Agricultural Research and Development on Small Islands and Atolls: the Papua New Guinea Experience

Pacific Economic Bulletin

Agricultural research and development on small islands and atolls: the Papua New Guinea experience

Louis M. Kurika, John E. Moxon and Meli Lolo

In the Pacific, food security in small islands and in atoll countries Louis M. Kurika is is increasingly under threat from a wide array of socio-cultural, NARI EU Atoll Project environmental, and economic factors affecting their food production Coordinator, John E. Moxon is Research and supply systems. Given that their prospects for export-oriented Programme Leader–NARI agriculture and industrial development are severely limited, the Wet Lowland Islands solution appears to be to undertake research and development Programme and Meli Lolo strategies that focus on improving subsistence agriculture and, is NARI EU Atoll Project where possible, cash income opportunities. This article discusses Scientist. the research and development strategy adopted by the National Agricultural Research Institute in Papua New Guinea to strengthen food security in Papua New Guinea’s small islands and atolls.

In many small islands and in atoll countries countries. The extent to which food security in the Pacific, the ability of food production in small islands and in atoll countries is and supply systems to ensure food security affected vary, but there is a tendency for food and sustain the livelihoods of communities insecurity problems resulting from low food are increasingly coming under threat from production and supply problems to be more socio-cultural, environmental, and economic serious in small remote islands and in atoll factors (Hawkes 1990; Sommers 1990; countries than in the larger Pacific island Halavatau 2004). While the generally held countries. The food security situation also view is that none of the Pacific countries differs between rural and urban areas, with is in a state of extreme food insecurity, rural communities still striving to produce there is a clear declining trend in food foods while communities around urban production, particularly in small islands and centres rely heavily on imported foods. in atoll countries, accompanied by increased Unfortunately, there is no sure way importation of processed foods in the atoll to strengthen food security in Pacific

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countries given the variability in socio- Bakker (1990) reported that around cultural, environmental and economic 160,000 persons were living in atoll countries factors between and within the various in 1990. This number accounted for 2.6 per Pacific islands and atoll countries. Despite cent of the total population of the South this, however, there have been numerous Pacific island countries. For Papua New opinions and propositions put forward Guinea, Bourke et al. (2000) estimated on what the problems are, and how to around 90,000 persons to be living on very proceed. The consensus appears to favour a small and small islands (area: 1–10 and 11– research and development strategy focusing 100 square kilometres), which accounted for on improving domestic commercial and around 2 per cent of Papua New Guinea’s subsistence agriculture (Sommers 1990; population subsisting on less than 0.4 per Hawkes 1990). cent of the country’s landmass. This article discusses some of the main issues affecting food security in the small Food security issues in Pacific small Pacific islands and atoll countries, and islands and atolls the research and development strategy Food security issues in small Pacific islands presently used by the Wet Lowland and atoll countries have been the subject Island Programme (WLIP) of the National of a considerable number of workshops Agricultural Research Institute (NARI) in and discussion papers on atoll agriculture Papua New Guinea to address food security (Halavatau 2004; Hawkes 1990; Sommers in PNG islands and atolls. 1990; Thaman 1989). The issues stem from pressures exerted by socio-cultural, environmental and economic factors on The Pacific atolls food production and supply systems, which leave small island and atoll communities The most vulnerable communities to food vulnerable to food insecurity problems. security threats in the Pacific live on 300 The environment. The agricultural atolls, which are mainly situated in the environment in small Pacific islands and Central and Western Pacific between the atoll countries is one of the harshest for o o latitudes of 30 north and 30 south of the producing foods on a sustained basis. The Equator. These atolls make up small parts soils are low in fertility with high pH, have of the larger land masses in Papua New little organic matter and poor water holding Guinea, Solomon Islands, Palau, Fiji, Tonga capacities, and therefore are not conducive and New Caledonia; significant parts of for plant growth. Rainfall is unpredictable. the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM), There is a rainy belt in the central and western French Polynesia and Cook Islands; and all Pacific (where the atolls are concentrated) on of the low lying island states such as Tuvalu, both sides of the equator, and it decreases Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Niue, Tokelau northward and southward. Being low and Nauru. In Papua New Guinea there are lying, the small islands and atolls have no 120 very small islands with an average area orographic influence over their weather of 1–10 square kilometres and population patterns and so are subject to the conditions density of over 100 persons per square of the areas where they are located. The kilometre; and a further 20 small islands amount and reliability of rainfall, whether with areas of 11–100 square kilometres and for agriculture or human consumption, population densities also over 100 persons can often be gauged from the presence or per square kilometre (Bourke 2000). absence of luxuriant vegetation growth. The

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other main source of water present on larger cent) of the populations are young—often islands is from underground water lenses. under the age of 15 years. Such populations Deep-rooted plants can draw water from have high and unfavourable dependency them. However, they are also not reliable ratios with high proportions of the population sources of water as during dry periods they being of school age and they have built-in often become contaminated with seawater. potential for further growth (Bakker 1977). Hurricanes and wind-blown salt spray are Population densities and growth rates. also important phenomenon. Hurricanes Population densities and growth rates are destroy food gardens while most crop plants already very high in some atoll states due do not tolerate wind-blown salt sprays to small land areas (less than 1.0 hectare) (Fosberg 1990). and high population growth rates (greater Atoll country economies. The economies than 2.5 per cent). If one is to assume that of atoll countries are characterised by large an acceptable population density under trade imbalances, with increased reliance subsistence farming is less than 100 persons on imported foods, goods, and foreign aid. per square kilometre then situations in Thaman (1989) reported that the value of many atoll groups are already critical as food imports by Kiribati, which was just they have some of the highest population below A$5 million, was almost 150 per densities in the world. For instance, Bourke cent the value of locally produced exports and Betitis (2003) reported well over 1,000 from fish, copra, and handicraft. Their persons per square kilometre in the Carteret remoteness, small size, limited resources Islands of Papua New Guinea, while Bakker and variable infrastructure development (1990) reported extremely high population severely limit potential for export-oriented densities of 11,000 and 27,000 persons per agriculture and industrial development square kilometre respectively for two urban (Thaman 1989; Halavatu 2004). Their small areas of Majuro and Kwajalein atolls in the population size also disproportionately Marshall Islands. increases the transportation costs per unit Using the rating scale developed by of imports and exports, making imports American demographer D. J. Bogue to explain very costly, and reducing returns on exports. the implications of population growth rates Household incomes are low, with few in Pacific atolls, Bakker (1977) concluded that people in the rural outer islands having many Pacific atoll countries have explosive formal wage employment, and depending annual growth rates (great than 2.5 to 4.0 almost exclusively on meagre incomes from per cent), with potential to double in 20 to 35 copra and remittances. The latter, associated years to reach population levels that would with emigration, have allowed high living be physically impossible to sustain in some standards relative to other developing small islands and atoll areas. countries, in Polynesian atoll countries. The high population growth is placing enormous pressure on the limited resource Demographic features base of small islands and atolls, and on Age-gender structure. Results of analysis the land area suitable for agriculture, undertaken on available demographic settlements, and commercial and data—that is, on birth and death rates and infrastructural development. This limits migration—show that many Pacific islands modern development initiatives along and atoll countries have broad to very broad western lines (Thaman 1989). age-sex structures with a low median age, Nutrition and health. The heavy reliance indicating that high percentages (40–50 per on consumption of nutritionally-inferior,

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processed, imported foods raises serious Transportation and communication. concerns over the health of communities The remoteness and isolation of small in small islands and atolls because of islands and atolls present serious food strong evidence linking such diets to supply problems for their communities increasing rates of lifestyle related diseases due to lack of transport, high cost of such as obesity, diabetes, heart disease, transport, and communication problems. hypertension, cancer and gout. These non- As such, there is very little opportunity to communicable diseases (NCD) are costly in access much-needed foods from outside to terms of reduced work capacity and the use supplement the inadequate supplies on the of limited health care expenditure in their islands. Transportation and communication treatment. problems also hinder the sale of export The other nutritional issues in small commodities such as marine produce islands and atoll countries are micro and copra whose proceeds could be used nutrient deficiencies, in particular Iron to purchase additional food. They also Deficiency Anaemia (IDA) and Vitamin A prevent new crops and other agricultural Deficiency (VAD). IDA is caused by lack of innovations from reaching the island iron in foods, often as a result of replacement communities. of traditional diets with less nutritious Narrow crop genetic base. The narrow crop imported ones. VAD is common in the atolls genetic base is an impediment to increased of Micronesia and the Solomon Islands and food production in many small islands is primarily due to consumption of foods and atolls. Only a few food plants such as with an inadequate supply of vitamin A. pandanus and some fruit and nut species are Land shortages and land degradation. native to the atolls. Coconut (Cocos nucifera Land shortages and land degradation are L), Colocasia and Cystosperma taros, banana major factors limiting present and future (Musa spp.) and breadfruit (Artocarpus prospects for expanding food production altilis) now popularly grown in the Pacific in small islands and atolls. These problems are aboriginal plant introductions. Their are attributed mainly to population pressure cultivation requires the addition of organic on land, which is rendering garden and matter or compost to enhance growth under tree foods inadequate. Bourke and Betitis atoll conditions (Manner 1987). In general, (2003) reported land shortages as serious the genetic base for crops in terms of the problems on the Carteret and Pinipel numbers of species and varieties tends to islands in Bougainville. In these cases very be more diverse in the larger countries of limited land area is now available for food the western Pacific such as Papua New gardening. Cropping has intensified with Guinea, Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu and continuous planting and only short fallow decreases as one moves eastward to the periods. This has resulted in reduced soil central Pacific and beyond. fertility and low crop yields, with occasional Lack of good quality planting material. total crop failure. People now depend on a Because of their isolation, communities in more permanent basis on famine or unusual many small islands and atolls do not have staple foods such as fish and flesh of the access to good quality planting materials, young coconut on the Carteret islands and especially the élite varieties recommended the fruit of a mangrove species (Bruguiera by researchers. This is due to the high cost eriopetala) on Pinipel Island. As with most of transport. Regular inputs of healthy and famine foods, this fruit requires considerable good quality planting materials of crops preparation to make it palatable. are needed to support food production in

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remote islands and atolls. This is because In atoll countries such as Kiribati they of the gradual deterioration in crop yields are still practised on indigenous food over time, mainly due to the low soil fertility plants (for example, pandanus, breadfruit, and wind-blown salt spray, and to periodic swamp taro and figs). These methods incidence of insect pests and diseases, and are generally more laborious and time- weed infestations. These factors ultimately consuming to prepare and with the rapid combine to produce poor quality planting increase in urbanisation, especially in the materials for succeeding plantings. atoll countries, this knowledge is in danger Natural disasters. Hurricanes, typhoons and of being lost. extended periods of bad weather often cause temporary food insecurity problems on Export commodities small islands and atolls. Hurricanes destroy The cash incomes earned from export food gardens while prolonged periods of commodities offer prospects for obtaining bad weather (heavy rains and rough seas) additional food supplies for these disrupt fishing and movement of food communities. Coconut is still the main supplies between islands. Halavatau (2004) cash crop and there is an abundance of reported that there is considerable resilience marine produce. However, marketing of within island communities to temporary these products is often constrained by lack food shortages caused by natural disasters. of transport, high transport costs, and lack However, Halavatau notes that this is bound of infrastructure development. to change due to urbanisation and as the islanders plant fewer drought tolerant crops and lose traditional knowledge about how A research and development to cope with natural disasters. strategy for small islands and Livestock. Livestock production in small atolls in Papua New Guinea islands and atoll countries, which is mainly based on pig, poultry and chicken, is limited The wide array of problems facing food by lack of feed, poor animal health and production and supply systems in small nutrition, low pedigree breeds, and lack of islands and atoll countries presented above, extension, finance and markets. Provision while not exhaustive, are testament to the of adequate feed for livestock is hindered by need for effective agriculture research and the lack of feed and the high cost of purchase. development strategies to address their food There are recommendations available on the insecurity. Since small islands and atolls have use of alternative local feed sources but their limited scope for export-orientated agriculture practical application in village and rural and industrial development to enhance their settings is lacking. Also, there are few trained ability to purchase food imports, research personnel in animal health; and livestock and development initiatives should focus producers generally lack the knowledge and on improving subsistence agriculture. This appreciation of the benefits of disease control is essentially the strategy that the NARI-EU (Tearimaawa 2004). Atoll Research and Development Project in Traditional methods of food processing Papua New Guinea is pursuing and one that was pointed to by earlier Pacific researchers and preservation (Thaman 1989; Hawkes 1990). Research in Traditional methods of food processing Papua New Guinea is conducted under and preservation were quite important the following research and development in the past in sustaining food supplies. components

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• review of literature on atoll agriculture species and varieties of the main lowland • baseline surveys of atoll agriculture staple and food crops, which included farming systems African yam, drought tolerant varieties of sweet potato, blight resistant taro varieties, • establishment of an atoll crop germplasm open-pollinated corn, upland rice varieties, collection and various introduced vegetables such as • preliminary varietal screening trials watermelon, cucumber, Chinese cabbage under coastal and atoll conditions and snake bean, were tested at a site on the • information and outreach. Duke of York Islands. Research under the first and second The fifth component of the project components of the project is aimed at is a development activity involving documenting the agriculture farming multiplication and supply of crop planting systems in Papua New Guinea small islands materials and dissemination of information and atolls and in identifying the main on relevant agricultural technologies to factors affecting agriculture in terms of food Papua New Guinea islands and atolls. The production and generation of cash income. crop species distributed so far include the It involves a review of literature available on following food crops: African or rotundata atoll agriculture and conducting agriculture yam, drought tolerant varieties of sweet baseline surveys in seven coastal provinces. potato and cassava, blight resistant varieties The data collected and information compiled of taro, upland varieties of rice, some will provide a fairly detailed description of popular varieties of banana, giant taro and the atoll agriculture farming systems and swamp taro, plus selected varieties of fruit should form the basis for formulating and nut species with good yield and eating future research and development strategies quality such as rambutans (Nephelium to address food security and income Lappaceum), durians (Durio zibethinus), generation needs in the Papua New Guinea mangoes (Mangifera indicum), mangosteen islands and atolls. (Garcinia mangostonia), citrus (Citrus spp.), The second area of research under abiu, carambola (Averrhoa carambola) and component three, involves the establishment okari (Terminalia spp). Planting materials of an island and atoll crop germplasm of vanilla (V. tahitensis), an alternative cash collection at the NARI Keravat research crop, was also distributed to some large station. This work is aimed at conserving islands. the gene pool of food and fruit and nut As well as the above, the project crops in the Papua New Guinea islands and established fruit and nut orchards at Nissan atolls and protecting them against genetic and Buka in Bougainville, on Lou Island erosion. The collection will be documented, in Manus province, and on Milmila in the with promising crop species and varieties Duke of York Islands. that have good eating qualities and are high The research so far has revealed yielding made available for distribution to some fairly interesting results. The atoll other Papua New Guinea islands and atolls agriculture farming systems in Papua New that require them. Guinea, while similar in many respects, The third area of research under have localised variations in the importance component 4, involves preliminary testing of of certain crops, traditional post-harvest crop species and varieties under island and practices, and accessibility to external atoll conditions to identify suitable species sources of food that need to be considered and varieties. The performance of 30 crop in research and development initiatives.

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Opportunities exist to transfer crop varieties white African yam (D. rotundata), a recent and traditional knowledge on stress-coping introduction that is performing very well strategies, for instance, utilisation of famine in the PNG lowlands, appears promising food plants and methods of food preparation for the PNG islands and atolls. and preservation. The results from the preliminary Yields of some of the crop varieties screening trials highlighted two issues. collected from the islands and atolls have First, that there is substantial variability been encouraging. This is likely due to in crop adaptation to atoll environments, the Pacific islanders selecting these crop with cassava (32–52 tonnes per hectare), varieties over many years under the harsh aibika or bele (A. manihot) and African atoll environments and also possibly due yam (30–50 tonnes per hectare) appearing to the materials being less contaminated by to be more adaptive than other crops; and diseases and pests because of their isolation. second, that there is an important need in Some of the atoll sweet potato varieties Papua New Guinea islands and atolls to have produced extremely high yields (60 address soil fertility to enhance growth of tonnes per hectare) when planted in good most other crops. soil. They are now being tested against On the delivery of research findings to NARI-recommended varieties at Induna the Papua New Guinea islands and atolls, the Plantation on a coastal site along the south project team has had first-hand experience coast of the East New Britain province. with the difficulties development agents Observations also indicate there is scope face while implementing R&D initiatives. for improving food security in the Papua Project efforts to distribute crop planting New Guinea islands and atolls, at least materials and disseminate information on where subsistence food production is still relevant technologies to remote islands and practised, by introducing more adaptive and atolls were constrained by transport and productive crop species and varieties. We communication problems. This situation have, for instance, noticed that the triploid is unlikely to change unless the provincial banana ABB (Daru; PNG131) along with governments take remedial steps to improve another banana locally known as ‘Buka sea transport and communication links with Yawa’ (probably Popos in the local Buka, the island and atoll groups. Novah dialect) to be thriving well in the calcareous soils in the New Guinea Islands Region. The Daru banana is the main staple Future islands and atoll research of the Duke of York Islands ahead of sweet potato and Chinese taro (Kurika et al. 2004). With the benefit of hindsight, observations It is present in small numbers in the Carteret on PNG atoll agriculture farming systems Islands where it is known as ‘Surik’ (Tobasi, and the wealth of information collected pers. comm.). There are well over 120 under the project, there is now better accessions of triploid bananas in the PNG appreciation of the project scope, along National Collection, a proportion of which with some key areas that atoll research and is made up of hardier ABB and AAB types development initiatives should focus on in or genomes, which have not been tested Papua New Guinea. under atoll conditions. The same can be said Farming systems research. The promising of the 79 PRAP and NARI released lowland yield performance noted in the atoll sweet varieties of sweet potato and the 77 cassava potato varieties is testament to years of varieties in the National Collection. The selection undertaken by Pacific islanders

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under harsh agricultural environments. of Sustainable Agriculture in the Pacific Because formal crop varietal testing in (DSAP) Project and Papua New Guinea atolls is expensive, greater attention should needs to tap into this research while it is be given to farmer-managed, on-farm building up its capacity in soils research. adaptation trials. This research should Coconut and alternative cash crops. involve an initial survey by NARI of the Access to markets and availability of testing sites to document the status of the land should be major considerations farming systems, followed by release of in the recommendations of cash crops materials and an impact survey from six for PNG islands and atolls. For coconut months onward to assess adoption rates there is an immediate need to introduce and constraints and whether or not any higher-yielding varieties and redevelop opportunities have arisen as a result of the old plantings to improve production. introduction of the new materials. The introductions could be hybrids or Indigenous crops. Atoll agriculture research high-yielding local talls, as well as dwarf should continue to focus on indigenous varieties, which are suitable for making crops, exploiting existing genetic variability toddy, a mild alcoholic beverage, and in staple crops as well as fruit and nut species. molasses used in sweetening foods. The The traditional perennial leafy greens such planting materials can be sourced from the as Kalava (O. orientale) Valangur (Polyscias Papua New Guinea Cocoa Coconut Institute verticilata), Kagua (Ficus copiosa), Tulip (CCI). The possibilities for introducing (Gnetum gnemon), and Karakap (Solanum coconut oil expellers to the PNG islands nigrum), which are more nutritious than and atolls should also be explored. introduced vegetables, require less labour, Besides coconut, the other potential and seem better adapted to atoll conditions, alternative cash crops for the islands are must receive research attention. There is also the high-value, low-volume, spice crops a need for creating greater awareness of the such as vanilla and pepper. There are good important role of indigenous crops in the prospects for inter-planting vanilla with nutrition and health of small islands and gliricidia (G. sepium) as support species. atoll communities. Gliricidia clippings and leaves can be used Soils. Addressing soil fertility and soil as mulch and in compost making to improve degradation is the key to improving soil fertility. If properly cured, the vanilla food production in PNG islands and beans can be stored for long periods while atolls. This can be done using soil fertility awaiting boats to transport them to markets. enhancing techniques such as mulching and Current donor-funded research at NARI composting, or using improved agro-forestry Keravat on nutmeg and galip (C. indicum) systems that incorporate multi-purpose tree may also be relevant to communities on species. Efforts to promote composting in larger islands. the Pacific have been aimed at encouraging Livestock. For livestock there is scope people to make compost on a continuous to improve village stocks through the basis and to make composting simpler and introduction of new breeds. This is possible the decomposition process faster. Various with poultry where the better adapted techniques have been developed but for Australorp chicken, available at NARI reasons of practicability have not received Keravat, can be introduced to PNG atolls. wider acceptance. Research is continuing There is also need to promote the use of in the Pacific under the Development cheap, locally made, alternative feeds.

Post-harvest storage and processing. Food While they can be effective, non-government supply systems in PNG islands and atolls organisations come and go and research could be greatly enhanced if the islanders needs to establish better and closer linkages are taught the best ways of storing and with suitable contact farmers as partners in processing their staple foods. There are the delivery process. traditional methods of food processing and Other relevant technologies. Under the utilisation of famine food plants and fruit outreach component the project will package and nut species. Information on these and NARI developed technologies deemed other relevant foreign techniques for storing suitable for the PNG islands and atolls. and processing the important staple foods They include should be compiled and disseminated to • Plant Derived Pesticide (PDP) the communities. Technology Package Provincial resource centres. It became • Vanilla Technology Information apparent to the project team that for the Package project to effectively deliver to the provinces, • Lowland Sweet Potato Varieties NARI, the implementing agency, needs to have representation in the provinces. This • Nutmeg Clones and Information is the basis for the provincial resource Package centre concept. The concept is still at a • Banana Pest Control Technology discussion stage but there are indications Package that one or two provinces in the New Guinea • Australorp Chicken islands region are interested in pursuing • Rope and Washer Pump. this extension approach. It would involve collaborative arrangements in research and development initiatives between Conclusions the provinces and the various research institutions. The provincial resource Food security in many small Pacific islands centres would act as one-stop shops where and atoll countries is increasingly coming farmers can go to source information on under threat from a wide array of socio- agriculture and where research institutions cultural, environmental and economic can conduct farmer training and field factors. These need to be addressed on all days, disseminate information on new fronts using a multidisciplinary approach. agricultural technologies, and maintain In Papua New Guinea, the NARI Wet crop multiplication plots for distributing Lowland Islands Programme at Keravat, planting materials to farmers. In this way East New Britain Province, has adopted a the problems of communication with the research and development strategy focused provinces should be overcome and the on improving subsistence agriculture delivery process much improved. and income-generation opportunities for Better networking and the use of contact small PNG islands and atolls. The strategy farmers. This is an area that the project has involves sought to improve. Its success in making several shipments of planting material to the • conducting baseline surveys to Polynesian atolls in Bougainville has been document the atoll agriculture farming largely due to its close collaboration with systems and identify the main factors the AusAID representative on Bougainville. affecting food security

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• conducting crop prospection and References collection to establish an atoll crop germplasm collection at NARI Keravat Bakker, M.L., 1977. ‘The population • conducting preliminary varietal problem in the South Pacific: the screening trials to identify suitable exploding “population bomb”’, South crop species and varieties for the atoll Pacific Bulletin, 4th quarter:17–22. environment ——, 1990. ‘Some demographic • distributing some NARI-recommended characteristics of the atoll populations and popular crop species and varieties of the South Pacific’,Review of plus information on relevant NARI- Agricultural Development in the Atolls, released technologies to interested atoll Invited papers from the International farmers. Conference on Developing Agricultural Preliminary research results indicate Research Programs for Atolls held at certain perennial bananas can thrive in Pacific Harbour, Fiji, November. coastal and atoll conditions along with Bourke, R.M., 2000. ‘An overview of food varieties of cassava, aibika or Bele, and security in PNG’, in R.M. Bourke, the African or rotundata yam. Some atoll M.G. Allen and J.G. Salisbury (eds) crops, especially the sweet potato varieties, Food Security for Papua New Guinea. produced encouraging yields under fertile Proceedings of the Papua New Guinea soil conditions. This suggests that an Food and Nutrition 2000 Conference, opportunity exists to exploit the wide PNG University of Technology, Lae, crop genetic base present in some PNG 26–30 June, ACIAR Proceedings No. food crops and this research should be 99, Canberra. pursued through more intense and wider —— and Betitis T., 2003. Sustainability crop prospection and collection in the PNG of agriculture in Bougainville province, islands and atolls. Papua New Guinea, Land Management Atoll research in Papua New Guinea Group, Department of Human should focus on indigenous crops, soil- Geography, Research School of Pacific enhancing methods and relevant post- and Asian Studies, The Australian harvest techniques for atoll crops. For cash National University, Canberra. crops, better yielding coconut varieties Fosberg, F.R., 1990. The coral island should be introduced, along with high-value, environment and its relevance to atoll low-volume, spice crops as alternative cash agriculture, Paper presented at Atoll crops. The use of atoll farmers in adaptive Agriculture Workshop, Fiji, November. varietal testing should also be given due Halavatau, S., 2004. Food security issues consideration. Lastly, the establishment in the Pacific region, Paper presented of better networking and closer linkages at the regional workshop on food between research and extension through security in atoll countries, Tarawa, the use of Provincial Resource Centres October (unpublished). and suitable contact farmers are proposed development initiatives for enhancing Hawkes, R. 1990. Priorities for atoll the delivery of research findings and research: the case for a focus on recommendations to communities in the self-sufficiency in foodstuffs, Paper Papua New Guinea islands and atolls. presented to the Workshop on

Developing an Agricultural Research Program for the Atolls, Pacific Harbour, Fiji, 19–23 November. Kurika, L.M., 2004. Report of the Regional Workshop on Food Security in Atoll and Study tour to the Republic of Kiribati, October (unpublished). —— and Benjamin, A.K., 2004. An overview of the food security situation in Papua New Guinea islands and atolls, Paper presented at the regional workshop on food security in atoll countries, held at Tarawa, October (unpublished). ——, Lolo, M. and Kalamen, M., 2004. Project research field trip reports and report on the main farming systems issues recorded at the Duke of York Islands, ENBP Atoll Baseline Survey, NARI Keravat (unpublished). Manner, H.I., 1987. ‘Atoll flora and vegetation’, Alafua Agriculture Bulletin (University of the South Pacific, Apia), 12(3). Sommers, P., 1990. Improving household food security on atolls: a strategy for agriculture research, Paper presented at the Atoll Agriculture Workshop, Fiji, November. Thaman, R.R., 1989. ‘Research for atoll resource development and management: Priorities and capabilities for applied research in Kiribati’, Background paper prepared for the Kiribati Atoll Applied Resource for Development Consultation, Ministry for Natural Resource Developmeynt, Tarawa, 27 February–2 March. Tearimaawa, N., 2004. Appropriate livestock and other production and management systems for food security in atolls, Paper presented to the Regional Workshop on Food security on Atoll Countries, Tarawa, 19–23 October.