Index

A binary gender , 8, 11–12, 151, 152, Title: Lesbian, , Bisexual and 154, 216, 221, 241–2 Trans People (LGBT) and biphobia , 17, 18, 70 the Criminal Justice System bisexuality , 17, 18–19, 35, 141, 218 Author: Charlotte Knight Black and Minority Ethnic (BME) Year: March-2016 LGBT People , 19, 27, 89, Albert Kennedy Trust () , 95–6 114, 244 Anti-Homosexual Act , 223 buggery , 36–8 ‘Anti-Propaganda Law,’ 218 cisgender , 20–21, 259 arrests histories, USA Civil Partnership Act 2004 , 182 drug related off ences , 97 Civil Partnership Act 2005 , 55 ‘gay mafi a,’ 98 Community Rehabilitation murder and rape , 97 Companies (CRCs) , 166, poverty and mental distress , 97 169, 257 property and violent crime , 97 Convention on the Elimination of sodomy and postal law violations , all Forms of 96–7 against Women (CEDAW) , violent crime , 98 183 Beyond Tolerance: Making Sexual conversion therapy , 209 Orientation a Public Matter, Coordinated Community Response 15 (CCR), 201

© Th e Editor(s) (if applicable) and Th e Author(s) 2016 263 C. Knight, K. Wilson, Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Trans People (LGBT) and the Criminal Justice System, DOI 10.1057/978-1-137-49698-0 264 Index

corrective rape , 222, 223 prosecution and criminal defence courts , 255–6 services, 126–30 CPS policy , 130 Criminal Justice Inspection EHRC report , 129–30 (CJINI) , juvenile , 89 71 ‘Newton hearing,’ 130 Criminal Justice (No 2) (Northern ‘Portsmouth defence,’ 126 Ireland) Order 2004 , 54 post-sentence , 257 criminal justice system (CJS) , 2 Scottish , 160 Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885 court welfare offi cers (CWOs) , ‘Blackmailers Charter,’ 40 138–9 , 40 criminalisation lesbian , 40–41 Africa , 222 off ence of gross indecency , 39–40 asylum , 225 cross-dressing , 11, 22, 38 buggery and sodomy , 36–7 crown prosecution service (CPS) , 70, ‘grotesque homicides,’ 209–10 78–9, 113, 126, 129–30 India , 217–18 Data Protection Act , 1998, 51, 167 intersectionality , 226–7 discrimination Iran , 220–222 contemporary policing , 124 Islamic State of Iraq and Levant , criminal justice agencies , 114 210 direct , 52 regional organisations , 209 hate crime , 158–9, 178–9 Russia , 207, 218–20 homelessness , 96, 107 of sex , 6 indirect , 53 South Africa , 207, 223 intersectionality , 14–15, 17 Uganda , 223–5 lesbianism and femininity , 104 United Nations (UN) , 208–9 off enders , 239 Criminal Justice Act 1991 , 1, 114 same-sex DVA , 192–3 Criminal Justice Act 1994 , 49 sexual/racial , 49–50 Criminal Justice Act 2003 , 51, 58, workplace , 155–6 130, 160 diversity , 3, 114–15, 243, 245, criminal justice agencies 253, 261 discrimination , 114 domestic violence and abuse (DVA) diversity , 114–15 defi nition , 183–4 hegemonic masculinity , 113–14 honour based violence , 184 invisibility of people , 115 male aggression , 180 police service , 115–25 prejudice and discrimination , 179 prisons , 130–135 same-sex relationships probation service , 135–41 (see (same-sex DVA) ) Index 265

Th e Domestic Violence, Crime and Duty 2007 , Victims Act 2004 , 51, 53 51, 55–6 D V A . See domestic violence and gender identity disorder (GID) , abuse (DVA) 22, 149, 152 ECtHR . See European Court of gender-neutral titles , 154–5 Human Rights (ECtHR) gender non-conformity , 22, 141, Employment Equality Act (Sexual 149, 151, 159 Orientation) Regulations gender reassignment , 172 2003 , 52–3, 122 Gender Reassignment Regulations , 51, 55 (Northern Ireland) 1999, 52 , 4, 16, 56–8, 68, gender reassignment treatment , 122, 147, 151, 156, 162, 55–7, 151–2, 160, 162, 170, 172, 241 165–6, 171–2, 221, 235–8 Equality Act () Gender Recognition Act (GRA) , Regulations 2007 , 55 50–54, 150, 157, 162, 165, Equality and Human Rights 167, 168, 235, 260 Commission (EHRC) , 15, gender recognition certifi cate (GRC), 50, 76, 128, 129, 147–8, 53–4, 166–8, 171 253, 257–8 Gender Recognition (Exceptions to European Convention Rights, 50 Off ence of Disclosure) European Council for Refugees and Order 2005 , 54–5 Exiles , 225 (GRP) , European Court of Human Rights 54, 155 (ECtHR), 48, 50, 217 gender transformation , 153–4 evidence-based research , 3, 4 gender variance , 153 Freedom of Information Act , 160 genetic disability , 14 ‘gay bashing,’ impact of , 126 genital reassignment surgery , 149 gay culture , 91 GID . See gender identity disorder gay identity , 91 (GID) (GLF) , 48 GRA . See Gender Recognition Act gay liberation movement , 14 (GRA) ‘gay mafi a,’ 98 GRC . See gender recognition gay movement , 225 certifi cate (GRC) ‘gay panic’ defence , 127 Greater Probation Trust gay rights (GMPT) , 165–6 and human dignity , 48–9 ‘grotesque homicides,’ 209–10 and pride, advent of , 47–8 G R P . See Gender Recognition Panel gender dysphoria , 22, 51, 54, 151–3, (GRP) 171 habitual homosexuals , 131–2 266 Index

Handbook of LGBT Communities, Europe’s , 228–9 Crime and Justice, 4 hate crime , 65, 70–72, 74, 80 hate crime institutionalised , 128 barriers , 78 internalised , 25, 67, 196 categories , 74 and misogyny , 27 defi nition , 68 police service , 119 domestic violence , 66–7 prosecution and criminal defence homophobic , 65, 70–72, 74, 80, services, 126 161 same-sex DVA , 192–3 impact of , 75–6 homophobic harassment , 69 legislation , 68 Jarman Report , 72 perpetrators , 78–9 lesbian and gay people , 70–71, 75 reporting process , 77–8, 80 multi-agency protocols , 72 sexual orientation , 67, 69 physical and threats , 70, transgendered people , 66, 148, 74 158–62 in public spaces , 75 transphobic , 159–60 sexual-orientation , 72–3 victimisation, strategies , 76–7 victimisation , 71 violent crime , 67–8 homosexual acts illegal and young LGBT people , 73–4 Africa , 212 hegemonic masculinity , 22–3, Asia , 212 113–14 Europe , 212 heinous crime , 101–2 Latin America and Caribbean , heteronormativity , 18, 23, 59–60, 213 242 Oceania , 213 heterosexism , 5, 9, 23, 25, 94, homosexual acts legal 192–3, 199, 201, 259 Africa , 210 heterosexuality , 3, 11–13, 15, 19–20, Asia , 211 23, 24, 59, 132 Europe , 211 homelessness Latin America and Caribbean , Albert Kennedy Trust , 95–6 211 alcohol or drugs, use of , 96 North America , 212 discrimination and off ending, 96, Oceania , 212 107 ‘homosexual deviancy’ thesis , 86 identity and sexuality , 95–6 homosexuality , 19, 24 off enders , 85 ambivalence , 117 school-to-prison pipeline , 88–90 death penalty, Uganda , 223 homicides , 209–10 ‘distinctively deviant’ perception , homophobia , 23–4 117–18 abnormal sexual behaviour , 13 habitual homosexuals , 131–2 Index 267 homosexuality (cont.) ‘International Transgender Day of Islamic sharia law , 221 Remembrance,’ 209 ‘machismo canteen culture,’ 116 intersectionality , 25 punishment , 36–8 bisexual people , 17 situational homosexuals , 132 gay liberation movement , 14 ‘social ill,’ Iran , 220 genetic disability , 14 true homosexuals , 132 multiple identities, characteristics , Homosexual Law Reform Society , 15–16 1960, 46 prejudice and discrimination , ‘homosexual propagandists,’ 219 14–15, 17 honour based violence , 184 queer theory , 17 ‘hooliganism,’ 220 recruitment strategies , 16 Human Fertilisation and sexual orientation , 15 Embryology Act 2008 , 51, sisterhood, notion of , 14 56 intersex , 12, 26, 150, 208–9, 228 Human Rights Act 1998 , 49–50, 57 intimate partner violence , 13 hyper-masculinity , 131 invisibility , 2, 16, 107, 115, 133, identity 140, 156, 200, 220 gay culture, 91 Iranian Railroad for Queer Refugees , gender , 90–91, 152 221 management strategies , 123–4, Islamic Revolution of 1979 , 220 125 Legal Aid Sentencing and multiple , 15–16 Punishment of Off enders politics , 24 Act 2012 , 58, 160 self-esteem or confi dence issues, legislation , 68 90 acts or regulations , 51–8 sexual cultural competence , 91 anti-discriminatory policy , and sexuality , 95–6 252–3 sexual orientation , 90–91 bisexual people , 35 Independent Domestic Violence and criminalisation , 36–8 Advisers , 201 discrimination, sexual/racial , Independent Sexual Violence 49–50 Advisers , 201 gay rights , 47–9 individual practice , 258–60 inheritance and marriage , 35 institutional heterosexism , 25 lesbians, treatment of , 38–9 International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and policy , 12–13 Trans and Intersex sexual orientation , 36 Association (ILGA) , 208, and social changes , 235 210, 217–18, 225, 227 (1957) , 45–7 268 Index

lesbians man-to-man abuse homophobic harassment , gay male relationships , 188 70–1, 75 sexual violence and rape , 188 identity , 245 marriage inheritance and marriage , 38 domestic violence and rape , 200 police offi cers , 116–17 equality , 227 prisons, 134–5 forced , 184 probation service , 137–8 and inheritance , 35, 38 same-sex relationships, legal legal recognition , 59 scholarship , 39 nuclear family structure , 59 sexual orientation , 39 same-sex , 13, 58–60, 208, 216, victimisation , 249–50 227–8, 248 women’s sexuality , 39 Marriage (Same Sex Couples) Act Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and 2013 , 6, 58, 182 Transgender Advisory masculinity, male prisons Group (LGBTAG) , hegemonic masculinity and sex , 120–1, 123 130–131 lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans and hyper-masculinity , 131 intersex (LGBTI) people , medical model , 24, 26 42, 218, 227, 234 mental health lesbianism and femininity, USA depression , 93 capital punishment , 102 homophobic bullying , 92, 93 death sentence, 102–3 homosexuality , 91–2 heinous crime , 101–2 low self-esteem , 94 intersectionality , 102 social capital , 93 labelling and stereotyping , 100–1 stress, stigmatisation and self- ‘man haters,’ 102 esteem , 92–3 masculinised physical appearance , suicide or self-harm , 94 104–5 men who have sex with men , perpetrators of crime , 100 26, 78, 193 lesbians, Britain minority stress , 26–7, 192–3, 260 chivalry, individual women, 106 misogyny , 27, 68, 132 ‘common-law wife,’ 106 Multi-Agency Risk Assessment ‘the female off ender,’ 105–6 Conferences (MARACs) , lesbian prostitute , 107 201 ‘punishable woman,’ 105 murder Th e Macpherson Report , 68 gay prisoners , 97, 120 ‘man haters,’ 102 heinous crime , 102 Index 269

homophobic , 214, 219 sexual pervert , 236 homosexual panic , 126, 137 social issues , 85, 87–8 of trans people , 209–10 substance use , 94–5 National Domestic Violence Strategy , treatment of people , 98–9 201 ‘,’ 128 National Gay Policing Association , paranoia , 252 125 persecution, post-war Th e National Off ender Management gross indecency , 45 Service (NOMS) , 114, 130, homosexuality , 42, 44 133, 135 Nazi laws , 42 National Probation Service , 166 prosecution of homosexuals , 44 negative labelling or ‘outing,’ 11 prostitutes, over-representation of , ‘Newton hearing,’ 130 43 nuclear family, notion of , 59, 181 sexuality, injustices , 42–3 O ff ences (Aggravation by Prejudice) pluralistic and open society , 10 (Scotland) Act 2009 , police practice 56, 161 anti-LGBT, role of , 121–2 O ff ences Against the Person Act , 38 consequences , 120 o ff enders LGBTAG , 120–121 alcohol and drugs, use of , 103 promiscuity and risk taking , 120 arrest histories, USA , 96–8 sexual orientation, issues , 121 education , 237 police service health care section , 236 hegemonic masculinity , 118 hidden populations , 85, 86 homosexuality , 116–18 homelessness , 95–6, 107 over-policing and harassment , ‘homosexual deviancy’ thesis , 86 115 male prisons , 236, 238 PACE guidance , 163–4 marginalisation and vulnerability , police training event , 116 87, 88 protected information, disclosure , mental health , 91–4, 107 162–3 negative school experiences , 103 safety issues , 118–19 parents visits, 236 transsexual or transvestite , partner violence and 162, 163 victimisation, 85 Police Service in Northern Ireland pre-release planning , 238 (PSNI), 122, 125, 161–2 probation service , 237 policing, contemporary race and gender , 86–7 attitudes and perceptions , 122 real life test , 238 behaviour, gendered notions , 124 270 Index policing, contemporary (cont.) probation, transgender equality policies , 122–3 case management systems , 168–9 identity management strategies , co-morbidity rates , 164 123–4, 125 employment opportunities , 165 legislation , 122 Equal Opportunities Policy , 165 policy initiatives , 125 GMPT Protocol , 165–6 ‘Portsmouth defence,’ 126 pre-sentence and parole reports , practice development assessor 168 (PDA), 140 recording information , 167–8 prejudice , 7, 8, 14–15, 17, 67, 68, 78 report writing , 167 prisons , 256–7 trans off enders , 164–5 lesbians , 134–5 propaganda laws, Russia , 218–19 masculinity, male prisons , prosecution and criminal defence 130–131 services transgender , 170–172 consensual sex, men , 126 prison culture, contemporary court responses , 129–30 dominant masculinity , 132–3 ‘gay bashing,’ impact of , 126 homophobic attitudes , 133–4 gay panic defence , 127 sexual activity , 134 homophobia , 126 prison service instruction (PSI) , 239 homosexuality , 126–7 probation practice, contemporary ‘Operation Spanner,’ 128 bisexuality and gender non- Prosecution of Off ences Act 1985 , conformity , 141 126–30 gender and race , 139–40 prostitution , 43, 45, 89–90, 97, 102, heterosexual and non-heterosexual 106–7, 158 relationships , 140–141 pseudo-outrage , 11 transgender, issues , 141 ‘whole person’ approach , 140 probation service , 257–8 Q attitudes and practice , 138 Queen Elizabeth I Act , 36 homosexuality, quasi- queer or questioning (LGBTQ) , philosophical , 136–7 12, 26, 88–9 mother’s lesbianism , 138 queer theory , 17, 23, 27–8 offi cers’ values and beliefs , 137 rape personal values , 137 corrective , 222, 223 police and prison services , 135–6 homosexual prisoners , 132 sexual off ending , 137, 141 male , 188 sexual orientation , 139 same-sex , 132 Index 271 recruitment strategies , 16, 124 Scottish LGBT Equality Report , 234 religion , 28, 37, 50, 55, 78, 217 Th e Sex Discrimination (Northern contemporary policing , 125 Ireland) Order 1976 (1999) , ethnic and race-based , 76 52 gay rights , 214 Sex Discrimination (Amendment of reporting , 77–8, 80 Legislation) Regulations same-sex DVA 2008 , 56 civil partnerships, advent of , 182 Th e Sex Discrimination (Gender fear of being ‘outed,’ 190–191, 196 Reassignment) Regulations gender-based violence and (N. Ireland) 1999 , 52 inequality , 183 sexual continuum , 28 heterosexual assumptions , sexual identity and behaviour , 181, 191–2, 202 11–12, 50, 91, 222, homophobia/discrimination , 192–3 246, 253 LGBT relationships, negative Sexual Inversion, 40 imagery , 198 sexuality , 29 man-to-man abuse , 188 sexual orientation power and control, concept of , causes , 19–20 181, 189–90 hate crime , 67, 69 prevalence , 184–5 identity , 90–91 public existence and escape intersectionality , 15 recognition , 199–200 legislation , 36 reporting , 196–7 lesbians, treatment of , 39 secondary abuse , 189 off enders , 86 ‘second wave’ women’s movement , police service , 121 181 probation service , 139 survivors, support services , 201 transgendered people , 152 victims stay, reasons , 193–4 sisterhood, notion of , 14 woman-to-woman abuse , 182–3, situational homosexuals , 132 185–8 social imperialism , 224 school-to-prison pipeline sodomy laws , 36–7 homelessness , 89 criminalised or decriminalised homophobic bullying , 88 homosexuality , 213–14 juvenile system , 89 freedom and justice , 215 non-violent off ences , 89–90 global convergence , 215 same-sex relationships , 89 postal law violations , 96–7 social issues , 88–9 queer theory , 216 zero tolerance approaches , 88 Th e Sophie Lancaster Foundation , 68 272 Index

Specialist Domestic Violence Courts , transphobia , 25, 30, 60, 67, 78, 96, 201 129, 159, 216–17 staff true homosexuals , 132 awareness-raising events , 247 Uganda Anti-Homosexuality Bill , 225 being ‘out,’ 246, 248 victimisation , 53 diversity issues , 243, 245 of crime , 6, 13 ‘macho’ service , 243, 247 lesbians , 249–50 police service , 242–3, 248 needs , 79 positive role model , 246 physical violence , 251–2 pregnancy , 245 same-sex marriage , 248–9 probation offi cer , 244 strategies , 76–7 promotion prospects , 243 violent crime , 22, 67–8, 97–8, ‘straight allies’ scheme , 244 215, 217 substance use vocational teaching curricula , 1, 4 alcohol and drug use , 94 Th e Well of Loneliness, 40–41 criminal activity and illegal acts , ‘whole person’ approach , 140 95 Th e Wolfenden Report (1957) illegal drugs, use of , 95 1967 Act , 46 third-gender passports , 228 homophobia , 46, 47 transgender or trans people , 29–30 public decency, standards of , 45 defi nition , 150–151 Sexual Off ences Bill in 1967 , depression and suicidal feelings , 46–7 153 woman-to-woman abuse , 182–3 gender transformation , 153–4 gender stereotyping , 186–7 genital reassignment surgery , heterosexual abuse , 185–6 149, 152 physical forms , 185 mental health organisation , 156–7 psychological or emotional forms , political activism , 150, 173 185 real life experience , 154 Women and Equalities House of sexual orientation , 152 Commons Select trans community , 148, 149–50 Committee, 148 Trans Murder Monitoring Project, 209 ‘zero tolerance’ approaches , 88, 129