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Reimagination of Turkey: the Emergence and Challenges of Post-Kemalist Nation-State Identity (2001-2011)

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Reimagination of Turkey: The Emergence and Challenges of Post-Kemalist Nation-State Identity (2001-2011) Filiz Coban A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy to the University of East Anglia, School of Political, Social and International Studies. NORWICH, 2015 This copy of the thesis has been supplied on condition that anyone who consults it is understood to recognise that its copyright rests with the author, and that use of any information derived therefrom must be in accordance with current UK Copyright Law. In addition, any quotation or extract must include full attribution. ABSTRACT This research investigates the emergence of Turkey’s post-Kemalist nation- state identity and its challenges in the post-9/11 era. By challenging the argument that there is essentially one understanding of Turkey’s identity, it exposes competing perspectives on Turkey’s new identity and its place in the world. To reveal the process of domestic power struggle in maintaining and transforming Turkey’s Kemalist identity, the study takes Ruth Wodak’s Discourse-Historical Approach in a search of different discourses on Turkish national identity and foreign policy in Turkish media from 2001 to 2011. On the historical context of Turkish politics in the post-9/11 period, the study argues that Turkey’s post-Kemalist identity crisis in the last decade has shaped both Turkish nation-state identity and foreign policy discourse which has directly targeted the Kemalist and Europeanist world view and empowered the nation’s Muslim and non-European perception of ‘self’ and the perception of Turkey’s place in the world. In this context, this study makes a significant contribution to Turkish politics, nationalism and media studies through a critical observation of different political positions and antagonisms in Turkish media discourse, considering the changes and challenges within the conceptions of new Turkey's identity. 2 LIST OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 9 The Aim of the Study: Understanding the Process of 11 Discursive Construction of New Turkey's Identity The Literature Review on New Turkey's Identity 12 The Importance and Contribution of the Project 20 The Selection of the Case Studies 21 The Structure of the Project 24 CHAPTER ONE THE THEORY AND METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY: THE NATION-STATE IDENTITY, DISCOURSE ANALYSIS AND THE MEDIA Introduction 26 1.1. Theorising the Nation-State Identity 27 1.2. Towards a Discursive Approach to Construction of Nation- State Identity 31 1.3. Nation in Narrative: Discourse Historical Approach to Construction of National Identity 37 1.4. The Methodological Critics and Limitations 40 1.5. The Media and National Identity: Imagined Communities and Banal Nationalism 42 1.6. The Main Assumptions of the Thesis and the Application of DHA to the Case of Turkey 53 1.7. Searching Competing Discourses of Turkish Identity in the Turkish Press 61 1.7.1. The First Stage: Establishing the Main Themes of Turkey’s Identity 65 1.7.2. The Second Stage: Investigation of the Discursive Strategies 1.7.3.The Third Stage: Examination of the Linguistic Means and 68 69 Realisations of the Discursive Strategies CHAPTER TWO THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY: THE CONSTRUCTION OF TURKISH NATION-STATE IDENTITY Introduction 75 2.1. The Origins of Different Narratives of Turkish Nation: 78 Ottomanism, Islamism, Turkism 2.2. The Construction of Official Kemalist Nation-State Discourse 84 2.3. Non-Muslimhood in Turkish Nation and Nationalism 87 2.4.Competing Nationalisms in Turkey: The Secular versus Islamist 91 Turkish Nationalisms 3 2.5.Competing Nationalisms in Turkey: Turkish Nationalism versus 97 Kurdish Nationalism 2.6.The Challenges of Turkey's Kemalist Identity in the Post-Cold 102 War Era with Transformation of the Domestic Power Relations and the Rise of the AKP 2.7. The European Identity and Turkey's Europeanisation Process 108 under the AKP Government 2.8.The Paradigm Shift after September 11th 2001 and Redefinition 114 of Turkey's European/Western Identity Conclusion 117 CHAPTER THREE NATION AND RELIGION: DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF THE CONTESTED NARRATIVES OF TURKISHNESS Introduction 119 3.1. The Importance and Background of the Case of Hrant Dink 119 3.1.1.The Identity of Hrant Dink: Non-Muslims in Turkish National 124 Identity Discourse 3.1.2. The Crime and Punishment: Blaming Others or Saying 'We 131 Killed Hrant Dink' 3.1.3. The Discursive Construction of Common Political Past of the 136 Nation: ‘Those Crazy Turks’ 3.1.4. The Discursive Construction of the Common Political 141 Present and Future: The Banalisation of the Extreme Right and Violence 146 3.2. The Case of the Presidential Elections of Turkey in 2007: Secularism and Islam in Turkish Nation-State Identity 148 3.2.1. On Understanding of the Nation and National Identity: Which Turkey? 155 3.2.2. Being the President of Turkish Republic: Who Should Represent the Turkish Nation? 156 3.2.3. The Republican Demonstrations in the Turkish Media 161 3.2.4. Turkish Media Coverage on the Results of 2007 National Elections 163 Conclusion CHAPTER FOUR NATIONAL AND EUROPEAN IDENTITY: THE CASE STUDY OF TURKEY'S KURDISH QUESTION AND EUROPEAN INTEGRATION Introduction 167 4.1. Reimagining Turkey's Place in Europe 167 4.1.1.Representation of Turkey’s European Integration in the Pro- 171 Secular Media Discourse 4.1.2. Representation of Turkey’s European Integration in the Post- 177 Kemalist Discourse 4 4.2. The Kurdish Question and European Union Membership 182 Debates in the Pro-Secular Discourse 4.3. The Kurdish Question in the Post-Kemalist Discourse 185 4.4. AKP’s Kurdish Initiative in Turkish Media 193 4.4.1. AKP’s Kurdish Initiative in the Pro-Secular Discourse 194 4.4.2. AKP’s Kurdish Initiative in the Post-Kemalist Discourse 200 Findings and Conclusion 204 CHAPTER FIVE TURKEY'S NEW IDENTITY: 9/11 AND IRAQ WAR IN TURKISH MEDIA Introduction 208 5.1. The Constructed Link Between the Events of 11 September 210 2001 and Iraq War in the Media 5.2. The 9/11 Events in the Turkish Press 215 5.3. Decision-making on Turkey’s Role in Iraq War 222 5.4. The Iraq War in Turkish Media 230 5.5. Reimagination of Turkey: the Debate of the Axis Shift in 235 Western Orientation of Turkish Foreign Policy in Turkish Media 5.5.1. Kemalist Discourse on New Turkish Foreign Policy: 238 Islamisation of Turkey 5.5.2. Advocate Media: Expanded Axis in Turkish Foreign Policy 242 Findings and Conclusion 247 CHAPTER SIX CONCLUSION 251 Introduction 251 6.1. Theoretical and Methodological Results 254 6.2. The Empirical Findings: Reimagination of Turkey 258 6.2.1. The Nation and Identity: Being Turk and Muslim 262 6.2.2. The Construction of Non-Europeannes in Turkey's New 263 Identity 265 6.2.3.The New Turkey: Post-Kemalist Narrative and Its 269 Challenges 318 References Sources of Turkish Newspapers 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS As Edward Said noted, each of us is an exile, constantly unsettled and restless in our pursuits. In our endless quests, dwelling is impossible. I think the search begins within us and ends with us; but we are no longer the same persons as in the beginning. Sometimes we lose our sense of belonging to a place. For me, the sense of belonging comes with the sense of will and the fact that I meet individuals who work to make this world a better place. They do this selflessly despite the hegemonic fact of the dark and pessimist reality of politics and its everyday production by the banality of evil. In this context, I think that the PSI in the UEA constituted one of the most plentiful grounds for my intellectual development in exploring new insights and perspectives on studying Politics. Therefore, every single year of my PhD in the UEA, I have felt that I have completed my studies in the most appropriate school. What makes me say this is the undoubtedly immense contribution my supervisors and the academic members of the PSI have played in my overall advancement. Now, it is with great pleasure that I acknowledge the support of those individuals who helped me through this challenging period. First, I want to express my thanks to my primary supervisor, Prof. Hussein Kassim, for his unique intellectual eye and contribution to my perspective on my project on Turkish politics and for his guidance even amidst his administrative duties. Additionally, my greatest debt and sense of thankfulness go to my second supervisor, Dr. Sanna Inthorn, who patiently helped me resolve every single difficulty I faced during my study and, more importantly, deepened my knowledge and expertise in Media and Politics, understanding Critical Discourse Analysis and my academic skills in general. In my revision process of my thesis, I am grateful for the eminent contributions of Prof. Meltem Muftuler-Bac and Dr. Michael Skey. Furthermore, many friends and colleagues from the PSI contributed in numerous ways through many hours of discussion. I mention them with the unbearable possibility of leaving some out. However, I would like to acknowledge those who have broadened my knowledge and my perspective in the field. For their remarks and support during the doctorate coordination process and their outstanding and inspiring works in Political Theory, I would also like to express my gratitude to Prof. Alan Finlayson and Dr. Alex Brown. Indirectly, this thesis has also benefited from the studies and discussions of Prof. John Street in Media and Democracy, Prof. Lee Marsden in Religion and International Relations and all other UEA fellows who work in the areas of Middle East studies; European studies; and Media, Language and Communication Studies.
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