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EXCERPTS FROM HISTORY TEXTBOOKS

These excerpts from history textbooks will tell you more about the concepts of industrialization, urbanization, living conditions in some Canadian regions in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. You will also find information about the Canadian participation in the two World Wars, the Confederation Debates, the National Policy and the CPR and Women’s Movements. These excerpts are taken from textbooks approved by provincial ministries of education or in use in Canadian high school history classes in British Columbia, New Brunswick, Ontario, and Québec.

1. INDUSTRIALIZATION...... 1 1.1 The Meaning of Industrialization ...... 1 1) What were the origins of industrialization?...... 1 2) How did the shift from craft to industrial production take place? ...... 1 3) What were the effects on workers? ...... 2 4) What were the major technological developments giving rise to industrialization? ...... 2 1.2 The First Phase of Industrialization (circa 1846–1896) ...... 3 5) How did industrialization get started in Canada?...... 3 6) Where did industrialization first take root in Canada, and why?...... 3 7) What were the major industries of Quebec during the second half of the 19th century? ...... 4 8) How did industrialization develop in the Maritimes?...... 5 9) What was the status of industrialization in the West? ...... 6 10) How was gold first discovered in British Columbia?...... 6 11) What were the first industrial and community-oriented activities of the Vancouver area? ...... 7 12) What role did the railways play in the industrialization of Canada?...... 7 13) How was the location of the Canadian Pacific Railway terminus determined in British Columbia? ...... 9 1.3 The Second Phase of Industrialization (circa 1896–1936)...... 9 14) What is meant by the "second phase of industrialization"?...... 9 15) What major trends characterized Canada's economy at the turn of the 20th century? ...... 10 16) What were some subsequent developments in the industrialization of Quebec? ...... 10 17) What role did the Maritimes and the West play in industrialization? ...... 11 18) What type of energy was used in Quebec? ...... 11 19) What was the role of the pulp and paper industry?...... 12 20) How did natural resource exploitation contribute to industrialization?...... 13 21) What position did the forest industry occupy in the British Columbia economy? ...... 14 22) What was the impact of mechanization on agriculture at the start of the 20th century? ...... 14

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2. URBANIZATION ...... 15 2.1 The Growth of Cities ...... 15 23) What is meant by urbanization? ...... 15 24) Why did people leave rural areas? ...... 15 25) Why did cities offer increasing number of jobs? ...... 16 26) What accounted for the growth of Quebec cities in the 19th century?...... 16 27) What accounted for the growth of Canadian cities in the 19th century? ...... 17 28) What are Vancouver’s origins and geography?...... 18 29) What were further factors in urban Canadian growth in the 20th century? ... 18 2.2 The Workings of Cities ...... 20 30) How were cities organized in Quebec? ...... 20 31) What kinds of problems did 19th century cities confront? ...... 21 32) What kinds of public services did cities offer? ...... 21 33) How was urban transit organized? ...... 22 34) How did urban planning become an object of concern? ...... 23 35) What were Montreal's distinctive features among Canadian cities?...... 24 36) How did towns neighbouring Montreal develop? ...... 25 37) What was it like to live in Barkerville, in British Columbia, in the 1860s ? ... 25 3. LIVING CONDITIONS ...... 26 3.1 Portrait of the Population ...... 26 38) What were the basic features of society around 1850?...... 26 39) What were the main socioeconomic groups making up society around 1850? ...... 26 40) How was the status of Canadian men and women different in 1850?...... 27 41) Was there racial discrimination in Canada in the second half of the 19th century? ...... 27 42) What were the major Canadian population movements during the 19th century? ...... 28 43) What were the reasons for the rise in Acadian nationalism in the 19th century? ...... 29 44) What were the signs of the rise in Acadian nationalism in the 19th century?. 29 45) What are the landmarks in the advancement of the Acadian people between 1864 and 1914?...... 30 46) Where did the first wave of gold seekers into British Columbia come from?. 31 47) Who worked on the roadway leading into the Cariboo region in British Columbia?...... 31 48) What social position did Chinese immigrants occupy in Barkerville, in British Columbia?...... 32 3.2 Labour and Trade Unionism ...... 32 49) What were life and work like for city dwellers at the turn of the 20th century? ...... 32 50) Who were the factory workers of Quebec? ...... 33 51) How was factory work organized toward the end of the 19th century? ...... 33 52) Could people work at home? ...... 34 53) What characterizes workplace in the early 20th century? ...... 34 54) What were factory working conditions like? ...... 35 55) What was the status of unskilled workers in society? ...... 36 56) How did workers react to these conditions toward the end of the 19th century?

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...... 36 57) What labour-related measures did the government adopt in the second half of the 19th century?...... 37 58) What were the results of the Royal Commission study on relations between capital and labour? ...... 37 59) What were working conditions like for the working class in the early 20th century? ...... 38 60) What was the reason for the influx of women into the service sector at the start of 20th century? ...... 38 61) How did unions operate in Quebec at the start of the 20th century? ...... 39 62) What was the pattern of trade union growth in Canada? ...... 40 3.3 Quality of Life ...... 40 63) How did the smallpox epidemic affect native people in the 1860s in British Columbia?...... 40 64) What were urban health and hygiene conditions like in the late 19th and early 20th centuries?...... 41 65) Was pollution a concern at the turn of the 20th century? ...... 42 66) What was the spatial dimension of social inequality? ...... 42 67) How did infant mortality rates vary from one class to another? ...... 44 68) In the 19th century, who was responsible for education? ...... 44 69) What role did organized religion play in education in the 19th century? ...... 45 70) What was the role of the State in the realm of education in the 19th century? ...... 45 71) What measures did the provincial governments take with respect to education at the end of the 19th century? ...... 46 72) What different viewpoints did the issue of school financing raise in the 19th century? ...... 46 73) What characterizes the development of the school system in Quebec in the late-19th and early-20th century? ...... 47 74) What characterizes the development of the school system in the Acadian communities of New Brunswick in the 19th century? ...... 48 75) What was urban recreation like at the turn of the 20th century? ...... 48 4. WORLD WARS ...... 49 4.1 World War I ...... 49 76) The First World War is said to have affirmed Canada as a nation in its own right. Why? ...... 49 77) What explains Canada’s patriotic spirit at the start of the First World War? . 50 78) What is military propaganda?...... 50 79) Who opposed conscription?...... 51 80) What were the practical contributions of Canadians at the front?...... 52 81) How would the everyday life of the Canadian soldier at war be described?.. 52 4.2 World War II...... 52 82) What main industries benefited from economic renewal?...... 53 83) What impact did the Second World War have on the labour market?...... 53 5. POLITICS AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTS ...... 53 5.1 Confederation Debates ...... 54 84) What is “Rep by Pop” and why did Canada West demand it?...... 54 85) What was the Brown-Macdonald-Cartier coalition? ...... 54

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86) What were the principal forces driving the call for federation and how is it presented by Cartier and others?...... 55 87) What types of union did Macdonald and Cartier prefer?...... 55 88) What did Dorion think of the federation project? ...... 55 89) How was the call for federation received in the Maritimes? ...... 56 90) How did the colonies react to the federation project?...... 57 91) Under what circumstances did Nova Scotia and New Brunswick enter into Confederation? ...... 58 92) What was the division of governmental powers established by the British North America (BNA) Act of 1867?...... 58 5.2 National Policy and the C.P.R...... 60 93) In what context did Macdonald propose the National Policy? ...... 60 94) What was the “National Policy” that helped Macdonald win the 1878 election? ...... 60 95) Did the National Policy benefit all parts of Canada? ...... 61 96) How was the National Policy received? ...... 61 97) What role did the CPR [Canadian Pacific Railway] play in Macdonald’s National Policy?...... 61 98) How did the new railways affect Western cities? ...... 62 99) How did the CPR help Macdonald fight the Northwest Rebellion? ...... 62 100) What did the completion of the CPR mean for Canada as a nation? ...... 62 101) Did some Westerners dislike the CPR monopoly?...... 63 5.3 Women’s Movements ...... 63 102) How was the women’s movement born, particularly in Québec? ...... 63 103) What were the most important women’s organizations in Canada at the close of the 19th century? ...... 64 104) How did women’s organizations come together at the close of the 19th century? ...... 64 105) What were the main feminist issues in Quebec? ...... 65 106) What was Nellie McClung’s “Mock Parliament” in Manitoba? ...... 65

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1. INDUSTRIALIZATION

1.1 THE MEANING OF INDUSTRIALIZATION

1) What were the origins of industrialization?

“In 17th-century England, capitalists were starting to bring workers together in large buildings, called manufactures, to make various products. In the latter half of the 18th century, when machines were added to the concentration of workers and capital, it became possible to speak of the beginnings of industrialization. It was an in-depth transformation, indeed a revolution, in the way goods were produced. Industrialization spread, at greatly varying rates, into different sectors of the economy and different countries.” [transl.] Charpentier, Louise, René Durocher, Christian Laville and Paul-André Linteau. Nouvelle histoire du Québec et du Canada, Anjou, Centre éducatif et Culturel, 1990, p. 232. ▲

2) How did the shift from craft to industrial production take place?

"In the era of craft production, a pair of shoes, a saw or a piece of fabric would be produced by lone artisans who performed each of the necessary tasks by hand. The manufacturing era arrived when entrepreneurs began to organize large numbers of workers in shops, or manufactures, paying them a wage for their labour. Here, the production of a product was divided into small tasks that could be accomplished by individual workers, making for more efficient, streamlined production. "With workers grouped in this way, and work divided into smaller tasks, the way was clear for machines to take over some of these tasks, partially replacing human labour: industrial production was born." [transl.] Charpentier, Louise, René Durocher, Christian Laville and Paul-André Linteau. Nouvelle histoire du Québec et du Canada, Anjou, Centre éducatif et Culturel, 1990, p. 232. ▲

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3) What were the effects on workers?

"Since tasks were more elementary, industrial work did not require workers to go through a long apprenticeship, as artisans had done. Machines lessened the physical force necessary to accomplish them, and so entrepreneurs began to hire an increasing number of children and adolescent girls, whom they paid much lower wages than men. Nevertheless, the work remained arduous—and sometimes dangerous. The new, less-skilled workers were less capable of defending themselves against exploitation, which was often intense. That, coupled with mechanization, enabled entrepreneurs to produce more at a lower cost, and thus to lower the sale price on many products while keeping profits high." [transl.] Charpentier, Louise, René Durocher, Christian Laville and Paul-André Linteau. Nouvelle histoire du Québec et du Canada, Anjou, Centre éducatif et Culturel, 1990, p. 232. ▲

4) What were the major technological developments giving rise to industrialization?

"Industrial production grew out of important technological discoveries that had far-reaching effects on society.

Major Technological Developments, 1704-1913 1704 Newcomen's steam engine developed. His steam pumps were of particular use in mining. 1764 Invention of the spinning jenny. 1760s James Watt improves the steam engine. 1784 Cort's puddling process permits the production of wrought iron. 1825 First freight and passenger railway built by George Stephenson. 1837 Invention of Davenport's electric motor. 1838 The steamship Great Western crosses the Atlantic in fourteen days. This was the beginning of transatlantic steamship travel. 1844 First demonstration of the telegraph. 1846 Development of the sewing machine. 1851 Crystal Palace exhibition [Montreal]. 1856 Bessemer's converter reduces the cost of steel production. 1859 Victoria Bridge over the St. Lawrence completed [Montreal].

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1866 Transatlantic telegraph cable laid across Atlantic. 1872 Refrigerator railway cars used to transport meat and fruit. 1876 Alexander Graham Bell invents the telephone. 1884 First electric trolley in service. 1885 Canadian Pacific Railway completed to the Pacific. 1886 First automobile developed by Carl Benz using a gas engine. 1894 Steam-power-driven flight by the Wright brothers. 1903 Sustained power-driven flight by the Wright brothers. 1906 Vacuum tube invented. 1913 Henry Ford's assembly line begins production of automobiles."

Dickinson, John A. and Brian Young. Diverse Pasts, a History of Québec and Canada, Mississauga, Copp Clark, 1995, p. 190, 195. ▲

1.2 THE FIRST PHASE OF INDUSTRIALIZATION (CIRCA 1846–1896)

5) How did industrialization get started in Canada?

"Setting up a factory demanded capital and technological know-how. From the early 19th century onward, the acceleration of economic activity in Canada produced a class of entrepreneurs who accumulated capital, founded banks, and built ties with English and American capitalists. With the coming of Confederation, they controlled a market that provided an abundant supply of both labour and consumers. In terms of technology, Canada had the advantage of being able to borrow from Great Britain and the United States, two countries in the vanguard of industrialization with which it had especially close ties." [transl.] Charpentier, Louise, René Durocher, Christian Laville and Paul-André Linteau. Nouvelle histoire du Québec et du Canada, Anjou, Centre éducatif et Culturel, 1990, p. 233. ▲

6) Where did industrialization first take root in Canada, and why?

“It was in Montreal, in the late 1840s, that Canadian industry really got underway. The redesign of the Lachine Canal freed up the water resources necessary to operate the machines in the factories being established on its

McCord Museum of Canadian History, ClioClic Pedagogical Tool, 3rd Ed., April 2005 www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/clioclic 4 banks. The extension of Canada's territory, the building of the railways, specialization in agriculture and a protectionist trade policy gave further impetus to this movement. Little by little, factories appeared in the environs of Montreal: in Hochelaga, Saint-Henri, Valleyfield, Saint-Hyacinthe, and Saint-Jean, but also in the Eastern Townships and the Quebec City region. [transl.] Charpentier, Louise, René Durocher, Christian Laville and Paul-André Linteau. Nouvelle histoire du Québec et du Canada, Anjou, Centre éducatif et Culturel, 1990, p. 233. ▲

7) What were the major industries of Quebec during the second half of the 19th century?

"Food. This was the largest and most important industry in Quebec. It was highly diversified, including flour mills, sugar refineries, breweries, bakeries, and butter and cheese factories. Small and large enterprises coexisted. "Shoes. Shoemaking was the second largest manufacturing industry in Quebec at that time. This industry was radically transformed with mechanization. Quebec's factories dominated the Canadian market. Concentrations of large factories in Montreal and Quebec City provided jobs for thousands of workers. "Textiles. Everywhere, large cotton mills sprang up. They often employed thousands of people, including a considerable female workforce. By the end of the century, these companies were merging to form very large corporations. Clothing manufacturing was also important, but it tended to be organized differently, with much of the work done by women at home; as a result, it was dispersed among a large number of small companies. "Montreal was also a major producer of cigars and cigarettes, and this industry, too, employed women and children. These industries all had a common feature: they relied on abundant, poorly paid, unskilled labour. These light industries, the producers of consumer goods, tended to serve the local and Canadian markets, which were the most vital for Quebec industry as a whole. "In parallel with these industries was the development of what is called heavy industry, involving the processing of raw materials. An example was the steel industry, which produced and/or maintained such items as boilers, railroad track, nails and rolling stock (locomotives, wagons). The Grand Trunk and the Canadian Pacific established their shops in Montreal. They employed thousands of workers, many of them highly skilled: machinists, moulders, etc. Heavy industry constituted an essential dimension of Quebec's industrial structure.

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"To these industries may be added that of woodworking: the making of boards, boxes, barrels, doors, frames and so forth. The sawmills which dotted the landscape exported some of their production to the United States. "In the late 19th century, Quebec's process of industrialization was well underway, and by 1896 the value of manufacturing production exceeded that of agriculture." [transl.] Charpentier, Louise, René Durocher, Christian Laville and Paul-André Linteau. Nouvelle histoire du Québec et du Canada, Anjou, Centre éducatif et Culturel, 1990, p. 233-234.

PERCENTAGE OF QUEBEC MANUFACTURING PRODUCTION PRODUCED BY THE MAIN INDUSTRIES, 1870 AND 1890

Industries 1870 1890 Food 24,2 22,6 Tobacco 1,9 2,3 Leather 18,6 12,3 Textile 1,7 2,8 Clothing 7,6 8,9 Lumber 15,1 12,1 Pulp and Paper 0,7 1,5 Iron and Steel 4,1 5,0 Printing and Publishing 1,6 1,5 Rolling Stock 3,8 6,5 Other 20,7 24,5 Source: J. Hamelin and Y. Roby, Histoire économique du Québec, 1851–1896. [transl.]

Charpentier, Louise, René Durocher, Christian Laville and Paul-André Linteau. Nouvelle histoire du Québec et du Canada, Anjou, Centre éducatif et Culturel, 1990, p. 235. ▲

8) How did industrialization develop in the Maritimes?

"The Maritimes, too, showed signs of industrialization, though the trend was less pronounced than in the United Province of Canada. Of the few industrial establishments, the most important were in the shipbuilding industry, which was at its height in the mid-19th century. In the 1850s, an average of 374 ships a year emerged from the region's yards. Between 1860 and 1866, average annual production reached 470 ships. In the region's manufactures,

McCord Museum of Canadian History, ClioClic Pedagogical Tool, 3rd Ed., April 2005 www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/clioclic 6 however, the production volume never approached that of the United Province of Canada." [transl.] Couturier, Jacques Paul. L'expérience canadienne, des origines à nos jours, Moncton, Éditions d'Acadie, 1994, p. 160-161. ▲

9) What was the status of industrialization in the West?

"Only one large region of the British possessions remained untouched by the revolution sweeping over industry and transportation: the Pacific Northwest. During that era, the West was relatively uninhabited, its population consisting overwhelmingly of Indians plus a few fur traders and explorers. These territories were within the domain of the Hudson's Bay Company, which banned agricultural development in order to preserve the fur resources (…) At the far western extremity of the British territories was the small colony of Vancouver Island, founded in 1849, as well as the British Columbia region. Apart from forestry, which was essentially limited to tree felling and shipping, these young colonies showed hardly any appreciable industrial activity. The main exception was the 'Gold Rush,' leading in 1858 to the discovery of gold deposits by prospectors in the Fraser Valley." [transl.] Couturier, Jacques Paul. L'expérience canadienne, des origines à nos jours. Moncton, Éditions d'Acadie, 1994, p. 161. ▲

10) How was gold first discovered in British Columbia?

“Then, in late 1857, a Hudson’s Bay Company trader arrived in Fort Victoria. Along with his cargo of furs for the Company, he carried two vials filled with gold dust and some small nuggets that he had panned along the banks of the Thompson River. He presented these to Governor Douglas, who examined them one night at dinner. Douglas believed that news of another gold strike would unleash an influx of greedy miners into colony. His fear was borne out during the winter of 1857-58. Miners who had moved to Washington and Oregon after the California rush had ended moved north to the banks of the Thompson and Fraser rivers, and began prospecting for gold. Most discovered that the best sources for easily found gold were on the sandbars along both rivers.” Cranny, Michael et al. Horizons. Canada Moves West, Scarborough, Ont., Prentice Hall Ginn Canada, 1999, p. 217. ▲

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11) What were the first industrial and community-oriented activities of the Vancouver area?

“When colonel Moody arrived in New Westminster, it was clear that the Fraser River froze during winter months. He knew this was a problem―defending the colony required access to an ice-free harbour. He ordered three trails to be cut from New Westminster to Burrad Inlet. He also set aside land on the Inlet as military reserves, in case the British Government decided that the harbour needed protection. “In the early 1860s, Vancouver remained as it had been for thousands of years―the home of the Musqueam and Squamish peoples. By 1865, the area was changing. The Hastings Sawmill opened on the south side of the Inlet, and the company obtained timber rights to much of the southern peninsula. It eventually controlled some 19 000 acres. On the north side of the Inlet, Sewell Moody also opened a mill, in an area that is now North Vancouver. The mill and the surrounding community eventually became known as Moodyville at the time. Moody’s Mill began logging Lynn Valley, specializing in “tooth-picks,” for sailing masts. These were logs that were free of knots and that measured 21 metres long and 4 metres in diameter. Until the 1880s, trees were transported on greased log tracks that were called “skid roads” to tidewater. From here, they were floated to the two mills for processing. In 1868, colourful “Gassy Jack” Deighton arrived on the Inlet. Because Hastings Mill was officially dry, Gassy Jack opened a saloon about a kilometre-and-a-half away from the mill, much to the relief of the mill workers. Soon other saloons and stores appeared around Deighton’s saloon, and the little settlement, officially known as “Granville,” was known to all as “Gastown,” after its founder.” Cranny, Michael et al. Horizons. Canada Moves West, Scarborough, Ont., Prentice Hall Ginn Canada, 1999, p. 230-231. ▲

12) What role did the railways play in the industrialization of Canada?

"Although the 1840s were the heyday of canal construction in Canada, another form of transportation was already emerging. Steam engines rolling along iron tracks provided a good means of moving freight on a year-round basis. Railways were faster than boats and were not restricted to water routes. New engineering techniques in tunnel and bridge construction, such as those used to build the Victoria Bridge linking Montreal to the south shore of the St. Lawrence (…) gave the railway tremendous flexibility. In 1846,

McCord Museum of Canadian History, ClioClic Pedagogical Tool, 3rd Ed., April 2005 www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/clioclic 8 railways were chartered to join Montreal and Portland, Maine. This gave Montreal access to a port that was open year-round. "Railways were an important part of the transition to industrial capitalism. The need for railway equipment and rolling stock stimulated new forms of 'heavy' manufacturing, particularly in the steel sector. Railways opened up new areas for colonization that became important markets and sources of food for urban workers. Railways were also important to the forest regions. Along with steam-powered sawmills, they helped to provide the vast amounts of sawn lumber that were needed in the expanding American markets. The railway was also a centralizing influence and an important factor in Confederation. Railway construction demanded large amounts of capital, and foreign investors wanted security for their investment. It was the Canadian government that would guarantee the bonds of many Canadian railway companies and would offer land and subsidies to make bonds more attractive." Dickinson, John A. and Brian Young. Diverse Pasts, a History of Québec and Canada, Mississauga, Copp Clark, 1995, p. 196, 198.

"In 1867 Canada had only 3,644 km of railways. By 1900 this had risen to 28,251 km, and in 1914 to 49,272 km. The construction of the Grand Trunk Railways in the 1850s and 1860s was followed by the completion in 1885 of Canada's first transcontinental railway, the Canadian Pacific. Many feeder lines and two other transcontinental railways were built in the following years. These railways had an enormous impact on the growth of communities, on the development of manufacturing, and on markets and prices for farmers. "Railways were central to the economic development of Quebec. For this reason, Quebecers were as anxious as other Canadians to establish a favourable environment for railway promoters. The provincial government invested heavily in railways and gave railway builders enormous subsidies of Crown lands. More than half of the business of the provincial legislature from 1875 to 1878 concerned railways, and Quebec made financial commitments to railways far beyond those made in Ontario. "Within Quebec, the construction of a railway from Quebec City to Montreal and points west was a particular problem. Both Quebec City and Montreal wanted to be the eastern terminal and port for the Canadian Pacific Railway." Dickinson, John A. and Brian Young. Diverse Pasts, a History of Québec and Canada, Mississauga, Copp Clark, 1995, p. 234-236. ▲

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13) How was the location of the Canadian Pacific Railway terminus determined in British Columbia?

“Until the mid 1880s, there was little other activity on Burrard Inlet. In 1881, Port Moody (named after Colonel Moody), was designated as the terminus of the CPR. At once, the focus of activity shifted to the eastern end of the Inlet. Speculators quickly bought up land, and surveyed and sold lots, eager to cash in on the future metropolis. “In 1884, William Van Horne arrived in Port Moody to establish the exact location of the CPR terminus. To his dismay, he discovered that the harbour was made up of tidal flats. It could not possibly accommodate deep-sea vessels, which needed to dock, and load and unload cargo. He travelled further down the Inlet to Gastown, and found what he was looking for―a deep-water anchorage with an expanse of flat land ideal for rail yards. He named the site Vancouver. Of course, the Port Moody speculators were outraged, but there was nothing they could do. “In late 1885, the CPR was completed and the future townsite of Vancouver laid out. Now development could begin in earnest. However, on June 13, 1886, a spell of hot, dry weather suddenly made the land-clearing and the slash-burning extremely dangerous. A catastrophic fire levelled the new city in under an hour. Despite this setback, Vancouver was rebuilt quickly, and by the end of 1890, the new city had a population of more than 5000.” Cranny, Michael et al. Horizons. Canada Moves West, Scarborough, Ont., Prentice Hall Ginn Canada, 1999, p. 231. ▲

1.3 THE SECOND PHASE OF INDUSTRIALIZATION (CIRCA 1896–1936)

14) What is meant by the "second phase of industrialization"?

"Natural resource exploitation and electricity had a considerable impact on Quebec and Canadian society. Whole regions became industrialized, which worked a profound transformation in the living conditions of their inhabitants. The new wave of industrialization, based on natural resource processing, has often been referred to as a second industrial revolution. It was distinguished from the older industrialization arising in the second half of the 19th century, which was based on the production of consumer goods and equipment. But this first phase of industrialization did not die out in the early 20th century; on the contrary, it continued in full swing." [transl.] Charpentier, Louise, René Durocher, Christian Laville and Paul-André Linteau. Nouvelle histoire du Québec et du Canada, Anjou, Centre éducatif et Culturel, 1990, p. 275-276. ▲

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15) What major trends characterized Canada's economy at the turn of the 20th century?

"Canada's industry had the wind in its sails at the turn of the century. The growth of domestic markets stimulated the extraction of natural resources, which the land had in abundance. Ontario, Quebec and British Columbia became large producers of ore, lumber, wood pulp and hydroelectric power. These products drove the Canadian processing industries, thus augmenting the volume of exports to the United States. To facilitate the extraction of raw materials, it became necessary to improve the transportation system by building more roads, railways and ships. Consequently, heavy industry, a major consumer of raw materials, also benefited from the economic expansion. "The increasing, largely rural population of the West created new needs that Canadian industries hastened to fill (…). Each new colonist was a potential buyer of ploughing implements and basic consumer goods. In this context, tariff barriers proved to be very profitable for Ontario and Quebec industrialists, whose manufacturing sector had a long lead over its competitors in other parts of the country. Thanks to this, their central location on the railway network, and their more frequent use of advertising, they developed a national market for their products. "With the intensified exploitation of its abundant resources and the rapid growth of its population, Canada offered great potential to Canadian and foreign investors. The United States was soon the largest supplier of foreign capital, supplanting even Great Britain. The federal government, too, directly invested in the economy, and encouraged businesses to do likewise. And the provincial and municipal governments got into the act as well; for example, they attempted to attract industrialists by offering bonuses, subsidies and guarantees. This practice stimulated the creation of banks and financial institutions." [transl.] Couturier, Jacques Paul. L'expérience canadienne, des origines à nos jours, Moncton, Éditions d'Acadie, 1994, p. 239-240. ▲

16) What were some subsequent developments in the industrialization of Quebec?

"The first decades of the twentieth century were marked by industrial growth. In the nineteenth century, Quebec's industries had been based on cheap labour. At the beginning of the twentieth century, natural resources played an increasingly important role and led to the growth of many regions outside the main cities. With its many rivers, Quebec quickly became a major producer of hydroelectric power."

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Dickinson, John A. and Brian Young. Diverse Pasts, a History of Québec and Canada, Mississauga, Copp Clark, 1995, p. 270. "Everywhere, existing factories were expanding and new ones were being set up to meet the needs of a fast-growing population. Montreal, for example, which produced neither newsprint nor aluminum, saw its population grow appreciably, and it remained the main industrial hub of Quebec and Canada. Furthermore, its industrial structure was enriched with the addition of new sectors, such as electrical appliance manufacturing and petroleum processing." [transl.] Charpentier, Louise, René Durocher, Christian Laville and Paul-André Linteau. Nouvelle histoire du Québec et du Canada, Anjou, Centre éducatif et Culturel, 1990, p. 275-276. ▲

17) What role did the Maritimes and the West play in industrialization?

"Canada's industries (…) were concentrated in central Canada. As a result, the Maritimes and the West were forced into dependence: they developed as consumer markets and exporters of natural resources. These regions imported manufactured goods such as clothing and farm machinery, and processed food such as sugar while exporting their wheat, coal and fish. Much of the country's production was still exported (…). This was particularly true in Quebec, where the mining and pulp-and-paper industries grew rapidly." Dickinson, John A. and Brian Young. Diverse Pasts, a History of Québec and Canada, Mississauga, Copp Clark, 1995, p. 271. ▲

18) What type of energy was used in Quebec?

"The most spectacular example (of transformations in the natural resources sector) was that of electricity, which was being produced and distributed by the 1880s thanks to numerous American and European inventions. At first, electricity was generated by burning coal, but it was not long before people discovered that it could be done advantageously by using the power of waterfalls to turn turbines. Soon, construction began on large dams and hydroelectric power plants. Quebec, on the strength of its numerous rivers, rapidly became an important producer of this new form of power." [transl.] Charpentier, Louise, René Durocher, Christian Laville and Paul-André Linteau. Nouvelle histoire du Québec et du Canada, Anjou, Centre éducatif et Culturel, 1990, p. 275.

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"Quebec's growth during this period was largely a result of exploiting hydroelectric resources. Electricity was first used commercially at the end of the 1870s. As its uses for industries and urban-transport systems increased, bigger generating plants and turbines were needed. A power station was built at Niagara Falls in the 1890s, and the technology to transmit electricity 32 km to Buffalo, New York, was developed. "The Shawinigan Water and Power Company was established in 1898. The falls at Shawinigan, a lumber town on the Saint-Maurice River, had a drop of 41 m and were only 134 km from Montreal. With American capital, 1,800 daytime workers and 200 nighttime workers built the generating plant and the dam. (…) Aluminum, pulp and paper, and chemical plants were built around the site to use the cheap electrical power, and in 1902, the hydro lines reached Montreal." Dickinson, John A. and Brian Young. Diverse Pasts, a History of Québec and Canada, Mississauga, Copp Clark, 1995, p. 272-273. ▲

19) What was the role of the pulp and paper industry?

"Pulp and paper production was Canada's largest industry by 1925. Newsprint production tripled between 1913 and 1920, and then tripled again before 1929. Ninety percent of Canadian newsprint production was exported, largely to American newspaper markets. The pulp and paper mill at Chicoutimi (…) is a good example of how the industry developed. The mill was constructed in response to growing international markets and the development of new technology for using wood fiber in paper production. In addition to its huge spruce and poplar forests, the Saguenay-Lac Saint-Jean region was well suited to the pulp and paper industry because of its hydroelectric power sites, deep-sea shipping port, and railway connections to American markets. Started by a local entrepreneur, Alfred Dubuc, the Chicoutimi mill became part of the North American Pulp and Paper Company in 1915." Dickinson, John A. and Brian Young. Diverse Pasts, a History of Québec and Canada, Mississauga, Copp Clark, 1995, p. 273. ▲

"In the past, paper had been made from rags or plants, but the invention of grinders in the second half of the 19th century made it possible to use the wood from trees. After being ground, it was processed to make wood pulp. Newsprint, in particular, is made from the wood of the spruce tree, an abundant species in Quebec. The growth of the large US daily newspapers created strong demand for this type of paper, and to satisfy it, a number of companies, many of them American, built pulp mills in Quebec. These were

McCord Museum of Canadian History, ClioClic Pedagogical Tool, 3rd Ed., April 2005 www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/clioclic 13 located along watercourses in forested country, in parts of Quebec considered to be frontier regions. (…) "Pulp or paper mills were built in the Mauricie and the Saguenay–Lac-Saint- Jean regions, as well as in the Gaspé Peninsula, the Quebec City region, the Eastern Townships, the Ottawa Valley and Témiscamingue. They were now an integral part of the Quebec landscape. The same phenomenon occurred in other Canadian provinces, mainly Ontario, New Brunswick and British Columbia, but they never rivaled Quebec in terms of production volume. In this way, Canada became the world's largest exporter of newsprint." [transl.] Charpentier, Louise, René Durocher, Christian Laville and Paul-André Linteau. Nouvelle histoire du Québec et du Canada, Anjou, Centre éducatif et Culturel, 1990, p. 275-276. ▲

20) How did natural resource exploitation contribute to industrialization?

"Another key Quebec industry—aluminum smelting—had its beginnings in the province between 1900 and 1930. The basic raw material, called bauxite, was imported from Guyana. Processing this material into aluminum takes a lot of electricity, and for this reason, aluminum smelters were located near large waterfalls, in cities like Shawinigan and Arvida. Their construction also required large amounts of capital, which mostly came from the United States." [transl.] Charpentier, Louise, René Durocher, Christian Laville and Paul-André Linteau. Nouvelle histoire du Québec et du Canada, Anjou, Centre éducatif et Culturel, 1990, p. 275.

"As aluminum, copper, asbestos and nickel gained new importance in electrical, chemical and automobile production, the Canadian mining industry also expanded rapidly. Alcan, the major producer of Canadian aluminum, was founded as a Canadian branch plant of the Aluminum Company of America in 1902. The company helped to develop the massive hydroelectric resources of the Saguenay in the 1920s and built a refinery in its new company town of Arvida. By 1936 Alcan by then largely Canadian owned was the world's second-largest aluminum producer. "Canada's asbestos mines were located in the Eastern Townships at centres such as Thetford Mines (…). Asbestos production grew from over 36,000 tonnes in 1900 to almost 280,000 tonnes in 1929. Of this, 70 percent was exported to the United States, where asbestos fiber was used to manufacture fire-resistant cloth, roofing materials, paint, paper and brake linings.

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"Gold and copper mining in Quebec became of world importance in the 1920s as mines opened in the Abitibi region around Rouyn. The development of natural resources thus brought industry to rural areas (…)." Dickinson, John A. and Brian Young. Diverse Pasts, A History of Québec and Canada, Mississauga, Copp Clark, 1995, p. 274. ▲

21) What position did the forest industry occupy in the British Columbia economy?

“Nearly 45 percent of all wood logged in Canada is logged in British Columbia. The Western Mountains account for only 14 percent of Canada’s forested land, but 40 percent of Canada merchantable timber. The forest industry is the largest segment of British Columbia’s economy. Since the late 1800s, British Columbia wood has been shipped around the world. By the mid-1990s, the total value of all forest products exported from British Columbia was $1.5 billion. Logging and the manufacture of forest products provide more employment and contribute more value-added than other industrial sector in British Columbia. Today the industry employs about 30 000 people in jobs ranging from logging to furniture manufacturing. “[…] The forest industry has always followed the ups and downs of the economic cycle. It lays off workers when times are lean and the demand for housing and forest products goes down. It hires more workers when the economy is booming. Now, however, people are thinking of the industry and the forest itself in the long term, hoping that trees can be a resource for all time.” Cranny, Michael et al. Horizons. Canada Moves West, Scarborough, Ont., Prentice Hall Ginn Canada, 1999, p. 353. ▲

22) What was the impact of mechanization on agriculture at the start of the 20th century?

“Canadian farms were also being changed by technology. Labour-saving machinery was adopted by many large farms, and when the new devices were too expensive for individual farmers to own, families banded together and rented machines or shared the purchase cost. Gasoline tractors were becoming more common, and motorized threshers, reapers, and hay mowers made productivity skyrocket. A farmer could mow forty times as much hay in a day as his father could have, and he could harvest a bushel of wheat in 1 percent of the time. “Factories were also now part of the farming process. A generation before, items like dairy products and fruit were processed on the farm, usually by

McCord Museum of Canadian History, ClioClic Pedagogical Tool, 3rd Ed., April 2005 www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/clioclic 15 women. After the nineteenth century, these products were increasingly sent off to factories for processing and canning. By 1901, for example, 40 percent of Canadian cheese came from factories.” Newman, Garfield. Canada: a Nation Unfolding, Toronto, McGraw-Hill Ryerson, 2000, p. 49. ▲

2. URBANIZATION

2.1 THE GROWTH OF CITIES

23) What is meant by urbanization?

"At the time of Confederation, less than one-fifth of the Quebec population lived in cities; thirty years later the proportion surpassed one-third. Quebec's population remained predominantly rural, but it was becoming increasingly urbanized." [transl.] Charpentier, Louise, René Durocher, Christian Laville and Paul-André Linteau. Nouvelle histoire du Québec et du Canada, Anjou, Centre éducatif et Culturel, 1990, p. 240.

"Urbanization was undoubtedly the most salient phenomenon in Quebec at the start of the 20th century. In 1901, only 36% of the population lived in cities; thirty years later, that proportion had reached 60%." [transl.] Charpentier, Louise, René Durocher, Christian Laville and Paul-André Linteau. Nouvelle histoire du Québec et du Canada, Anjou, Centre éducatif et Culturel, 1990, p. 278. ▲

24) Why did people leave rural areas?

"Quebecers at the end of the 19th century were "footloose," but it was certainly not a matter of caprice. They were forced to move because of their economic situation. In some regions, agriculture was too marginal for many families to earn a living from it. All it took was one or two bad harvests to force an indebted farmer to sell his land and go into exile. In the older agricultural regions, there were too many children for the available land; when they reached adulthood, they had to look for another way to provide for themselves and their families. This explains the great rural exodus to the United States and the cities of Quebec, swelling the ranks of urban

McCord Museum of Canadian History, ClioClic Pedagogical Tool, 3rd Ed., April 2005 www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/clioclic 16 employment seekers. Between 1871 and 1901, the proportion of Quebecers living in cities rose from 20% to 36%." [transl.] Charpentier, Louise, René Durocher, Christian Laville and Paul-André Linteau. Nouvelle histoire du Québec et du Canada, Anjou, Centre éducatif et Culturel, 1990, p. 226. ▲

25) Why did cities offer increasing number of jobs?

“Population movements were stimulated by the brisk economic activity in the cities and the jobs it created. Industry strongly influenced this trend, since it tended to be located in urban areas. In fact, some factories preceded the cities themselves. Examples were the city of Shawinigan, which grew up around an electric company in the Mauricie; and Arvida, a company town built by an aluminum manufacturer. With their denser populations, cities at the start of the 20th century also needed an increasingly wide range of services, stepping up the demand for many service occupations. Garage mechanics, hairdressers, restaurant employees, teachers, secretaries and telephone operators all became more numerous, as did small merchants and salespeople." [transl.] Charpentier, Louise, René Durocher, Christian Laville and Paul-André Linteau. Nouvelle histoire du Québec et du Canada, Anjou, Centre éducatif et Culturel, 1990, p. 278. ▲

26) What accounted for the growth of Quebec cities in the 19th century?

"The growth of cities was fundamentally due to the development of industry. A large proportion of the new industrial jobs were held by immigrants or by Quebecers, both anglophone and francophone, who migrated from rural areas. "The phenomenon was particularly visible in Montreal, then the industrial hub of Canada. Within thirty years, its population more than doubled, growing from 107,000 in 1871 to 268,000 in 1901 (or 325,000 counting the suburbs). From 1830 on, when it outgrew Quebec City, Montreal became Canada's uncontested metropolis. The largest port and a major railway centre, Montreal boasted hundreds of factories. The population was predominantly working class, yet the country's most powerful businessmen lived there as well. It was also, in outward appearance, an English city, and yet French Canadians were more numerous, their share of the population having risen from 53% to 60%.

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"Quebec City's growth was slower; the population was just under 60,000 in 1871 and still below 70,000 in 1901. It was going through a difficult period; the decline of the lumber trade with England slowed activity in the port and caused the near-disappearance of the shipbuilding industry. The federal government's move to Ottawa deepened the void. Nonetheless, the arrival of new industries, particularly shoemaking, enabled Quebec City to retain a working population. "Industrialization was also evident in smaller cities such as Hull, Sherbrooke, Valleyfield, Saint-Hyacinthe, Saint-Jérôme and Magog. The largest of these had populations of only 11,000–14,000, but they bore witness to an important transformation in Quebec society." [transl.] Charpentier, Louise, René Durocher, Christian Laville and Paul-André Linteau. Nouvelle histoire du Québec et du Canada, Anjou, Centre éducatif et Culturel, 1990, p. 240.

POPULATION OF PRINCIPAL QUEBEC CITIES, 1871–1901 1871 1901 MONTREAL 107 225 267 730 QUEBEC CITY 59 699 68 840 TROIS-RIVIÈRES 7 570 9 981 SHERBROOKE 4 432 11 765 HULL 3 800 13 993 SAINT-HYACINTHE 3 746 9 210 VALLEYFIELD 1 800 11 055 Charpentier, Louise, René Durocher, Christian Laville and Paul-André Linteau. Nouvelle histoire du Québec et du Canada, Anjou, Centre éducatif et Culturel, 1990, p. 240. ▲

27) What accounted for the growth of Canadian cities in the 19th century?

"Numerous cities expanded with the arrival of the railway, or took advantage of railway development to consolidate their position in the economy. Montreal, for example, which was already the business and financial hub of British North America owing to its port installations, would extend its commercial influence over an increasingly larger zone following the arrival of the railway. The phenomenon of urbanization also affected cities less closely associated with the railway system. Saint John, New Brunswick, saw its population rise from 27,000 in 1840 to nearly 39,000 in 1861. The city benefited from the growth in shipbuilding and maritime transportation, in particular. As a result, the proportion of urban dwellers in the colonies as a

McCord Museum of Canadian History, ClioClic Pedagogical Tool, 3rd Ed., April 2005 www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/clioclic 18 whole went up from 13% in 1851 to 16% in 1861. On the eve of Confederation, the largest cities in British North America were Montreal, Quebec City, Saint John, Toronto, Halifax, Hamilton, Kingston, Ottawa and London." [transl.] Couturier, Jacques Paul. L'expérience canadienne, des origines à nos jours, Moncton, Éditions d'Acadie, 1994, p. 159. ▲

28) What are Vancouver’s origins and geography?

“Vancouver is the youngest major community in British Columbia. Virtually every other major centre got its start during the period of the fur trade or of the Cariboo Gold Rush. Burrard Inlet is not fed by a major river, and the peninsula on which Vancouver developed is covered by thick forest. During the fur-trading period and the Cariboo Gold Rush, these factors discouraged people from settling the area.” Cranny, Michael et al. Horizons. Canada Moves West, Scarborough, Ont., Prentice Hall Ginn Canada, 1999, p. 230. ▲

29) What were further factors in urban Canadian growth in the 20th century?

"Many colonists ultimately gave up the clearing of land for agriculture. Like the new arrivals, they opted to resettle in cities and work in factories, thus contributing to the vigour of urbanization and industrialization. These last two phenomena constitute another fundamental characteristic of Canada in the early 20th century." [transl.] Couturier, Jacques Paul. L'expérience canadienne, des origines à nos jours, Moncton, Éditions d'Acadie, 1994, p. 239.

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"The growth of four important Canadian cities is shown in the table [below]. This urban growth often came at the expense of rural areas and regions such as the Maritimes. After 1901, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island suffered the most from out-migration." GROWTH OF CITIES, 1896–1931 1896 1901 1911 1921 1931 MONTREAL 219 616 328 172 490 504 618 566 818 577 TORONTO 181 215 209 892 381 833 521 893 631 207 WINNIPEG 25 639 42 340 136 035 179 087 218 785 QUEBEC 63 090 68 840 78 710 95 193 130 594 CITY HALIFAX 39 500 40 832 46 619 58 372 59 275

"The number of Quebec cities with over 5,000 people doubled from ten in 1900 to 20 in 1930, Montreal dominated the province, with one-third of the population living on the Island of Montreal. The city added 200,000 people in the 1920s, giving it a population of over 1 million." Dickinson, John A. and Brian Young. Diverse Pasts, a History of Québec and Canada, Mississauga, Copp Clark, 1995, p. 285.

"The rise and concentration of industrial activity greatly contributed to the urbanization of Canadian society. The burgeoning manufacturing sector in the cities necessitated the hiring of a large number of workers. Following in the wake of the transportation industry, banks and commercial establishments proliferated. All over the country, urban areas were extending their influence over the surrounding regions, providing manufactured goods and services to rural residents. Montreal and Toronto, Canada's largest industrial cities, were both verging on populations of one- half million. Urban growth in the West, too, was spectacular. Winnipeg, Vancouver and Saskatoon underwent veritable demographic explosions. The urban population of Canada increased by 63% during the first decade of the 20th century. From 58 cities with populations over 5,000 in 1901, Canada had 90 in 1911." [transl.] Couturier, Jacques Paul. L'expérience canadienne, des origines à nos jours, Moncton, Éditions d'Acadie, 1994, p. 240.

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GROWTH OF THE POPULATIONS OF SELECTED CITIES, 1901–1911 POPULATION POPULATION GROWTH RATE CITY 1901 1911 (%) HALIFAX 40 832 46 619 14,2 SAINT JOHN 40 711 42 511 4,4 (N.B.) QUEBEC CITY 68 840 78 710 14,3 MONTREAL 328 172 490 504 49,5 OTTAWA 59 928 87 062 45,3 TORONTO 209 892 381 833 81,9 HAMILTON 53 634 81 969 55,7 WINNIPEG 42 340 136 035 221,3 REGINA 2 249 30213 1 243,4 SASKATOON 113 12 004 10 523,0 CALGARY 4 392 43 704 895,1 EDMONTON 4 176 31 064 643,9 VANCOUVER 27 010 100 401 271,7 Couturier, Jacques Paul. L'expérience canadienne, des origines à nos jours, Moncton, Éditions d'Acadie, 1994, p. 241. ▲

2.2 THE WORKINGS OF CITIES

30) How were cities organized in Quebec?

"Not only did the role of cities in the province change, but so did their organization and operation. [In the late 19th century], large cities had much more identifiable and distinctive neighbourhoods. In the metropolis, the private residences of Old Montreal gave way to new multistory commercial and administrative buildings. The wealthy commissioned magnificent homes on the slopes of Mount Royal, while working people settled near the factories. Population growth was so explosive that it spread beyond the bounds of the city, giving birth to suburban towns like Hochelaga, Saint- Jean-Baptiste, Sainte-Cunégonde or Saint-Henri. In Quebec City, commercial buildings were erected in the old lower town (near the port), while the new neighbourhood of Saint-Sauveur filled up with French Canadian workers." [transl.] Louise Charpentier, René Durocher, Christian Laville and Paul-André Linteau. Nouvelle histoire du Québec et du Canada, Anjou, CEC, 1990, p. 240-241. ▲

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31) What kinds of problems did 19th century cities confront?

"The increase in the urban population created new problems to which solutions had to be found. A small fire could spread rapidly and leave hundreds of families out in the street. Volunteer firemen were overextended; municipalities responded by creating permanent fire departments, which were divided into a number of stations. Aqueducts were built, both to support firefighting and to ensure a supply of fresh water for Montrealers. These systems took the place of the itinerant water sellers, who had wheeled their product through the streets in horse-drawn barrels. "Fires were one scourge that Montrealers had to contend with; floods were another. The waters of the Saint Lawrence regularly overflowed their banks, inundating the streets near the port. The 1886 flood, the worst on record, spurred the authorities to build dykes in order to protect the city." [transl.] Charpentier, Louise, René Durocher, Christian Laville and Paul-André Linteau. Nouvelle histoire du Québec et du Canada, Anjou, Centre éducatif et culturel, 1990, p. 241. "In the cities, hygiene was lacking. Garbage was thrown out in the street or piled up in people's yards. In 1876, the city of Montreal established a health bureau and took various measures to regulate sanitary conditions. In 1886, the Legislative Assembly passed a law establishing a provincial hygiene council and requiring municipalities to form local health bureaus. Nevertheless, in 1896, Montreal still had more than 5,000 dwellings with only outhouses for sanitation." [transl.] Allard, Michel, Katy Tari and Guy Vadeboncoeur. Fenêtres sur l'histoire, (software application), Montreal, Micro-Intel, 1994. ▲

32) What kinds of public services did cities offer?

"With the development of cities, municipal authorities instituted a range of public services to meet basic needs. In such densely populated areas, policing too became a necessity. Water, sewer, gas, electricity, public transport, police and fire services all came into being in the latter half of the 19th century. For example, 1852 saw the construction of a new aqueduct in Montreal. In 1854, Quebec City inaugurated its water and sewer department, while in 1866, its first fire brigade was set up following a major fire that ravaged the neigbourhoods of Saint-Roch and Saint-Sauveur. In 1878, the first commercial telephone went into service in Montreal. That year, the city used electric lighting for the first time in Canada. By the following year, several streets were lit. In 1880, the Bell Telephone Company was founded. Montreal's first telephone directory was published. In 1886, electric lighting replaced gas. Urban life was becoming more

McCord Museum of Canadian History, ClioClic Pedagogical Tool, 3rd Ed., April 2005 www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/clioclic 22 organized and regulated, and the well-being of citizens as a whole underwent a corresponding improvement. However, it is worth mentioning that many of the public services were operated by private companies. The cities merely regulated and purchased services as needed." [transl.] Allard, Michel, Katy Tari and Guy Vadeboncoeur. Fenêtres sur l'histoire, (Software), Montreal, Micro-Intel, 1994. ▲

33) How was urban transit organized?

"Most city dwellers got around on foot; only the richest could afford the services of a coachman or own their own horse. With urban expansion, organized public transit came into being. The first streetcars, appearing in Montreal and Quebec City in 1861, were pulled on rails by horses. Electric streetcars would not make their appearance until 1892." [transl.] Charpentier, Louise, René Durocher, Christian Laville and Paul-André Linteau. Nouvelle histoire du Québec et du Canada, Anjou, Centre éducatif et culturel, 1990, p. 242. "In Canada (at the start of the 20th century), 46 urban centres had streetcar lines. Cities of Quebec with such systems included Montreal and Quebec City and their surrounding municipalities, as well as Hull, Lévis, Sherbrooke and Trois-Rivières." […] "(In Montreal) the electric streetcars inaugurated in 1892 favoured the expansion of the suburbs, since they allowed people to live further away from their places of work without having to travel long distances on foot." [transl.] Charpentier, Louise, René Durocher, Christian Laville and Paul-André Linteau. Nouvelle histoire du Québec et du Canada, Anjou, Centre éducatif et Culturel, 1990, p. 279.

"Electric streetcar lines, to which Montreal added bus service in 1925, brought new forms of urban life. Industrial zones expanded along the Lachine Canal to the west, along the port to the east, and along boulevard Saint-Laurent and the CPR tracks to the north. Near these zones, working- class communities like Verdun, Rosemont and Maisonneuve (…) grew rapidly." Dickinson, John A. and Brian Young. Diverse Pasts, a History of Québec and Canada, Mississauga, Copp Clark, 1995, p. 287. ▲

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34) How did urban planning become an object of concern?

"As cities grew, administrators across Canada became concerned about urban ugliness and unhealthiness. In the 1890s, architects and city planners of the City Beautiful movement were developing building code, zoning regulations, and plans for grand parks and public buildings. In 1904, Percy Nobbs, a professor of architecture at McGill University, explained how he thought the city should develop: “Every street in the city should be made as beautiful as it can be, and every building, as far as possible, should cohere with the general plan; then we will have a beautiful city and not otherwise; it is not merely by erecting a fine structure here and there that you will make any great improvement. Or even laying out a little bit of park, although that may be an item; the construction of the city throughout should be made as beautiful as it can be!" Dickinson, John A. and Brian Young. Diverse Pasts, a History of Québec and Canada, Mississauga, Copp Clark, 1995, p. 285.

"Although urban residents were never very far from the country in the 1880s (…), rapid urbanization created the need for better planning. Developing a park on Mount Royal and incorporating parks into the industrial community of Maisonneuve to the east of Montreal were two answers to ensuring that cities had sufficient green space. "Large urban parks were an essential part of the City Beautiful movement. As cities became larger, dirtier and more spread out, planners became concerned about recreational facilities for citizens. The outdoors became important even in winter (…). At the same time, developers could increase their profits by building expensive homes on attractive sites around parks. "As older parks such as the one on Île Sainte-Hélène became overcrowded, city fathers turned to the top of Mount Royal. The sides of the mountain were already occupied by McGill University, the city waterworks, the Hôtel-Dieu hospital, and dozens of estates belonging to the wealthy. However, about 175 hectares of forested land remained at the top of the mountain, and in the 1870s, after purchasing the land for $1 million, the city hired Frederick Law Olmsted to design a park. Olmsted, North America's leading landscape architect, had laid out Central Park in New York. He wanted Mount Royal to remain 'natural' and to serve a social purpose: It is a great mistake to suppose that the value of charming natural scenery lies wholly in the inducement which the enjoyment of it presents to a change of mental occupation, exercise and air-taking. Beside and above this, it acts in a more directly remedial way to enable men to better resist the harmful influences of ordinary town life, and recover what they lose from them. It is

McCord Museum of Canadian History, ClioClic Pedagogical Tool, 3rd Ed., April 2005 www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/clioclic 24 thus, in medical terms, an agent of vital value; there is not one medicine in the drugstore as important to the health and strength or to the earning and tax-paying capacities of a large city. And to the mass of the people it is practically available only through such means as are provided through parks." Dickinson, John A. and Brian Young. Diverse Pasts, a History of Québec and Canada, Mississauga, Copp Clark, 1995, p. 287. ▲

35) What were Montreal's distinctive features among Canadian cities?

"Montreal: The urban hub of Québec and Canada. "Urban growth did not take place at the same pace throughout the territory. In fact, Montreal outpaced all the other cities. Furthermore, it was surrounded by many small municipalities, most of which it annexed at the turn of the century. The electric streetcars inaugurated in 1892 favoured the expansion of the suburbs by allowing people to live further from their places of work without having to travel long distances on foot. In 1931, the population of Montreal, with suburbs, was over one million. The large banks and the companies operating Canada-wide had their headquarters there. Although the majority of the population (about 60%) was of French origin, the metropolis was also home to a significant minority of British origin (more than a quarter of the population), who dominated the business world. "Montreal, 'the world's second largest French-speaking city,' also had an English face, which was particularly visible in its signs. It also became much more cosmopolitan, with Chinese laundries, Jewish shops and Italian parish halls attesting to its growing ethnic diversity. "The unique character of Montreal gave the Quebec urban fabric some particular qualities." [transl.] Charpentier, Louise, René Durocher, Christian Laville and Paul-André Linteau. Nouvelle histoire du Québec et du Canada, Anjou, Centre éducatif et Culturel, 1990, p. 279.

"In 1915, Montreal was served by three major railway companies: the Canadian Pacific, the Grand Trunk and the Canadian Northern. Numerous lines linked the metropolis to all the major North American cities." [transl.] Charpentier, Louise, René Durocher, Christian Laville and Paul-André Linteau. Nouvelle histoire du Québec et du Canada, Anjou, Centre éducatif et Culturel, 1990, p. 281.

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"A guidebook published in 1915 explained the growth of Montreal in the following terms: “This phenomenal development can in large part be ascribed to the unique status of the city. Other cities on this continent have comparable railway facilities; others take advantage of internal navigation; other industrial centres double as seaports; but no other city has such a favorable combination of these three advantages. Montreal can thus process raw materials and ship manufactured products with greater ease than any other city on the North American continent. Today, Montreal produces 16% of Canada's manufactured goods and pays 17% of total industrial wages." (Montreal, Old, New, 1915.)” [transl.]

Charpentier, Louise, René Durocher, Christian Laville and Paul-André Linteau. Nouvelle histoire du Québec et du Canada, Anjou, Centre éducatif et Culturel, 1990, p. 281. ▲

36) How did towns neighbouring Montreal develop?

"At the opposite end of Montreal from Maisonneuve, the city of Verdun developed along the St. Lawrence between the river and the Lachine Canal. In 1893 it was a village of 300 people; fifteen years later its population of 8,000 had cement sidewalks, an aqueduct, a theatre, and electric streetcar connection to Montreal. People worked in factories along the Lachine Canal; in World War I an important munitions plant was built in Verdun (…)." Dickinson, John A. and Brian Young. Diverse Pasts, a History of Québec and Canada, Mississauga, Copp Clark, 1995, p. 287. ▲

37) What was it like to live in Barkerville, in British Columbia, in the 1860s?

“The largest town in the Cariboo was Barkerville, situated on the western edge of the Cariboo Mountains. It was named after Billy Barker, a sailor from Cambridgeshire, England, who struck gold in 1862. Barkerville grew up almost overnight, and was a case of “growth via word of mouth.” Barkerville grew as fast as word of Barker’s strike spread. His claim would eventually yield 1100 kilograms of gold. “[…] At first, the town consisted only of makeshift cabins and tents. By the mid-1860s, however, Barkerville had a population of approximately 5000 people―it was the largest town north of San Francisco and west of Chicago. Even though its population was transient and largely dependent on mining, Barkerville was becoming less of a service town and more of a real

McCord Museum of Canadian History, ClioClic Pedagogical Tool, 3rd Ed., April 2005 www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/clioclic 26 community. It had several general stores and boarding houses, a drugstore that also sold newspapers and cigars, a barbershop that also cut women’s hair, the “Wake-Up Jake Restaurant and Coffee Saloon,” a theatre (the Theatre Royal), and a literary society (the Cariboo Literary Society). Horse racing and prize fighting were common entertainments. Among the so-called “sober set,” church services were extremely well attended.” Cranny, Michael et al. Horizons. Canada Moves West, Scarborough, Ont., Prentice Hall Ginn Canada, 1999, p. 222-223. ▲

3. LIVING CONDITIONS

3.1 PORTRAIT OF THE POPULATION

38) What were the basic features of society around 1850?

"Diversity was undoubtedly the dominant trait of colonial societies in the 1850s. All things considered, it is incorrect to speak of a colonial society in British North America but rather several colonial societies. In terms of size, for example, a wide gap separated the small colony of Prince Edward Island, (pop. 63,000) from the huge United Province of Canada (pop. 1,800,000). Similarly, there was not much in common, from an ethnic or religious perspective, between the eastern section of the United Province, essentially French Canadian and Catholic, and the western section, Anglo-Saxon and Protestant. Despite their fundamental differences, the colonial societies of that century shared two overarching characteristics, in differing degrees. First, they harboured significant class divisions that limited social mobility; and second, they were societies in motion, with people coming and going in the hope of improving their lot." [transl.] Couturier, Jacques Paul. L'expérience canadienne, des origines à nos jours, Moncton, Éditions d'Acadie, 1994, p. 163. ▲

39) What were the main socioeconomic groups making up society around 1850?

"Generally speaking, the colonial societies of the period were stratified, which means that they were divided into social classes on the basis of occupation and personal fortune. At the top of the social pyramid sat a small group of privileged individuals. This class comprised the wealthy industrialists, businesspeople and professionals. Such individuals were active in forestry, shipping, the railways and nascent industry in general, and enjoyed a very high standard of living. They set the tone for the economic development of

McCord Museum of Canadian History, ClioClic Pedagogical Tool, 3rd Ed., April 2005 www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/clioclic 27 the colonies, in particular through the influence they wielded within their governments. "In the middle of the social pyramid were the members of certain professions, the more successful farmers, the local merchants and the prosperous tradespeople… these people were relatively well-off but not really immune to reversals of fortune. Under them in the social hierarchy were the day labourers; that is to say, the majority of the population. Finally, relegated to the margins of society were the destitute, the handicapped, the Indians, the prostitutes and so forth." [transl.] Couturier, Jacques Paul. L'expérience canadienne, des origines à nos jours, Moncton, Éditions d'Acadie, 1994, p. 163-164. ▲

40) How was the status of Canadian men and women different in 1850?

"Standard of living and occupation were not the only determinants of a person's social class. If one other key factor must be singled out, it was gender: women were always considered inferior to men, and in fact, were not even considered people under the law! They did not enjoy the same legal rights and employment possibilities as men. Married women had no standing before the courts, and could not start their own business; their husbands held absolute control over the family's income. In the realm of politics, women were disenfranchised: they could not vote in elections of the Legislative Assembly. Some of them had even held this right previously but had lost it during the preceding decades. Still, women were able to wield some political influence; for example, by signing petitions." [transl.] Couturier, Jacques Paul. L'expérience canadienne, des origines à nos jours, Moncton, Éditions d'Acadie, 1994, p. 164. ▲

41) Was there racial discrimination in Canada in the second half of the 19th century?

"Another equally pernicious criterion of social stratification was that of ethnicity or race. The Irish, although white and English-speaking, were often discriminated against and confined to the lower socioeconomic echelons due to their ethnicity, which was associated with Catholicism. Discrimination against Blacks and Indians was even more overt. The case of Indians was special, in that their inferior status was spelled out in the Indian laws in force in the 1850s. In the United Province of Canada, for example, these laws specified who was an Indian and what his or her legal standing was. The civil rights of native peoples were limited; notably, they did not have the

McCord Museum of Canadian History, ClioClic Pedagogical Tool, 3rd Ed., April 2005 www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/clioclic 28 right to vote. The only way for them to become full-fledged citizens was to renounce the Indian culture and way of life. Land ownership, too, was out of bounds for most natives. The land on the reserves was proclaimed to be Crown property, i.e. owned by the government. For Indians to become landowners on a reserve, they had to give up their status. And native women's rights were particularly restricted. An Indian woman who married a non-Indian lost her status, while an Indian man who married a non-Indian kept his, and his spouse acquired Indian status. "Blacks, too, held inferior status in the British colonies, although the law had nothing to do with it. In theory, nothing prevented them from asserting their rights as full-fledged citizens, which had indeed been their legal status since the abolition of slavery. The institution of slavery was officially banned throughout the Empire in 1834, but had been in decline anyway in British North America since the end of the 18th century. But the reality was that Black people were disadvantaged because of their socioeconomic status, as well as societal prejudices about their colour and their slave heritage. Whether descendants of the first slaves under the French regime, Loyalists fleeing the American Revolution, or slaves on the run from the United States, whether they lived in the Maritimes or Western Canada, Black people represented a supply of cheap labour. Largely employed as day labourers, they remained on the margins of society, excluded from the white churches, the white schools…" [transl.] Couturier, Jacques Paul. L'expérience canadienne, des origines à nos jours, Moncton, Éditions d'Acadie, 1994, p. 164-165. ▲

42) What were the major Canadian population movements during the 19th century?

Another major trait present in British North American societies to differing degrees was geographic mobility. In the mid-19th century, millions of people were changing their place of residence. There were immigrants arriving in North America in great numbers during the 1840s and 1850s, many of them of Irish origin. Some 352,000 people immigrated to the colonies between 1851 and 1861 (…). It should be said, though, that a large number of British colonials chose to leave the territory; in fact during the same period some 170,000 emigrated, mainly to the United States. "Of the emigrants from the colonies, a good number were Europeans in transit for the United States in any case; many more, however, were descendants of long-established colonial families. French Canadians, in particular, began to leave Eastern Canada at the start of the decade due to the dearth of agricultural land. Nearly 6,000 emigrated in the 1850s to find work in the factories of the northeastern states. And, with the years, the

McCord Museum of Canadian History, ClioClic Pedagogical Tool, 3rd Ed., April 2005 www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/clioclic 29 trickle became a flood: some 200,000 French Canadians emigrated between 1862 and 1871. The same phenomenon was occurring in much of the Maritimes during the same period. "Significant population movements were also occurring within the boundaries of British North America. People moved because circumstances or the context forced them to do so, or simply to improve their situation. The region most affected by internal mobility was Western Canada (…). The phenomenon was also widespread in the older colonized areas, where demographic pressures and land scarcity induced people to head for new frontiers, other cities of the province, or the United States. All sectors of the economy were affected. People who left for the cities and their industries contributed to the formation of a working class and an urban proletariat." [transl.] Couturier, Jacques Paul. L'expérience canadienne, des origines à nos jours, Moncton, Éditions d'Acadie, 1994, p. 166-167. ▲

43) What were the reasons for the rise in Acadian nationalism in the 19th century?

“The school question of the 1870s … fosters in many Acadians a new awareness of the situation of their people not only in the field of education, but also with respect to politics and culture. As a minority living in all four corners of New Brunswick, the Acadians are poorly represented in politics; they have few educational institutions and only one newspaper, Le Moniteur acadien, which begins publishing in 1867. Furthermore, even though the Acadians represent the majority of the Roman Catholics in the province, the Irish hold the most prominent positions in the Church. And the latter community makes no bones about its ambition to assimilate the Acadians.” [transl.] Couturier, Jacques Paul. L’expérience canadienne, des origines à nos jours, Moncton, Éditions d’Acadie, 1994, p. 225.

▲

44) What were the signs of the rise in Acadian nationalism in the 19th century?

“Over the next few decades [after the 1870s], the Acadians experience remarkable demographic, cultural and political growth. The percentage of the Acadian population in New Brunswick increases from 17.5 per cent in 1871 to 28 per cent in 1911. New institutions of higher learning and new newspapers

McCord Museum of Canadian History, ClioClic Pedagogical Tool, 3rd Ed., April 2005 www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/clioclic 30 are set up in various Acadian communities. In addition, the Acadians become more actively involved in political parties and in government. “Such advances lead to an increase in nationalist sentiment among the Acadians, who begin speaking out, notably at the several large conventions held around the turn of the century. Organized by lay leaders, in particular Pierre-Amand Landry, and by members of the clergy, these large gatherings hone the collective consciousness of the Acadians. The delegates discuss the economic, political and cultural problems they face and adopt several symbols representing their community and their adherence to it. At the first convention, held in Memrancook in 1881, a national holiday is named. In Miscouche, in 1884, a flag and national anthem, written by Monseigneur Marcel-François Richard, are adopted. After the convention in Arichat in 1900, the Acadians begin a long battle against the domination of the Catholic Church by the Irish. In 1912, after numerous appeals to Rome, the first Acadian bishop is named. “Until the First World War, the Acadians focus on developing and strengthening their institutions. They are supported in their efforts by the religious orders, which are instrumental in setting up schools (including boarding schools), community colleges and hospitals. The Acadians found several farm organizations that help members update their farming methods and diversify their production. Finally, they create an important social and economic tool: the Société l’Assomption. This mutual aid society, and source of insurance for members, provides numerous Acadians with a degree of financial security.” [transl.] Couturier, Jacques Paul. L’expérience canadienne, des origines à nos jours, Moncton, Éditions d’Acadie, 1994, p. 225-227. ▲

45) What are the landmarks in the advancement of the Acadian people between 1864 and 1914?

1864 Opening of first Acadian classical college, Collège Saint-Joseph, in Memramcook (NB) 1867 Founding of the Moniteur acadien, the region's first French-language newspaper 1875 Riot in Caraquet over the Common Schools Act of 1871 1878 Nomination of Pierre-Amand Landry to the New Brunswick Cabinet; he is the first Acadian to hold such a post 1881 First “National Convention” of the Acadians, in Memramcook (NB); naming of August 15 as the national holiday 1884 Second “National Convention” of the Acadians, in Miscouche (PEI); choosing of a national anthem and a flag

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1885 Founding of the Courrier des provinces maritimes, in Bathurst (NB) 1887 Founding of L’Évangéline, in Digby (NS) 1890 Opening of Collège Sainte-Anne, in Pointe-de-l’Église (NB) 1893 Launch of L’Impartial, in Tignish (PEI) 1899 Founding of Collège du Sacré-Cœur, in Caraquet (NB) 1903 Setting up of the Société l’Assomption, in Massachusetts (USA) Publication of Histoire du Canada en 200 leçons, by Philéas-F. Bourgeois 1912 Nomination of the first Acadian bishop, Monseigneur Édouard Leblanc, as the head of the diocese of St. John. (NB) 1913 Launch of the newspaper Le Madawaska, in Edmundston (NB) [transl.] Couturier, Jacques Paul. L’expérience canadienne, des origines à nos jours, Moncton, Éditions d’Acadie, 1994, p. 227. ▲

46) Where did the first wave of gold seekers into British Columbia come from?

“Word reached San Francisco in early 1858. Soon, hundreds of unemployed miners were trying to book tickets on any ship that would take them north. The first ship to arrive at Fort Victoria was the side-wheel steamer Yosemite. Some 450 miners disembarked on April 25, 1858. “Almost immediately, they moved on to the mainland. The miners had to be creative about getting across the Strait of Georgia―some even used makeshift rafts. More ships arrived as the year progressed. By the end of the summer, more than 10 000 miners―mostly Americans―were working on the Fraser River.” Cranny, Michael et al. Horizons. Canada Moves West, Scarborough, Ont., Prentice Hall Ginn Canada, 1999, p. 217. ▲

47) Who worked on the roadway leading into the Cariboo region in British Columbia?

“Before construction of the Cariboo Road, the oldest trails along the Fraser Canyon had belonged to the Native peoples. Those who knew these trails intimately―and had often escorted miners to the goldfields―also helped to build the Cariboo Road. Although European construction workers always got the first jobs, by 1862, gold prospecting had caused a labour shortage. Contractors working under the Royal Engineers began hiring Chinese immigrants, as well as workers from the aboriginal nations. Eventually,

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Chinese immigrants would comprise approximately one-third of miners working in the Cariboo region.” Cranny, Michael et al. Horizons. Canada Moves West, Scarborough, Ont., Prentice Hall Ginn Canada, 1999, p. 221. ▲

48) What social position did Chinese immigrants occupy in Barkerville, in British Columbia?

“Chinese immigrants were an important part of Barkerville life for almost a hundred years. They established a number of businesses, including the Kwong Lee Company, a general store that sold groceries, clothing, hardware, and mining tools. The Kwong Lee Company also had other stores in other parts of British Columbia, but the Barkerville store was one of the most impressive in town. “The Chinese community also built cabins for Chinese miners, where they saved money by sharing four or five to a cabin, and Tai Ping (the “Peace Room”), the equivalent of a modern nursing home.” Cranny, Michael et al. Horizons. Canada Moves West, Scarborough, Ont., Prentice Hall Ginn Canada, 1999, p. 223. ▲

3.2 LABOUR AND TRADE UNIONISM

49) What were life and work like for city dwellers at the turn of the 20th century?

"In 1891, approximately 30% of Canadians lived in urban areas; in 1911, this proportion was more than 40%. As cities industrialized and expanded, they became the points of concentration for practitioners of every trade, for people of all income levels and every origin, whether a nearby region or a faraway country. The development of urban transit enabled the middle and upper classes to migrate out of the downtown areas and settle in well-off suburbs, far from the congestion and pollution. At the other extreme, various downtown neighbourhoods and factory districts were home to the working classes, for whom living and working conditions were generally unacceptable. The result was that large cities became increasingly divided from a social point of view." [transl.] Couturier, Jacques Paul. L'expérience canadienne, des origines à nos jours, Moncton, Éditions d'Acadie, 1994, p. 243. ▲

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50) Who were the factory workers of Quebec?

"Irish people, forced by poverty and famine to leave their country, arrived in Lower Canada en masse in the first half of the 19th century. They settled overwhelmingly in Montreal and Quebec City, where they found work as day labourers and stevedores, and came to comprise a large proportion of workers in Quebec's nascent industries. But early on, thousands of French Canadian men, women and children, too numerous in the countryside, also entered the industrial workforce. "In industries such as iron and steel that required skilled labour (workers with a specialized trade), British immigrants were very often the workers of choice. But when unskilled labour was needed, French Canadians were hired in large numbers. In the tobacco and textile industries, for instance, thousands of women, children and adolescents were employed, earning wages much lower than those paid to the men." [transl.] Charpentier, Louise, René Durocher, Christian Laville and Paul-André Linteau. Nouvelle histoire du Québec et du Canada, Anjou, Centre éducatif et Culturel, 1990, p. 236.

"In 1891, of the 117,389 industrial workers—representing nearly one-third of the active population of Quebec—there were 22,898 women and 9,555 children or adolescents under the age of 16. In certain factories, it was not uncommon to find children under 12 at work. As a labour inspector wrote at the beginning of the 20th century: 'But what to do for the poor children, the boys of twelve and girls of fourteen, who must rise at six o'clock in the morning for breakfast and be ready to work by seven, only to labour all day until six o'clock in the evening, with just one hour for lunch?” [transl.] Charpentier, Louise, René Durocher, Christian Laville and Paul-André Linteau. Nouvelle histoire du Québec et du Canada, Anjou, Centre éducatif et Culturel, 1990, p. 236. ▲

51) How was factory work organized toward the end of the 19th century?

"Industrial work was increasingly being done in very large factories occupying multistory buildings, each employing hundreds or even thousands of people. These factories were divided into departments, which were responsible for different stages in the production process." [transl.] Charpentier, Louise, René Durocher, Christian Laville and Paul-André Linteau. Nouvelle histoire du Québec et du Canada, Anjou, Centre éducatif et Culturel, 1990, p. 236.

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"In the transition to industrial production, the nature of work changed. Independent artisans such as shoemakers had once performed all of the tasks in producing their products. In industrial production, the artisan was increasingly replaced by an unskilled worker who did not own his or her tools and who did a specialized job in making one part of the product. In the case of a large shoe manufacturer, the worker used the owner's sewing machine to stitch shoes. [There has been a] transformation in the scale of the production, the work site, and the tools." Dickinson, John A. and Brian Young. Diverse Pasts, a History of Québec and Canada, Mississauga, Copp Clark, 1995, p. 190. ▲

52) Could people work at home?

"[Toward the end of the 19th century,] some of the work in the clothing industry was done at home. An entrepreneur known as a jobber would distribute pieces of fabric to dozens of women and girls, who would assemble them in their homes. For this work, the women received a pittance—from $0.50 to $3.00 for a week's work." [transl.] Charpentier, Louise, René Durocher, Christian Laville and Paul-André Linteau. Nouvelle histoire du Québec et du Canada, Anjou, Centre éducatif et Culturel, 1990, p. 236-237. ▲

53) What characterizes workplace in the early 20th century?

“The Canadian workplace in 1900 was in the midst of great changes. While many workers were still working in primary industries – fishing, farming, forestry, and mining – most were employed either in factories or in the fastest-growing area of the economy, the service sector. […] “The other growth area in the economy was the service sector, the group who serve other workers and the public. A whole range of jobs existed in the service sector, such as taxi driver, letter carrier, railroad porter, bank teller, accountant, salesperson, and cleaner. Clerical work emerged as one of the biggest growth areas in the service sector. General office workers and bookkeepers were replaced by telephone operators, filling clerks, stenographers, accountants, and secretaries. Office work was transformed by inventions such as the telephone, the typewriter, and a new filing system called the Hollerith punch-card machine.”

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Newman, Garfield. Canada: a Nation Unfolding, Toronto, McGraw-Hill Ryerson, 2000, p. 49. ▲

54) What were factory working conditions like?

"Working conditions in general were hard. Most unskilled workers could not earn enough to support their families, and had to send their children to work at an early age. The work week ranged from 60 to 72 hours. Job security was far from guaranteed, since entrepreneurs would lay workers off whenever they saw fit. Within the factory, foremen imposed rigorous discipline—even children could be beaten. Workers were subjected to fines of all sorts, which cut even further into their meager wages. What is more, health and safety conditions were often deplorable, and accidents were all too frequent." [transl.] Charpentier, Louise, René Durocher, Christian Laville and Paul-André Linteau. Nouvelle histoire du Québec et du Canada, Anjou, Centre éducatif et Culturel, 1990, p. 237.

"During the 1880s, a royal commission studied working conditions in Canadian industry in preparation for labour reforms. Théophile Charron, a fourteen-year-old Montreal cigar maker, testified at the hearings. Q. You began working at 11 years? A. Yes sir. Q. What did you get during your apprenticeship? A. One dollar a week for the first year; $1.50 for the second; $2.00 for the third. Q. Did you have to pay any fines during your apprenticeship? A. Yes sir. A good number. Q. How many hours did you work a day? A. Sometimes ten hours, other times eight hours; just as they liked. Q. Were you ever licked? A. Yes; not licked so as any harm was done me, but sometimes they would come along and if we were cutting one leaf wrong, they would give us a crack on the head with the fist." Dickinson, John A. and Brian Young. Diverse Pasts, a History of Québec and Canada, Mississauga, Copp Clark, 1995, p. 248. ▲

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55) What was the status of unskilled workers in society?

“The growth of industrialization in Canada created a demand for unskilled labour. Men and women often tended machines for ten to twelve hours a day. Besides the monotony, workers had to endure hazardous and uncomfortable working conditions. Factory owners paid little attention to worker safety or to washroom facilities, and regular rest breaks were unknown. For workers, injury on the job meant time off without pay―or even dismissal.” Cranny, Michael et al. Horizons. Canada Moves West, Scarborough, Ont., Prentice Hall Ginn Canada, 1999, p. 269. ▲

56) How did workers react to these conditions toward the end of the 19th century?

"Little by little, in response to these hard realities, workers banded together in associations to demand better working conditions. Until 1872, trade unions were prohibited under the Criminal Code, and they were forced to operate in a manner akin to secret societies. But their star would soon rise. Many of the first Quebec unions were US-based organizations, such as the Knights of Labour, founded in the United States in 1869. In the 1880s, the Knights played a certain role in raising the consciousness of Quebec workers, but could not marshal the resources necessary to counterbalance the power of the bosses. "The majority of the unions were structured around a skilled trade, such as shoemaking, typesetting, cigar-making or carpentry. They were often affiliated with similar unions in the United States, and for this reason bore the names of international unions. In 1896, the international unions merged to form the first modern union federation of North America: the American Federation of Labor. In Canada, this organization's affiliated unions formed the Trades and Labour Congress of Canada (TLCC). Thus, Quebec and Canadian unionism were strongly influenced from abroad. "When the first unions attempted to bargain for better working conditions with the bosses, they met with fierce resistance. The bosses refused to recognize the unions, claiming that they would only talk to each worker individually. As a result, strikes became an increasingly frequent pressure tactic. At first, strikes were the result of spontaneous actions by workers, and sometimes led to outbreaks of violence, to which the army responded with repression. With better organization by the unions, subsequent strikes had more success, particularly when they concerned skilled workers who were difficult to replace." [transl.]

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Charpentier, Louise, René Durocher, Christian Laville and Paul-André Linteau. Nouvelle histoire du Québec et du Canada, Anjou, Centre éducatif et Culturel, 1990, p. 237-238. ▲

57) What labour-related measures did the government adopt in the second half of the 19th century?

“In Quebec, the Factories Act, adopted in 1885, limits the work week to 60 hours for women and children and 72½ hours for men. It makes it illegal to hire girls younger than 14 and boys younger than 12 without the authorization of their parents. It calls for the appointment of inspectors to ensure the enforcement of the law and to supervise health and safety conditions in factories. But because only three inspectors are appointed for all of Quebec, business owners can easily get around the law. “For its part, the federal government, after removing from the Criminal Code anything that might affect the organizing of unions, agrees several years later to set up a royal commission to investigate labour-capital relations. This commission provides workers a means to voice their grievances and their demands, but fails to produce any concrete action.“ [transl.] Charpentier, Louise, René Durocher, Christian Laville et Paul-André Linteau. Nouvelle histoire du Québec et du Canada, Anjou, Centre éducatif et Culturel, 1990, p. 233. ▲

58) What were the results of the Royal Commission study on relations between capital and labour?

“In 1886, the federal government created the Royal Commission on the Relations of Capital and Labor. The commission’s report, tabled in 1889, listed a number of recommendations that led several provinces, such as Ontario and Quebec, to regulate relations between employers and their employees. Aware of the growing strength of the trade union movement, the federal government established a Department of Labour in 1900 for the purpose of settling disputes between bosses and workers. In addition, it adopted a law in 1907 providing for labour dispute arbitration in the public service. This piece of legislation represented the first step towards recognition of the right to collective bargaining, or the legal obligation of employers to negotiate with the representatives of workers.” […] [transl.] Couturier, Jacques Paul. L’expérience canadienne, des origines à nos jours, Moncton, Éditions d’Acadie, 1994, p. 247-248. ▲

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59) What were working conditions like for the working class in the early 20th century?

"A worker's life was not an easy one. In the first decades of the 20th century, the normal factory work week was sixty hours: ten hours a day, Monday to Saturday. Gradually, the work week was cut back: workers succeeded in winning Saturday afternoons off and in shortening their daily work schedules. Workplace health and safety were highly deficient, with poor ventilation and numerous accidents. "Workers at the turn of the century had no notion of job security: Work was irregular, unemployment a common predicament. Dock workers and construction workers, whose industries were seasonal, could expect to be unemployed all winter long. Wages were generally extremely low; only highly skilled workers were in a position to bargain for more. Women and adolescents generally earned a pittance, much less than men. Most families needed more than one wage earner to make ends meet. Some male heads of households held a second job. Women who stayed home took in boarders or sewing to earn some extra income. By age 13 or 14, most adolescent boys and girls would be working and bringing home almost all their pay to their parents. "There was no employment insurance nor social security for people who became jobless. Families in need had to fall back on charity organizations like the Société Saint-Vincent-de-Paul." [transl.] Charpentier, Louise, René Durocher, Christian Laville and Paul-André Linteau. Nouvelle histoire du Québec et du Canada, Anjou, Centre éducatif et Culturel, 1990, p. 290. ▲

60) What was the reason for the influx of women into the service sector at the start of 20th century? “Service-sector jobs were increasingly given to women as the economy expanded. At the time it was said that women were more suited to these tasks because they were better at handling detail and had nimble hands that were efficient in the constant use of the new machines. Behind these reasons, however, was a more important one: women could be paid much less than men.”

Newman, Garfield. Canada: a Nation Unfolding, Toronto, McGraw-Hill Ryerson, 2000, p. 49. ▲

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61) How did unions operate in Quebec at the start of the 20th century?

"The emergence of unions enabled workers to improve their status by bargaining with employers for better working conditions. Still, unionized workers remained in the minority, never composing more than 10–15% of the labour force during this period. "There were two major types of trade union federations in Quebec: those affiliated with the large international unions based in the United States, and those that grouped together domestic, i.e., strictly Canadian unions. Most of these latter were affiliated with the Catholic Church. "The Canadian federation of union locals affiliated with the international union was called the Trades and Labour Congress of Canada (TLCC). The Catholic unions, for their part, represented a new phenomenon. In the 1880s, the Catholic bishops were opposed to unionism; but faced with the strength of the movement, they finally accepted it. However, they objected to French Canadian workers becoming members of international unions, which had no religious affiliation. Instead, they proposed the creation of strictly Canadian, Catholic unions. Such unions were founded in many cities, especially outside of Montreal, and in 1921 they joined in a federation, the Confédération des travailleurs catholiques du Canada (CTCC). "The turn of the century was a period of vigorous growth for the union movement. Numerous unions were created in almost every city. Powerful strikes captured the public's imagination. Labour activism even found expression in political action. A worker's party was founded in Montreal and managed to get a few candidates elected. However, in the 1920s, the union movement went through a period of relative stagnation." [transl.] Charpentier, Louise, René Durocher, Christian Laville and Paul-André Linteau. Nouvelle histoire du Québec et du Canada, Anjou, Centre éducatif et Culturel, 1990, p. 290-291. ▲

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62) What was the pattern of trade union growth in Canada?

Growth of International Trade Unionism in Canada, 1880–1902 Number of Union Groups in

PROVINCE 1880 1890 1897 1902

ONTARIO 42 147 192 615-635

QUEBEC 10 30 47 111-116

NEW BRUNSWICK 0 12 17 43

NOVA SCOTIA 0 10 13 46-50

MANITOBA 0 11 17 48

BRITISH COLUMBIA 0 25 27 137-139

TERRITORIES (ALBERTA, 0 5 7 27-30 SASKATCHEWAN AND YUKON) PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND 0 0 0 9

TOTAL 52 240 320 1 036- 1 070

[transl.] Couturier, Jacques Paul. L'expérience canadienne, des origines à nos jours, Moncton, Éditions d'Acadie, 1994, p. 247. ▲

3.3 QUALITY OF LIFE

63) How did the smallpox epidemic affect native people in the 1860s in British Columbia?

“[…] (In 1862) an outbreak of smallpox started outside of Victoria and spread to other parts of the colony. Smallpox was a dreaded disease in Europe, and one that affected the settlers and miners. For the Native peoples of the Americas, it was almost always fatal―they had never been exposed to it before, and had no immunity to it. It is estimated that after European contact, smallpox was responsible for the deaths of more than 70 percent of all aboriginal peoples.

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“Following the outbreak in Victoria, the authorities responded swiftly but misguidedly. Homes of the Native peoples were destroyed, and the occupants were ordered to leave Victoria. As they travelled up the coast, they infected other Native peoples. By summertime, smallpox had reached the Native communities in the northern part of the colony. “The effect was devastating. Whole villages began to die, and survivors scattered into the hinterland. With no one left to perform burial rites, corpses rotted in the abandoned villages, and travellers along the coast reported the scene to the press. Among the Haida of the Queen Charlotte Islands, the effect of smallpox was perhaps the most pronounced. More than 80 percent of the Haida died that summer, and villages that had existed for thousands of years became ghost towns. Along the entire coast, it is estimated that over half of a total population of some 60 000 people died of the disease in 1862. “Unscrupulous―or ignorant―European traders and prospectors compounded the tragedy. They collected blankets and other possessions from the dead and sold these to other Native communities. The smallpox virus can live for more than six months in contaminated clothing, and so the recipients of these goods quickly contracted the disease. During 1863, even more aboriginal peoples died of the disease inland. “Among the Chilcotin, the smallpox epidemic was a catalyst for rebellion. Their traditional land overrun by road construction and unwelcome influx of American and European miners―who also disturbed their salmon weirs (a fenced-in stream for easier salmon fishing)―they staged a brief war in 1864. Smallpox survivors attacked several labourers as they were building a railway right-of-way from the coast to the interior. Eventually, five Chilcotin were tried and executed for their role in the uprising.” Cranny, Michael et al. Horizons. Canada Moves West, Scarborough, Ont., Prentice Hall Ginn Canada, 1999, p. 221. ▲

64) What were urban health and hygiene conditions like in the late 19th and early 20th centuries?

"Life in the city was far from paradise, particularly in working-class neighbourhoods. A number of contemporary observers remarked on the fact that many dwellings were poorly heated and ventilated, and had neither running water nor indoor toilets. Sanitary conditions were inadequate, and epidemics frequent. Mortality was high, especially among young children, many of whom did not survive to their first birthday. For many working families, low wages or unemployment meant that decent lodgings, healthy food and medical services were out of reach." [transl.]

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Charpentier, Louise, René Durocher, Christian Laville and Paul-André Linteau. Nouvelle histoire du Québec et du Canada, Anjou, Centre éducatif et Culturel, 1990, p. 242. "In each major city, workers were concentrated in disadvantaged neighbourhoods, where misery and poverty were generalized. In Montreal and Toronto, for example, most workers lived in boarding houses or dilapidated apartment buildings with no yards. An average five-person family typically lived in a one- or two-room apartment, which was often damp, poorly ventilated and lit, and mostly unfurnished. Open sewers were the norm. Overpopulation was an acute problem. In Toronto, rapid growth caused a housing shortage, forcing many families to share an apartment, or to take shelter in shacks or tents; some had no better option than a wooden or cardboard box on the street. These conditions were conducive to the propagation of diseases, resulting in high infant mortality." [transl.] Couturier, Jacques Paul. L'expérience canadienne, des origines à nos jours, Moncton, Éditions d'Acadie, 1994, p. 243-244. ▲

65) Was pollution a concern at the turn of the 20th century?

“Along with industrialization came a problem that can take on considerable dimensions: air pollution, caused by the toxic or sickening fumes emitted from factory chimneys. Here is what Mr. Joseph Lessard, a Quebec government official, wrote in an 1896 report: “Public health and factory smoke: here is a matter to which our attention has been drawn more than once. It is regrettable to see how in Montreal, where the urban agglomeration continues to spread, industrialists, unconcerned with their interests, and ignorant of public health regulations, dump enormous quantities of smoke into the atmosphere; to such an extent that on these hot days, offices, stores, private homes, schools, and hospitals are, in the vicinity of such factories, obliged to close their windows to keep out the fumes." [transl.] Charpentier, Louise, René Durocher, Christian Laville and Paul-André Linteau. Nouvelle histoire du Québec et du Canada, Anjou, Centre éducatif et Culturel, 1990, p. 243. ▲

66) What was the spatial dimension of social inequality?

"The great differences in income and social class were reflected in the social landscape of Montreal [in the early 1900s]. The rich lived on the terraces above Sherbrooke Street, while the working classes also had specific neighbourhoods. The Irish lived near the Lachine Canal and Grand Trunk Railway yards in Point St. Charles. Newer immigrants settled along Boulevard Saint-Laurent. While some Francophones settled in Western areas like Saint-

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Henri, most lived east of the old city between the waterfront industries and the Canadian Pacific Angus yards. In the parish of Saint-Pierre-Apôtre near the Molson Brewery, 89 percent of the population was French Canadian. Here the church played an important role in providing social and educational, as well as spiritual, support." Dickinson, John A. and Brian Young. Diverse Pasts, a History of Québec and Canada, Mississauga, Copp Clark, 1995, p. 293.

"Social inequalities also had a spatial dimension: each group had its own neigbourhoods, with radically different housing and environmental conditions (…) On the one hand there were districts with wide avenues, lovely trees, parks and luxurious homes; on the other, slums with badly maintained streets, long rows of multifamily houses, and no trees or greenspace." [transl.] Charpentier, Louise, René Durocher, Christian Laville and Paul-André Linteau. Nouvelle histoire du Québec et du Canada, Anjou, Centre éducatif et Culturel, 1990, p. 282.

"Here is a description of two Montreal neighbourhoods, written in 1897 by Herbert Brown Ames, industrialist, philanthropist, and partisan of social reform. 'The city above the hill' is the home of the classes. Within its well-built residences will be found the captains of industry, the owners of real estate, and those who labor with brain rather than hand. Here in predominating proportion reside the employing, the professional and the salaried classes. The manual worker in this district is indeed rare, the home of the poor cannot there be found. It is the exclusive habitat of the rich and the well-to- do. 'The city below the hill,' on the other hand, is the dwelling place of the masses. Here it is the rich man that one finds it difficult to discover. Salaried and professional men are not entirely lacking, but even when to their number are added the shop-keepers and hotel men, these together represent but 15 percent of its population. 'The city below the hill' is the home of the craftsman, of the manual wage-earner, of the mechanic and the clerk, and three-quarters of its population belong to this, the real industrial class. This area is not without its poor, and, as in other cities, a submerged tenth is present with its claims upon neighborly sympathy. Most of the residents of the upper city know little and at times seem to care less regarding their fellow-men in the city below. To many of the former, the condition of the latter is as little known as that of the natives in Central Africa." [transl.]

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Charpentier, Louise, René Durocher, Christian Laville and Paul-André Linteau. Nouvelle histoire du Québec et du Canada, Anjou, Centre éducatif et Culturel, 1990, p. 284. ▲

67) How did infant mortality rates vary from one class to another?

"Differences in the quality of the environment have an impact on public health. This can be seen by comparing the infant mortality rate among different neighbourhoods of Montreal.

INFANT MORTALITY RATES IN MONTREAL AND SUBURBS, 1922 (in 0/00) Upper-class municipalities or neighbourhoods Saint-André 48,6 Saint-Georges 43,9 Westmount 55,1 Outremont 57,0 Working-class municipalities or neighbourhoods Saint-Henri 212,9 Sainte-Anne 182,4 Sainte-Marie 213,8 Papineau 195,7 Source: From T. Copp, The Anatomy of Poverty: the Condition of the Working Class in Montreal.” [transl.] Charpentier, Louise, René Durocher, Christian Laville and Paul-André Linteau. Nouvelle histoire du Québec et du Canada, Anjou, Centre éducatif et Culturel, 1990, p. 285. ▲

68) In the 19th century, who was responsible for education?

“The family is the primary social institution in the colonies throughout the 19th century. The churches are also very influencial in social life. However, with industrialization and the subsequent emergence of the working class, the State gradually becomes more involved in the social realm, in particular, in the field of education.” [transl.]

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Couturier, Jacques Paul. L’expérience canadienne, des origines à nos jours, Moncton, Étions d’Acadie, 1994, p. 171. ▲

69) What role did organized religion play in education in the 19th century?

“During this period, education and religion are closely linked. Until the 1840s, the colonies, in creating their informal systems of schools, had allowed the founding of separate schools based on religious denomination. The members of the various religious denominations want their children to receive instruction that conforms to their beliefs. The denominational schools, in which religious instruction plays an important role, are financed both by contributions from parents and by government grants, which are distributed based on various funding formulas. Higher education is almost completely dominated, in all of the colonies, by organized religion. “However, the existence of these separate schools poses certain problems. Because many communities are made up of several religious denominations, the number of schools begins to multiply, resulting in an increase in the resources channelled to them and consequently in the cost. In some areas, the size of the population and low government revenues cannot support the full range of religious diversity of society. In addition, many people, especially those in Canada West, believe that separate schools foster intolerance and religious conflict within the school system. Finally, with the expansion of industrialization after the middle of the century, education gradually takes on a new role, that of instilling in individuals the qualities needed for the fulfillment of their duties as Christians, of course, but also as members of the community.” [transl.] Couturier, Jacques Paul. L’expérience canadienne, des origines à nos jours, Moncton, Éditions d’Acadie, 1994, p. 172. ▲

70) What was the role of the State in the realm of education in the 19th century?

“Because of (…) criticism, the separate school system finds itself increasingly under attack in the colonies after the 1840s. The State sets out to undermine the power of the Catholic Church in the realm of education and throws its support behind a public, rather than a denominational, school system. The colonial governments set up and fund public schools, that is, schools theoretically accessible to everyone and whose costs are fully covered by the State, or, more precisely, by tax revenues. These actions lead to great upheaval, providing fodder for a lengthy debate, notably between Roman Catholics and Protestants, on the role of religion in schools.” [transl.]

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Couturier, Jacques Paul. L’expérience canadienne, des origines à nos jours, Moncton, Éditions d’Acadie, 1994, p. 171. ▲

71) What measures did the provincial governments take with respect to education at the end of the 19th century?

“Beginning in the 1870s, some provincial governments limit or abolish religious instruction in the schools, to appease the increasingly strident demands of Protestant voters as well as to modernize their education systems. Roman Catholics, for whom religious instruction is synonymous with cultural survival, engage in a bitter fight against this abrogation of what they believe to be their constitutional rights. In addition, the debate begins to change focus, the religious dimension giving way over the years to a linguistic one. Nonetheless, the conflict over the school question goes on for several decades, directly affecting the majority of the population: first in New Brunswick, then in Manitoba, in the Northwest Territories and, finally, in Ontario. This conflict results in many headaches for the federal government, in particular the administration of the French-Canadian prime minister, Wilfrid Laurier.” [transl.] Couturier, Jacques Paul. L’expérience canadienne, des origines à nos jours, Moncton, Éditions d’Acadie, 1994, p. 219. ▲

72) What different viewpoints did the issue of school financing raise in the 19th century?

“Section 93 of the British North America Act guarantees to minorities the educational and religious rights that they had been accorded by the provinces. This protection is extended to the people of Manitoba upon the creation of that province in 1870. However, in the provinces where the majority is Protestant, most people oppose the use of public funds for religious instruction, especially when it comes to Catholic instruction. Most Protestants believe that religious education is solely the responsibility of churches and parents, and that the State must remain neutral by providing funding only to schools that do not teach religion and are not tied to any one religious denomination. Roman Catholics, however, continue to support the notion of denominational schools financed by the State and offering moral and religious education. Their commitment is strengthened by the fact that, in the eyes of French Canadians, language and religion go hand in hand. Defending the place of religion in schools therefore means defending the place of language.” [transl.] Couturier, Jacques Paul. L’expérience canadienne, des origines à nos jours, Moncton, Éditions d’Acadie, 1994, p. 219-220.

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▲

73) What characterizes the development of the school system in Quebec in the late-19th and early-20th century?

"After 1801, important school laws were passed in Lower Canada, and these offered financial help to communities that opened schools. Until the 1840s, however, the local community was not obliged to educate its children in formal schools. Many rural communities resisted the taxation, state authority and loss of control over their children that accompanied education. Many priests opposed a school system that reduced their authority in the local community. "In 1845-46, education acts established the structure of Quebec education for the next century. Two state-aided systems - Protestant and Roman Catholic - were set up. The state played less of a role in education in Lower Canada than it did in Upper Canada, although it did influence school taxes, teacher training and textbooks. A lot of control over the schools was given to Protestant and Catholic authorities. "Beyond elementary school, the classical college dominated Catholic education. These residence schools, taught largely by clerics, emphasized a general education with a strong basis in Greek, Latin, religion and mathematics. The student body was dominated by sons of merchants, doctors and lawyers. The Université de Laval was founded in 1852 with faculties of theology, law, arts and medicine. "The Montreal High School was built in 1843. Like Stanstead College (established 1817), Bishops College (established 1837), and St. Johns School, which became Lower Canada College in 1909, the Montreal High School was founded to prepare Protestant boys for professional careers in such areas as medicine and law. Scottish influence on the school was stronger than English; this gave it an emphasis on the sciences as well as on classical subjects. Many of the school's graduates went on to McGill University, which had medical, arts and law faculties by the 1850s. Women were admitted to many American universities in the 1860s and in 1875 Mount Allison University in New Brunswick awarded a degree to a woman. McGill's first class of women graduated in 1888, while Laval did not admit women until 1910. "Religious orders such as the Frères des écoles chrétiennes and the Congrégation Notre-Dame provided teachers for the Roman Catholic system. In 1853, 11 percent of the teachers in Catholic schools were clerics; by 1887 this had risen to 48 percent.

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"Schools spread rapidly across Quebec after 1845, and the literacy rate rose. By 1861, 65 percent of Quebec adults could read. This was also the period when higher education was developed. "The church played an important part in the lives of Canadians at this time. Protestant communities established places of worship throughout the colony. Anglophone Catholics, however, sometimes had to fight to get their own church, as 'A Petition for an English-Catholic Church' shows." Dickinson, John A. and Brian Young. Diverse Pasts, a History of Québec and Canada, Mississauga, Copp Clark, 1995, p. 202-206. ▲

74) What characterizes the development of the school system in the Acadian communities of New Brunswick in the 19th century?

“Schools financed by parents and by the Church are few and far between in the first half of the 19th century. Young Acadians receive at most a rudimentary education from the itinerant school teachers who travel from village to village giving their lessons. Then, in the 1850s and 1860s, the number of teachers and schools serving the French-speaking population increases, largely as a result of the dedication of Catholic priests and religious orders, as well as the financial assistance of friends in Canada East and France. The first Acadian institution of higher learning, the Collège Saint- Thomas, is erected in Memramcook in 1854; it is the culmination of years of work by Father François-Xavier Lafrance. That institution is replaced in 1863 by Collège Saint-Joseph, under the direction of Father Camille Lefebvre.” [transl.] Couturier, Jacques Paul. L’expérience canadienne, des origines à nos jours, Moncton, Éditions d’Acadie, 1994, p. 171. ▲

75) What was urban recreation like at the turn of the 20th century?

"Without television, radio or the movies, people had to amuse themselves. They played the fiddle, carved wood, painted, embroidered, sculpted, sang and danced. Fiddling was the chief form of folk music in Canada. Singing relieved the drudgery of work or the loneliness of being away from home. "People kept their family traditions alive by telling stories (…)." Dickinson, John A. and Brian Young. Diverse Pasts, a History of Québec and Canada, Mississauga, Copp Clark, 1995, p. 249.

"Expanding public transportation (in the early 1900s) gave workers access to new kinds of leisure. Many of these workers had other interests than the

McCord Museum of Canadian History, ClioClic Pedagogical Tool, 3rd Ed., April 2005 www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/clioclic 49 greenery on Mount Royal and the principles of the City Beautiful movement. On their day off, they wanted music, food and drink for themselves and their families. Sohmer Park was in the east end near the docks, railways, smokestacks and Molson's Brewery. Instead of vistas it featured freak shows, puppets, wheelbarrow contests, classical concerts, industrial exhibitions, beer and food. While Mme. Juez Palmer could pick up 200 pounds (about 91 kg) with her teeth, the greatest hero of Sohmer Park was strongman Louis Cyr." Dickinson, John A. and Brian Young. Diverse Pasts, a History of Québec and Canada, Mississauga, Copp Clark, 1995, p. 287-288. ▲

4. WORLD WARS

4.1 WORLD WAR I

76) The First World War is said to have affirmed Canada as a nation in its own right. Why?

“Canadians were asked to dedicate everything, including their lives, to the war effort. By the end of the war, Canada was bleeding badly on both the battlefield and the home front. In front 1914, Canadians had willingly entered the war as a part of the British Empire. By 1918, the sacrifices made by all Canadians ― from the battlefields to the wheat fields and from the diplomatic tables to the operating tables ― had earned Canada the right to stand as a nation on its own.” Newman, Garfield et al. Canada: a Nation Unfolding, Toronto, McGraw-Hill Ryerson, 2000, p. 76.

“The outbreak of the war in 1914 at first unified the country. Many Canadians- particularly those of British origin- volunteered and fought bravely in Europe. Trench warfare was horrible (…) and casualties were high. In one attack in April 1915, 60 percent of the men in a Canadian division were killed or wounded in a single day. In another day’s fighting at the Somme in 1916, the Canadian contingent of 77 000 was ordered to advance part of the line 1 km. This was done at the expense of 24 000 casualties.” Young, Brian and John A. Dickinson. Diverse pasts, a History of Québec and Canada, Toronto, Copp Clark Ltd., 1995, p. 263. ▲

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77) What explains Canada’s patriotic spirit at the start of the First World War?

“When Laurier had declared that the twentieth century belonged to Canada, he imagined the nation enjoying an economic boom as “the jewel in the crown” of the British Empire. It was, therefore, not surprising that news of the outbreak of war was greeted by cheering Canadians who demonstrated their patriotism by pouring out into the night, jubilantly waving their handkerchiefs and hats. Military experts planned on a quick victory, in which the loser ―Germany― would pay the costs. Almost everyone expected a short war and thought the troops would be home by Christmas. Some soldiers would be killed, they knew, and others would suffer severe wounds; but most would have a glorious adventures to talk about for the rest of their lives.” Newman, Garfield et al. Canada: a Nation Unfolding, Toronto, McGraw-Hill Ryerson, 2000, p. 75. ▲

78) What is military propaganda?

“Propaganda is a word used to describe the process of persuading people to believe in a certain idea or set of ideas. In the First World War, propaganda was used to persuade young men and women to join the Armed Forces, to influence how people at home felt about the war and Germany, and to help the Union government with the 1917 federal election. Enlistment posters could fire up the imagination of young people and make them eager to join the Armed Forces.” Hundey, Ian M. and Michael L. Magarrey. Canadian History 1900-2000, Toronto, Irwin Publishing, 2000, p. 95.

“Most posters produced by the government in World War I served one of four purposes: (i) to encourage young men to enlist; (ii) to convince Canadians to buy Victory Bonds to help finance the war; (iii) to encourage Canadians to be thrifty and conserve food; and (iv) to urge Canadians to contribute to the Patriotic Fund, which provided assistance to the families of men fighting overseas.” Newman, Garfield et al. Canada: a Nation Unfolding, Toronto, McGraw-Hill Ryerson, 2000, p. 95.

“I enlisted in the 106th Battalion because my oldest brother wore the uniform of an officer in this unit. I joined up at a recruitment assembly at Big Bras d’Or School (…). I think I did it mostly to be brave. I became somebody (although just a boy of 18) by enlisting in front of members of the

McCord Museum of Canadian History, ClioClic Pedagogical Tool, 3rd Ed., April 2005 www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/clioclic 51 community. This feeling was inspired by war propaganda and it spread across the land, even into rural areas. I remember one time someone coming to our home and my mother hanging a portrait of a soldier with a passage from Robert Burns: ‘For gold the merchant ploughs the main / The farmer ploughs the manor / But glory is the sodger’s prize / The sodger’s wealth is honor.’ It was clever propaganda. It became an emotional affair. Patriotic and inspiring. And I’d say that everyone felt it the same way - all of Cape Breton, in any event. Everybody joined up, and about half ended up being killed.” [transl.] Testimonial of H.L. Livingstone, soldier from Cape Breton, as quoted by Couturier, Jacques Paul. L’expérience canadienne, des origines à nos jours, Moncton, Les Éditions d’Acadie, 1994, p. 282. ▲

79) Who opposed conscription?

“To many English Canadians, anything less than complete commitment to the war was unthinkable and unacceptable. They believed that if able-bodied Canadian men did not volunteer for service, they should be forced to serve. Borden knew that bringing in military conscription would touch off an outcry in Quebec. Since many Quebeckers had refused to volunteer, what would happen if they were forced to join the armed forces? Borden was convinced, however, of the need for more Canadian soldiers. On May 18, 1917, he stood up in the House of Commons to announce a new policy of conscription. “All citizens are liable for the defence of their country,” he said, “and I conceive that the battle for Canadian liberty and autonomy is being fought on the plains of France and Belgium.” The Military Service Bill introduced a month later in the House of Commons.” Newman, Garfield et al. Canada: a Nation Unfolding, Toronto, McGraw-Hill Ryerson, 2000, p. 94.

“(…) I don’t recognize the right of any government to impose mandatory service in an imperial war. (…) I will not accept conscription, whether voted on or imposed by government decree. I will hang or be shot, but I will always demand, before conscription, elections and a referendum (a question put to popular vote).” [transl.] Armand Lavergne, journaliste nationaliste Canadien-français, as quoted by Jean- François Cardin, Raymond Bédard and René Fortin. Le Québec: héritages et projets, Laval, Éditions HRW, 1994, p. 318. ▲

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80) What were the practical contributions of Canadians at the front?

“Admittedly, the soldiers of the Canadian Expeditionary Force made up a small part of the overall allied forces. Nevertheless, they took part in several major battles, at first under British command and later under Canadian command. Their first true test in battle took place at Ypres in the winter of 1915 where they were exposed to a new offensive weapon developed by the Germans: poison gas. Canadian troops also won recognition in the Battle of the Somme in 1916 by partially consolidating Allied positions at a cost of 24,000 soldiers, dead or wounded. In the Battle of Vimy Ridge in 1917, Canadian military intervention proved decisive. This Allied offensive, led by the Canadian Expeditionary Force, succeeded in breaking through enemy lines to capture a German position that had been deemed impregnable.” [transl.] Couturier, Jacques Paul. L’expérience canadienne, des origines à nos jours, Moncton, Les Éditions d’Acadie, 1994, p. 274.

“From a military perspective, Canada made a considerable effort by enlisting approximately one-half million men, sixty thousand of whom were killed on the battlefields of Europe. In April 1915, Canadian troops took part in their first major battle at Ypres in Belgium. Quickly recognized for their endurance, Canadian soldiers were sent into the fray on several occasions as shock troops. Their most significant victory took place at Vimy, France, in April 1917.” [transl.] Louise Charpentier et al. Nouvelle histoire du Québec et du Canada, Montréal, CEC, 2e édition, 1990, p.272. ▲

81) How would the everyday life of the Canadian soldier at war be described?

“The Canadian forces spent the winter of 1914 in tents on the windswept Salisbury Plain in southern England. It was the wettest winter in memory, and the plain was a sea of mud. Every morning, soldiers hung their blankets up in the rain to wash out the caked mud. They were always wet, cold, and hungry, and rations were short. The soldiers were lucky to get porridge and tea for breakfast, and leftover porridge and a bit of meat stew for supper.” Newman, Garfield et al. Canada: a Nation Unfolding, Toronto, McGraw-Hill Ryerson, 2000, p. 83. ▲

4.2 WORLD WAR II

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82) What main industries benefited from economic renewal?

“The Canadian economy went full throttle during the war years, to the point where the gross national product would double between 1939 and 1945. Of course, the manufacture of military equipment represented the first industry sector to benefit from the economic upswing. Throughout the war, approximately sixteen thousand planes, sixty-five thousand tanks, one million guns and a few thousand cargo and warships were delivered from the nation’s factories. Additionally, heavy industry profited from the economic expansion due to a growing demand for base materials such as iron and steel. The agricultural sector also benefited from a bullish market, just as the civil service did from the widening of its mandate to administer state affairs, the range and scope of which would continue to grow.” [transl.] Couturier, Jean-Paul and Réjean Ouellette. L’expérience canadienne des origines à nos jours, Moncton, Éditions d’Acadie, 1994, p. 330. ▲

83) What impact did the Second World War have on the labour market?

“The launch of the Second World War had the almost immediate effect of triggering an economic renewal. As the unemployed either joined up or found work in wartime industries, the nation’s unemployment rate plummeted, going from 11 to 4 percent between 1939 and 1941 among unionized workers.” [transl.] Couturier, Jean-Paul et Réjean Ouellette. L’expérience canadienne des origines à nos jours, Moncton, Éditions d’Acadie, 1994, p. 329.

“By the end of 1941, industries across the nation were working overtime to produce war materials. Unemployment vanished. In fact, competition for workers had become so stiff that the government created a National Selective (NSS) to direct Canadian workers to the industries where their labour was most needed. If workers took jobs without NSS approval, they could be fined $500 and jailed for a year. The economy, crippled by the Great Depression, was up and running again.” Newman, Garfield et al. Canada: a Nation Unfolding, Toronto, McGraw-Hill Ryerson, 2000, p. 255. ▲

5. POLITICS AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

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5.1 CONFEDERATION DEBATES

84) What is “Rep by Pop” and why did Canada West demand it?

“According to the Union Act, Canada East and Canada West were required to have the same number of members of Parliament. In 1841, equal representation favoured English-speaking Canada West whose population was smaller than that of predominantly French-speaking Canada East. “But the 1851 Census revealed that the population of Canada West had surpassed that of Canada East. The Clear Grits therefore demanded the implementation of ‘Rep by Pop’ (Representation by Population), or proportional representation based on the population of each of the two regions of United Canada. This form of representation would obviously favour English Canadians and was a source of growing concern among the French-speaking population of Canada East.” [transl.] Roy, Marcel, Dominic Roy. Je me souviens, Ottawa, Éditions du renouveau pédagogique Inc., 1995, p. 295. ▲

85) What was the Brown-Macdonald-Cartier coalition?

“In 1864, the political situation in United Canada was alarming. The inability to achieve a double-majority vote led to a succession of five governments in a span of two years. This ministerial instability paralysed the government of United Canada. “George Brown, leader of the Clear Grits, decided to join John Alexander Macdonald, the Liberal-Conservative leader, and George-Étienne Cartier, the Parti bleu leader, to form a coalition government. In return, he asked that United Canada no longer be a legislative union, but a federal union. “The three leaders reached an agreement that proved satisfactory to each man: o Brown achieved proportional representation at the federal level; o Macdonald secured additional powers for the federal government; o Cartier obtained a provincial government for French Canadians.” [transl.] Roy, Marcel, Dominic Roy. Je me souviens, Ottawa, Éditions du renouveau pédagogique Inc., 1995, p. 295. ▲

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86) What were the principal forces driving the call for federation and how is it presented by Cartier and others?

“Although railways, protection for Canadian industry, and the need for a strong central government were the main forces behind Confederation, leaders like Cartier always explained the need for a federal union in terms of a new Canadian nation and ethnic harmony.” Dickinson, John A. and Brian Young. Diverse pasts, a History of Québec and Canada, Mississauga, Copp Clark, 1995, p. 216. ▲

87) What types of union did Macdonald and Cartier prefer?

“Legislative union was the first choice of some leaders, such as John A. Macdonald. A legislative union would be more centralized, with the powers of government concentrated in one central authority. Municipal and county governments would be under the direct control of the central government. Great Britain and France are examples of legislative states. “Leaders such as George-Étienne Cartier preferred a federal structure as a way of distributing powers of government between the central or federal government and provincial governments. While a federation is more complex, it has the advantage of permitting fundamental policy differences among the provinces over important social and cultural questions regarding such areas as education and health.” Dickinson, John A. and Brian Young. Diverse Pasts, a History of Québec and Canada, Mississauga, Copp Clark, 1995, p. 218. ▲

88) What did Dorion think of the federation project?

“After the Quebec Conference, the political leaders returned to their colonies to seek approval for the project from their respective assemblies and general populations. “In Canada East: “The Quebec Resolutions did not receive unanimous support in this province. The strongest opposition came from Antoine-Aimé Dorion’s Parti rouge which regarded the federation project as unacceptable. “They opposed it for the following reasons: o This federation would only be a ‘legislative union in disguise.’ Excessive powers given to the central government would render the small provincial governments irrelevant. The federal government would hold a right of veto (disallowance) over provincial laws.

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o The project served to camouflage Anglophone business interests seeking to build an intercolonial railway at public expense. o Through proportional representation and Anglophone control of the central government, the proposed federation represented a serious threat to the survival of Francophones and a further weakening of their minority standing. o The inclusion of the Maritimes in the federation would increase the financial burden on United Canada without bringing an economic advantage in return […]. “Moreover, Dorion believed that the project needed to be approved by the population as a whole. In late November 1864, the principle of Confederation was denounced during many public assemblies in the Montreal region.” [transl.] Cardin, Jean-François, Raymond Bédard et René Fortin. Le Québec: héritages et projets, Laval, Éditions HRW, 1994, p. 255. ▲

89) How was the call for federation received in the Maritimes?

“The Maritime delegates returned from Québec city [1864] deeply divided over Confederation. The premier of Prince Edward Island, John Gray, was in favour of Confederation, but other Islanders were very upset after the Québec Conference. They thought it was an insult that the Island would receive only five seats in the proposed House of Commons. Why bother with Confederation when there were so few benefits? An election was held in December 1865 and an anti-Confederation party won. Confederation’s fate was sealed, at least for now. Prince Edward Island would not be part of Confederation. “Many Newfoundlanders had similar doubts about joining Confederation. An organized opposition circulated a number of rumours: taxes would be increased to pay for Canada’s debts; the tax money would benefit the Canadas as they used it to open up the West; Newfoundlanders would be forced to fight for Canada; and their fishers would be forced to serve in the new navy. The decision could wait until an election was held. “The premiers of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, Charles Tupper and Samuel Tilley, were strong supporters of Confederation. They believed it would promote their economies and protect their borders. The problem for both men was that there was strong, organized opposition in their provinces. “In Nova Scotia Joseph Howe, the former premier and a popular politician, led the anti-Confederation forces. In his newspaper he termed the proposed union, “Confederation-Botheration.” Howe believed Confederation would

McCord Museum of Canadian History, ClioClic Pedagogical Tool, 3rd Ed., April 2005 www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/clioclic 57 mean higher tariffs and import taxes, so that manufactured goods coming into Nova Scotia would cost more. As well the province would lose its trading link with the New England states. […] Faced with this opposition, Tupper did non bring the 72 Resolutions up for debate in the Nova Scotia legislature. He decided to wait to see what would happen in New Brunswick. “The population of New Brunswick was uncertain about Confederation. Some agreed with Tilley and saw Confederation as the key to New Brunswick’s progress. The Intercolonial Railway would open up new markets for its natural resources. New Brunswick would no longer be a small and isolated colony but part of a great nation whose future was assured. Others thought Confederation spelled disaster for the colony. There would be higher tariffs on goods. There was no guarantee the Canadians would keep their promise about building the railway. It would make better sense to build a railway south to the United States where the market was ten times as large.” Deir, Elspeth, John Fielding, et al. Canada: the story of a developing nation, Toronto, McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited, 2000, p. 90. ▲

90) How did the colonies react to the federation project?

“When a vote was taken, representatives from Canada West supported the motion for a federal union fifty-four to eight. The Anglophone members from Canada East voted eleven to three in favour, but the Francophone members were almost evenly split (twenty-six for; twenty-two against). “The Atlantic colonies were not enthusiastic. Newfoundland (which participated in the negotiations) and Prince Edward Island refused to adopt the resolutions. The pro-Confederation party in New Brunswick was defeated; it took pressure from Britain to get New Brunswick to enter Confederation. In Nova Scotia, Charles Tupper’s government avoided holding an election on Confederation knowing that the proposal would be rejected. “The final draft of the constitution was worked out in London in 1866. The British North America (BNA) Act was passed by the British Parliament with very little debate. The act, which took effect on July 1, 1867, united Canada East, Canada West, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick into one country.”

Dickinson, John A. and Brian Young. Diverse Pasts, a History of Québec and Canada, Mississauga, Copp Clark, 1995, p. 220. ▲

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91) Under what circumstances did Nova Scotia and New Brunswick enter into Confederation?

“The path to Confederation between 1864 and 1867 started as a search for a way out of the political deadlock in the Province of Canada. It led to the Charlottetown Conference, where delegates from the Canadas and the Maritimes colonies agreed in principle to a federal union. At the Québec Conference details of the new union were worked out in the form of the 72 Resolutions. However, the government in Prince Edward Island decided not to accept the resolutions. There were grave concerns in Nova Scotia, and in New Brunswick where the pro-Confederation forces lost an election on the issue. Confederation then appeared to be impossible to reach. “At this point, the British government signaled its support of Confederation. It told the Lieutenant-Governors to promote the idea. The ending of the American Civil War [1865] brought the renewed threat of invasion from the United States. The Fenian raids and the cancellation of the Reciprocity Treaty only added to that threat. In Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, government leaders accepted the idea of Confederation. “[…] On July 1, 1867, the new nation was officially declared”. Deir, Elspeth, John Fielding, et al. Canada: the story of a developing nation, Toronto, McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited, 2000, p. 98. ▲

92) What was the division of governmental powers established by the British North America (BNA) Act of 1867?

“What did Confederation mean? The British North America Act established [in 1867] a federal political system with a central government in Ottawa and provincial governments in the four original provinces of Confederation. Each level of government had specific powers (see the accompanying box), with immigration and agriculture being shared responsibilities. Section 91 of the British North America Act outlined the central government’s powers. Of particular importance was the federal government’s responsibility for defence, criminal law, Native peoples, and matters connected to money and banking. The responsibilities of the provincial governments were described in sections 92 and 93. Section 92 provided for local governments (municipalities and townships) to be established by the provinces. The local governments administered local services: road maintenance, recreation, garbage removal, and fire and police protection. “Several clauses of the BNA Act emphasize that the Fathers of Confederation envisaged a strong, centralized state. The provinces were not allowed to alter the power of the federally named lieutenant-governors. A lieutenant- governor could block provincial laws by “reserving” them for consideration by

McCord Museum of Canadian History, ClioClic Pedagogical Tool, 3rd Ed., April 2005 www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/clioclic 59 the federal government. In turn, the federal government could disallow any provincial law that it felt was not in the national interest. Also, all powers not specifically given to the provinces were reserved for the federal government.”

Division of Powers Under the British North America Act Federal Government Provincial Governments Section 91 Section 92 • Public debt and property • Direct taxation for provincial • Trade and commerce purposes • Direct taxes (income tax) and • The borrowing of money for indirect taxes (customs duties) provincial measures • The borrowing of money on public • Provincial Crown lands credit • Reformatories • Postal service • Hospitals and mental and other • Census and statistics charitable institutions • Defence • Municipal institutions • Shipping • The licensing of stores, taverns, • Fishing and other liquor outlets • Interprovincial and international • All local businesses except (a) transport ships, railways and telegraphs • Money that connect provinces, (b) • Banking shipping lines that extend outside • Weights and measures Canada, (c) businesses that, • Bankruptcy although they operate entirely • Copyrights and patents within a province, are judged by • Native peoples Parliament to be of general • Criminal law interest to Canada • Penitentiaries • Incorporation of companies • The maintenance of peace, order, operating entirely within a and good government province • Marriage and divorce • Property and civil rights • Operation of the provincial court system • All purely local or private matters

Section 93 • Education

Note: Agriculture and immigration are shared responsibilities (section 95). Dickinson, John A. and Brian Young. Diverse pasts, a History of Québec and Canada, Mississauga, Copp Clark, 1995, p. 220-221. ▲

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5.2 NATIONAL POLICY AND THE C.P.R.

93) In what context did Macdonald propose the National Policy?

“Sir John A. Macdonald was prime minister of the new [Canadian] nation for its first seven years. Then in 1873, a worldwide economic downturn struck. In Canada, businesses went bankrupt, banks failed, farmers could not get good prices for their crops, and thousands lost their jobs. Macdonald had to resign because of a scandal […] For five years, the downturn brought the country to a standstill. “In 1878 Macdonald was reelected on a platform called the National Policy. The policy had three parts: o Protection for Canadian industries o Settlement of the West o Completion of the railway to the West.” Deir, Elspeth, John Fielding, et al. Canada: the story of a developing nation, Toronto, McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited, 2000, p. 113. ▲

94) What was the “National Policy” that helped Macdonald win the 1878 election?

“Macdonald had another chance in the election of 1878. He put forward a National Policy to solve the country’s problems. The policy aimed to encourage the development of Canadian industries and boost the Canadian economy. His plan was basically this: o Keep cheaper American goods out of Canada. o Encourage Canadians to buy goods made by other Canadians. o Fill the rich prairie lands with settlers. o Have the settlers buy manufactured goods made in eastern Canada. Let them sell their agricultural products to eastern Canadians. Encourage them to do all this by building an east-west railway. “The people of Canada supported the idea of the National Policy. Macdonald was re-elected. The railway project was on again!” Cruxton, J. Bradley, W. Douglas Wilson. Flashback Canada, Don Mills, ON, Oxford University Press, 2000, p. 154. ▲

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95) Did the National Policy benefit all parts of Canada?

“A protective tariff for Canadian goods has always been controversial […] The National Policy did not benefit all parts of the country; most of the new industries were established in central Canada. For example, the number of cotton mills in Québec and Ontario rose from four to seventeen between 1878 and 1884. These mills made great profits for their owners. The owners of the Hudon Mill in Montréal, for example, saw their profits triple between 1881 and 1883.” Dickinson, John A. and Brian Young. Diverse Pasts, a History of Québec and Canada, Mississauga, Copp Clark, 1995, p. 234. ▲

96) How was the National Policy received? “Tariffs were put on goods brought into the country that competed with Canadian-made goods. Canadian-made goods could then sell for the same price or less than American- and British-made goods. As most industries were in Ontario and Québec, the tariffs favoured this part of the country. People moving into the Western plains were expected to buy the farming machinery and other goods that the new industries produced. The railway would link the producers and the market in the West. “The National Policy was in place for decades to come. To the Western farmers it seemed to protect rich industrialists in the East. They would have preferred to buy less expensive American-made goods. In time the policy led to feelings of bitterness in the West.”

Deir, Elspeth, John Fielding, et al. Canada: the story of a developing nation, Toronto, McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited, 2000, p. 113. ▲

97) What role did the CPR [Canadian Pacific Railway] play in Macdonald’s National Policy?

“The CPR was the cornerstone of the National Policy. The West could not develop as a center for agricultural export until goods could be transported in and out of the region. Macdonald also thought that the CPR could be a part of the British Empire’s trading network by providing the means to ship goods to and from Asia. The construction of the CPR became the government’s top priority.” Cranny, Michael, Graham Jarvis, Garvin Moles, Bruce Seney. Horizons: Canada Moves West, Toronto, Pearson Education Canada Inc., 1999, p. 186. ▲

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98) How did the new railways affect Western cities?

“Many cities in Western Canada owe their existence to the coming of the railway. These cities were often early fur trade centers that were chosen as divisional centers for the expanding railways. As former fur posts, they were usually well situated for development. “Saskatoon, Edmonton, Prince George, and Prince Rupert were communities that were selected as divisional points on the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway […]. At the mouth of the Skeena River, a location that was to become Prince Rupert was chosen as the railway terminus. Kamloops, already on the CPR main line, was chosen by the Canadian Northern as its major divisional point in the interior of the province. These cities, all well-situated, grew in such a way that they could take advantage of their hinterlands.” Cranny, Michael, Graham Jarvis, Garvin Moles, Bruce Seney. Horizons: Canada Moves West, Toronto, Pearson Education Canada Inc., 1999, p. 267. ▲

99) How did the CPR help Macdonald fight the Northwest Rebellion?

“In March 1885, the Northwest Rebellion broke out. […] Because the federal government had to get troops to the Northwest [Manitoba] as quickly as possible, it needed to use the CPR. Unfortunately, four gaps broke the rail line north of Lake Superior. Soldiers crossed these gaps on foot, in one instance marching 18 kilometres across the frozen surface of Lake Superior. “However, Van Horne did manage to transport the troops with his typical efficiency, and the first soldiers arrived in Winnipeg in just five days. Thanks to the CPR, it looked as though the federal government could react quickly to a crisis.” Cranny, Michael, Graham Jarvis, Garvin Moles, Bruce Seney. Horizons: Canada Moves West, Toronto, Pearson Education Canada Inc., 1999, p. 191. ▲

100) What did the completion of the CPR mean for Canada as a nation?

o “One of British Columbia’s conditions for joining Confederation had been honoured. Now the province was linked to Canada. The United Sates could not take over the whole Pacific Coast. o “Settlers could more easily reach western Canada. As farm populations increased, communities would grow around them.

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o “Movement was now faster and easier between the west and east coasts. This would encourage trade within the country, rather than with the United States.” Cruxton, J. Bradley, W. Douglas Wilson. Flashback Canada, Don Mills, ON, Oxford University Press, 2000, p. 167. ▲

101) Why did some Westerners dislike the CPR monopoly?

“The railway was completed in record time and towns sprang up along the railway line. On the other hand, many Westerners, especially farmers, came to resent the CPR for its monopoly, since the company could charge whatever it wanted to carry prairie grain to markets.” Deir, Elspeth, John Fielding, et al. Canada: the story of a developing nation, Toronto, McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited, 2000, p. 175. ▲

5.3 WOMEN’S MOVEMENTS

102) How was the women’s movement born, particularly in Québec?

“Women did not have the same status as men. A married woman was considered by law to be a minor. She was totally submissive to her husband and was required to obtain his authorization to complete a transaction or sign a document. Young girls did not have the same educational opportunities as boys and very few had access to university. Women could not practice certain professions such as law or medicine. They did not have the right to vote or, even less, the right to become a Member of Parliament, city councillor or school trustee. “Awareness of these inequalities and this form of discrimination inspired a number of women to organize and fight for change. The women’s movement first appeared in England, the United States and other countries before making its way into Quebec. It was the age of the suffragettes. In England, they organized hunger strikes and raucous demonstrations to win suffrage, or the right to vote. At first, Quebec feminists were mostly active in Montreal and were comprised of a small group of women from affluent backgrounds. Anglophones, largely responsible for launching the movement, were the most involved. Some Francophones, such as Marie Gérin-Lajoie, did participate but met with strong opposition.” [transl.] Charpentier, Louise, René Durocher, Christian Laville et Paul-André Linteau. Nouvelle histoire du Québec et du Canada, Anjou, Québec, Centre Éducatif et Culturel, 1990, p. 294. ▲

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103) What were the most important women’s organizations in Canada at the close of the 19th century? “Two of the largest women’s organizations at this time were the Young Women’s Christian Association (YWCA) and the Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU). The YWCA was a major charitable organization. It helped train many working-class women, usually for work as servants in private homes. Adelaide Hunter Hoodless worked with the YWCA when she started her crusade for public health education.

“Letitia Youmans founded the WCTU in Canada in Picton, Ontario, in 1874. She had been to the founding meeting of the American WCTU and was inspired to start a group like it for her home town. Like many women she had seen some of the tragic results of alcoholism. She told stories of drunken men freezing to death in snowdrifts or losing limbs because of frostbite. “By 1891 over 9000 women across Canada had joined local WCTU groups. The WCTU wanted prohibition, or a law to ban the sale or consumption of alcohol.” Deir, Elspeth, John Fielding, et al. Canada: the Story of a Developing Nation, Whitby Ontario, McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited, 2000, p. 299. ▲

104) How did women’s organizations come together at the close of the 19th century?

“In 1893 the many women’s organizations united to form the National Council of Women of Canada. Not all groups, or even all women, agreed with each other’s aims. Adelaide Hoodless, for example, did not support the idea that women needed the vote. Yet working together in the National Council, the women were a powerful group. They learned how to attract publicity and speak in public. Their leaders put pressure on decision-makers, using letter-writing campaigns, petitions, parades, and delegations. In 1910 the National Council took up the cause of getting the vote for women. “Gaining the vote was an important victory for Canadian women. The campaign had been long, but it was not over quite yet. Women were still not legally considered “persons,” and that would not change until 1929. A host of other inequalities would be challenged throughout the twentieth century.” Deir, Elspeth, John Fielding et al. Canada: The Story of a Developing Nation, Whitby Ontario, McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd., 2001, p. 301. ▲

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105) What were the main feminist issues in Quebec?

“The first feminists demanded access to higher education and the liberal professions. They succeeded in opening a college for young women as well as securing the right of women to enroll in universities. They faced great resistance, however, from members of the different professions: lawyers, notaries and doctors fiercely opposed the entry of women into their ranks and their stubbornness lasted for many years. For example, women in Quebec waited until 1941 before winning the right to practice as lawyers, and until 1956 to become notaries. “The other key issue involved the struggle for the right to vote. In Canada, the fight was led by Nellie McClung. In Québec, two women, Idola Saint- Jean and Thérèse Casgrain, carried the torch of women’s political rights for several years. They secured the right to vote at the federal level, starting in 1917, and this right extended gradually to the provincial level. Quebec, whose government strongly resisted until 1940, was the last province to allow women’s suffrage. “In 1900, Quebec women had a status comparable to that of other Canadian women. By 1930, however, women’s rights in Quebec were lagging behind. Although the situation had improved, progress came at a slower rate than elsewhere – the result of a very strong resistance from the traditional, Francophone elites.” [transl.] Charpentier, Louise, René Durocher, Christian Laville et Paul-André Linteau. Nouvelle histoire du Québec et du Canada, Anjou, Québec, Centre Éducatif et Culturel, 1990, p. 296. ▲

106) What was Nellie McClung’s “Mock Parliament” in Manitoba?

“Nellie McClung was fuming. From her perch in the visitors’ gallery on January 27, 1914, the popular novelist and mother of five children was listening to Rodmond Roblin, Manitoba’s Conservative premier, address the all-male Legislature. He was explaining why it would be dangerous to grant women the franchise, or the right to vote, in provincial elections. “I believe that woman suffrage […] will break up the home; that it will throw the children into the arms of servant girls. The majority of women are emotional and very often guided by misdirected enthusiasms, and if possessed of the franchise would be a menace rather than an aid. “Roblin had challenged the women of Manitoba – but McClung and her fellow suffragists, including the journalist Cora Hind, were up to the challenge. The very next night, they rented a theatre and staged a mock sitting of the Legislature in which all the members were women.

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“The women overacted – to the delight of the packed house. But it was McClung, playing the premier, who turned in the most memorable performance. When a group of men pretended to plead for the right to vote, she responded in a perfect parody of Roblin. The audience howled with laughter as she said: “The trouble is that if men start to vote, they will vote too much. Politics unsettles men, and unsettled men means unsettled bills, broken furniture, broken vows and – divorce […] If men were to get into the habit of voting - who knows what might happen – it’s hard enough to keep them home now. History is full of unhappy examples of men in public life – Nero – Herod – King John… “Two years later women in Manitoba, British Columbia, Saskatchewan and Alberta won the right to vote.” Deir, Elspeth, John Fielding et al. Canada: the Story of a Developing Nation, Whitby Ontario, McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited, 2000, p. 298.

Complied by Michel Legris as part of a guided study in a Master’s in Museology at UQAM, reviewed and augmented by Marie-Claude Larouche and Marc Walker (April 2005). ▲

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