_R over or gene conversion results. Some ed_Setter.jpg methods of DNA repair utilized during this Harding, R. M., E. Healy, A. J. Ray, N. S. Ellis, E. Flanagan, C. Todd, C. Dixon, A. Sajantila, I. J.

the welfare and conservation of species. To equal to 10 mutations, d = 10l. Then from allow evolutionary advancement, it is sug­ the previous formula, by gested that some mutations are preserved in small isolated groups of animals. How­ n = 10 Don DeYoung, PhD ever, a new problem then arises: A major alteration, such as reptile scales converting into bird feathers, would surely require n = 100 hundreds or thousands of successive muta­ It thus requires 100 mutations to move Random Walk tions. In the transition from water to land, just 10 steps in an improving direction. mutation is an alteration in the at least 40,000 mutations are estimated However, many additional mutational steps A structure of a gene which may be (Wells, 2000). are surely required for significant biological passed on to future offspring. Consider just ten random sequential change. The fossil record displays no such These genetic changes arise from radiation, mutations which change the form of an record of great numbers of transitional stag­ chemicals, heat, and random molecular fluc­ organism (Newman, 2003). The following es. Clearly, substantial mutational change tuations. Most often, if not always, muta­ analysis is called a “random walk” problem. via a random walk conflict with both theory tions are harmful to an organism. After all, and fossil evidence. To illustrate, suppose a person is blind­ mutations are mistakes. Nevertheless, they References are assumed to be the driving force behind folded and told to walk away from a lamp­ evolutionary change and progress. Muta­ post. Assume that each additional step is in Newman, R.C. 2003. Some problems for theistic tions are said to occasionally give survival a random direction. What distance d will evolution Perspectives on Science and Chris­ tian Faith 55(2):117–128. advantage to offspring. These positive mu­ the person be from the lamppost after n steps? With a step length of l, the statistical Wells, J. 2000. Icons of Evolution. Regnery Publish­ tations then are selected and passed on to ing Inc., Washington D.C. future generations. In time, entirely new answer is plants or animals then arise. d = l n Biologists realize that a mutational change in just one organism would likely For example, if l = 2 feet and n = 16 steps, be lost in a large population. In fact, animals then d = 8 feet. Now apply this random walk tend to eliminate any of their own progeny to mutations. Assume that a mutation is which show a deformity or unfamiliar be­ represented by a length l. To cross a distance havior. This instinct may be designed for

4 | Creation Research Society The Testimony of Fire Ants by Timothy R. Stout ed imported fire ants (RIFA) a set of discrete signals which represent are the scourge of the South. the image of an object, mimicking how R They have fierce stings and the eye uses rods and cones to generate if you step on an ant mound without discrete nerve impulses to see an object. realizing it, many of them will crawl Biomimicry has become so established onto you unnoticed. Then, on a pher­ as an engineering discipline that, recent­ omone cue, all of them will suddenly ly, the University of Akron at Akron, sting simultaneously. It is an experi­ Ohio added a PhD in biomimicry to its ence not easily forgotten and which no degree program (St. Clair, 2013). one cares to go through twice, as I In Romans 1:20, the Bible says that found out personally after moving into God reveals Himself through the things RIFA country a few years ago. he has made. Certainly, biomimicry dem­ However, from an engineering onstrates this truth very clearly. The perspective, RIFA exhibit other kinds organizational details of living organ­ of cooperative behaviors that are sci­ isms are complex beyond comprehen­ entifically intriguing. For example, sion. Even with tens of thousands of the RIFA have a natural tendency to link world’s most brilliant scientists studying to one another and, therefore, can read­ the structure and function of living or­ ily form a large, cohesive ball of ants. ganisms, over many, many years, we You can place a ball of them into a tea merely find out more things we don’t yet FIGURE 1. pot and they will pour out through the A ball of fire ants can be poured out of a tea pot into a understand. spout like a syrupy liquid. Yet, when tea cup, an expression of liquid behavior. The same Science is certainly not running out of placed onto a table, that same ball will ball can act as a solid in a different environment. things to study, giving testimony of the act like a solid — springing back into unlimited wisdom, intelligence, and cre­ shape after being flattened by a spoon. They ative genius of God. It is foolish to think can form a “raft” that floats on water, and consider its ways and be wise! It has no that random actions could provide the cre­ if damaged, can even self-heal. Because commander, no overseer or ruler, yet it ative genius which is demonstrated in living every ant in a colony is more or less inter­ stores its provisions in summer and gathers organisms. Even the study of ant balls bears changeable, ants fill in gaps to repair the its food at harvest.” He explains (Mlot, testimony of God’s unfathomable wisdom damage, keeping the raft water-tight. 2013), and insight. My motivation for studying cooper­ When the ants form a solid-like sub­ ative fire ant behavior roots in a An atheist may claim that the origin of stance, they grab tightly onto each other’s desire to better understand God’s life was brought about by random, natural­ legs with their mandibles, with claws at the creation and the design behind it. I istic, evolutionary processes, but anytime ends of their legs, and with adhesive pads also hope our research will promote he tries to prove his claim with a detailed, at the tips of their feet. When an external and foster an interest within the sci­ honest, statistical analysis, or with a detailed stress is applied, the ants turn loose from entific community to take an engi­ flowchart of chemical reactions, all he finds each other, causing the agglomeration to neering approach to biological and are roadblocks. Believers have been quick flow like a liquid. The communication al­ naturally occurring systems. to appreciate and recognize the testimony gorithms between ants are still a mystery, The web page also has links to many of God provided by biomimicry. Surely, a but are under study at the Ant Lab at Georgia video clips illustrating various aspects of person is without excuse who cannot see Institute of Technology (Georgia Tech, GT). RIFA ball behavior, including those men­ the hand of God in the design of biological Nathan Mlot, a recent doctoral graduate tioned above. In addition, a search of You- systems. from the School of Mechanical Engineering Tube for “antlabGT” reveals other videos References at GT, spent five years developing his dis­ showcasing the fascinating, collective be­ sertation on the swarm intelligence that havior of fire ants. Anonymous. 2013. Google definition of biomimicry. emerges from the cooperative behavior of Retrieved from Mlot’s work is an application of bio­ www.google.com/#q=definition+biomimicry on fire ant self-assemblages. He hopes that mimicry, “the design and production of December 31, 2013. what he has learned can lead to the devel­ materials, structures, and systems that are St. Clair, J. 2013. Exploradio: Biomimicry Ph.D. opment of novel “active materials” which modeled on biological entities and process­ wksu.org. Retrieved from can be applied to real-world engineering es” (Anonymous, 2013). Biomimicry is not www.wksu.org/news/feature/exploradio/33172 problems — from modular robots that can on December 31, 2013. new. The first time man used a lever to self-assemble into larger functioning struc­ Mlot, N. 2013. About Me. Georgia Institute of Tech­ move a large rock, he was copying the way tures using micro components, to concrete nology. Retrieved from God uses joints, muscles, and bones for bridges that repair themselves. http://antlab.gatech.edu/antlab/About_Me.html controlled, powerful movement of our bod­ on December 31, 2013. On his GT web page, Mlot quotes Prov­ ies. A modern, pixel-based digital camera erbs 6:6–8, “Go to the ant, you sluggard; uses an array of photo sensors to generate Creation Matters Vol. 19 No. 1 January / February | | 5 Unique Trackway including four separate TABLE 1. A partial listing of the geological formations of the beds, and extends up Slick Rock District (after Shawe, 1968). ...continued from page 1 and over the topmost, cross-bedded layer. active element is commonly found in the The middle track- Late Jurassic Morrison Formation, which is way has at least four

also famous for fossil bones of Allosaurus, prints and crosses three

Apatosaurus and Stegosaurus. bedding planes. The fi­ The footprints were found in a rock nal trackway has only face below the Morrison Formation and three prints and crosses above the early (or Lower) Jurassic Navajo two planes. However, Formation (Table 1). The rock is composed photos taken approxi­ of light gray, fine- to coarse-grained sand­ mately 15 years ago stone and includes at least four beds. The show seven to eight lower two are horizontally bedded while the footprints in the shorter upper two are cross-bedded. From my re­ tracks and suggest that search, I believe the trackway lies either in they may once have ex­ the Slick Rock Member of Entrada Sand­ tended onto the two top­ stone or in Junction Creek Sandstone. Ac­ most crossbedded cording to a USGS geology report on the layers, as well. area (Shawe, 1976), the Junction Creek had an eolian or sand dune origin: Identifying the track maker as the tracks are strongly eroded. At present, they appear roughly equidimensional, prob­ Are these human artifacts? While the out­ Certainly the great sweeping cross ably one reason locals have traditionally crop is on a working farm, there is no beds displayed by the Junction Creek identified them as cat tracks. Figure 3 shows evidence that the tracks were carved by south of the Slick Rock district sug­ a comparison of one of the Slick Rock prints people. The top of the rock face is easily gest origin in immense barchan with a modern cougar print (Hanson, 2009). accessed; there is no need for hand or foot dunes. The movement of dunes The similarity is another likely reason they holds. On the other hand, there is significant northward terminated in the southern have been attributed to a big cat. part of the Slick Rock district, where evidence of natural origin (Figure 2), in­ the Junction Creek merges with the cluding: However, four-legged (quadrapedal) Summerville Formation. animal tracks usually overlap a bit, with the 1) Some of the prints reveal the hind foot landing near or on the front print However, exact stratigraphic identifica­ “up-push” of footprints typically tion is difficult because the Entrada and made in wet sediment or mud. (Thompson et al., 2013). The Slick Rock Junction Creek formations resemble each tracks do not show this pattern. Indeed, none 2) Others clearly show deformation of them appears to be made by forepaws, other (Hansen, 1965). Among the similari­ of the surrounding sediment. ties, although the Entrada is commonly light which suggests that they might have been buff or light reddish-brown in color, in some 3) One of the footfalls from the made by a two-legged animal. places it is known to be more gray. It is also longest trackway even lies directly Still, the Slick Rock footprints neither on the interface or contact between described as a combination of tidal flat display the classic round shape of sauropod two separate beds. (horizontal) and sand dune (crossbedded) tracks, nor the typical three-toed imprint layers (O’Sullivan, 2004). Because it is The evidence not only indicates that the made by bipedal theropods and ornithopods. more typically light buff to white-gray footprints were formed naturally, but sug­ A recent visit to the Dinosaur Journey Mu­ (Hansen, 1965), I favor the Junction Creek gests that all four sediment layers were seum in Fruita, Colorado, may suggest an (sometimes called the “Bluff”) formation, equally soft when the tracks were made and answer. There on the wall was mounted a as the more likely host of the tracks. In either deposited in a relatively short time. cast of an Otozoum, described as the type case, both are mid-Jurassic formations dated Identifying the track maker is difficult, of trackway made by four-toed prosauro­ by evolutionists at 120–150 million years old. The trackways There are three distinct trackways of varying lengths, which ascend vertically across sev­ eral bedding planes of a 15- to 20-feet-thick exposure of Junction Creek Sandstone. The trackway to the left in Figure 1 is composed of larger footprints than the other two, which are of similar size. It is possible that these tracks represent an adult with two juveniles. The left side trackway is also the longest. It consists of at least 10 footprints and FIGURE 2. Slick Rock footprints display “up-push” (left), crosses the entire face of the exposure, sediment deformation (middle), and imprinting on bed interface (right).

6 | Creation Research Society pods “mostly” in Early/Lower Jurassic larger size (Yates, rocks, though some scientists more strictly 2010). However, limit their age-range: “Otozoum are restrict­ these two dinosaur ed to Lower Jurassic strata in North Amer­ names are now ica” (Rainforth, 2003). considered synon­ ymous (Milan et Other museum information stated that al., 2008). the tracksite was found in 206 to 180 mil­ lion-year-old Wingate Sandstone in the vi­ Other candi­ cinity of Gateway, Colorado, and describes dates for the Slick the prosauropod that made them as “a mod­ Rock site include FIGURE 3. Slick Rock print (left) and modern mountain lion footprint erately large, bipedal animal.” These dino­ Massospondylus, (right; Hanson, 2009; used by permission). saurs, whose name means “before the a prosauropod sauropods,” were once thought to be evolu­ with five digits on tionary precursors to sauropods; however, its hands and feet that was about the same trackway (Clarey, 2013). Based on the size secular scientists now believe that they size as Ammosaurus. However, a skull of the tracks (scaled to a quarter coin in evolved together from a common ancestor found in the Kayenta Formation of north­ Figure 3), Dr. Clarey also calculated that

(Sereno, 1997). The exhibit also states that eastern Arizona originally believed to be­ the creature would have stood a little less tracks like these were created when a pro­ long to Massopondylus (Attridge et al., than three feet high at the hips and was sauropod “crossed wet inter-dune areas 1985) has since been reassigned, and the “moving at about 2.6 miles per hour across within large fields of sand dunes.” An ac­ fossils of this dinosaur are currently restrict­ wet sand” (Clarey, 2013). At 6 to 14 feet companying illustration depicted a four- ed to South Africa (Rowe et al., 2011). The long, these estimates correlate well with all toed, five-fingered, bipedal dinosaur about picture is further complicated by the recent three sauropodomorphs mentioned above,

25 feet long. discovery of two new species of sauropodo­ which would have resembled the Anchisau­

morphs in early Jurassic sandstones in Utah rus illustration in Figure 4. The phrase “wet inter-dunes areas” and Arizona. wasn’t further defined, but since Wingate The identification of ichnofossils like those at Slick Rock is admittedly difficult, sandstone is also regarded as an eolian/sand In the last few years the bones of Seit­ particularly when it involves prosauropds dune formation (O’Sullivan, 2004), it ap­ aad ruessi (pronounced: SAY-todd ROO­ (Otozoum), the classification of which pears to be a concession to evidence that ess-EYE), named after a mythological Na­ seems to be in a state of constant flux. While such footprints can only be made in watery vajo monster that buried its victims in sand Anchisaurus tracks have been previously conditions. For example, distinct amphibian dunes, have been found in Navajo Sandstone identified as Otozoum (Rainforth, 2003), and/or lizard footprints found in Permian in both southeastern Utah and northeastern scientists now consider Anchisaurus a basal Coconino Sandstone in the Grand Canyon, Arizona (Sertich, 2010). With five fingers sauropodomorph (Milan et al., 2008) not a which secular scientists also regard as and four toes, it was about the same size as prosauropod. Nor have its fossils been found eolian/desert/sand dune, have been shown Anchisaurus. to require wet, if not subaqueous, conditions in the western U.S. Though Massopondylus The second species, found in 2010, was (Brand, 1978). is regarded as a true prosauropod and is named Sarahsaurus after Sarah Butler, a identified with Otozoum, to date its bones The footprints also resemble those of patron of the arts and sciences from Texas are unknown in North America. Pseudotetrasauropus from the Late Triassic (Rowe et al., 2011). Its fossils were discov­

Chinle Formation in Utah (Foster et al., ered in northeastern Arizona in the Lower This leaves Seitaad and Sarahsaurus

2001), though this creature is now consid­ Jurassic Kayenta Formation, which falls one as the best candidates for the Slick Rock ered a variety of non-dinosaurian archosaur layer below Navajo SS on the geological footprints. Of these two basal sauropodo­

(Rainforth, 2003). Formerly considered chart. Its estimated size of 14 feet long and morphs, because its fossils are nearest to

Otozoum, Anchisaurus inchnofossils from 250 pounds (Handwerk, 2011) is similar to them in both physical (southeastern Utah)

Lower Jurassic sediments in the Connecticut that of Seitaad and Anchisaurus. and geological (Navajo Formation) proxim­

Valley (Yates, 2010) may point to this di­ ity, Seitaad is probably the most likely Slick I sent photos of the Slick Rock foot­ nosaur, especially since fossil bones of this Rock footprint maker. prints to ICR staff geologist Dr. Tim Clarey, dinosaur have also been found in that part who concurred that they could represent a Importance of the trackways of the country. prosauropod or similar bipedal dinosaur While further work is necessary to confirm Anchisaurus (“near lizard”) the identify of the footprint maker, whether bones, first discovered in 1818, they are prosauropod or basal sauropodo­ were among the earliest dinosaur morph tracks, their presence at this site fossils found in America. Bipedal would mark their first known occurrence in and estimated to have been 6–7 feet Middle Jurassic rocks. More importantly, long, it was originally considered this trackway suggests that the current in­ a prosauropod by Othniel Marsh, terpretation of these strata, both in the du­ who named it. Another similar di­ ration of emplacement and paleo­ nosaur found in the same area, that environment, is incorrect. reached a length of 13 feet, was named Ammosaurus (“sand liz­ Track morphology indicates that all FIGURE 4. Artist’s rendering of ard”) by Marsh, due to its slightly four beds were unlithified at the same time, Anchisaurus polyzelus (Camargo, 2013). which suggests that they all were rapidly Creation Matters Vol. 19 No. 1 January / February | | 7 deposited. The distinct track preservation Camargo, E. 2013. Anchisaurus polyzelus. Photo- entific Investigations Map 2849, Version 1.0, bucket. Retrieved on October 14, 2013, from United States Geological Survey, Washington, also suggests they were lithified quickly http://s730.photobucket.com/user/karkemish/me D.C. enough to preserve the footprints. Further­ dia/Anchisauruspolyzelus2.jpg.html. Rainforth, E.C. 2003. Revision and re-evaluation of more, the preservation of tracks, the defor­ Clary, T.C. 2013. Personal communications, the early Jurassic Dinosaurian ichnogenus Oto­ mation of the surrounding sediment, and 6/19/2013 and 10/2/2013. zoum. Paleontology 46(4):803–838. the presence of mud up-push all strongly Davis, B. and R. Sim, 2013. Technical Report for Rowe, T.B., H.D. Sues, and R.R. Reisz. 2011. Dis­ imply an environment other than eolian. As the Slick Rock Project Uranium/Vanadium De­ persal and diversity in the earliest North Amer­ Oard (2009) stated about the “eolian” posit, San Miguel County, Southwest Colorado, ican sauropodomorph dinosaurs, with a source of the early Jurassic Navajo Forma­ USA. NI 43-101 Technical Report, Uranium description of a new taxon. Proc. R. Soc. B tion, “dinosaur tracks…should be a big hint Energy Corp, Corpus Christi, TX. 278:1044–1053, doi:10.1098/rspb.2010.1867. to uniformitarian scientists that this sand­ Foster, J.R., A.L. Titus, G.F. Winterfeld, M.C. Sereno, P.C. 1997. The origin and evolution of dino­ Hayden, and A.H. Hamblin, 2001. Paleonto­ saurs. Annual Review of Earth & Planetary stone is not from a desert environment.” logical Survey of the Grand Staircase-Escalan­ Sciences 25(1): 435–489. Likewise, this rare and unusual trackway te National Monument, Garfield and Kane Sertich, J.J.W. and M.A. Loewen. 2010. A new bas­ points to sediments deposited during flood­ Counties, Utah. Special Study 99, Utah Geo­ al Sauropodomorph dinosaur from the Lower ing. The areal extent of the Entrada and logical Survey, Salt Lake City, UT. Jurassic Navajo Sandstone of southern Utah. Junction Creek formations over many thou­ Handwerk, B. 2010. New strong-handed dinosaur PLoS ONE 5(3):e9789. sands of square miles further indicates a may shatter assumptions. National Geographic doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0009789. large event. Daily News. Retrieved on November 18, 2013, Shawe, D.R. 1968. Petrography of Sedimentary from Rocks in the Slick Rock District, San Miguel Acknowledgments http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2010/ and Dolores Counties, Colorado. Professional 10/101006-new-dinosaur-north-america-science Paper 576-B, United States Geological Survey, I would like to acknowledge a number of Hansen, W.R. 1965. Black Canyon of the Gunnison: Washington, D.C. people for their contributions to this article, Today and Yesterday. Bulletin 1191, United Shawe, D.R. 1976. Geologic History of the Slick including: Dr. Tim Clarey of ICR for his States Geological Survey, Washington, D.C. Rock District and Vicinity, San Miguel and professional evaluation of the photos, Joe Hanson, R. 2009. Mountain lion tracking, Overland Dolores Counties, Colorado. Professional Pa­ Taylor for molding and casting the foot­ Journal Blog. Retrieved on June 3, 2013, from per 576-E, United States Geological Survey, prints, Ron Steele for providing earlier www.overlandjournal.com/blog/2009/06/mount Washington, D.C. ain-lion-tracking. photos of the tracksite, and Don Ensign for Thompson, M.E., R.S. White, and G.S. Morgan. Milàn, J., D.B. Loope, and R.G. Bromley, 2008. 2007. Pace versus trot: can medium speed gait reviewing this paper. Helpful comments Crouching theropod and Navahopus sau­ be determined from fossil trackways? In: Spiel­ were also provided by the editor and an ropodomorph tracks from the Early Jurassic mann and L. Lockley (editors). Cenozoic Ver­ anonymous reviewer. Navajo Sandstone of USA. Acta Palaeontolog­ tebrate Tracks and Traces. New Mexico ica Polonica 53(2):197–205. Museum of Natural History and Science Bulle­ References Morris, J. 1980. Tracking Those Incredible tin 42, Albuquerque, NM. Attridge, J., A.W. Crompton and F.A Jenkins, Jr. Dinosaurs…and the People Who Knew Them. Yates, A.M. 2010. A revision of the problematic 1985. The southern Liassic prosauropod Mas­ CLP Publishers, San Diego, CA. sauropodomorph dinosaurs from Manchester, sospondylus discovered in North America. Oard, M.J., 2009. Dancing dinosaurs? Journal of Connecticut and the status of Anchisaurus Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 5(2):128– Creation 23(1):13–15. Marsh. Palaeontology 53(4):739–752. 132. doi: 10.1080/02724634. 1985.10011850. O’Sullivan, R.B. 2004. Correlation of Middle Juras­ Brand, L.R. 1978. Footprints in the Grand Canyon. sic San Rafael Group and related rocks from Origins 5(2):64–82. Bridgeport to Quray in Western Colorado. Sci­

Speaking of Science

Editor’s note: Unless otherwise noted, S.O.S. (Speaking of Science) items in this issue are nating the secrets of our universe, from gravity to electricity kindly provided by David Coppedge. Opinions expressed herein are his own. Additional commentaries and reviews of news items by David, complete with hyperlinks to cited references, to black holes. But among the search for Higgs bosons and can be seen at: http://crev.info/. Unless otherwise noted, emphasis is added in all quotes. the endless unspooling of string theories, there remained a particularly glaring mystery: Why does a teakettle Surprising Things Science Didn’t Know whistle? “Oh that,” they said, standing at their stoves in between bouts of programming supercomputers. “Vibra­ cientists presume to speak with confidence about the origin tions. Or something.” Now, we are happy to report, human S of the universe and billions of years, but have been clueless intellect has at last triumphed over the dark shadow of about some everyday things close to home in the present. ignorance and solved the conundrum lurking within one of our lowest-tech kitchen appliances.… And having solved Mystery of the whistling teakettle: PhysOrg1 another mystery of our vast but perhaps ultimately know­ reported that two Cambridge researchers “… able universe, they smile and sip their tea. have finally worked out where the noise that makes kettles whistle actually comes from — Discovery in the knee: One would think after centuries of a problem which has puzzled scientists for dissections and surgeries that the human knee is pretty well more than 100 years.” Science News2 wrote understood. Not so; a “new” ligament has been discovered, wittily about this, saying: reported the BBC News, named the anterolateral ligament.3 It looks pretty obvious from the photo in Medical Xpress.4 It’s important, For centuries, physicists have made their living by illumi- too: it helps protect the knee when we twist or change direction.

8 | Creation Research Society Without it, the knee can suddenly give way. A surgeon outside Three New and Different the study group remarked, “If you look back through history Biomimetics Stories there has been a veiled understanding that something is going on on [sic] that side of the knee but this work finally gives us a here appears to be no end of ways better understanding.” T to imitate nature’s designs. Manhattan’s Grand Canyon: Just 100 miles off Manhattan’s Stingray sub: “Stingrays swim shores, a canyon rivaling the Grand Canyon plunges off the through water with such ease that re­ continental shelf into the deep sea. Live Science says that Hudson searchers from the University at Buffalo Canyon is “a city in its own right, brimming with an extraor­ and Harvard University are studying dinary universe of life.”5 So close to the busiest city on earth, how their movements could be used to design more agile and 1 it’s a gigantic feature biologists are only beginning to inventory, fuel-efficient unmanned underwater vehicles.” inhabited by animals small and great — from plankton to sperm Snail digger: Headline on Science- whales, corals, squid, sea anemones, swordfish, and much more, Daily: “An Intersection of Math and some of which are shown in an embedded video clip. Biology: Clams and Snails Inspire Hudson is just one of 15 such large submarine canyons along Robotic Diggers and 2 the east coast south of Cape Cod that the article says are remnants Crawlers.” MIT scientists like how of ancient rivers that flowed off the continental shelf when sea snails can move in any direction. level was lower. Beyond the canyon is a series of prominent That’s why they built RoboSnail. It “can climb walls and stick to seamounts — dormant volcanoes rising thousands of feet from the overhead surfaces much like its living counterpart.” What’s in it seafloor. for you? “Such a device can have potential uses in invasive surgery and oil well drilling, among other applications.” 1. University of Cambridge (2013, October 25). How the kettle got its whistle. PhysOrg. Retrieved December 10, 2013, from http://phys.org/news/2013­ Biomimetic cocktail: This one is weird. ScienceDaily says, “An 10-kettle.html MIT mathematician and a celebrity chef have combined talents to 2. Wade, L. (2013, November 22). Scienceshot: a mystery in a teapot. Science create two culinary novelties inspired by nature.”3 And what’s News. Retrieved December 10, 2013, from being served? “Cocktail novelties inspired by nature’s designs.” http://news.sciencemag.org/physics/2013/11/scienceshot-mystery-teapot Somehow, insects and water lilies provided the inspiration for this 3. Mundasad, S. (2013, November 7). New ligament discovered in knee, Belgian unusual application. surgeons say. BBC News. Retrieved December 10, 2013, from www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-24826323 Dandelion rubber: The usual biomimetics stories 4. Leuven, K.U. (2013, November 5). New ligament discovered in the human keep coming, like studying insects to improve knee. Medical Xpress. Retrieved December 10, 2013, from flying robots.4 Sometimes, though, it’s easier to http://medicalxpress.com/news/2013-11-ligament-human-knee.html harvest nature rather than imitate it. For instance, 5. Chase, A. (2013, October 16). Undersea ‘Grand Canyons’ host hidden life just European researchers found something good miles from Manhattan (op-ed). LiveScience. Retrieved December 10, 2013, about a common garden weed, the dandelion: from www.livescience.com/40490-ocean-grand-canyons-teem-with-life.html it produces good quality rubber. They are “building the first ever pilot system to extract Tropical Trees Found in Antarctica vast quantities of dandelion rubber for making tires,” ScienceDaily reported.5 And noting that ossilized stumps of tropical trees microbes can fight harmful pathogens for us, F show that Antarctica was once for- scientists at Virginia Tech are looking into hiring microbes to ested. A photo of a tree stump sticking clean up pipes.6 out of the ice begins a report on 1 1. Robinson, M. (2013, November 12). Stingray movement could inspire the LiveScience about “weird forests” that next generation of submarines. PhysOrg. Retrieved December 11, 2013, once sprouted in the land of the midnight from http://phys.org/news/2013-11-stingray-movement-submarines.html sun. Leaf impressions and tests of carbon 2. Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics (2013, November 11). An by the University of Kansas show that a mix of intersection of math and biology: Clams and snails inspire robotic diggers deciduous and evergreen trees once grew here. The and crawlers. ScienceDaily. Retrieved December 11, 2013, from stumps are estimated to be late Permian in age ac­ www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/11/131111161516.htm cording to the evolutionary timescale (250 million 3. Massachusetts Institute of Technology (2013, November 6). Cocktail novel­ years old). Researchers can examine the wood cell ties inspired by nature's designs. ScienceDaily. Retrieved December 11, 2013, from www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/11/131106114043.htm patterns under the microscope to try to resolve how trees grew without sun for half the year. 4. American Institute of Physics (2013, November 12). New experiments offer insight into how insects fly and how to design tiny flying robots. PhysOrg. In order for forests to have grown on this now icy continent, Retrieved December 11, 2013, from http://phys.org/news/2013-11-insight­ evolutionists surmise that “Some 250 million years ago, during insects-tiny-robots.html the late Permian and early Triassic, the world was a greenhouse, 5. Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft (2013, October 28). Making rubber from dandelion much hotter than it is today.” juice. ScienceDaily. Retrieved December 11, 2013, from www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/10/131028114547.htm 1. Pappas, S. (2013, November 1). Weird forests once sprouted in Antarctica. 6. Virginia Tech (Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University) (2013, No­ LiveScience. Retrieved December 10, 2013, from vember 4). Natural solution to rid plumbing of pathogens. ScienceDaily. www.livescience.com/40893-weird-ancient-antarctic-forests.html Retrieved December 11, 2013, from http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/11/131104091716.htm?utm_sou rce=feedburner&utm_medium=feed&utm_campaign=Feed%3A+sciencedail y+%28ScienceDaily%3A+Latest+Science+News%29 Creation Matters Vol. 19 No. 1 January / February | | 9 make it so. Hummingbird Metabolism a 1. Campbell, D. (2013, November 30). Hummingbird metabolism unique in burn­ ing glucose and fructose equally. University of Toronto. Retrieved Decem­ “Marvel of Evolutionary ber 11, 2013, from http://ose.utsc.utoronto.ca/ose/story.php?id=5581 Engineering” nlike humans, hummingbirds are Reporter Says U equally good at extracting energy from fructose as from glucose. They are Scientists Are Like marvels of evolutionary engineering. Cattle That makes perfect evolutionary sense. science reporter lists It’s uncanny how some reporters A several reasons why credit Darwin with engineering designs scientists are about as trustworthy as bankers. The Science and so good, we can’t duplicate them, let alone Technology Editor at The Conversation, Akshat Rathi, should know understand them. Consider these excerpts from a University of about scientists. Not only does he hold that prestigious editorial Toronto press release about hummingbirds.1 First, the marvels of position, he has a PhD in organic chemistry from Oxford University engineering: as well as a Bachelor of Technology in chemical engineering from the Institute of Chemical Technology in Mumbai. ● Hummingbird metabolism is a marvel of evolutionary engineering. These tiny birds can power all of their Rathi doesn’t trust the opinions of scientists to be right any energetic hovering flight by burning the sugar con­ more than he trusts other fallible professionals, judging from his tained in the floral nectar of their diet. latest column, entitled, “Scientists falter as much as bankers in 1 2 ● …they are equally adept at burning both glucose and pursuit of answers.” He also has help from a Nature article that fructose, which are the individual components of sugar; found serious flaws in that paean of scientific reliability, peer a unique trait other vertebrates cannot achieve. review: ● [quoting the researcher] “Hummingbirds have an opti­ Here we show that even when scientists are motivated to mal fuel-use strategy that powers their high-energy promote the truth, their behaviour may be influenced, and lifestyle, maximizes fat storage, and minimizes un­ even dominated, by information gleaned from their peers’ necessary weight gain all at the same time.” behaviour, rather than by their personal dispositions. This phenomenon, known as herding, subjects the scientific com­ ● [quoting the researcher] “What’s very surprising is that munity to an inherent risk of converging on an incorrect unlike mammals such as humans, who can’t rely on answer and raises the possibility that, under certain condi­ fructose to power much of their exercise metabolism, tions, science may not be self-correcting. hummingbirds use it very well.” Here are some of Rathi’s reasons for keeping scientists off their ● Hummingbirds require an incredible amount of energy pedestals: to flap their wings 50 times or more per second in order to maintain hovering flight. In fact, if a humming­ ● One of the reasons is that, once a hypothesis becomes bird were the size of a human, it would consume widely accepted, it becomes very difficult to refute it, energy at a rate more than 10 times that of an which makes it, as Jeremy Freese of Northwestern Olympic marathon runner. They are able to accom­ University recently put it, “vampirical more than em­ plish this by burning only the most recently ingested pirical — unable to be killed by mere evidence.” sugar in their muscles while avoiding the energetic ● … as humans, scientists try to be rational but remain tax of first converting sugar into fat. stuck on certain views in the face of contrary evidence. ● [quoting the researcher] “Hummingbirds are able to ● … some scientists make up data to further their careers. move sugar from their blood to their muscles at very fast rates, but we don’t yet fully understand how they ● … the “publish or perish” culture forces scientists to are able to do this.” consciously or unconsciously gravitate towards re­ sults that support their conclusions. ● …if a hummingbird were the size of an average person they [sic] would use sugar fast enough that they [sic] ● … the peer review system does not always live up to would need to drink more than one can of soda every its high aims. minute even though it’s mostly made of high-fructose ● Subjectivity wins. corn syrup. ● Scientists are subject to a “herd mentality.” Now, how the credit is given to evolution: Rathi ends by quipping that the Nature article itself might be an ● Hummingbird metabolism is a marvel of evolutionary example of herding. engineering. 1. Rathi, A. (2013, December 4). Scientists falter as much as bankers in pursuit ● From an evolutionary perspective the findings make of answers. The Conversation. Retrieved December 11, 2013, from perfect sense, says [Ken] Welch. Whereas humans http://theconversation.com/scientists-falter-as-much-as-bankers-in-pursuit­ evolved over time on a complex diet, hummingbirds of-answers-21136 evolved on a diet rich in sugar. 2. Park, I., M.W. Peacey, and M.R. Munafo. 2013. Modelling the effects of sub­ jective and objective decision making in scientific peer review. Nature. Re­ It seems premature to attribute this high-efficiency, optimal trieved December 11, 2013, from design to unguided process of nature when scientists still don’t www.nature.com/nature/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/nature12786.html understand how the hummingbirds do it. Saying it evolved doesn’t

10 | Creation Research Society Trillions of Helpers in Your Body and Brain nicity of gut antigens by delivering tolerogenic signals.”8 ecent discoveries in human physiology should cause us to A hair is grown: There’s been news recently about a possible R stand in awe of the design of our earthly dwelling, especially cure for baldness. To shed light on what goes on in a hair follicle, at the scale of cells. PNAS published a commentary titled, “Environmental reprogram­ ming and molecular profiling in reconstitution of human hair Minicomputers in your mainframe: You don’t just have follicles.”9 Suffice it to say the process is complex. “The mature a mainframe that outshines all processors in the world combined. Each of those 100 billion neurons has dendrites HF [hair follicle] undergoes a cyclical pattern of hair growth (branched endings), making a total of a quadrillion connec­ (anagen), regression (catagen), rest (telogen), loss (exogen), and tions, LiveScience1 reminds us. But that’s not all. Those renewal.” Plucking a hair stimulates the dermal papillae to regen­ dendrites themselves act like minicomputers, new research erate the hair follicle from epidermal stem cells, but if there is no has found. The complexity of the brain has just shot follicle, it is possible for new ones to form. If scientists can up by orders of magnitude: understand these processes better, cures for baldness may be a reality. Now scientists find dendrites may be more than 1. Choi, C.Q. (2013, October 29). ‘Minicomputers’ live inside the human passive wiring; in fact, they may actively process brain. LiveScience. Retrieved December 12, 2013, from information. www.livescience.com/40779-minicomputers-inside-human-brain.html “Suddenly, it’s as if the processing power of the 2. University of North Carolina Health Care (2013, October 27). Neuroscientists brain is much greater than we had originally thought,” discover new ‘mini-neural computer’ in the brain. Medical Xpress. Re­ study lead author Spencer Smith, a neuroscientist at the trieved December 12, 2013, from http://medicalxpress.com/news/2013-10­ neuroscientists-mini-neural-brain.html University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, said in a state­ ment. 3. The ARC Centre of Excellence in Vision Science (2013, October 28). ‘An­ cient brain’ helps us avoid accidents. Medical Xpress. Retrieved December No longer seen as just channels passing signals, the dendrites 12, 2013, from http://medicalxpress.com/news/2013-10-ancient-brain­ now appear to help sort and interpret the barrage of inputs contin­ accidents.html ually coming into the neuron. “Dendrites thus act as miniature 4. Hewitt, J. (2013, November 7). The glial menagerie: From simple beginnings computing devices for detecting and amplifying specific types of to staggering complexity. Medical Xpress. Retrieved December 12, 2013, from http://medicalxpress.com/news/2013-11-glial-menagerie-simple­ input.” See also the Medical Xpress article on this find announced staggering-complexity.html by University of North Carolina researchers.2 5. Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (2013, November 18). ‘Sensational’ Another Medical Xpress article reported that an assumed barrels in the brain. Medical Xpress. Retrieved December 12, 2013, from “primitive” or “ancient” part of the brain (the thalamus) helps us http://medicalxpress.com/news/2013-11-sensational-barrels-brain.html avoid accidents by interpreting edges in the visual field.3 Still 6. Teagasc (2013, November 1). A galaxy within us: Our gut microbiota and another Medical Xpress article said a lot in its headline: “The glial how it can be programmed by food. ScienceDaily. Retrieved December 12, 2013, from www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/11/131101125411.htm menagerie: From simple beginnings to staggering complexity” — and that’s just about the glial cells in roundworms.4 And yet 7. Norwich BioScience Institutes (2013, October 25). How bacteria with a sweet tooth may keep us healthy. Medical Xpress. Retrieved December 12, 2013, another Medical Xpress article discussed “Sensational barrels in from http://medicalxpress.com/news/2013-10-bacteria-sweet-tooth­ the brain” involved in “circuitry for high resolution signal pro­ healthy.html 5 cessing” — and that’s just in mice. 8. Shan, M., M. Gentile, J.R. Yeiser, A.C. Walland, V.U. Bornstein, et Galaxies in your gut: ScienceDaily described the “galaxy al. 2013. Mucus enhances gut homeostasis and oral tolerance by deliv­ ering immunoregulatory signals. Science 342(6157):447–453. within us” — the horde of bacteria that help us digest our 6 9. Weber, E.L. and C.M. Chuong. 2013. Environmental reprogramming food. We have 10 times as many gut microbes as we and molecular profiling in reconstitution of human hair follicles. Proc. have of our own cells. Research is underway Nat. Acad. of Sci. 110(49):19658–19659. trying to understand all the ways this community of microbes helps us. “Research is starting to show that the food we eat has a huge bearing on the composition of this collective and also that the profile of the collection of bacteria can be associated with a person’s health sta­ tus,” the article says. Sugar babies in your colon: Medical Xpress discussed how certain microbes recognize sugar molecules in the lining of the colon to help the good bacteria colonize the gut. Those sugars are associated with mucins, protein molecules that make up the mucus lining. “We live in a symbiotic relationship with trillions of bacteria in our gut,” the article explains. “They help us digest food, prime our immune system and keep out pathogens.”7 Guards in the mucus: Science elaborated on the role of mucus in the gut by describing how it delivers immunoregulatory signals to the microbes, regulating the immune response to create homeo­ stasis (dynamic equilibrium). “Thus, mucus does not merely form a nonspecific physical barrier, but also constrains the immunoge- Creation Matters Vol. 19 No. 1 January / February | | 11 Creation Research Society Nonprofit Org. P.O. Box 8263 US Postage St. Joseph, MO 64508-8263 PAID USA Creation Research Society Address Service Requested

Creation Matters

January / February 2014 Vol. 19 No. 1

by Jonathan C. O’Quinn, D.P.M., M.S. T he student of creation might every­ percent rate of prey capture, thus wasting where see in nature evidences of little energy on missed attempts. intelligent design in living things, Logic suggests that this feeding ability special properties of living things that defy had to be present at the beginning for these any attempt to explain their existence as the fish to survive. Was this design the handi­ result of random chance. For example, one work of an intelligent Creator, or did this might recall the tubercles on the front edges unique feature evolve completely by acci­ of the humpback whale’s pectoral fins that dent over vast periods of time? The reader create vortices of water, which draw them is asked to consider which viewpoint re­ through the water almost effortlessly. quires more faith. Very well — here is another marvel to ponder. Some marine fish feed on tiny crus­ References taceans known as “copepods,” including the Anonymous. 2013. Flippers provide lift, reduce drag: majestic seahorse, whose tiny mouth is per­ humpback whale. AskNature. Retrieved Dec. 1, 2013, from fectly suited for such small prey. However, www.asknature.org/strategy/3f2fb504a0cd copepods are sensitive to the least distur­ 000eae85d5dcc4915dd4 bance created in the water by an approach­ Anonymous. 2013. Seahorse heads have a “no wake ing predator, reacting within 2 to 3 zone” that’s made for catching prey. Eu­ milliseconds. They then swim away quickly, its snout in such a way that no waves are rekAlert. Retrieved Dec. 1, 2013, from at a velocity equivalent to that of an adult created, allowing the seahorse to move to www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2013­ person swimming at 2,000 mph. within about 1 mm of the copepod. The 11/uota-shh112513.php

Don’t worry. This does not bother the seahorse then quickly raises its head and Photo credit: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Ad­ seahorse in the least. You see, the snout of draws water (and the unsuspecting copepod) into its mouth, all within about 1 millisec­ ministration (NOAA), the seahorse is uniquely shaped, and as it www.photolib.noaa.gov/700s/reef2026.jpg

approaches a copepod, water moves around ond. These amazing fish also maintain a 90

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