Asaale Pastoral Livelihood Zone (LZ1)
Geographical Features • Asaale pastoral livelihood zone is located in the northern tip of Afar Regional State, bordering Tigray to the east and Eritrea to the north and northeast. • Generally lowland with altitude ranging from 116m below sea level to 700m above sea level. There are two lakes - Asaale and Afdera. • The climate is generally dry with an annual average temperature in excess of 300C and total annual rainfall of less than 250mm. • The zone is located in the northern part of the so-called Afar Triangle (part of the region covered by the Rift valley). This part of the rift valley is characterised by hot springs, active and dormant volcanoes and cinder cones. • Seasonal streams flowing from both the western and eastern plateaux usually dry up on the sandy plains and in the lakes.
Population and Geographic Coverage
Admin Zone District Rural LZ % of population Population no. in LZ Population Zone 2 Abaala 33,743 59% 19,908 Dallol 57,075 49% 27,967 Berhale 43,226 85% 36,742 Koneba 45,185 82% 37,052 Total Population of Asaale Pastoral LZ (as % of Regional Rural Popn = 11 %) 121,669 Source: Population figures – July 2007 CSA (estimates based on 1994 census)
Livelihoods Livelihoods: Pastoralism is the main livelihood with camel and shoats (sheep/goats) being the most dominant/important species. Camels are used for salt packing and trade. Salt mining is another major livelihood in the zone. Land and water: Land is owned communally therefore access to pasture and water is free. Water is scarce as run-off water dries up in the sandy plains and lakes. During the dry season there is migration to neighbouring southern and eastern parts of Tigray region. Food, income and expenditure: Food sources for all wealth groups are predominantly purchases of cereals such as maize and wheat in addition to livestock products such as meat and milk. The sale of livestock, salt mining and the renting out of pack animals are the main sources of income. For the poor additional income is derived from self-employment (salt mining) while for the middle and better-off it comes from the sale of livestock and salt trading. Staple food purchases comprise the biggest proportion of expenditure for all wealth groups; the rest goes on household items, clothes, social services and inputs. Vulnerabilities and responses: The main vulnerabilities are chronic water shortage, recurrent drought and animal and human diseases. Risk-minimising strategies include the extended duration of seasonal migration, migration to distant areas, and intra-household interdependence. Coping strategies
15 include selling more livestock, increased salt mining, slaughtering livestock for household consumption, reducing/adjusting food consumption, wild food consumption, seeking support from relatives/sub-clan members, and seeking relief assistance. Migration: Livestock migration follows a seasonal pattern. In normal dry periods migration is to the eastern edges of the Tigrayan highlands (Enqot, Desea, Wajirat and Dergeagen) but during extreme dry seasons it is to distant areas such as Enderta (southern Tigray) and Womberta (eastern Tigray). Markets: There are major markets within the zone at Berhale, Shiket and Afdera and outside the zone at Mekele, Mekoni and Adigudom (southern Tigray) and Atsbi, Edaga-hamus and Agulae (eastern Tigray). The markets outside the livelihood zone are especially important for livestock sales. Social services: The availability of and access to schools and health services varies between the districts (woredas) in the zone. Abala, Koneba and Erebti have better services than Berhale, Dalol and Afdera districts. The limited number of schools and health centres that exist are under-equipped and under-staffed. The harsh climatic conditions mean that skilled government officers are reluctant to work in these areas. Infrastructure: Most districts in the zone are accessible through Tigray region and connect to major towns in Tigray such as Mekelle, Wukro and Alamata. There are a number of seasonal roads; one from Agulae to Berhale and another from Abaale district to Kuha town (in Tigray).
Wealth Characteristics
Population Distribution of Wealth Groups Poor Middle Better-off Household 6-7 8 – 10 11 – 13 size Better-off 20% Poor Livestock holdings: 40% Shoats 10-15 55-60 100-140 Cattle 1-3 6-8 14-16 Camels 0 6-8 14-16 Middle Donkeys 0 0-2 2-4 40% 0 1-2 2-4 Pack Camel
Wealth is determined by number of livestock. The proportion of households in the poor and middle groups is the same. Camel ownership is important due to the harsh climatic conditions. The poor do not own camel.
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Food Sources
Livestock products, cereal purchases, food aid and gifts are the main sources of food. In a typical year, better-off households obtain more than 50% their annual food needs from livestock products. The remainder is obtained from cereals purchased from markets. The middle and poor households purchase about 50% of their annual food requirement from markets. For the poor this means the expenditure of a substantial proportion of their annual cash income. Livestock products and food aid are the second most important food sources for middle and poor households. The poor are also reliant on gifts (zakaat). The combination of food aid and In the graph, food access is expressed as a percentage of gifts accounts for about a quarter of their annual minimum food requirements, taken as an average food energy food needs. intake of 2100 kcals per person per day.
Sources of Income Expenditure Patterns
Livestock product sales, livestock sales, self- All wealth groups spend the bulk of their income on employment and the salt trade are the sources of the purchase of staple foods; the remainder is spent cash income. The most important sources of cash on household items, clothes, social services and for both middle and better-off households are the inputs. sale of livestock and the salt trade. For poor Poor households spend 58% of their income on households it is self-employment and the sale of staple foods. Middle and better-off households livestock. spend a lower proportion of their income on staple Salt mining is an important livelihood activity in the foods (39% and 31% respectively) because as they zone. The poor excavate the salt from the lakes own more livestock they consume more livestock whilst the middle and better-off households rent out products than poor households. camels for its transportation to Berahle, Wukro, The middle and better-off wealth group have higher Agulae and Mekele. The construction of the Agulae- expenditure on household items, clothing and inputs. Berahle road has reduced the importance of pack animals as a mode of transport and as such the All households are vulnerable to fluctuations in the amount of cash obtained from this activity has price of livestock and staple foods/grains. reduced significantly in the recent years. To mitigate against this the local government has prohibited the use of motor vehicles beyond Berahle trade centre so that communities can still receive an income from camel rental.
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Seasonal Calendar
July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar April May June Seasons Karma Gilaal Deda Gilaal Sugum Hagai Rainfall Main rainy season Dry/cold light rain No rain 2nd rain season Hot/dry Pasture availability High quality Dry, poor quality Improved pasture Limited or no pasture Livestock movement Return to original grazing areas Internal/external migration within the zone Migration to Tigray Camel breeding High Low Low High Low Camel milking High Low Medium High Low Cattle breeding High Low Low Medium/high Low Cattle milking High Low Low High Low Shoat breeding High Low Low High Low Goat milking High Low Medium High low Hunger periods Low High Medium High Livestock sales Low Medium High Medium/Low High Cereal purchase Low demand High demand/high prices Medium demand High demand/high prices Salt mining activities Low High Medium/low High
Vulnerabilities, Risks and Responses
Key vulnerabilities • Drought • Lack of rainfall in neighbouring Tigray region • Decline in crop production in Tigray and Amhara regions • Chronic water shortage • Livestock diseases such as anthrax (geno), trypanosomosis (deta lekoma), calf diarrhoea (korbahi), mange mite (agara) - common during the dry seasons of hagai and gilal. • Human diseases such as malaria and water-borne diseases • Conflicts over pasture/water resources • Livestock & grain price fluctuations Asaale pastoral livelihoods depend on the narrow belt along the eastern escarpment of Eastern Tigray (eastern edges of Saesi-Tsaeda, Emba, Atsbi-Womberta, Didiba-Dergeagen and Hintalo-Wajirat) the northern most part of the belg rain recipient areas of Ethiopia. The absence of rain during March and April not only affects crop production in these areas but also affects the availability of water for humans and animals in the livelihood zone. Main risk-minimising strategies Main coping strategies • Extension of the duration of seasonal migration • Camel production instead of cattle • Migration to distant areas - Enqot, Desea, Wajirat and • Slaughtering of young calves Dergeagen in the Tigrayan highlands • Income diversification especially for the Intra-household interdependence poor households • • Increased salt mining and trade • Migration in search of casual labour • Increased livestock sales • Seeking communal support and Increased charcoal/firewood collection and sales assistance from relatives and neighbours • • Wild food consumption - medera, hida, alay and garsa • Engagement in opportunistic farming, especially in high altitude areas
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Normal and Reference Year Definitions Timeline The reference year selected is July 2004 - June 2005 2006: [STUDY YEAR] Karma/sugum: normal rains, livestock production normal, usual Currency, Prices, Terms of Trade in Reference Year migrations; 2005: 2004/05 Karma: below normal rains; migration to Tigray and Amhara Currency: Ethiopian Birr regions; purchase of crop residues; low livestock production. Terms of Trade: (dry/wet season averages) Sugum: Normal rains; low livestock 1 camel equivalent to 7 quintals of maize and 5 quintals of wheat flour; production, food aid continued; 2004: 1 cattle equivalent to 2.6 quintals of maize and 2 quintals of wheat flour; Karma: Below normal rains; no livestock conceptions/low milk yield; 2 shoats equivalent to 1 quintal of maize; livestock migration to Tigray region. 2 shoats equivalent to 82kgs of wheat flour. Sugum: below normal rains: livestock migration continued; food aid Prices (ETB): distribution; livestock mortality Livestock prices: Camel = 1,200; Cattle = 450; 1 Shoat = 95; continued. Grain prices: Maize/100kgs = 170; Wheat/100kgs = 230 2003: Karma: Below normal rains; abnormal migration to Tigray region; food aid distribution; livestock mortality Indicators to Monitor Sugum; below normal rains; low livestock conception; early livestock ! Karma/Sugum/Deda rainfall: Sufficiency, distribution, timeliness and migration to usual migration areas coverage within the zone. ! Rainfall in Amhara/Tigray regions: Sufficiency, distribution & crop 2002 : Karma: normal rains; normal production livestock/crop production; no usual ! Pasture and water situations: Quality, quantity, sufficiency, alternative migration. Sugum: average rainfall; normal pasture sites livestock production, ToT normal and ! Market conditions: Supply and price of livestock, cereals such as maize, usual migration. 2001: sorghum, and teff; seasonal versus normal prices; also in neighbouring Karma/Sugum: Average rains; regions of Tigray and Amhara normal livestock production, ! Disease: Human and livestock disease outbreaks pasture/water conditions normal; no unusual migration. ! Coping mechanisms: Degree of resorting to, and effectiveness ! Security situation: Clan conflicts – who, why and effect on food security; other conflicts and potential effects ! Livestock production; conceptions, births and herd size fluctuation ! Salt mining: price, quantity and flow
Long Term Food Security and Development Recommendations ! Rangeland improvements in the Kala valley (lowland flood plains): The Kala valley has 4000 hectares of flood plains where seasonally flooding rivers from Wajirat’adi, Gudeom and Acheza and others join together and form a large flood valley. The flood waters can be used for irrigation of food and fodder crops ! Develop the capacity of pastoral communities to harness and use the floodwaters from the Tigray escarpment for irrigation of food and fodder crops. Small scale irrigation development is possible in selected areas of the zone ! Improve and strengthen educational, health and livestock services in terms of access and quality ! Improve and invest in salt mining production activities in Lake Afdera and Lake Asaale ! Infrastructure improvements in roads connecting different districts (woredas) ! Develop and improve water sources such as shallow wells, etc. ! Promote flood and rain water harvesting to address chronic water shortages ! Promote and support the involvement of local groups in diversified livelihoods such as bee-keeping, poultry breeding and cereal banks ! Establish a community based tourism project at Hamedeilla village adjacent to Lake Asaale
19 Asaale Agro-Pastoral Livelihood Zone (LZ2)
Geographical Features
• Located within the Asaale pastoral livelihood zone districts of Dalol, Koneba, Berhale and Abala. • Comprised of areas along the escarpment and in the foothills of east-
west Tigray highlands and areas in the
arid and semi-arid lowlands.
• In lowland areas there is less vegetation than in the highland areas. • Average annual rainfall is less than 250mm but crop production is based on flood waters harvested from the Tigray escarpment.
• Soil: the highland escarpment is dominated by barren rocks whilst the lowland soils are predominately sandy. Fertile soil eroded from the highlands deposits in flood plains along riverbanks. • Permanent rivers flowing from Tigray highlands are important water sources for crop production as well as livestock and human consumption. Seasonal rainfall, especially the karma rains, is important for pasture and browse (thick, thorny bush) growth and to replenish water sources - mainly ponds and springs in some high altitude areas.
Population and Geographic Coverage
Admin Zone District Rural LZ % of population Population no. in LZ Population Zone 2 Abaala 33,743 51% 17,209 Dallol 57,075 41% 23,401 Berhale 43,226 15% 6,484 Koneba 45,185 18% 8,133 Total Population of Asaale Agro-Pastoral LZ (as % of Regional Rural Pop = 4.2%) 55,227 Source: Population figures – July 2007 CSA (estimates based on 1994 census)
Livelihoods Livelihoods: Agricultural crop production - mainly maize and sorghum - and livestock rearing - mainly cattle and shoats. Land: Land is under both communal and private ownership. Cultivable land along river banks used for crop production is individually owned while the remainder is communally owned. Migration: Nuclear settlements, with restricted movement of livestock during different seasons, is common. In a normal year livestock movements follow a regular seasonal pattern within this zone and adjacent areas of Tigray region. Milk-producing cows and oxen are usually left at home to feed on husks and crop residues and one or two household members migrate with the livestock. During a bad year, the pattern of movement changes depending on the type and severity of the hazards. Food, income and expenditure: Own crop production constitutes more than 50% of annual food consumption for all wealth groups. Livestock products, purchased foods and food aid are also important sources of food. Livestock and livestock product sales, labour (employment) and self-employment are common sources of income. The purchase of staple foods is the main expenditure item and in poor households it accounts for the majority of their total expenditure. 20 Markets: There are markets within and outside the livelihood zone. Large markets selling large livestock (cattle and camels), significant numbers of shoats, basic household items, food and clothes in bulk can be found in district (woreda) capitals such as Abaala and Berhale and in areas in neighbouring Tigray region such as Mekelle, Edegahamus, Agula and Astbi. Important minor markets where small livestock (mainly shoats), basic household items, food items and non-food items are traded are found in Adequa, Kuneba and Baada. Access to markets is generally poor and most of the kebeles are poorly integrated with markets in the district capitals due to lack of road infrastructure. As a result the markets sphere of influence is hardly felt in the livelihood zone. Employment: Poor and middle households obtain significant income from casual labour employment. The main casual income sources are agricultural activities during crop harvesting and activities related to salt mining and transportation. Self-employment, mostly in salt mining and trading, are important income sources for all wealth groups. Social Support: There exists strong communal and social support across all wealth groups. In addition to the usual gifts (both in kind and cash), middle and better-off households allow poor households to use their oxen belonging to for cultivation. In exchange, poor households will usually give husks and crop residues (oxen fodder) to better-off households. Vulnerabilities and responses: The major hazards include rainfall delay/failure, livestock diseases, crop pests & weeds and flooding. Planting fast growing and drought resistant as well as disease resistant crops, livestock migration, and construction of small dikes along farm lands are some of the risk minimising measures used while households employ different coping strategies depending on the type of hazard and magnitude of the problem as well as their wealth (assets): these may include; increased sale of livestock, increased cereal purchases, increasing the frequency and scale of casual labor and self- employment activities, abnormal livestock migration, and increased consumption of wild foods. Infrastructure: generally poor infrastructure. There are only two all weather roads; Mekele-Abaala and Agulae-Berahle. Transportation to and from Konneba and most parts of Dalol in the livelihood zone is only possible during the dry season. Social services: Social services are limited, with few education and health facilities. There is only one secondary school (in Abaala) in the whole administration area of Zone 2 which contains seven districts.
Wealth Characteristics
Poor Middle Better-off Household size 6-8 9-10 10-15 population distribution of Wealth Groups
Livestock holdings: Better-off 7-18 13-27 33-63 27% Poor Shoats 37% Cattle 0-2 3-7 5-15 Camels 0 0-4 5-10 Donkeys 0-1 1-2 2-3 Middle 36% Oxen 0 1-2 2-4
Land holding 0-0.75 0 . 7 5 - 1.75 1-3.5 (hectares)
Wealth is determined by a combination of cultivable land and livestock ownership. The value placed on these two wealth-defining assets varies along with altitude; communities in higher altitudes give more value to land while those in lower altitudes place more value on livestock ownership.
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Food Sources
Own-food crop production, livestock production, market purchases, payment in kind and food aid are the major sources of food for all wealth groups, with the exception of payment in kind which is particular to poor households. The contribution of these different sources to a households annual consumption varies among wealth groups; own crop and livestock products are important sources of food for middle and better-
off households, and cereal purchases and food aid are important sources for In the graph, food access is expressed as a percentage of minimum food Households in all wealth groups receive food aid in a normal year which thcoen pstiotuorte. s 28%, 23% and 18% for ther epqouoirre,m menitdsd, ltea kaennd abs eatten arv-eorfafg ree fsopoedc tievnerlygy. iTnthaeke p ofo r2 1a0l0so k rcaelcs epiveer payment in kind. person per day.
Sources of Income Expenditure Patterns
The sale of livestock and self-employment in The bulk of poor households’ expenditure goes on activities related to salt mining and transportation the purchase of staple foods. The proportion of total are common sources of income across all wealth income that households spend on staple foods groups. Poor and middle households also rely on decreases with the increase in wealth. Expenditure income from employment (agricultural work during on household items, social services, clothes, and crop harvesting and employment in salt mining and other goods generally increases with income. transportation) while the better-off obtain income from sale of livestock products.
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Seasonal Calendar
Months Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Seasons Karma Gilaal Sugum Hagai Climate Rainfall Karma rains Deda Sugum Land Preparation A
Agricultural Planting Calendar Green Consumption Harvesting
Heat Birth Milk ! ! ! ! ! ! Cattle Disease
Livestock sale ! ! ! ! Migration
Heat Birth Shoats Milk Disease Livestock sale ! !
Food Purchase ! ! ! " " " " " " Crop Sale ! ! Local labour Local labour
Pasture Avail. of feed ! ! ! ! ! " " " ! ! " " Hunger Season Hunger Season
Malaria Key: ! increase " decrease
Vulnerabilities, Risks and Responses
Key vulnerabilities • Lack or failure of karma/sugum rains • Lack of rainfall in neighbouring Tigray region • Decline in crop production in Tigray and Amhara regions • Chronic water shortage • Livestock diseases • Human diseases such as malaria, water-borne diseases • Conflicts over pasture/water resources • Livestock and grain price fluctuations
23 Main risk-minimising strategies Main coping strategies • Herd species diversification and • Extra ordinary animal sales splitting • Changes in food consumption and expenditure patterns • Planting disease and drought-resistant • Increased wild food consumption short cycle crops • Increased labour and self-employment activities - in salt • Migration mining and transportation • Constructing small dikes along farm • Increased scale of livestock migration - may involve lands changes herd composition, distance, duration, • Diversification of income sources destination • Managing resources • Increased staple food purchase
Normal and Reference Year Definitions Timeline
The reference year was September 2005 to August 2006 2007 Karma/sugum: good rains; crop and livestock prodn normal; normal livestock migration; livestock disease in Currency, Prices, Terms of Trade in Reference Year Dalul woreda. 2005/06 2006 [REFERENCE YEAR] Karma: Good rains and conditions; Currency: Ethiopian Birr. sufficient flood water for crop production. Terms of Trade: (dry/wet season averages) Sugum: Good rains and normal 1 cattle is equivalent to 4 quintals of maize or 3 quintals of wheat conditions. 1 goat is equivalent to 65kgs of maize or 50kgs of wheat 2005: Karma: Poor rains and conditions; 1 labour day is equivalent to 5kg Maize or 5.8kg wheat insufficient floodwater for crop Prices (ETB): production; livestock disease. Sugum: Poor rains; insufficient flood Livestock prices: Camel = 1,000; Cattle = 800; Goat (local) = 130 water. Grain prices: 1 quintal of maize = 200; 1 quintal of wheat = 260 2004: Labour/day = 15 Karma: Good rains; flooding problems and pests on farmlands. Sugum: Poor rains; pest infestation.
2003: Drought year
Karma: Very poor rains and Indicators to Monitor conditions; insufficient floodwater for crop production. ! Karma/Sugum/Deda rainfall: Sufficiency, distribution, timeliness and Sugum: Very poor rains and coverage conditions. 2002: ! Rainfall in Amhara/Tigray regions; Sufficiency, distribution & crop Karma: Very poor rains and production conditions. Sugum: Poor rains; livestock migration ! Pasture and water situations: Quality, quantity, sufficiency, alternative to Tigray region; food aid rationed. pasture sites 2001: Karma: Good rains and conditions. ! Market conditions: Supply and price of livestock, cereals such as maize, Sugum: Poor rains; low crop/livestock sorghum, and teff; seasonal versus normal prices; also in neighbouring production. regions of Tigray and Amhara ! Disease: Human and livestock disease outbreaks ! Coping mechanisms: Degree of resorting to, and effectiveness ! Security situation: Clan conflicts – who, why and effect on food security; other conflicts and potential effects ! Livestock production; conceptions, births and herd size fluctuation ! Salt mining: price, quantity and flow
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Long Term Food Security and Development Recommendations ! Improve livestock markets and livestock marketing; improve market infrastructure and support livestock and commodity trade ! Improve water access variability; increase number of permanent water sources ! Improve agricultural extension service provision (pesticides, improved seeds, fertilizers and trainings) and irrigation facilities (support the construction of small scale irrigation facilities like dams, ponds, diversion canals and dikes) ! Increase and sustain for the future the income and benefits households currently obtain from salt mining ! Improve social services and infrastructure – animal and human health, education, extension services, road networks, and communication infrastructure. This will expand production possibilities and strengthen coping strategies ! Provide soft loans for local pastoral associations or groups in order to benefit during the dry season when livestock prices are very low and sale at better/higher prices ! Improve management of natural resources, especially grazing and water sources. Strengthen efficiency of livestock movement and tracking through interventions that provide relevant, appropriate and timely information, enhance reciprocal grazing with neighbouring areas like the adjacent Tigray highlands and conflict resolution mechanisms ! Develop communities’ capacities to harness and use the floodwaters from Tigray escarpment for food and fodder production. Small scale irrigation development is possible using these flood waters ! Introduce fast-maturing and drought-resistant fodder seeds for the agro-pastoral communities which they can sell to Asaale pastoralists
25 Teru Pastoral Livelihood Zone (LZ3)
Geographical Features Two agro-ecological areas: • The ‘highland’ areas of Yalo, Megale, & Gulina which are adjacent to the Amhara and Tigray highlands. The altitude is over 800m above sea-level; rainfall ranges from 700-850mm per year. • The lowland areas of Dubti, Aura, Ewa, Teru and parts of Chifra. Rainfall here is less than 500mm per year. • Permanent rivers - Mille, Waama, Megale, Erebti, Awra and Ewa • Seasonal rivers - Gollina, Genu, Allena, Fokissa and Deraytu - emerge from Amhara region and cut across the zone. Others - Wales, Debena, Rakrek, Gassore and Mesgid - emerge from the highlands of Tigray cross Yalo and flow into Teru woreda (district).
• There are three rainy seasons; Karma (July-Aug-Sept); Sugum (March-April) and Dedaa (December). The karma is the main rainy season. • There is a small amount of seismic activity (volcanic eruptions and minor earthquakes) in the Teru depression in Teru district.
Population and Geographic Coverage
Admin Zone District Rural LZ % of population Population no. in LZ Population Zone 1 Dubti 55,450 18% 9,981 Zone 2 Erebti 46,888 87% 40,793 Megale 23,870 100% 23,870 Yalo 24,953 100% 24,953 Teru 42,892 100% 42,892 Zone 4 Gulina 20,812 100% 20,812 Ewa 42,634 100% 42,634 Aura 22,442 100% 22,442 Total Population of Teru Pastoral LZ (as % of Regional Rural Population = 20%) 228,377 Source: Population figures – July 2007 CSA (estimates based on 1994 census)
Livelihoods Livelihoods: Teru Pastoral Livelihood Zone is remote and livestock-dependent – mainly cattle, camels, goats and sheep. A traditional and extensive livestock rearing system is practiced. A small number of households along the permanent rivers practice agro-pastoralism. Land and water: Land is divided by clans, communally owned but managed by clan elders. There are both permanent rivers (Mille, Waama, Megalle, Erebti, Awra and Ewa) and seasonal rivers which flow from Amhara and Tigray regions such as the Gollina, Genu, Allena, Fokissa, Deraytu, Wales, Debena, Rakrek, Gassore and Mesgid. In Teru district, there is no permanent river, hence chronic water shortages. The same problem exists in the northern kebeles of Dubti.
26 Food, income and expenditure: The main sources of food are market purchases and livestock products (milk and meat). Tigray and Amhara regions supply the major cereals such as maize and teff. Various varieties of wild foods are also consumed, both in normal and bad years, during the dry months. The sale of livestock is the only source of cash income for middle and better-off households. Cash income in poor households is generated through livestock sales and supplemented by self-employment (casual labour) and zakaat (gifts). Vulnerabilities and responses: The main hazard affecting livelihoods is drought, which results in reduced livestock production, reduced livestock prices due to poor body condition and increased food prices. Livestock is vulnerable to diseases such as trypanosomiasis, pasteurolosis, blackleg and anthrax. Human diseases such as malaria, respiratory infections and water-borne diseases are common. Since pastoralists are dependent on the neighbouring regions of Amhara and Tigray for the supply of food, they are vulnerable to rainfall failure in these areas, which results in food shortages, high food prices and lack of markets for livestock. Migration: In normal years the movement of livestock starts in October and is generally to the closest grazing areas. In bad years there is migration to different grazing areas inside the zone and also movement to the neighbouring regions of Tigray and Amhara. Markets: Access to markets is generally poor due to; lack of and poor quality roads; lack of transportation; lack of information about markets, and the long distances to major markets. As a result, the selling price of livestock tends to be low and the purchase price of goods tends to be high. The main market is located at Yalo, a woreda (district) town, and is a major livestock market. There are also important markets outside the zone such as in Chifra, as well as markets in neighbouring districts in Amhara and Tigray. Infrastructure: Access to areas within the zone varies between district. Teru district is the least accessible due to its poor road network and that of the adjacent areas of Dubti, Uwa and Uwra. During the wet season, floods and seasonal rivers flowing from Amhara and Tigray disrupt transport services. Districts bordering Amhara and Tigray are easily accessed through these regions. The poor condition of road infrastructure combined with the absence of transport services often leads to extreme food shortages and seasonal price fluctuations. Social services: Social services such as schools, health and veterinary services are limited. The more remote and least accessible districts - Ewa, Uwa, Teru and parts of Megale, Yallo, Gulina and Dubti - have the least number of social services. Areas closer to major towns, roads and bordering the neighbouring regions of Amhara and Tigray have better access to these services (as well as better access to markets).
Wealth Characteristics
Population Distribution of Wealth Groups Poor Middle Better- off better-off Household size 6-10 8-12 10-16 25% poor 35% Livestock holdings:
Shoats 15-22 22-37 60-120 middle Cattle 3-7 15-25 25-45 40% Camels 0-4 7-10 25-30 Donkeys 0 0-1 1-2
H ousehold wealth is determined by the number of livestock owned. Livestock are a source of food, income and status.
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Food Sources Food sources for all wealth groups are predominantly purchases of cereals (maize, wheat, and sorghum) supplemented by milk, butter and meat from their own livestock. There is a proportional increase in the amount of livestock products a household, consumes with better-off households consuming the highest proportion. Poor households depend on gifts that constitute between 10-20% of their minimum food energy needs. Income and food purchasing power are very low and the poor are unable to fully cover
their minimum food energy needs in most years. All households received food aid. In poor In the graph, food access is expressed as a percentage of minimum households this contributed to a relatively higher food requirements, taken as an average food energy intake of 2100 proportion of their food consumption. kcals per person per day.
Sources of Income Expenditure Patterns
Households in all wealth groups obtain most of their The poor spend proportionally more on staple food cash income from the sale of livestock. This is the than other households. Inputs are limited to only source of income for the middle and better-off livestock drugs. Expenditure on social services households. The poor may obtain income from other relates to medicine and exercise books for school sources such as self-employment and zakaat (gifts) children. from better off households and close relatives. The poor spend 50% or their total cash income on Supplementary income sources for the poor vary staple foods. This proportion decreases upwards from salt mining in Teru and Megale districts to through the wealth groups with middle and better- engagement in casual labour, herding and the sale of off households spending approximately 38% and mats and Arabic gum in others. Livestock prices are 29% respectively. low in this zone compared to other pastoral
livelihood zones.
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Seasonal Calendar
July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar April May June t Seasons Karma Gilaal Sugum Hagai Rainfall Main rainy season Dry/cold Deda rains dry & cool 2nd rain season Hot/dry Water availability High water levels Decreasing volume of water levels Improving Dry, no water Pasture availability High quality Dry, poor quality Improved pasture Limited or no pasture Livestock movement Grazing at home & close areas Internal/external migration within the zone Migration to Amhara Camel conception High No camel breeding moderate No camel conception Camel births & milking High Medium Low Medium High Low Cattle breeding High Low Low Medium/high Low Cattle milking High Low Low Medium/high Low Shoat breeding High Low Low Medium/high Low Goat milking High Low Medium Medium to high Low Hunger periods Low High High Livestock sales Low Medium High Medium/Low High Cereal purchase Low High demand, high prices & low supply High demand/high prices
The amount of rain determines the availability of pasture and water. The karma rains (Jul-Sept) are the most important; Sugum rains (Mar-April) are usually less intense and have been poorly distributed in recent years. The sugum rains are very important for pasture regeneration and water availability after the long dry season. In some years dedaa rains/light showers occur in late December/early January. Apart from regenerating browse and improving the availability of water, the dedaa rains are particularly important for the conception of cattle. Cattle conceived during this time of the year give birth at the beginning or middle of the karma rains. Rainfall performance in the neighbouring regions of Amhara and Tigray is also important since it affects livelihoods in this zone.
Vulnerabilities, Risks and Responses
Key vulnerabilities • Recurrent droughts • Chronic water shortages • Livestock diseases such as trypanosomiasis, pasteurolosis, blackleg and anthrax • Human diseases such as malaria and water-borne diseases • Low livestock prices and high grain prices • Poor transport/communication infrastructure restricting access to markets • Seismic activity including earth tremors (especially in Teru district) • Food crop failure in the neighbouring Amhara and Tigray regions
Main risk-minimising strategies Main coping strategies • Livestock migration to highland areas • Increased inter-household social support • Increased livestock sales • Reducing non-essential expenditure on items such as • Purchase of fodder for lactating breeds tobacco, coffee and clothes • Slaughtering of calves • Reducing food consumption and adjusting eating habits • Herd splitting • Consumption of wild foods • Increased gifts in the form of food and • Slaughtering of livestock for meat consumption cash • High expenditure on staple food purchases • Traditional restocking mechanisms • In extreme cases, migration to towns in search of referred to partially compensate for social/economic support losses in bad years and cushion against drought risks
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Normal and Reference Year Definitions Timeline The reference year selected July 2004 – June 2005 2006: [STUDY YEAR] Karma: normal rains; livestock production good; favourable terms of terms; no unusual livestock migration. Currency, Prices, Terms of Trade in Reference Year Sugum: normal rains; livestock prodn 2004/05 normal; no usual migration; livestock prices improve but grain prices remain normal; Currency: Ethiopian Birr 2005: [REFERENCE YEAR] Terms of Trade: (dry/wet season averages) Karma: below average rains; abnormal livestock migration to 1 cattle equivalent to 3.5 quintal of Maize Amhara & Tigray regions; purchase 2 goats equivalent to 1 quintal of maize residue as livestock feed; 1 goat equivalent to 43-46kgs of sorghum Sugum: Average rains; normal limited livestock births; reduced livestock 1 goat equivalent to 42-44kgs of wheat flour production; normal seasonal migration; Prices (ETB): 2004: Below normal: 2/5 Livestock prices: Cattle = 500-550; Goat = 75-80; Sheep = 75-80; Karma: Below average rains; livestock production declined; livestock Camel = 750-1250; migration to Amhara & Tigray regions; Grain prices: Maize/quintal = 150; Sorghum/quintal = 175; Sugum: Below average rains; limited Wheat/quintal = 180 livestock conception; low milk yields; livestock prices decline; cereal price increases; ToT not favourable; 2003: Near Normal: 2.5/5 Karma: Average rainfall; normal Indicators to Monitor livestock production, livestock/grain prices normal. ! Karma/Sugum/Deda rainfall: Sufficiency, distribution, timeliness and Sugum: below average rainfall; low coverage livestock production; internal livestock migration and stable livestock/grain ! Rainfall in Amhara/Tigray regions; Sufficiency, distribution & crop prices. production 2002: Normal: 3/5 Karma: average rainfall; localised; ! Pasture and water situations: Quality, quantity, sufficiency, alternative livestock production normal; localised pasture sites diseases outbreak causing livestock mortality; livestock/grain prices ! Livestock production; conceptions, births and herd size fluctuation normal; ! Livestock migration; pattern/direction, composition of herds, usual or Sugum: average rains; normal pasture and water levels; livestock production unusual normal; no serious migration. ! Market conditions: Supply and price of livestock, cereals such as maize, sorghum, teff; seasonal versus normal prices; conditions in neighbouring 2001: Above normal: 4/5 Karma/Sugum: good rains; livestock Tigray and Amhara regions production normal; livestock and grain ! Disease: Human and livestock disease outbreaks prices favourable; no abnormal livestock migration. ! Coping mechanisms: Degree of resorting to, and effectiveness ! Security situation: Clan conflicts – who, why and effect on food security; other conflicts and potential effects ! Seismic activity
Long Term Food Security and Development Recommendations ! Develop/improve water sources such as shallow wells, springs, boreholes, etc. in areas of chronic water shortage ! Improve human health services especially in isolated and remote districts ! Improve access to livestock health facilities: government vets, private pharmacies; train and equip community animal health workers (CAHWs) ! Harness run-off surface water from the highlands to avert flooding ! Build a bridge at Gulina on the Kelwan - Kobo Road which is blocked during the rainy seasons by flooding ! Improve livestock marketing opportunities by connecting these areas to Amhara and Tigray regions ! Support community groups such as women/vulnerable to start cereal banks, petty trade ! Implement productive safety net for vulnerable groups/pastoral drop-outs where they can work on community projects such local road improvements, rangeland rehabilitation, etc.
30 Eli-Daar Pastoral Livelihood Zone (LZ4)
Geographical Features • Eli-Daar pastoral livelihood zone is located in northeastern part of Afar Regional State, bordering Eritrea and Djibouti. • Predominantly semi-arid lowland: low- lying altitude ranging from 80 metres below sea level to 250 metres above sea level. Lake Afdera and the faulted Danakil Depression are found in this livelihood zone. • The climate is generally hot and dry. Annual rainfall is less than 100mm falling during two rainy seasons Karma (July to September) and Sugum (February to April). • There are two dry seasons per year; hagai (May to June) and gilaal (October to December). • The area is characterised by high temperatures reaching 50°C during hagai (May to June). • There are no any permanent rivers but there are seasonal rivers such as the Emino and Kelelu. The main sources of water are hand-dug wells (ellas), ponds, and surface water. • The vegetation is mainly drought resistant plants such as eebto (acacia tortilis), halito (balanitus rotondofolia) and oudayto (balanitus aegyptica).
Population and Geographic Coverage
Admin Zone District Rural LZ % of population Population no. in LZ Population Eli-Daar 61,757 100% 61,757 Zone 1 Afdera 19,391 35% 6,787
Afambo 19,263 27% 5,201 Assyaita 53,747 47% 25,261 Total Population of Eli-Daar Pastoral LZ (as % of Regional Rural Popn = 8.8 %) 99,006 Source: Population figures – July 2007 CSA (estimates based on 1994 census)
Livelihoods Livelihoods: Pastoralism: camel and shoats (sheep/goats) are the most important species. Camel for salt packing and trade are common. Due to the harsh climatic conditions, a limited number of households keep cattle. Wealth is determined by number of livestock owned, in particular the number of camels. Land and water: Land is owned communally and so access to pasture and water is free. Water is mainly accessed through hand-dug wells, ponds and seasonal rivers such as the Emino and Kelelu. During the dry hot season, when water sources dry up there is migration to the banks of River Awash and then a return to original grazing areas during rainy seasons. Food, income and expenditure: Food sources for all wealth groups are predominantly purchases of cereals such as maize, wheat and sorghum in addition to livestock products such as meat and milk. Livestock sales, salt mining and trade are the main sources of income. The poor derive additional income from self-employment in salt mining and selling firewood, local mats (dibora) and palm (onga). Poor households may also receive financial gifts from relatives. All wealth groups spend most of their income
31 on food; the rest goes on household items, clothes, social services and inputs. Poor and middle households also have to buy water. Vulnerabilities and responses: Main vulnerabilities are recurrent drought, chronic water shortages, general market shocks, animal and human diseases and poor transport and communication infrastructure. Risk-minimising strategies include livestock species diversification, water harvesting/conservation techniques, and livestock migration. Coping strategies include extra sales of livestock, increased salt mining, slaughtering livestock for household consumption, reducing/adjusting food consumption, wild food consumption, seeking support from relatives/sub-clan members, and seeking relief assistance. Migration: Migration tends to be within the zone when there is water and pasture but during the dry gilaal period extends into neighbouring zones, often towards the banks of Awash River and Teru and Chiffra areas. In bad years, migration can be to as far as the Amhara highlands as well as to neighbouring areas in Djibouti. Markets: The main local markets at Buree, Manda, Elidar, Galafi and Dichoto are where pastoralists sell small livestock and purchase staple foods. Camel and cattle are sold in major livestock markets such as Assaiyta, Yallo and Chiffra. Despite close proximity to Djibouti, there are minimal cross-border livestock sales. Social services: Education and health services are limited. The few health centres and clinics that exist lack essential drugs and are poorly equipped and under-staffed. Schools are limited and lack both equipment and teaching staff. Most areas are difficult to access, with the exception of areas along the Assab (Eritrea) and the Djibouti-Ethiopia roads that pass through the zone. Other issues: Before the Ethio-Eritrean war (1998-2000), the road to Assab/Eritrea port was highly frequented and represented an important outlet for the livestock, salt and palm trades. Since the war the border has remained closed and there is limited livelihood interaction/trade in this area. There is also minimal trade between pastoralists in the zone and those in the north-western pastoral zone of Djibouti.
W ealth Characteristics
Poor Middle Better-off Population Distribution of wealth Groups Household size 5-7 7 – 9 10 – 12
Better-off Livestock holdings: Poor 30% 35% 21-30 26-45 48-80 Shoats Cattle 0 5-7 6-10 Camels 1-3 5-9 10-20 Middle Donkeys 0 0-2 1-3 35% Pack camel no data no data no data
Wealth is determined by number of livestock owned. Camel ownership is considered more important than cattle due to their resilience to the harsh climatic conditions.
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Food Sources
Food sources for all wealth groups are predominantly purchases of cereals (maize, wheat and sorghum) supplemented by their own livestock products such as milk and meat. The poor receive gifts from the middle and better-off groups. Camel milk constitutes the majority of livestock products because of the high proportion of camels in this zone.
Food aid is important in this zone due to the recurrent droughts. All In the graph, food access is expressed as a percentage of wealth groups receive food aid due minimum food requirements, taken as an average food energy to communal targeting practices intake of 2100 kcals per person per day. where resources are shared equally.
S ources of Income Expenditure Patterns
Livestock sales and self-employment are the main income sources across all wealth groups. Livestock sales constitute the main share of All wealth groups spend the bulk of their income household income for better off and middle on staple food purchases; the rest goes on wealth groups. The poor receive most of their household items, clothes, social services and inputs. income from self-employment in activities such Poor households spend a high proportion (46%) of as selling firewood, palm (onga), hand-made mats their income on the purchase of staple foods. (dibora) and salt mining. Middle and better-off Middle and better-off households spend a lower households also engage in salt mining and mat proportion of their income on the purchase of making. Better-off households obtain income staple foods (40% and 31% respectively) because as from salt mining both through direct they have higher livestock holdings they consume participation in salt mining activities and through more livestock products than poor households. renting camel for mining and transporting salt. Salt is sold in highland areas of Ethiopia and in some cases in neighbouring Djibouti.
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Seasonal Calendar
July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June Seasons Karma Gilaal Sugum Hagai Rainfall Hunger periods High High Camel breeding High Low Camel milking and all milk sales High Low Low High Low Cattle breeding High High Cattle milking High Low Low High Low Shoat breeding High High Goat milking High High Moving to dry season grazing areas Livestock sales Low Medium High Medium Low High Cereal purchase Low High Medium/low High Salt mining activities Low High Medium/low High
Vulnerabilities, Risks and Responses
Key vulnerabilities • Recurrent droughts • Chronic water shortages • Border closure and restrictions • Livestock and grain market shocks • Animal and human diseases • Poor transport/communication infrastructure • Loss of income from salt mining and the sale of palm (onga) and local hand-made mats (dibora)
Main risk-minimising strategies Main coping strategies
• Camel production instead of cattle • Livestock migration • Separation of livestock herds • Increased inter-household social support • Livelihood diversification such as petty • Household strategies such as switching consumption trade from non-essential to staple foods • Saving money in good years • Reducing food consumption and adjusting eating habits • Increase in salt mining
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Normal and Reference Year Definitions Timeline The reference year selected July 2003-June 2004 2005 – 2006 [STUDY YEAR] Karma and Sugum: Rainfall failure, massive livestock mortality; pasture and water shortages; massive livestock Currency, Prices, Terms of Trade in Reference Year migration to Awash river area and 2003/04 Amhara region. 2003 – 2004 [REFERENCE YR] Karma: good rains; normal livestock Currency: Ethiopian Birr production; Near normal livestock and Terms of Trade: (dry/wet season averages) grain prices. Sugum: Normal/good rains, normal 1 cattle equivalent to 3.25 quintals of maize or wheat; livestock production and markets. 1 goat equivalent to 37.5 kgs of maize or wheat 2002 – 2003 3 goats equivalent to 113 kgs of maize or wheat Karma: Normal rains, livestock prices; good pasture and livestock Prices (ETB): production. Livestock prices: Cattle = 650; Goat = 75; sheep = 85 Sugum: normal rains, pasture, Grain prices: Maize/quintal = 200; Wheat/quintal = 200 livestock production near normal. 2001 – 2002 Karma: drought year due to poor sugum rains followed by below normal karma rains; high livestock out- migration; poor livestock condition; high cattle mortality; Indicators to Monitor Sugum: poor rains, pasture; livestock migration; food aid provision begins ! Karma/Sugum Rainfall: Sufficiency, distribution, timeliness and coverage 2000 – 2001 ! Pasture and water situations: Quality, quantity, sufficiency, alternative Karma: Normal rains; good livestock market. pasture sites Sugum; poor rains, poor pasture, ! Market conditions: Supply and price of livestock, cereals such as maize, livestock migration, sorghum, and teff; seasonal versus normal prices; 1999 – 2000 Karma/sugum: Drought. Rain failure; ! Disease: Human and livestock disease outbreaks far out-migration (highlands and some ! Coping mechanisms: Degree of resorting to, and effectiveness to Djibouti). High livestock mortality. 1998 – 1999 ! Security situation: Clan conflicts – who, why and effect on food security; Karma: poor rains, normal pasture. other conflicts and potential effects Sugum: poor rains, pasture, production; beginning of drought. ! Herd size: Unusual fluctuations in numbers ! Camel milk sales: Unusual fluctuations in volume of sales ! Salt mining: price, quantity and flow
Long Term Food Security and Development Recommendations ! Develop water sources such as birkads, shallow wells, etc. to reduce chronic water shortages ! Protect and manage dry season rangelands ! Improve human health and veterinary services ! Establish and support women groups and co-operatives with funds to engage in small business and trade - livestock products such as milk, meat, ghee, hides and skins and local mats (dibora) ! Improve transport and communication facilities in order to improve marketing and market information ! Establish contingency and response planning for effective interventions during crises ! Establish community groups managed cereal banks to stabilize cereal prices at all times ! Support and promote conflict resolution and peace-building mechanisms through religious and clan leaders.
35 Awsa ke Gewane Agro-pastoral Livelihood Zone (LZ5)
Geographical Features • Awsa ke Gewane livelihood zone is divided into two areas: Awsa areas (Afambo and Assaiyta) and Middle Awash basin (Gewane and Amibara). • Awsa areas have an average altitude ranging between 330-350m while in Middle Awash areas the altitude ranges between 500-600m above sea level. • Awsa areas have an average annual rainfall of 122m and Middle Awash basin 320mm. • Two main rainy seasons; sugum rains (February-March) and karma rains (July- September). The Awash River is the main source of water and a means of producing irrigated crops. • Vegetation is a mix of shrubs, bushes and pastureland. Invasive weeds, particularly prosopis julifora, are a major threat to rangeland. • There are both large-scale government state farms and investor farms. Tendaho and Middle Awash Agriculture Development farm are the main state farms providing casual employment opportunities to the local community and immigrant workers. • The Middle Awash areas (Gewane and Amibara) are surrounded by Namelefan ke Baadu pastoral livelihood zone.
Population and Geographic Coverage
Admin Zone District Rural LZ % of population Population no. in LZ Population Zone 1 Dubti 55,450 66% 36,597 Afambo` 19,263 73% 14,062 Assyaita 53,747 53% 28,486 Zone 3 Gewane 32,959 20% 6,592 Amibara 52,759 5% 2,638 Total Population of Awsa ke Gewane LZ (as % of Regional Rural Popn = 6.7 %) 88,375 Source: Population figures – July 2007 CSA (estimates based on 1994 census)
Livelihoods Livelihoods: Irrigated and rain-fed crop production combined with livestock rearing - mainly cattle and shoats (sheep/goats) - are the major livelihood activities. Casual labour employment in the both state agricultural and private investor farms is an important source of income for some areas and wealth groups. Land: In Awsa areas, irrigated crop farming is well established; land is individually owned and well demarked; land close to irrigation canals is highly valued as it has access to water from the Awash River and productivity is high. In the Middle Awash basin, particularly in Gewane district (woreda), crop production started very recently. Land here is communally owned and managed, and so access is unrestricted and communities can till any available land. In Gewane areas, clan leaders negotiate and rent land to farm investors on a cash per hectare basis. The returns from the rented land are communally shared. Crop production: In Awsa areas, irrigated crop production is predominant while in Gewane district, both irrigated and rain-fed crops are produced. The number of households taking up crop production is 36 increasing considerably in Gewane and Amibara. Within the next few years a large number of households in these areas will be fully engaged in crop production (like the agro-pastoralists in Awsa area). Some of the crops produced are; maize, haricot beans, sesame, sorghum, and date palms in Awsa areas. Contractual Agreement: In Awsa (Afambo, Assyaita and Dubti); the most common contractual agreement in relationship to crop production is Yekul (equal share cropping) in which the very poor and landless poor rent land from better-off households and share the production costs and harvests. In Gewane woreda there is a contractual agreement between land-owners and charcoal producers; the charcoal producers are allowed to clear prosopis trees to make charcoal for sale but after clearing the land, it is handed-over to the land owners for cultivation. Water Sources: The Awash River and its tributaries (Mille, Logia and Borkena) are the most important sources of water. Water is mainly accessed through rivers, ponds and seasonal rivers. In comparison to other livelihood zones, this zone has fair access to water sources. The Awash River floods from July to September if the meher rains in the Ethiopian highlands are good. Lakes Afambo, Abe and Gamare are located in this livelihood zone. Food, income and expenditure: Food consumption is mainly own crops supplemented by livestock products. Most of the households purchase additional cereals/grains from the markets. Food aid is important for all wealth groups. Very poor households receive food in kind from middle and better-off households. Very poor and poor households spend a large proportion of their income on the purchase of cereals/grains from markets. Vulnerabilities and responses: Main vulnerabilities are over-flooding of the Awash River, lack of sufficient flood waters from Awash River, lack of sufficient karma/sugum rains, livestock and human diseases, conflicts and prosopis julifora. Risk-minimising strategies include construction of flood dikes using local materials, livestock migration to wet grazing areas of Teru and Araamis ke Adaar pastoral livelihood zones, planting early maturing crops and the clearing and burning of prosopis. In bad years, middle and better-off households can cover most of their food purchases through a combination of livestock sales (selling more livestock at cheaper prices) and a reduction in non-food purchases. Migration: During ‘normal’ periods, livestock tend to stay within the original grazing areas (near the homestead) but sometimes move to along the banks of the Awash River. When the Awash River starts flooding, livestock migrates to Araamis ke Adaar and Teru pastoral livelihood zones. This is usually in the months of July-September when the karma rains have started in these areas. Livestock is taken to these areas by young men or casually employed herders. The rest of the family members stay behind. The livestock return when the floods subside in October-November. For most of the year, migration tends to be within the livelihood zone especially along the banks of rivers. During bad seasons, migration tends to be outwards into two directions; those near Awsa areas migrate to Teru, Araamis ke Adaar and further into Amhara and Tigray regions or stay around the River Awash banks; those in Gewane areas migrate to Dalifage, Semurobi and into Amhara region or areas in Awash, Awash National Park, Metahara (Oromiya region) and into foothills of Amhara region through Argoba special district. Markets: In comparison to other livelihood zones, Awsa ke Gewane is relatively accessible in terms of roads and has good access to markets. Assyaita is one of the largest market centres in the Afar region and is the most important weekly market for livestock, food and non-food items in the Awsa area. Pastoralists from other livelihood zones such as Eli-daar and Teru sell their livestock at Assyaita market which attracts people not only from the region but also from neighbouring highland areas of Wollo and Tigray. Due to the proximity to market, a number of households have started to grow vegetables for sale there, especially onions and tomatoes. Other near-by livestock markets are located at Chiffra, Bati and Melka Werer. Social services: There are a number of schools, hospitals and livestock services that exist in this zone especially at the district headquarters. In rural areas, however, access to social services in limited, school enrolment is low and health centres lack adequate manpower and equipment. Infrastructure: The Ethiopia-Djibouti road passes through this zone. Given the large volume of traffic using this road it is of significance to the region as a whole and this livelihood zone in particular. There are a number of urban towns dotted along the road and these provide meat for hotels/restaurants (frequented by truck drivers and passengers), casual employment and petty trade opportunities. The rural road network between district (woreda) towns to different kebeles is better than in other zones, especially during the dry season. This is a result of geographical proximity to main towns, large scale state farms and irrigation canals constructed by state farms. During the rains and at times of Awash river flooding some of the districts and kebeles are not accessible.
37 Other issues: Flooding is common, especially during the months of July-September when the level of water in the Awash River increases due to heavy rains in the highland areas. Those communities down stream use the floodwater for crop irrigation. Flooding in the plains aids the regeneration of pasture in grazing areas. The construction of a dam/irrigation scheme in Dubti and Asyaita (Awsa areas) is currently ongoing. The dam will control the river flooding and water will be used to grow sugarcane. This will reduce the volume of water reaching down-stream communities who depend on it for crop and pasture production.
Wealth Characteristics
V. Poor Poor Middle Better- Population distribution of Wealth Groups off
Household size 5-7 6-8 7-9 9-11 Better-off V.Poor 25% 20% Land cultivated 0-0.5 0.5-1 1-2 2.5-3.5 (hectares) Poor Livestock holdings: Middle 25% 30% Shoats 5-8 10-20 15-30 30-50 Cattle 2-4 4-6 10-20 20-30 Pack Camels 0 0 0-1 1-3 Oxen 0 0 1-2 2-4
Land and livestock ownership are the two key determinants of household wealth. Cattle and shoats are the main types of livestock. Camels are kept mainly as pack animals for transporting, maize, firewood, other agricultural products and used during migration to search for pasture and water. Camels are used to transport goods across the border with Djibouti which is a source of income for better-off households. Household size tends to increase with the increase in wealth; the very poor have few household members while the better-off households tend to have large family sizes.
F ood Sources
Main food sources are; own crop production, livestock products, cereal/grain purchases, food aid and gifts. Own food crop consumption covers 30%, 42% 46% and 53% for the very poor, poor, middle and better-off households respectively. Middle and better-off households cover 16% and 21% of their food requirements from their own livestock products. The very poor and poor purchase most of their food needs from the market since they have limited land and livestock holdings. Food aid for the very poor In the graph, food access is expressed as a percentage of and poor accounts for 8% and 7% minimum food requirements, taken as an average food energy intake of 2100 kcals per person per day. respectively. The very poor receive gifts but during times of crisis, the better-off households may not be able to provide the same amount of gifts as in this reference year, which widens the food deficit of the very poor.
38
Sources of Income Expenditure Patterns
Livestock sales, crop sales, and employment/self employment are the main sources of income for all wealth groups. In Awsa area, income from the sale of date palm is common and constitutes part of the average total income from crop The proportion of expenditure on staple food sales. For the better-off and middle households date palm income accounts for 37% and 45% decreases with an increase in wealth. For instance respectively of their total income from crop the very poor spend 39% of their income on staple sales. Camel rent provides an important food purchases while the poor, the middle and the income for all households in Awsa areas. In better-off households spend 28%, 19% and 9%, respectively. Expenditure on household items, social Gewane area, substantial income is derived from casual employment in agricultural state services, clothes and inputs increases as wealth farms. Another form of self-employment in this increases. Other expenditure - festivals, chat, zone is making household items by hand such as cigarettes and household items - increases dibora (mats), oloita (beds), mahrawara (hand- proportionally with wealth. ‘Other’ expenditures held fans) and gadeta (carpets). includes chat which is readily available in major towns like Aysaita and Gewane, and particularly important to male members of the household.
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Seasonal Calendar
Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Season Kaarrmma a Gila al Sugguumm Hagai Land Preparation A G G Planting A A G
Green Consumption G A A Harvesting G A A Heat Birth Milk Climate Agricultural Migration Calendar Livestock sales A G Heat Birth Milk Livestock disease Livestock sale A A A G Food Purchase G! G! G! A! A! A! Crop Sale G" G" A" A" A" Local labour Local labour Pasture Avail. of feed Hunger Season Hunger Season G G G A A A Human Disease
Malaria
Diarrhoea Key: A: Awsa areas (Assyaita an Afambo) G: Gewane and Amibara areas of Middle Awash ! Represents increase " Represents decrease.
Vulnerabilities, Risks and Responses
Key vulnerabilities
• Lack of rainfall or reduced meher rains in the highland areas affects irrigated crop production • Lack of karma/sugum rains which are useful for crop and livestock production • Excess over-flooding of Awash River destroying crops and infrastructure • Invasive plant species such as prosopis julifora and partinum (hazardous weeds) • Livestock diseases • Human diseases • Ethnic conflict between the Afar and Issa/Somali especially in Gewane areas • State/governments and investor farms reducing volume of river waters reaching downstream thus affecting crop production and pasture generation. • New irrigation scheme in Awsa area impacts on crop, livestock and settlements • Increases in market price for cereal staple foods and decreases in livestock prices
40 Main risk-minimising strategies Main coping strategies • Flood control measures such as • Sale of more livestock at cheaper prices dykes • Reduction in purchase of non-food items and non- • Livestock migration to wet grazing essentials areas of Teru and Araamis ke Adaar • Reduction in number of meals per day pastoral livelihood zones; • Seeking casual employment in towns/urban centres • Livestock migration to Amhara and • Increased sale of charcoal and firewood. Oromoyia regions • Acacia nilotica and acacia tortillas trees are lopped and • Planting early maturing crops, the pods fed to livestock • Prosopis clearing and burning; • As the volume of the Awash river declines, livestock • Herd splitting: milking and migrate closer to the river beds - dig wells on the productive animals stay near the river bank, homesteads • In extreme cases, pastoralists send their livestock to • Purchase of livestock feed cotton plantations to feed • Selling of old animals
Normal and Reference Year Definitions Timeline
The reference year is April 2004-March, 2005 2006 [STUDY YEAR] Karma and Sugum: Good rainfall; normal crop/livestock production; Currency, Prices, Terms of Trade in Reference Year livestock and cereal prices stable 2005 [REFERENCE YEAR] 2004/05 Karma: good rains; normal crop/livestock production; near normal livestock and grain prices. Currency: Ethiopian Birr Sugum: Normal/good rains, normal Terms of Trade: (dry/wet season averages) livestock production and market. 1 cattle equivalent to 4.5 quintals of wheat or 3 quintals of maize 2004: Normal; 3/5 Karma: Good rains; livestock 1 goat equivalent to 56kgs of wheat or 38kgs of maize production improves; crop prodn Prices (ETB): normal; no external migration; Livestock prices: Cattle = 675; Goat = 85; Sugum: Improved rains but still below normal; livestock return but no Grain prices: Wheat = 150 per quintal; Maize = 220 per quintal livestock production; localised livestock diseases. 2003: Poor; 1/3 Karma: poor rains; severe drought, Indicators to Monitor long period of migration; high livestock mortality; high livestock sales; ! Karma/Sugum Rainfall: Sufficiency, distribution, timeliness and coverage unfavourable terms of trade. Sugum: poor rains; decreased water ! Meher rains performance in the Ethiopian highlands for irrigation; unusual migration to ! Pasture and water situations: Quality, quantity, sufficiency, alternative Amhara region; pond digging along the Awash river. pasture sites 2002 below normal; 2/5 ! Market conditions: Supply and price of livestock, cereals such as maize, Karma/Sugum: both rainy periods below normal; low livestock sorghum, and teff; seasonal versus normal prices production; crop production near ! Disease: Human and livestock disease outbreaks normal due to floods from Awash river. ! Coping mechanisms: Degree of resorting to, and effectiveness 2001: Below normal 2/5 ! Security situation: Clan conflicts – who, why and effect on food security; Karma/Sugum: poor rains; low livestock production and high other conflicts and potential effects migration to Awash Park/Amhara ! Herd size: Unusual fluctuations in numbers region; unfavourable terms of trade; high livestock sales at low prices ! Camel milk sales: Unusual fluctuations in volume of sales ! Casual labour: availability, price, and places ! Livestock migration; direction, volume, composition of herds. ! Level of water in Awash river; time, volume, and deviation from normal season
41
Long Term Food Security and Development Recommendations ! Parts of the zone have huge potential for agricultural production; small scale farmers and agro- pastoralists can be supported through (a) the provision of fertilizers and seeds at lower prices (b) technical support from agricultural extension officers on proper land management, crop pest control, etc. (c) provision of small loans to farmers and (d) improved grain storage facilities ! Planned expansion of large agricultural plantations should take into consideration the impact on local livelihoods ! Support local flood control measures along the Awash river without seriously affecting agro- pastoralists/pastoralists use of flood water for crop and pasture production ! Feasibility studies point out that Afambo and Assyaita districts have potential for date palm plantation and production ! Conflict and peace-building mechanisms between Afar and Issa communities; for example, establish permanent peace committee comprising of religious, clan elders and regional/district government officials ! Strengthen customary institutions in rangeland management ! Explore the potential of fodder production along the Awash river ! Support vulnerable/women’s groups to engage in cereal banks, livestock marketing and production and the sale of local handicrafts (mats, carpets, fans, etc.) ! Limit and control private enclosures especially in Gewane areas; these enclosures affect pastoral mobility ! Implement measures to control the spread of prosopis julifora and other invasive plants ! Improve and strengthen education, human health and livestock services especially in rural and inaccessible areas ! Improve transport and communication facilities in order to improve marketing and market information
42 Araamis ke Adaar Pastoral Livelihood Zone (LZ6)
Geographical Features • Located in the western and south- western part of the region and bordering Amhara region to the west. • Altitude ranges from 500-600 metres above sea level in the east to 600-1000 meters above sea level in the west. The climate is generally dry with an annual average temperature is in excess of 30°c and a total annual rainfall of 250-400 mm. • The landscape is diverse; undulating hills traversed by numerous seasonal and a few permanent streams, extensive low flat lands and depressions. • There are a number of permanent rivers and streams such as Logiya, Mille, Telalek, Borkena, Moferwuha, Ataye, Jara, Robi and Awadi • This zone is located within the Awash Drainage System which is fed by streams draining from the south-eastern highlands of the Amhara region, extending from Gidan/Gubalafto in North Wollo to Tarma ber/Ankober in North Shewa. The aerial discharge of water in this system is the highest of all the livelihood zones.
Population and Geographic Coverage
Admin Zone District Rural LZ % of population Population no. in LZ Population Zone 1 Chiffra 88,998 100% 88,998 Mille 86,202 100% 86,202 Bure-Medaito 46,033 82% 37,747 Zone 3 Dulecha 18,362 100% 18,362 Dewe 69,562 100% 69,562 Daale-Fage 56,152 100% 56,152 Zone 4 Hadelela 77,361 100% 77,361 Telalak 79,509 100% 79,509 Semu-Robi, 60,136 100% 60,136 Total Population of Aaramis ke Adaar LZ (as % of Regional Rural Popn = 51%) 574,029 Source: Population figures – July 2007 CSA (estimates based on 1994 census)
Livelihoods Livelihoods: Pastoralism is the main livelihood. Cattle, shoats (sheep/goats) and camels are the most important livestock species. Land and water: Land is communally owned by clans. There are often inter-clan conflicts over resources such as access to pasture and water. Food, income and expenditure: Food sources for all wealth groups are predominantly purchases of cereals such as maize, wheat and sorghum in addition to livestock products such as meat and milk. Income
43 is derived from the sale of livestock and self-employment. The poor engage in self-employment such as collecting and selling firewood. All wealth groups spend most of their income on food; the rest goes on household items, clothes, social services and inputs. Vulnerabilities and responses: Main vulnerabilities are drought, conflicts, general market shocks, animal and human diseases, poor transport and communication infrastructure. Risk-minimising strategies include herd splitting, using conflict resolution mechanisms, intra-household independence, and livestock migration. Coping strategies include extra sales of livestock, changing household food consumption patterns, increased social supports from relatives/sub-clan members and an increase in the production and sale of charcoal. Migration: During the dry season and bad years migration is towards the Oromiya zone of Amhara region and also towards the banks of the Awash river. The seasonal variance in the availability of pastures compels pastoralists to regularly migrate on an annual basis to the eastern highlands of Amhara region. Migration within the zone and also to other livelihood zones within the Afar region is also apparent, particularly when the pattern of rainfall and availability of pasture in the Amhara Region deviates from the norm. Markets: Major markets are located outside the zone but in the neighbouring region of Amhara. These markets are important for the purchase of food crops and the sale of livestock and livestock products. Such markets include: Hara-Gubalafto (for Chiffra), Bati and Bora-Artuma Jille (for Telalak), Bora and Kemissie (for Dewe and Dalifagi), Sembete (for Semi-Robi), Abay Atir-Mafud and Shewa Robi-Kewet (for Bure Medayti and Semu Robi), Aliyu Amba and Awash Seba (for Dulecha). There are also a number of livestock markets in areas such as Chiffra and Eli-wuha. Social services: In comparison to other livelihood zones, this one is well equipped with social services such as schools, human health and livestock services. For example, Chiffra has 25 primary schools including six ABE schools; ten health posts, one health centre and one animal health clinic; while Dalifage has 14 schools including seven ABE schools; four health posts; one health centre and one animal health clinic. Infrastructure: Since the creation of the Afar Regional State and the subsequent establishment of new woredas (districts) a number of new roads have been constructed. However, road access from most of the districts to the regional capital of Semera is only possible through a long detour via Bati or Addis Ababa. This is not only economically expensive but also laborious and time-consuming. During rainy seasons, parts of Dalifage and Dulecha are totally inaccessible. Other issues: There are traditional zones of conflict specifically in areas adjacent to other ethnic groups. The conflicts usually result in the obstruction of the normal temporal and spatial pattern of migration as well as the loss of human life and assets.
Wealth Characteristics
Population distribution by wealth groups Poor Middle Better-off Household size 6-7 8-10 11-13
Better-off Livestock holdings: 25% Poor Shoats 10-20 25-30 30-50 35% Cattle 1-2 10-15 20-25 Camels 0-1 8-10 20-25 Donkeys 0 0-1 1-3
Wealth is determined by number of livestock especially cattle Middle and camels. Poor households own few livestock. 40%
44
Food Sources
In the graph, food access is expressed as a percentage of minimum food Food sources for all wealth groups are requirements, taken as an average food energy intake of 2100 kcals per predominantly purchases of cereals person per day. (maize, wheat, and sorghum) supplemented by livestock products such as milk and meat from their own livestock. Food aid in the form of emergency ration distribution and productive safety nets contributes to a significant proportion of household food needs. Poor households purchase 53% of their
annual food needs from the market. For middle households this figure is 47% and for the better-off it is 46%. Food aid constitutes 33% for poor households and 15% for middle households. The better- off households do not receive food aid.
Sources of Income Expenditure Patterns
Livestock sales are the main source of cash income for all wealth groups, with better-off and All wealth groups spend the bulk of their income middle households deriving all their income from on staple food purchases; the rest goes on this activity. Poor households engage in self- household items, clothes, social services and employment such as the collection and sale of inputs. Poor households spend a high proportion firewood which contributes approximately 15% of their income on staple food purchases as they of their total cash income. They also receive have a limited number of livestock from which to zakaat (gifts) from middle and better-off source food products. The poor spend 81% of households but this constitutes less than 10% of their total cash income on staple food while the their annual cash income. All wealth groups have middle and better-off groups spend approximately a single main cash income generating option in 53% and 35% respectively. livestock which means that any disaster constraining livestock holding creates a wide income gap. Income from the sale of livestock is directly proportional to herd size.
45
Seasonal Calendar
July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar April May June Seasons Karma Gilaal Deda Gilaal Sugum Hagai Rainfall Main rainy season Dry/cold Light rain No rain 2nd rain season Hot/dry Pasture availability High quality Dry, poor quality Improved pasture Limited or no pasture Livestock movement Return to original grazing Internal/external migration depending on situation Distant migration areas Camel breeding High Low Low High low Camel milking and all milk High Low Medium High low sales Cattle breeding High Low Low Medium/high Cattle milking High Low Low High Low Shoat breeding High Low Low High low Goat milking High Low Med High Low Hunger periods low High Medium High Livestock sales Low Medium High Medium/low High Cereal purchase Low demand High cereal prices Medium demand High cereal prices
Vulnerabilities, Risks and Responses
Key vulnerabilities • Chronic water shortages • Recurrent droughts • Livestock and grain price fluctuations • Animal and human diseases • Poor transport/communication infrastructure • Ethnic conflicts
Main risk-minimising strategies Main coping strategies • Separation of herds • Livestock migration to distant areas and river banks • Conflict resolution • Increased inter-household social support • Intra-household interdependence • Households switching consumption from non-essential to • Extension of the duration of seasonal staple foods migration • Reducing number of meals per day • Information sharing (daagu) on pasture, • Consuming wild foods such as medera, hida, alay and garsa water, conflicts, etc. • Increase in the collection and sale of firewood and charcoal-making and sale
46
Normal and Reference Year Definitions Timeline
The reference year to July 2005-June 2006 2007: Average-2.5/5 Karma: normal rains but low livestock production; provision of Currency, Prices, Terms of Trade in Reference Year livestock feed by NGOs between June- July 07. Sugum: below normal rains; 2005/06 early livestock migration to Cheffa valley & Teru areas. High cattle mortality in Chiffra district. Currency: Ethiopian Birr. [REF/STUDY YEAR] Terms of Trade: (dry/wet season averages) 2006: Average 2.5/5 2 goats = 1 quintal of maize; 2 goats = 1 quintal of wheat Karma: below normal rains; low livestock production; normal migration 1 cattle = 4.4 quintals of maize; 1 cattle= 4 quintals of wheat with the zones; normal terms of trade. Prices (ETB): Sugum: below normal rains; unknown camel diseases but livestock prod Livestock prices; Cattle = 700; 1 Goat = 90; average due to the previous normal Grain prices; Maize/quintal = 160; Wheat/quintal = 180 karma/sugum seasons; normal terms of trade. 2005: Normal: 3/5 Karma/Sugum: good rains; normal livestock production; normal migration and favourable terms of trade.
2004: Average 3/5 Indicators to Monitor Karma: average rains; low livestock production but terms of trade still ! Karma/Sugum Rainfall: Sufficiency, distribution, timeliness and coverage favourable ! Pasture and water situations: Quality, quantity, sufficiency, alternative Sugum: below normal rainfall; livestock migration to Awash banks pasture sites and Cheffa valley; no livestock deaths. ! Market conditions: Supply and price of livestock, cereals such as maize, 2003: Average: 2.5/5 Karma: normal rains; livestock sorghum, wheat; seasonal versus normal prices; market price monitoring in conception starts but low milk the neighbouring Amhara Region. production; terms of trade normal. ! Disease: Human and livestock disease outbreaks Sugum; improved rains but still below normal; no livestock production and ! Coping mechanisms: Degree of resorting to, and effectiveness no milk production. ! Security situation: Clan conflicts – who, why and effect on food security; 2002: Below normal: 1/5 Karma: below normal rains; extended other conflicts and potential effects dry season; high livestock mortality; ! Livestock production: births, conceptions, milk production high cereal prices and low livestock demand; migration to Cheffa valley and ! Livestock migration; direction, volume, composition of herds. increased conflicts. Sugum: below normal rains; early ! Level of water in the Awash River; time, volume, and deviation from livestock migration; abnormal normal migration to Cheffa valley-Amhara. 2001: Normal: 3/5 Karma/Sugum: average rains; average livestock production; normal ToT; no usual livestock migration.
Long Term Food Security and Development Recommendations ! Improvement of rangeland ! Protection and management of dry season rangelands ! Investment in conflict resolution and peace building mechanisms to resolve ethnic conflicts ! Establish and support local co-operatives to engage in micro-enterprise and trade ! Improve transport and communication facilities in order to improve marketing and market information ! Improve human health centres to combat human diseases ! Strengthen veterinary services both government, private pharmacies and Community Animal Health Workers (CAHWs) ! Develop and improve water sources such as hand-dug wells (ellas), shallow wells, etc. to reduce chronic water shortages ! Establish and support community/women’s group managed cereal banks to stabilise cereal prices
47 Namalefane Ke Baadu Pastoral Livelihood Zone (LZ7)
Geographical Features • The climate is generally semi-arid with erratic rainfall. Altitude ranges from 582m to 907m above sea level. • Annual average rainfall ranges from 320mm-500mm. Annual temperature ranges from 15 to 42°C. The area is suitable for maize and cash crops such as cotton. • Two main rainy seasons; sugum rains February-March) and karma rains (July- September). • There are permanent rivers such as the Awash, Bulga and Kebena Rivers. • Vegetation is a mix of shrubs, bushes and pastureland. Prosopis julifora (an invasive weed) is a major threat to rangeland.
• Some large-scale government state farms and investor farms. Middle Awash Agriculture Development farm is one of the largest state farms providing casual employment opportunities to the local Afar community and immigrant workers. • The Ethiopia-Djibouti road passes through the zone. A number of small towns are located on this road where truck drivers and passengers stop.
Population and Geographic Coverage
Admin Zone District Rural LZ % of population Population no. in Population LZ Zone 3 Gewane 32,959 80% 26,367 Amibara 52,759 95% 50,121 Awash Fentale 24,312 100% 24,312 Buremudaitu 46,033 18% 8,286 Total Population of Namelefan ke Baadu LZ (as % of Regional Rural Popn = 9.6%) 109,086 Source: Population figures – July 2007 CSA (estimates based on 1994 census)
Livelihoods Livelihoods: Pastoralism is the main livelihood activity but agricultural labour employment is also significant. Camel, cattle and shoats (sheep/goats) are the most important species. A number of isolated kebeles practise agro-pastoralism (these are covered in the profile of the Awsa ke Gewane Agro-pastoral Livelihood Zone – LZ5). Land and water: Land is communally owned by sub-clans. Pasture and grazing is communally owned but clan elders allocate land parcels for agro-pastoralists and private agriculture investors for a fee or a percentage of crop production. A number of permanent rivers flow through the zone with the Awash being the most prominent. Water is mainly accessed through rivers, hand-dug wells (ellas), ponds and seasonal rivers. In comparison to other livelihood zones, this zone has fair access to water sources. The Awash river floods from July-September due to heavy rains in the Ethiopian highlands. Food, income and expenditure: All wealth groups spend most of their income on food; the rest goes on household items, clothes, social services and inputs.
48 Vulnerabilities and responses: Main vulnerabilities are floods, drought, livestock and human diseases, conflicts and the invasive weed prosopis julifora. Risk-minimising strategies include migration to high grounds, the sale of livestock at low prices, changing household food consumption patterns, the sale of household items, spending more money on staple foods and less on other essential items, intensive gathering of wild foods, increased making and sale of charcoal, increased collection and sale of firewood, seeking support from relatives/sub-clan members, and seeking relief assistance. Migration: Pastoralists and their livestock migrate to Araamis ke Adaar and Teru pastoral livelihood zones before the Awash river floods (July-September) and return when the floods subside in October- November. For most of the year, migration tends to be within the livelihood zone, especially along the banks of rivers. During bad seasons, migration tends to be towards Awash National Park and the neighbouring Somali region area of Shinile district. Markets: Access to markets is better than in other livelihood zones. The two major livestock markets are Dalifage and Melka Werer where the sale and purchase of livestock occurs twice in a market and livestock traders come from outside the region. Other neighbouring markets are at Awash Sebat Kilo, Metehara and Nazareth. Along the Ethiopia-Djibouti road there are a number of towns (Gewane, Awash, Werer and Amibara) where pastoralists sell small livestock and purchase cereals. Social services: The zone has four secondary schools and 46 primary schools with a total enrolment of 11,500 pupils. In terms of health services, there is one major hospital, 16 health posts, 13 clinics and four health centres spread across the three districts. All districts except Buremudaitu are connected with mobile and landline telecommunication facilities. The zone has one agricultural college (TEVIT), one water works college (LUCY) and an agricultural research centre. In terms of livestock health services, there are seven livestock clinics, numerous private pharmacies and well-trained Community Animal Health Workers (CAHWS). Infrastructure: the main road from Addis Ababa to Djibouti passes through the zone and provides good access to all districts. There are ten dry weather roads that interconnect kebeles. During the dry season, there are no access related problems but when the Awash river floods between July and September access to most rural areas is limited. Other issues: Conflict between the Afar and Issa communities impacts on pastoral livelihoods, increasing vulnerability to droughts. Access to potential grazing lands such as the Alledegahi plains is restricted due to conflict. This is a major problem as one coping mechanism used by pastoralists during stress periods is migration to and use of such dry season grazing lands.
W ealth Characteristics
Poor Middle Better-off Population Distribution by Wealth Group Household size 4-6 9-11 11-14 Better-off 24% Livestock holdings: Poor 43% Shoats 10-16 30-40 60-70 Cattle 0-3 10-12 25-30 Camels 0 8-10 15-20 Donkeys 0 0-1 1-2 Middle 33%
Livestock ownership and cash income are key determinants of wealth. All wealth groups engage in casual employment so as to diversify their incomes. This is possible because of casual labour opportunities provided by the large state farms and private investors.
49
Food Sources
Food sources for all wealth groups are predominantly purchases of cereals (maize grain, wheat floor, sugar and pulses) in addition
to livestock products such as milk and meat from own livestock. The poor receive gifts from middle and better-off households. The poor purchase 71% of their food needs from markets while middle and better-off households purchase 39% and 29% respectively. The poor are more reliant on markets than the other groups due to their limited livestock holdings. Food aid is provided in the form of emergency
and productive safety nets. All wealth groups In the graph, food access is expressed as a percentage of minimum receive food aid due to communal targeting food requirements, taken as an average food energy intake of 2100 practices whereby resources are shared equally. kcals per person per day.
Sources of Income Expenditure Patterns
Livestock sales and employment are the main income All wealth groups spend the bulk of their income on sources across all wealth groups. Livestock sales staple food purchases; the rest goes on household make up a significant proportion of cash income for items, clothes, social services and inputs. Poor better-off and middle wealth groups due to their households spend 50% of their income on the higher livestock holdings. These households also purchase of staple foods. Middle and better-off engage in employment activities in state and privately families spend 32% and 20% respectively. This is owned farms. Poor households receive most of their because they have higher livestock holdings and so income from employment in these farms and 10% of consume more livestock products than poor income from self-employment activities such as the households. The middle and better-off wealth groups making and sale of mattresses (gadeta) and charcoal spend some of their income on medicines for and the collection and sale of firewood. livestock.
50
Seasonal Calendar
Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June Seasons Karma Gilaal Sugum Hagai Rainfall Hunger periods High High Camel breeding High Low Camel milking and all milk sales High Low Low High Low Cattle breeding High High Cattle milking High Low Low High Low Shoat breeding High High Goat milking High High Livestock sales Low Medium High Medium Low High Cereal purchase Low High Medium/low High Casual agricultural opportunities Weeding Harvesting/storage No agric activities Clearing/land preparation Flooding of Awash river High water Decreasing Low volume water volume Low volume volume Livestock migration Migration to Zone 4 Return to normal grazing areas Graze at Awash river banks Human diseases Medium High malaria & water borne Medium Low diseases
Vulnerabilities, Risks and Responses
Key vulnerabilities • Recurrent droughts • Invasive plant species such as prosopis julifora and partinum (hazardous weeds) • Livestock diseases • Human diseases • Flooding • Ethnic conflict • Private enclosures restricting pastoral mobility
Main risk-minimizing strategies Main coping strategies • Livestock migration to high ground • Sale of large number of livestock on a lower price • Increased casual employment in • Changing household food consumption patterns agricultural plantations • Sale of household items • Engagement in opportunistic • Switching of their non staple food and other agricultural activities essential item expenditures • Slaughtering of calves to save the • Intensive gathering of wild foods mother • Increased sale of charcoal and firewood • Fodder collection from distant places • Acacia nilotica and acacia tortillas trees are lopped to feed milking cows. and the pods fed to livestock • In extreme cases, pastoralists send their livestock to cotton plantations to feed
51
Normal and Reference Year Definitions Timeline The reference year July 2004 to June 2005 2006 [STUDY YEAR] Karma and Sugum: Good rainfall; normal livestock production; livestock Currency, Prices, Terms of Trade in Reference Year and cereal prices stable 2004/05 2005 [REF YR]: Karma: good rains; normal livestock production; near normal livestock and Currency: Ethiopian Birr grain prices. Sugum: Normal/good rains, normal Terms of Trade: (dry/wet season averages) livestock production and market. 1 cattle = 3 quintals of maize; 2.5 quintals of wheat; 2004: Good; 4/5 1 goat = 64kgs of maize; 55kgs of wheat Karma: good rains; high livestock prodn; high milk yields; ToT good. 2 goats = 1.5 quintal of maize; 1 quintal of wheat .Sugum: normal rains; livestock Prices (ETB): production normal; ToT improve; no Livestock prices; Camel = 650; Cattle = 500; 1 Goat = 110; 1 sheep = external livestock migration. 2003: Average; 3/5 85 Karma: normal rains; pasture Grain prices; Maize/quintal = 170; Wheat/quintal = 200 regeneration but low livestock prodn; no milk; ToT improve. Sugum: below normal rains but better than previous sugum rains; low livestock prodn; livestock in bad body
condition; food aid continued. Indicators to Monitor 2002: below normal; 2.5/5 Karma/sugum; Third consecutive ! Karma/Sugum Rainfall: Sufficiency, distribution, timeliness and coverage below normal season; sugum failed; karma was better; low livestock ! Pasture and water situations: Quality, quantity, sufficiency, alternative productions; livestock did not return pasture sites from migration areas; food aid ! Market conditions: Supply and price of livestock, cereals such as maize, distribution continued. 2001: below normal; 2.5/5 sorghum, and teff; seasonal versus normal prices; Karma/sugum: both rains continued ! Disease: Human and livestock disease outbreaks to below normal; sugum rains better than the karma; livestock mortality ! Coping mechanisms: Degree of resorting to, and effectiveness continued; high livestock sales at low prices; conflicts over pasture/water ! Security situation: Clan conflicts – who, why and effect on food security; increased. other conflicts and potential effects 2000: Poor 1/5 ! Herd size: Unusual fluctuations in numbers Karma/Sugum: poor rains; high livestock mortality; low livestock ! Camel milk sales: Unusual fluctuations in volume of sales production & high migration to Awash ! Casual labour: availability, price, and where Park/Amhara region; unfavourable terms of trade; ! Livestock migration; direction, volume, composition of herds. ! Level of water in Awash River; time, volume, and deviation from normal
Long Term Food Security and Development Recommendations ! Develop water sources such as birkads, shallow wells, etc. to reduce chronic water shortages ! Control invasive weeds (prosopis julifora) ! Provide clean potable water ! Rangeland rehabilitation and management ! Invest in human health facilities/services ! Promote livestock health initiatives such as veterinary services, private pharmacies and Community Animal Health Workers (CAHWs) ! Conflict resolution and peace-building initiatives to resolve longstanding conflict ! Invest in education programmes such as alternative basic education for pastoral areas ! Promote and support small micro-enterprises such as women’s groups and co-operatives to engage in cereal banks and livestock marketing ! Implement flood control measures along the banks of the Awash River
52 Chenno Crops Livelihood Zone (LZ8)
Geographical Features • Located along a strip in the south west of the region, encompassing all of Argoba special woreda (district) and bordering Ankober district in East Shewa, Amhara region • Situated between moist kola and wet weina dega with an altitude range from 1200m to 1800m above sea level • Annual rainfall between 900mm and 1400mm • Two rainy seasons; karma (July to September) and sugum (February to April) • Two dry seasons; hagai (May to June) and gilaal (October to December) • Vegetation is characterised by thick and dense woodland. Shrubs and grassland are common. • Permanent settlements practising sedentary farming. Main crops; sorghum, maize, teff and pulses. Livestock; cattle and shoats.
Population and Geographic Coverage
Admin Zone District Rural LZ % of population Population no. in Population LZ 12,642 12,642 Special District Argoba 100%
Total Population of this LZ (as % of Regional Rural Population = 1.12%) 12,642 Source: Population figures – July 2007 CSA (estimates based on 1994 census)
Livelihoods. Livelihoods: The Argoba people are the main inhabitants in the area. They have their own language and identity and are completely different from the Afari people who constitute the majority in the region. The main livelihood activity is mixed farming agricultural production as the area is suitable for both agriculture and livestock production. Depending on the location of each individual settlement (kebele), the focus may be more toward agriculture or toward pastoralism. The communities in the lowlands closest to the Afar region tend to be pastoralists while those near the hills of Amhara region practice agriculture production. These variations are mainly due to altitude and socio-cultural interaction. Agricultural Production: Common crops grown in the area are sorghum, maize, teff and pulses. The main livestock are cattle and shoats (sheep/goats). Camel is not common and those they do keep are mainly male camels purchased from the neighbouring Afari community. Common livestock diseases are black leg, anthrax, pasteurolosis, and parasites (internal and external). Common crop pests are sorghum chafer, shoot fly, African ball warm and stock borer. Conflict between Argoba and Afari communities is common, especially along the border areas. Rainfall and Water Sources: The zone has two main rainy seasons: one short rain sugum from March to April, while the more extensive karma season from July to September. The zone is located within the Rift Valley Drainage System. Water here comes from no one fixed source but is fed by streams draining from both the western and eastern plateaux. The aerial discharge of water in this system is very small since the streams end in the sandy plains and inland lakes. Most of the streams are seasonal and only flow during the rainy seasons.
53 Markets: Trade is greater with the Amhara region than the Afar region, mainly due to access and proximity. Main markets in the zone are Gacheni and Lay Metekeleya. Regular livestock markets are located nearby at Berek, Minjar and Tegulte in north Shewa, Oromiya region. Larger livestock - camels and cattle - are taken to Alamata, Raya, Hara, North Wollo, Amhara and Chiffra markets in Afar region. During cereal shortages traders bring cereals from Debre Berhan, Jeru, Merabete, Efratana Gedem (in Amhara region) as well as from markets in Addis Ababa. Vegetation: The forest vegetation covering this zone is characterised by an upper storey of small trees (6-12m tall) and dense woodland. Shrubs and grass cover is also common. Common species are Acacia bushes, Erytherina, cordial and ficus. There is much soil erosion caused by both surface water run-off and over grazing. Infrastructure: There are two dry weather (RR10) roads which link the livelihood area to near-by areas One road passes through Debre Brehan to Ankober in Amhara region and connects to Gachenie (the main town in the Argoba Special District). The second road goes through Awash town but is difficult to access during the wet season and one is forced to access the regional capital via Amhara Region or through Addis Ababa. There are number of seasonal roads within the zone livelihood which connect different PA’s. Social Services: Basic health and education services are limited. The few schools provide education from grades 1 to 8 only. Children travel long distances to attend schools, enrolment is low and it is usually only the better-off families who can afford to send their children to school. There is one health centre in the area and most people travel to neighbouring Amhara region to access health services.
Wealth Characteristics
V. Poor Middle Better- Population distribution per Wealth Group poor off
Household size 4 - 6 5 - 7 6 - 10 10 - 12 better off Very poor 25% 20% Livestock holdings: Shoats 4 - 6 5 - 15 30 - 35 30 - 40 poor Cattle 0 4 - 8 15 - 20 30 - 40 middle 25% Camels 0 0 0 - 3 4 - 6 30% Oxen 0 1 2 - 4 4 - 6
Land holding 1.5 2 2.5 3.5 (hectares)
Wealth is determined by the size of landholdings and number of livestock and their species. Camels are an important determinant of wealth and are only owned by middle and better-off households. The proportion of the poor and the middle groups is the same at 30% each.
54
Food Sources
In the graph, food access is expressed as a percentage of minimum food requirements, taken as an average food energy intake of 2100 kcals per person per day
Households meet most their food needs through own crop production, the amount of which is determined by the amount of land holdings. The better-off produce the highest proportion of their own food needs while the very poor produce the least. Very poor and poor households purchase 26% and 21% of their food needs from the market. Livestock products contribute 14% and 18% of the middle and better-off households food needs. Livestock product consumption is low in very poor and poor households due to their limited number of their livestock. All wealth groups with the exception of the better-off receive food aid, contributing 8%, 9% and 7% for the very poor, poor and middle wealth groups respectively. Meat consumption is rare in all wealth groups except during religious holidays where the better-off and middle groups share livestock meat with the very poor and poor - locally known as ‘Kircha’.
Sources of Income Expenditure Patterns
Major expenditures are the purchase of Main income sources are the sale of own crops, staple and non-staple foods, social services, sale of livestock and livestock products, clothing, inputs and household items. The employment and self-employment. Middle and amount of money spent on these items varies better-off households receive most of their from one wealth group to another. For income from livestock and livestock product sales example, the very poor and poor wealth and crop sales. Very poor and poor households groups spend 40 % and 19 % respectively of receive most of their income from crop sales, their annual income on purchasing staple employment (seasonal agricultural foods. Middle and better-off households labour/livestock herding for middle and better-off spend less money on staple food purchases households) and self-employment such as because they have sufficient land, livestock gathering and selling firewood. and labour for own food production During harvests, very poor and poor households consumption of livestock products. However, sell some of their own food produce at lower these households have higher expenditure on prices to finance other household needs but as household items, clothing, social services and others such as farm/livestock input - essential the year progresses, they purchase cereals from markets to meet their food needs. for crop and livestock production.
55
Seasonal Calendar
Food source/ Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Income activity Agricultural Sugum Karma Dada Land Preparation Planting Weeding Harvesting Livestock Breeding Milk production Livestock sale Livestock Migration Purchase Local labour
opportunity Pasture Availability Hunger Season Health Problems Malaria Diarrhoea
Vulnerabilities, Risks and Responses
Key vulnerabilities • Rainfall failure especially karma rains in the area • Rainfall failure in neighbouring Amhara Region • Crop pest • Recurrent droughts • Livestock and grain market shocks • Livestock diseases • Poor transport/communication infrastructure • Pasture and water shortages • Conflict between Argobas and Afars communities Main risk-minimising strategies Main coping strategies • Using traditional pest controlling • Livestock migration within livelihood zone practices • Livestock sales • Planting fast maturing food crops • Increased inter-household social support • Livelihood diversification such as petty • Household strategies such as switching consumption trade and firewood collection and sale from non-essential to staple foods • Fodder storage • Reducing food consumption and adjusting eating habits • Consuming wild foods
56
Normal and Reference Year Definitions Timeline The reference year selected September 2003 - August 2004 2006 [STUDY YEAR] Karma; above normal rains; high crop prod; high livestock prod; no livestock migration; favourable terms of trade; Currency, Prices, Terms of Trade in Reference Year Sugum: above normal rains; normal 2003/04 crop and livestock production; common livestock/crop diseases and livelihood situation normal. Currency: Ethiopian Birr. 2005: Poor: 2/5 Terms of Trade: (dry/wet season averages) Karma: below normal rains; low crop/livestock prodn; livestock 1 cattle equivalent to 3.8 quintal of maize or sorghum migration to Amhara region; high livestock sales and cereal purchases 1 goat equivalent to 1 bag of 50kgs of maize or sorghum Sugum: Below normal rains; low 2 goats equivalent to 1 quintal of maize or sorghum crop/livestock prodn; livestock migration to near-by forests in search 1 goat equivalent to 37.5kgs of pulses of fodder; increased livestock sales and Prices (ETB): food purchases. Livestock prices: Cattle = 580; 1 Goat = 75; 1 sheep = 80 2004: Normal 3/5 Karma: normal rains; crop/livestock Grain prices: Maize/50kgs = 75 prodn normal; normal migration within the zone; food aid continued. Sugum: normal rains livestock/crop production normal; internal migration; food aid distribution continued. Indicators to Monitor 2003: Normal : 3/5 Karma: average rains; planting season started on time; crop/livestock ! Karma/Sugum rainfall: Sufficiency, distribution, timeliness and coverage production normal; livestock migration ! Meher/Belg rainfall in neighbouring Amhara region: performance within the livelihood zone. Sugum: average rains; normal ! Deda rainfall: performance, occurrence, timeliness and coverage crop/livestock production; livestock ! Crop production: acreage planted/harvested, output/quantity, migration within the zone. 2002: Poor: 1/5 ! Pasture and water situations: Quality, quantity, sufficiency, alternative Karma: much below normal rains; pasture sites second bad rains; low crop production and livestock prodn; high livestock ! Market conditions: Supply and price of livestock, cereals such as maize, sales and cereal purchases; food aid sorghum, and teff; seasonal versus normal prices both in the zone and distribution. neighbouring Amhara region. Sugum: below normal rains; livestock migration to near-by forest ! Disease: Human and livestock disease outbreaks areas; no planting of crops; livestock diseases. ! Coping mechanisms: Degree of resorting to, and effectiveness 2001: Normal : 3/5 ! Livestock herd sizes: conception, births and mortality rates Karma/sugum: both rains were normal; normal crop and livestock ! Crop pest problem and level of damage production; all livelihood indicators ! Livestock migration: Level of migration, areas and impacts normal; no livestock migration.
! Conflicts: degree of conflicts, causes and impacts
Long Term Food Security and Development Recommendations ! Since the zone has high potential for agricultural production it can be supported by providing (a) fertilizers and seeds at lower prices (b) access to extension services that provide technical advice to farmers on land management, crop pest control, etc. (c) small loans to farmers (d) improved grain storage facilities ! Improve road networks and access especially from Argoba-Dulecha and Awash town to facilitate livestock and cereal trade ! Promote development of springs and shallow wells to reduce chronic water shortages ! Promote better livestock health services through private pharmacies and links with community animal health workers (CAHWs) ! Improve transport and communication facilities in order to improve marketing and market information ! Establish and support community/women’s group managed cereal/seed banks to solve seed/cereal shortages ! Support and promote conflict resolution and peace-building mechanisms between neighbouring communities ! Rural micro finance credit has to established for diversification of off farm activities
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