Non-Chordates-I Protists to Pseudocoelomates

(As per New CBCS Syllabus for First Semester, B.Sc. of Calcutta University w.e.f. 2018-19)

MOHAN P. ARORA M.Sc., M.Phil., Ph.D.

Edited by CHANDER KANTA

ISO 9001:2015 CERTIFIED © AUTHORS No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording and/or otherwise without the prior written permission of the authors and the publisher.

First Edition : 2018

Published by : Mrs. Meena Pandey for Himalaya Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., Ramdoot, Dr. Bhalerao Marg, Girgaon, Mumbai - 400 004 Phone: 022-23860170/23863863; Fax: 022-23877178 E-mail: [email protected]; Website: www.himpub.com Branch Offices : New Delhi : Pooja Apartments, 4-B, Murari Lal Street, Ansari Road, Darya Ganj, New Delhi - 110 002. Phone: 011-23270392, 23278631; Fax: 011-23256286 Nagpur : Kundanlal Chandak Industrial Estate, Ghat Road, Nagpur - 440 018. Phone: 0712-2738731, 3296733; Telefax: 0712-2721216 Bengaluru : Plot No. 91-33, 2nd Main Road, Seshadripuram, Behind Nataraja Theatre, Bengaluru - 560 020. Phone: 080-41138821; Mobile: 09379847017, 09379847005 Hyderabad : No. 3-4-184, Lingampally, Besides Raghavendra Swamy Matham, Kachiguda, Hyderabad - 500 027. Phone: 040-27560041, 27550139 Chennai : New No. 48/2, Old No. 28/2, Ground Floor, Sarangapani Street, T. Nagar, Chennai-600 012. Mobile: 09380460419 Pune : First Floor, Laksha Apartment, No. 527, Mehunpura, Shaniwarpeth (Near Prabhat Theatre), Pune - 411 030. Phone: 020-24496323, 24496333; Mobile: 09370579333 Lucknow : House No. 731, Shekhupura Colony, Near B.D. Convent School, Aliganj, Lucknow - 226 022. Phone: 0522-4012353; Mobile: 09307501549 Ahmedabad : 114, SHAIL, 1st Floor, Opp. Madhu Sudan House, C.G. Road, Navrang Pura, Ahmedabad - 380 009. Phone: 079-26560126; Mobile: 09377088847 Ernakulam : 39/176 (New No. 60/251), 1st Floor, Karikkamuri Road, Ernakulam, Kochi - 682011. Phone: 0484-2378012, 2378016; Mobile: 09387122121 Bhubaneswar : Plot No. 214/1342, Budheswari Colony, Behind Durga Mandap, Bhubaneswar - 751 006. Phone: 0674-2575129; Mobile: 09338746007 Kolkata : 108/4, Beliaghata Main Road, Near ID Hospital, Opp. SBI Bank, Kolkata - 700 010, Phone: 033-32449649; Mobile: 07439040301 DTP by : C.K. Arora Printed at : M/s. Aditya Offset Process (I) Pvt. Ltd., Hyderabad. On behalf of HPH. PREFACE

The present title “Non-Chordates-I” (Protists to Pseudocoelomates) is an attempt to provide an accurate, up-to-date, concised, simplified and examination-oriented text to the students. The entire volume has been divided into seven units as per the latest syllabus of Calcutta University. All the topics of the subject have been thoroughly dealt with incorporating latest informations available. A student will find almost every information about the subject in this book. A simple language easy to understand by an average student has been used. Diagrams have been simplified to make them easy to be redrawn by the students. It has been designed to approach the morphology, anatomy and physiology of selected types in a simple and lucid style. General characteristics and classification have also been dealt with complete, authentic and up-to-date account. The approach to the discussion of all the types is very simple so as to impact to the students a clear and vivid understanding. Though extreme case has been taken in the preparation of the book, some mistakes might have crept in. Both teachers and students are requested to point them out to the publishers so that they can be rectified by the author personally. Since the help of the books of various authors, journals, abstracts, monographs, etc. has been taken in preparing this book, no authenticity is claimed. The author expresses his gratitude to M/s Himalaya Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. for their unstint support throughout the preparation of the book.

Author

SYLLABUS

PART I: SEMESTER 1 CORE COURSE 1. Non-Chordates I ZOOA-CC1-1-TH Full Marks 50 4 Credits 50 Hours

Non-Chordates I: Protists to Pseudocoelomates Unit 1: Basics of Animal Classification 4 Definitions: Classification, Systematics and ; Taxonomic Hierarchy, Taxonomic Types – Codes of Zoological Nomenclature; Principles of Priority; Synonymy and Homonymy; Concept of Classification – Three Kingdom Concept of Carl Woese, 1977 and Five Kingdom Concept of Whittaker, 1969 Unit 2: Protista and Metazoa 15 Protozoa General Characteristics and Classification up to Phylum (According to Levine et al., 1980) Locomotion in Euglena, Paramoecium and Amoeba; Conjugation in Paramoecium. Life Cycle and Pathogenicity of and Entamoeba histolytica Metazoa Evolution of Symmetry and Segmentation of Metazoa. Unit 3: Porifera 6 General Characteristics and Classification up to Classes (Ruppert and Barnes, 1994, 6th Ed.); Canal System and Spicules in Sponges Unit 4: Cnidaria 10 General Characteristics and Classification up to Classes (Ruppert and Barnes, 1994, 6th Ed.), Metagenesis in Obelia; Polymorphism in Cnidaria; Corals and Coral Reef Diversity, Role of Symbiotic Algae in Reef Formation. Conservation of Coral and Coral Reefs. Unit 5: Ctenophora 2 General Characteristics Unit 6: Platyhelminthes 6 General Characteristics and Classification up to Classes (Ruppert and Barnes, 1994, 6th Ed.) Life Cycle, Pathogenicity and Control Measures of Fasciola hepatica and Taenia solium Unit 7: Nematoda 7 General Characteristics and Classification up to Classes (Ruppert and Barnes, 1994, 6th Ed.) Life Cycle, Pathogenicity and Control Measures of Ascaris lumbricoides and Wuchereria bancrofti Parasitic Adaptations in Helminthes Non-Chordates I Lab ZOOA-CC-1-1-P Non-Chordates I: Protists to Pseudocoelomates

Full Marks: 30 60 Hours 2 credits List of Practicals Study of whole mount of Euglena, Amoeba and Paramoecium Identification with Reason and Systematic Position of Amoeba, Euglena, Entamoeba, , Plasmodium, Balantidium, (from the Prepared Slides) Identification with Reason and Systematic Position of Sycon, Poterion (Neptune’s Cup), Obelia, Physalia, Aurelia, Gorgonia, Metridium, Pennatula, Madrepora, Fasciola hepatica, Taenia solium and Ascaris lumbricoides. Staining/Mounting of Any Protozoa/Helminth from Gut of Periplaneta sp. Contents

UNIT-1. BASICS OF ANIMAL CLASSIFICATION 1. Importance to Taxonomy 1—4 Important Questions 2. Kinds of Classification 5—11 Systems of Classification, Artificial Classification, Natural Classification, Approaches to the Classification, Phenetic Approach, Cladistic Approach, Classical Approach, Phylogenetic Classification, Evolution of Kingdoms, Two Kingdom System, Three Kingdom System, Four Kingdom System, Five Kingdom System, Six Kingdom System, Characteristics Used in Classification, Important Questions. 3. Components of Classification 12—17 Species, Species in Taxonomy, Terminology, Non-taxonomic Species, Diversified Terms, Subspecies, Other Subdivisions of Species. 4. International Code of Zoological Nomenclature 18—26 Responsibility of International Congress, The International Commission, Duties of the Commission, New Features of the 1961 Code, Instructions to Non- taxonomists, Unsatisfactory Aspects of the 1961 Code, New Features of the 1964 Amended Code, Important Questions. UNIT-2. PROTISTA AND METAZOA 5. Protozoa: Characters and Classification 27—38 General Characters, Organization, Occurrence, Distribution, Symmetry, Body Covering, Skeleton, Locomotory Organelles, Nutrition, Respiration, Excretion, Osmoregulation, Reproduction, Special Characters, Economic Characters, Classification, Subkingdom: Protozoa, Subphylum Sarcomastigophora, Subphylum , Subphylum Myxozoa, Subphylum Ciliophora, Important Questions. 6. Locomotion in Amoeba, Euglena and Paramecium 39—49 Locomotion in Amoeba, Amoeboid Movement, Walking, Rolling Movement Theory, Theories of Pseudopodium Formation, Locomotion in Euglena, Flagellar Movement, Locomotion in Paramecium, Metaboly or Body Contractions, Swimming, Ciliary Beat, Important Questions. 7. Conjugation in Paramecium 50—57 Process of Conjugation, Synkaryon Formation, Fate of Exconjugants, Conditions of Conjugation, Significance of Conjugation, Rejuvenation, Autogamy, Endomixis, Hemixis, Cytogamy, Important Questions. 8. Plasmodium (Malaria Parasite) 58—76 Habits and Habitat, Preparation of Laboratory Culture, History, Morphology, Life Cycle, Human Cycle, Hepalic Schizogony, Erythrocytic Schizogony, Gametogony, Mosquito Cycle, Sporogony, Malaria—Diagnosis and Treatment, Malaria—Prevention and Control, Measures against the Parasite, Measures against the Vector, Killing of Mosquito Larvae—Anti-larval Measures, Inherited Resistance, Important Questions. 9. Entamoeba Histolytica 77—87 Habitat and Habits, Morphology, Plasmalemma, Cytoplasm, Nucleus, Physiology, Life Cycle, Binary Fission, Encystment, Transfer to New Host, Excystation, Primary Site of Infection, Secondary Site of Infection, Infection in Other Animals, Pathogenicity, Intestinal Lesions, Liver Abscess, Lesions in Lungs, Lesions in Brain, Lesions in Spleen, Cutaneous Lesions, Important Questions. 10. Evolution of Symmetry and Segmentation in Metazoa 88—105 Origin and Nature of the Metazoa, Origin of the Metazoa, Pressures Exerted on Unicellular Animals, Fossil Record, Theories of Metazoan Origin, Monophyletic Theory, Polyphyletic Theory, Recapitulation Theory, Colonial Theory, Syncytial Theory, Organization of the Metazoan, Differentiation and Divison of Labour, Symmetry and Polarity, Spherical Symmetry, Radial Symmetry, Bilateral Symmetry, Segmentation and Tagmatization, Significance of Metameric Segmentation, Embryology of the Metazoans, Types of Cleavage, Blastula and Gastrula Formation, Mesoderm and Coelom, Protostomia and Deuterostomia, Brief Classification of the Invertebrates, Important Questions. UNIT-3. PORIFERA 11. Porifera: Characters and Classification 106—114 General Characters, Classification, Class-Calcarea, Class-Hexactinellida or Triaxonida, Class-Demospongiae, Class-Scelerospongia, Important Questions. 12. Canal System in Sponges 115—124 Ascon Type, Sycon Type, Rhagon Type, Leuconoid Type, Mechanism of Current Production, Functions of the Canal System, Significance of Canal System, Important Questions. 13. Spicules in Sponges 125—136 Megascleres, Monaxon Spicules, Triaxon Spicules, Tetraxon Spicules, Polyaxon Spicules, Spheres, Desma, Microscleres, Monaxon Microscleres, Polyaxon Microscleres, Arrangement of the Spicules in the Skeleton, Prostalia, Dermalia, Gastralia, Parenchymalia, Union of the Spicules, Development of Spicules, Monaxon Spicules, Triradiate Spicules, Development of Quadriradiate Spicules, Development of Hexactinal Spicules, Union of the spicules and their Arrangement in the Fibres, Spongin, Origin, Importance of Spicules, Important Questions. UNIT-4. CNIDARIA 14. Coelenterata: Characters and Classification 137—145 General Characters, Classification, Class-Hydrozoa, Class-Scyphozoa, Class- Anthozoa or Actinozoa, Class-Cubozoa, Important Questions. 15. Metagenesis in Obelia 146—154 External Morphology, Hydranth or Polyp, Medusa, Sexual Reproduction, Life History, Fertilization, Development, Metamorphosis, Alternation of Generations or Metagenesis, Important Questions. 16. Polymorphism in Coelenterata 155—163 Polypoid Zooids, Gastrozooids, Dactylozooids, Gonozooids, Medusoid Zooids, Swimming Bell, Pneumatophores, Bracts, Gonophores, Grades of Polymorphism, Dimorphic Forms, Trimorphic Forms, Polymorphic Forms, Origin of Polymorphism, Polyp Origin Theory, Polyp Person Theory, Sedgwick, Haeckel and Balfour, Moser's Theory, Polymorphism and Alternation of Generations, Important Questions. 17. Corals and Coral Reef Diversity 164—169 Coral Reefs in India, Biological Diversity of Coral Reefs, Reef Building, Diversity of Corals in the Four Major Coral Reefs of India, Gulf of Kachchh, Lakshadweep Islands, Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, All India, Endemic Coral Species in India, Deepwater Corals of India, Important Questions. 18. Role of Symbiotic Algae in Reef Formation 170—172 Environmental Effects on the Symbiosis. 19. Conservation of Coral and Coral Reefs 173—174 Coral Reefs Conservation, Coral Reefs Contain Species which are Important for Medicine, Medicine, Coral Reefs can Support Tourism and Recreation, Restoration, Coral Nurseries, Biodiversity. UNIT-5. CTENOPHORA 20. Ctenophora: Characters and Classification 175—178 General Characters, Classification, Class-Tentaculata, Class-Nuda. UNIT-6. PLATYHELMINTHES 21. Platyhelminthes: Characters and Classification 179—186 General Characters, Classification, Class-Turbellaria, Class-Trematoda, Class- Cestoda, Important Questions. 22. Fasciola Hepatica 187—208 Geographical Distribution, Habits and Habitat, Shape, Size and Colouration, Structure, Body Wall, Digestive System, Alimentary Canal, Food, Feeding and Digestion, Egestion, Respiration, Excretory System, Excretory Ducts, Flame Cells, Nervous System, Central Nervous System, Peripheral Nervous System, Sense Organs, Hormones in Fasciola, Reproductive System, Male Reproductive Organs, Female Reproductive Organs, Ootype, Life History, Copulation and Fertilization, Formation of Egg Capsule, Structure of an Egg, Development, Miracidium Larva, Structure of Miracidium, Sporocyst, Radia Larva, Cercaria Larva, Factors Affecting Development in Snail, Metacercaria, Infection of Final Host, Important Questions. 23. Taenia Solium 209—224 Habits and Habitat, External Morphology, Shape, Size and Colour, Division of Body, Body Wall, Mesenchyme or Parenchyma, Electron Structure of Body Wall, Function of Body Wall, Reproductive System, Male Reproductive System, Female Reproductive System, Life Cycle, Copulation and Fertilization, Cleavage, Onchosphere, Infection to Secondary Host, Migration, Infection to Primary Host, Pathogenesis, Treatment, Epidemiology and Control, Parasitic Adaptations in Taenia, Physiological Adaptations, Modifications in Life-cycle, Important Questions. UNIT-7. NEMATODA 24. Nematoda: Characters and Classification 225—229 General Characters, Classification, Class-Adenophorea (Aphasmida), Class- Secernentea (Phasmida), Important Questions. 25. Ascaris Lumbricoides 230—246 Habits and Habitat, External Features, Shape and Size, Colouration, Mouth, Excretory Pore, Genital Pore, Anus, Cloacal Aperture, Body Wall, Cuticle, Epidermis, Muscle layer, Pseudocoel, Locomotion, Reproductive System, Male Reproductive System, Female Reproductive Organs, Life Cycle, Copulation and Fertilization, Zygote Formation and Mamiliated Eggs, Egg-Laying, Development, Cleavage, Infection and Emergence of Larva, Pathogenesis, Therapy, Prevention, Parasitic Adaptation, Important Questions. 26. Wuchereria Bancrofti 247—251 Distribution, Habits and Habitat, Morphology, Periodicity of Microfilariae, Life History, Infection and Adult Stage in Man, Important Questions. 27. Parasitism and Parasitic Adaptations 252—256 Origin and Evolution of Parasitism, Different Types of Parasitism, Effect of Parasitism upon the Parasite, Morphological Adaptations, Physiological Adaptations, Effect of Parasitism on the Host. UNIT-8. PRACTICAL 28. Study of Whole Mount 257—259 Amoeba, Euglena, Paramecium. 29. Identification and Systematic Position 260—283 Amoeba, Euglena, Entamoeba histolygica, Entamoeba coli, Entamoeba gingivalis, Paramecium, Plasmodium, Balantidium, Vorticella, Sycon (Scypha), Poterion, Obelia, Physalia, Aurelia, Gorgonia, Metridium, Pennatula, Madrepora, Fasciola hepatica, Taenia solium, Ascaris lumbricoides. 30. Study of Gut Contents of Cockroach for Protozoa and Helminth 284—287 Materials Required, Preparation of Reagents, Procedure, Observation.

1 Importance to Taxonomy CHAPTER

Taxonomy has been defined as the study of the principles and practices of classification. Taxonomy refers to the day-to-day practice of dealing with the kinds of organisms. This includes the handling and identification of specimens, the publication of the data, the study of the literature, and the analysis of the variation shown by the specimens. Similarly, the arrangement of the Individuals into groups and the groups into a system is also called a classification, and in this the data about the kinds determine their position in the system and thereafter are reflected by that position. The term systematics deals with both taxonomy and classification, including all the other aspects of dealing with kinds of organisms and the data accumulated about them. Therefore, systematics is the study of the kinds and diversity of organisms, their distinction, classification, and evolution. These words are not universally used in these meanings. The dictionaries define them all as the science and practice of classifying. Inasmuch as there are several aspects to the field of classifying organisms, it is foolish to use all three words with the same general meaning and be left with no terms for the other concepts that we wish to discuss. Simpson in 1961 used “taxonomy” for the study of the theoretical aspects of classification, the philosophy of systematics—the metataxonomy or methodological taxonomy. These differences reflect the fact that no standard usage has yet been attained. It will be the intent in this book to use the term taxonomy when dealing principally with the practical aspects of segregating describing, naming, and recording the kinds or organisms; the term classification when referring chiefly to the grouping of like things into a system; and the term systematics when referring to all the activities of a biologist who is studying and recording the diversity of organisms, the origin and maintenance of the diversity, and the methods by which these studies are pursued. Among these may be cited typological, neo-Adansonian, non-dimensional, the New Systematics, biological species concept, numerical taxonomy, alpha-, beta-, and gamma-taxonomy, morphotype, archetype, holomorph, biospecies, biosystematics, hypodigm, and onomatophore. These terms are sometimes helpful for clarification of ideas, but in taxonomy they usually are not really needed. Inasmuch as taxonomy is defined as the work done by taxonomists, it would seem to be a simple thing to show what that includes. But unfortunately one can 1 2 NON-CHORDATES-I: PROTISTS TO PSEUDOCOELOMATES only list several major aspects of their work and indicate some of the things involved in each. 1. Collection of specimens. This may be by collecting in the field, exchanging, purchasing, going to a museum, or all of these. 2. Consultation of literature. All the literature back to the first description of a species in the group is required in most real taxonomic studies and is usually best obtained in a library, preferably the one attached to the museum containing the specimens. Further, some papers are obtainable upon request, or exchange, from the authors, and some books are obtainable by purchase from book stores or used-book dealers. 3. Observing specimens. Under this heading must be included not only the taxonomic study of the particular specimens but also the pertinent background knowledge, such as comparative anatomy, life history, development, and natural history. The taxonomic study must employ all appropriate and necessary methods, which will vary greatly from group to group. 4. Survey of literature. This goes on simultaneously with the study of the specimens, but there must also be a considerable knowledge of previous work before study of the specimens can usefully proceed. Unless the literature is quite restricted in volume, it will be necessary to organize it in some way, usually by some sort of cataloging; however, if catalogs and bibliographies have already been published this will help. 5. Identification of specimens. After the specimens and the literature have been sufficiently studied, the taxonomist will be able to identify some of the specimens. He will presumably know whether some of his specimens do not correspond to any of the species in the group and therefore represent new species. 6. Publication work. Having worked out the species and groups, he may prepare descriptions, keys, new descriptions, or monographs for publication. These embody his taxonomic conclusions, whether they are about the newness of a species or group, its position in the classifications, or an easier way to distinguish it from other species or groups. 7. Nomenclature. If any of the species or groups are new, the taxonomist must propose names for them. To do this he must be thoroughly familiar with the procedures and rules of nomenclature accepted by taxonomists. He must also have a working knowledge of the Latin and Greek employed in scientific names. 8. Justification. He must classify the new species, at least to the extent of assigning them to genera. Eventually he must go much further and classify the genera into groups and these groups into more inclusive groups—prepare a classification, which is a sort of synthesis of all he knows about the species and the groups. Although these are the principal scientific tasks of the taxonomist, he must usually perform some other tasks that make the taxonomic work possible. Delegation of these more routine tasks to a non-taxonomist is usually not a satisfactory arrangement. IMPORTANCE TO TAXONOMY 3

9. Preserving collections. As most of the work of the taxonomist is based on specimens of the animal species and the data recorded about them, it is necessary to maintain permanent collections so that specimens will be available when needed. Moreover, further taxonomists will use these collections to recheck the work and for later studies. Maintenance of the libraries is equally important. 10. Adoption of new methods. Although conventional methods are usually the basis for any taxonomic study, many cases require development or adoption of new methods before a successful solution can be achieved. It is always desirable to be on the lookout for new techniques that offer better results, and the taxonomist should try to adapt these to his work whenever the advance of the science requires it. 11. Framing rules. The highly technical nature of the rules under which zoological names are formed and used makes necessary not only an understanding of their provisions by all taxonomists but also the study of the rules themselves by certain taxonomists, who become in effect nomenclature specialists. These nomenclaturists attempt to make the rules more effective in making names serve the needs of all zoologists. They also serve as consultants to other taxonomists on questions of the use of names. IMPORTANT QUESTIONS Long Answer Type Questions 1. Describe the importance of taxonomy. 2. Mention of systematic approval to study the taxonomy. Short Answer Type Questions 1. Write notes on collection and observing specimens. 2. Describe the method of identification of specimens. 3. Discuss the adoption of new methods and framing rules. True and False 1. The division of organisms into small and large groups on the basis of similarities and differences is called taxonomy. 2. Taxonomy is restricted to animals only. 3. Simpson first used the word taxonomy. Fill in the Blanks 1. The primary stage in the study of taxonomy is ...... of specimens. 2. Identification of ...... is another important step in the study of taxonomy. Objective Questions 1. The branch of science that deals with the study of the principles of classification is called: (a) Taxonomy (b) Ethology (c) Autecology (d) Pedology. 4 NON-CHORDATES-I: PROTISTS TO PSEUDOCOELOMATES

2. The arrangement of the individuals into groups and the groups into a system is also called: (a) Methodology (b) Pharmacology (c) Classification (d) Zoo-geography. 3. The word taxonomy was first used by: (a) Simpson (b) Aristotle (c) Weismann (d) Cuvier. 4. Nomenclature means: (a) Naming the new species or groups (b) Naming the new born organisms (c) Naming the area by taxonomists (d) None. 5. Framing rules by the taxonomists is the final but significant aspect to fulfil the need of: (a) Zoologist (b) Botanists (c) Researcher (d) All.

Answers (True and False) 1. True 2. False 3. True Answers (Fill in the Blanks) 1. Collection 2. Specimens Answers (Objective Question) 1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (a) 5. (d)