GENERAL BIOLOGY Basics of cytology Cell theory : history and current status of cell knowledge . The chemical composition of the cell: chemical elements ( carbon , hydrogen , nitrogen , oxygen , phosphorus , sulfur ) nonorganic and organic substances. Nonorganic molecule in a cell ( biogenic chemical elements: carbon , hydrogen , nitrogen , oxygen , phosphorus , sulfur ; water , oxygen , carbon dioxide , ammonia; potassium , sodium , calcium , chlorine , phosphorus and carbonic acids ions ), their functions . Lipids ( simple – fats and wax , complicated – phospholipids and glycolipids , cholesterol and steroid hormones , fat – soluble vitamins ): structure and main biological functions ( structural , energy, regulatory , store ) . Carbohydrates ( monosaccharides : ribose deoxyribose , glucose , fructose , galactose ; disaccharides: maltose , sucrose , lactose; polysaccharides: amylose, amylopectin, glycogen, cellulose, chitin ): structure and main biological functions ( energy , protective , store) . Proteins: structure ( amino acids , peptide bound ), levels of organization ( primary , secondary , tertiary and quaternary ) and main biological functions ( catalytic , transport , receptor , structural , regulatory , protective , store). Enzymes , their role in cell Nucleic acids ( DNA and RNA ): structure ( deoxyribonucleotides and ribonucleotides , phosphodiester bound , intermolecular and intramolecular hydrogen bounds) , synthesis ( replication and transcription ) and biological functions ( storage of genetic information , participation mRNA, rRNA , tRNA in the biosynthesis of proteins). Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells : a comparative analysis of the structure ( surface unit , cytoplasm , genetic material ) and ways of divisions . Surface unit cell : structure ( the plasma membrane , glycocalyx ) and main functions ( isolation , transport , receptor , contact ). Organelle movement: (pseudopodia), cilia, flagella - structure and functions. Cytoplasm : hyaloplasm and organelles. Endoplasmic reticulum : membrane structure and main function ( protein allocation , lipid and cholesterol synthesis , synthesis of sex hormones , the formation of glucose in the splitting of glycogen). The Golgi apparatus: membrane structure and main functions , distribution proteins received from endoplasmic reticulum; synthesis of specific polysaccharides , participation in the formation of lysosomes). Lysosomes: structure ( membrane , hydrolytic enzymes ) and main functions ( splitting of the cell molecules – participation in the intracellular regeneration , splitting of extracellular molecules – intracellular digestion, immune protection). Mitochondria : structure ( the outer and inner membrane with outgrowths , matrix , ribosome , circular molecule of DNA with gens ) and the main function – oxygen stage energy metabolism : an intermediate stage , the Krebs cycle , oxidative phosphorylation. Plastids : structure (the outer and inner membrane, stroma , thylakoids , ribosomes , circular molecule of DNA with gens) , types ( leucoplasts , chromoplasts and chloroplasts ) and functions : store (leucoplasts) , attract (chromoplasts) , photosynthesizing (chloroplasts) . Photosynthesis in plants ( light and dark phase : excitation and electron transfer, water photolysis and its significance , creating photons gradient and ATP synthesis , the inclusion of hydrogen and carbon dioxide in the synthesis of carbohydrates); factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis. Ribosomes : structure ( rRNA and ribosome proteins , small and large subunit ), localization ( hyaloplasm , endoplasmic reticulum and membrane of the nuclear envelope , mitochondria, plastids ) and function – participation in the synthesis of proteins . Genetic code and its properties : triplet , incessancy , disjointness , degeneracy ( redundancy ) , peculiarity , universality . Cytocentrum and centrioles : the structure ( centrosome and centrosphere ) and its functions ( synthesis of microtubules in interphase , the formation of poles and microtubules of division spindle ). Nucleus: structure (bilayer nuclear membrane with pores , karyoplasm –nuclear sap , genetic material ( chromosomes ) . Chromosomes, their structure ( linear DNA molecules in a complex with proteins ) and classification ( the size , position of the centromere ; autosomes and sex chromosomes ), human karyotype . Nuclear functions : storage of genetic information , reproduction of genetic information ( DNA synthesis ) , the first stage of realization of genetic information ( RNA synthesis ). Matrix synthesis reactions : replication ( DNA synthesis), transcription ( RNA synthesis) , translation ( synthesis of polypeptide ). Gen and its role in the biosynthesis – information flow in the cell : DNA + transcription proteins → transcription → mRNA, rRNA + ribosomal proteins , tRNA, translational proteins → translation →replication, transcription , ribosomal , translational proteins ( feedback loop) + non-matrix proteins processes. Energy metabolism in cell: anoxic ( anaerobic) stage – glycolysis ( phosphorylation of glucose and its splitting products , the synthesis of ATP in the dephosphorylation of the intermediate products of glycolysis with formation of pyruvic acid ). Fermentation , its types (lactic, acetous , alcoholic ) and its meaning in the industry .The oxygen ( aerobic) stage : intermediate stage ( oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvic acid , formation of an activated acetic acid – acetyl-coenzyme A , the reestablished hydrogen carries – NAD * H2 and carbon dioxide ) , Krebs cycle (oxidative decarboxylation and dehydrogenation of the intermediates products of the cycle with the formation of the recovered hydrogen and carbon dioxide carriers , synthesis ATP molecules) and oxidative phosphorylation (splitting of the hydrogen atoms on the protons and electrons , the protons gradient creation during transfer of electrons , use its energy to synthesize ATP , the use of oxygen as a final electron acceptor and formation water. The role of fatty acids ( the splitting up activated molecular of acetic acid with the formation of recovered carries hydrogen ) , amino acids ( desamination with conversion to the e activated form of acetic acid ) and ethanol ( oxidation to the activated form acetic acid to hydrogen restored carriers ) in energy metabolism . Cell division : simple binary division of prokaryotes , mitosis , meiosis , amitosis - comparative review. Mitosis: phase (interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase), their characteristics (DNA doubling, helix of chromosomes, the destruction of the nuclear membrane, forming spindle, the interaction of the centromeres of chromosomes with the spindle threads, location of all chromosomes in the equatorial plane of the spindle, the divergence of sister chromatids each chromosome in different poles, despiralization of chromosomes, the destruction of the spindle division, the formation of two nucleus by forming nuclear membrane , division of cytoplasm) and biological meaning (keeping the number of chromosomes and the genotype of cells , a method of reproduction of single-celled eukaryotes, a method of forming a multi- cellular structures and organisms).
Reproduction and ontogenesis (individual development) of organisms.
Sexual and asexual reproduction: sexual process (conjugation in ciliates), reproduction with fertilization on the basis of meiosis, sexual reproduction without fertilization (parthenogenesis in Hymenoptera), a simple binary division (bacteria), mitosis (unicellular eukaryotes), budding (ferment), spore reproduction (plants, sporozoa), vegetative plant reproduction (modified shoots - rhizomes, tubers, mustache; stem - cuttings, roots) and animals (worms fragmentation, identical twins). Meiosis: steps (interphase, the first and second division), phase ( prophase 1, metaphase 1, anaphase 1, telophase 1, prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II, telophase II), their characteristics. Specificity of prophase and anaphase of the first division (conjugation and divergence of homologous chromosomes, leading to the formation of haploid cells) ,the lack of DNA synthesis before the second division, second division as the mitotic (divergence in anaphase II the sister chromatids with the preservation of the number of chromosomes). Biological importance of meiosis (the formation of haploid fission products - spores and germ cells, combinative variability due to differences in the first division of the homologous and non-homologous chromosomes, crossingover).
Gametogenesis : development and structure of gametes ( germ cells ) in animals: reproduction, growth , maturation ( meiosis ) and the formation of gametes . Differences between oogenesis and spermatogenesis : the size of ovum and sperm cells , degeneration of the three products of meiosis in oogenesis . The structure of an ovum ( necleus , a large amount of cytoplasm , membrane ) and sperm cells (a head with a nucleus and a small amount of cytoplasm , a neck with mitochondria and centrioles , tail, formed by nine peripheral pairs of microtubules and a pair of central microtubules ) . The development of germ cells of flowering plants (formation of haploid spores by meiosis , degeneration of three products of meiosis , the formation of the pollen grain through mitosis , the formation of the contents of the embryo sac –an ovum with cell -satellite , cell- antipodes , central diploid cells . The development of animal embryo: fertilization, formation of a diploid zygote, Crushing of zygote, blastula formation (a single layer of the embryo), gastrula (multi-layer embryo), the formation of germ layers (ecto-, and ento- and mesoderm) during gastrulation, organogenesis and histogenesis ( theformation of tissues and organs). Postembryonic development of animals: direct - without metamorphosis (transformation) and indirect - with the metamorphosis (incomplete and complete metamorphosis). Fertilization in flowering plants (double fertilization), parthenogenesis (development without fertilization).
Fundamentals of genetics
The mono- and two-hybrid crosses (autosomal and sex-linked inheritance, unlinked and linked inheritance) , test cross. Mendel's laws (laws of autosomal inheritance): the first law - the law of uniformity in the genotype and phenotype of the first generation hybrids (complete dominance, incomplete dominance, kodomination); second law - law of segregation of hybrids second generation genotype (1AA: 2Aa: 1AA) and phenotype (complete and incomplete domination, kodomination ); third law - law of independent combining of signs of the second generation of hybrids [9A-B: 3A-bb: 3aaV-: 1aabb = (3a-: 1AA) x (3V-: 1bb)]. Cytological foundations o f Mendel's laws (rule of "purity of gametes " - a natural behavior of homologous chromosome during the first meiotic division , independent behavior of non-homologous chromosomes during the first meiotic division ) and statistical nature ( probability of death of three products of meiosis in oogenesis , combining non-homologous chromosomes during meiosis and fertilization ) . Genetics floor ( for example an mammals ) . Sex-linked inheritance : sex chromosomes ( X and Y), inheritance of genes located only in the X chromosome , the role of genes , localized only in Y- chromosome , for sex determination . Linked inheritance and crossingover: ( T.Morgana experiments on Drosophila ) . The chromosomal theory of heredity : the role of Mendel experiments ( Mendel's laws) and T.Morgana ( sex-linked inheritance, and linked inheritance and crossingover ) and the basic tenets of the theory ( the localization of genes in chromosomes , their linear arrangement , the crossover frequency ,as a measure of the distance between genes ) .Cytoplasmic inheritance ( mitochondrial and plastid). Phenotype and genotype : phenotype (a set of features of an organism) , genotype (a set of alleles of genes of an organism ) ,alleles ( different structural states of one gene), homo- and heterozygotes ( carriers of two identical or two different alleles ) , the interaction of alleles of one gene ( complete dominance , incomplete domination, kodomination ) and different genes ( polygenic control of one sign). Genotype as a holistic system : interaction alleles of one and different genes . The phenotype and the external environment : a modification as a change of the phenotype under the influence of environmental factors , their reversibility and non-inherited , the rate of reaction ( its dependency on the genotype ) , statistical regularities modification variability ( variation curve and its parameters ) . Mutations - qualitative or quantitative changes of genetic material : gene (changes in gene structure - substitution, insertion and loss of nucleotides), chromosome ( chromosome structure changes : deletions, duplications , inversions and translocation ) , genomic ( change in the number of chromosomes , multiple and non-multiple of the haploid set of chromosomes ) ; nuclear ( in DNA of the nucleus chromosomes) and cytoplasmic (in DNA of plastids and mitochondria ); autosomal ( in autosomes ) and sex-linked ( in the genital chromosomes ); dominant and recessive ( manifested and not manifested in the heterozygous state ) ; somatic ( in somatic cells) and generative ( in germ cells ) ; spontaneous ( unpromted ) and induced ( caused by external actions ) , the effects of mutations to the phenotype . Mutagens (physical , chemical) and the effects of environmental pollution ( increased frequency mutations ) .
Methods of Human Genetics. Features of human as an object of genetics (fertility, genealogical method (method pedigrees), its symbolism (male and female, spouses, brothers and sisters, identical and fraternal twins, carriers of studied trait) and opportunities (the definition of hereditary character trait, its dominance or recessivity , autosomal or sex-linked). Twin method: mechanisms of identical and fraternal twins (monozigotichesky and polizigotichesky), comparing the degree of variability of identical and fraternal twins to determine the relative role of genotype in the development of feature. Molecular- genetic method : analysis of variability and its causes on molecular level (detection of changes in the concentration of certain metabolites , appearance of new metabolites , changes in the structure and functions of certain proteins , altering the gene nucleotide sequence) . Cytogenetic method : analysis of the number and morphology of chromosomes . Comparative -genetic method : analysis of molecular- genetic control of traits in animals on the basis of the law of homologous series of genetic variation by N.I. Vavilov .
Genetics and Medicine: hereditary diseases as chronic noninfectious diseases caused by changes in the genotype. Genetic diseases: their causes (gene mutations); chromosomal diseases: their causes (chromosomal and genomic mutations). Diagnostics (molecular-genetic method), treatment options (introduction missing substances , stimulation of removing accumulating substances, the exception from diet accumulating substances, the introduction into the diet counterparts accumulating substances, activation of enzymes by introducing appropriate chemicals) and the prevention ( opportunity of noncoception in determining high risk birth of a child with severe hereditary defect , fertilization "In vitro" with cultured blastomeres diagnosis before implantation ) genetic diseases.
The base of evolution studying
Variation – the ability of living systems to exist in different structural and functional forms, role in evolution its classification is: genotypic (combinative, bases on chromosomal action in meiosis, crossingover, fecundation; mutative), modificative, ontogenetic (epigenomic). Species and its criteria – morpho-anatomical ( the similarity – differences between external factors and internal structure), biochemical (the similarity – differences between primary structure of protein and DNA , metabolism characteristic), etological ( the similarity – differences of behavior, including conjugal) , ecological ( the similarity – differences of natural habitat and ecological niche – the complex of connections between other species and natural factors), genetic ( crossability or not, fertility or sterility of descendants), their advantages and disadvantages. The necessity of using some criteria. Evidences of macroevolution: taxonomical (taxonomy of organisms), paleontological ( fossils, transitional forms), comparatively-anatomical (gemology and analogy of organs), embryological (ontogenesis and phylogenesis, biogenetic law, rudiments, atavisms), biogeographical ( comparison of plant and animal worlds in different geographical zones). The main states of Darwin’s evolution theory. The ways and directing of macroevolution: aromorphosis (morpho-physiological progress, increase in common organization rate), idioadaptations ( private adaptation) and common degeneration ( reduction of organization), their correlation in macroevolution, biological regress and progress, their criteria ( change of their number, amount of areal, rate of species variety) . Initiation of the life on the Earth: life like a form of organic material existence in systems, that are able to self-preservation, self-reproduction, self-regulation; chemical stage in life appearance ( the role of solar radiation, Earth temperature, gases and water in appearance of small organic molecules and polymers) , appearance of simplest biological systems (role of nucleic acids, proteins, complex lipids and carbohydrates) and cellules.
Short history of development of the organic world (geobiochronology): Archean, Proterozoic, Paleozoic (cambrian, ordovician, silurian, Devonian, carbonic and Permian periods), Mesozoic (Triassic, Jurassic and cretaceous periods), Cenozoic ( paleogenous, neogenous and anthropogenous periods), periouds of initiation of main groups of live organisms (domain, kingdoms, subkingdoms, types).
The main aromorphosis in evolution: photosynthesis, chemosynthesis and aerobic conditions (domain prokaryote); intracellular membrane organelles, nuclear cover, spindle apparatus and sexual process (domain eukaryote); multi-celled organisms (colonial animals and plants); double layered, intestinal cavity and nervous system (type Coelenterates); a three layered, gnawing muscles, gonads, secretory system (type Platyhelminthes); primary cavity of a body and end gut (type Roundworms); secondary cavity of a body, blood and respiratory systems (type Annelidas); external chitinous skeleton, cross-striped muscles and articular extremities (type Arthropods); external horn skeleton and cloak (type Mollusks); internal axial skeleton and nervous tube (type Chordates).
Forms of natural selection: moving, reducing (increasing) frequency one of alleles and one type homozygotes; the stabilizing, leveling frequencies of different alleles and leading to a high fraction of heterozygotes; disruptive, leading to the formation of two subpopulations with high frequency of different alleles (homozygotes) in each of them, - their role in evolution.
Factors of evolution and dynamic of genotypic structure of population (changing frequencies of genotypes under the influence of evolution factors).
Results of evolution: initiation of facilities, speciation, complication of the organization, - their mechanisms (genotypic variability, isolation and natural selection). Relativity of facilities while changing the external conditions.
Anthropogenesis (origin and evolution of the human). Position of modern the person in animality (a subdomain Multicellular, type Chordates, a subtype Cranial, class Mammals, order Primacies, family Humanoid, order anthropoid , species Homo sapiens). Driving forces of anthropogenesis: biological (variability, isolation, migration, mutations, natural selection) and social (social life, labour and speech activity). Stages of anthropogenesis: driopithecus, paranthropus (prepeople) are australopithecus, arkhanthropus (the most ancient people), paleanthropus (ancient people), neoanthropus (the ancient and living people of modern type), - their characteristic. Human races (negroid, mongoloid, caucasian), their origin and unity (by criteria for species).
Base of selection.
Concept of animal breeding and a plant variety. Variability and its role in selection. Selection methods: domestication , hybridization, induction of mutations, artificial selection, breeding.
Selection of plants: autogamy, vegetative reproduction, heterosis, distant hybridization, polyploidy , mass selection. Directions of selection plants, role of modification variability.
Selection of animals: an assessment of producers by genotype, inbreed, cross- breeding crossings, heterosis, distant hybridization, individual selection.
Biotechnology and its main directions: cultivation of microorganisms, somatic cells and tissues; cell engineering – hybridization of somatic cells, transplantation of the fertilized ovum, transplantation of somatic cell nucleus in ovum (cloning), regeneration and vegetative reproduction of plants; genetic engineering – transfer of genes (transgene organisms, gene therapy).
Bases of ecology.
Ecological systems, their classification: pan-ecosystem (biosphere), megaecosystems (types of biomes – continents and oceans), macroecosystems (biomes – desert, steppe, tundra, etc., sea, lake, river, etc.), idioecosistems (biogeocenoses: grove, meadow, pond, etc.), microecosystems (microbiogeocenoses: ant hill, stub, pool and etc.), components (biotic and abiotic), specific and spatial characteristic. Energetic characteristic of ecosystems: autotrophic (photosynthetic and hemosintetichesky) and geterotrofny. Concept about biomass and efficiency of ecosystems. Chains and networks of nutrition (trophic characteristic of ecosystems): producers (producers of organic chemistry – photo and hemotrophic), consumer (consumers of organic chemistry - herbivorous, carnivorous, omnivorous), decomposer (destroyers mineralisating dead organic chemistry). Ecological pyramids (energy, biomass, number), circulation of substances in ecosystems.
Ecological characteristic of a species: habitatin (area of distribution and its size), density (number to areal quantity), age structure (part of prereproductive, reproductive and postreproductive groups) and sexual structure (correlation of female and man's individuals of reproductive group). Changes in number of populations and ways of its regulation. Habitat and ecological niche of a species: complex of all ecological the factors of an ecosystem acting on them; complex and nature of species communications with ecological factors in an ecosystem. Abiotic ecological factors (light, humidity, temperature), their complex action. The principle of an ecological optimum, limiting factors. Biotic ecological factors. Interrelations of populations in ecosystems: neutral, negative (competition, predatoriness, parasitism), positive (unilateral – cohabitation, “inter-dining”; bilateral – mutually usefulness), their influence on the number of populations.
Anthropogenic ecological factors and their influence on natural ecosystems. Anthropoecosystems (settlements) and agroecosystems (agricultural landы, nurseries, farms), their characteristics, problem of self-control and variety of species. Environmental protection. Development and change of ecosystems – ecological succession. Causes of succession: internal (endogenous succession, self development) and external (exogenous succession, action of powerful external influences); - predictability of endogenous succession. Primary (on earlier uninhabited space) and secondary (on post catastrophic space) succession. Equilibrium (climax) ecosystems. Biosphere, her borders and characteristic as pan-ecosystems. Concept about a noosphere (the sphere of intellect) as new condition and development of the biosphere under influence activity of mankind (V. I. Vernadsky). Live substance and its functions (oxidation-reduction, gas, concentration). Circulation of substances and stream of energy in the biosphere: maximally closed cycles of a circulation of biogenous elements (carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, sulfur), sunlight as the main power source for the biosphere, transformation of solar energy in the biosphere, ensuring circulation of substances on the transformed energy, thermal energy as the last part of an energy stream in the biosphere.
Human being and his health
The main tissues, organs and their systems in human body. Neurohumoral regulation of our metabolism.
Nervous system.
The central nervous system – the general review of a structure (a brain, back brain) and functions (integrative and regulatory). Nervous tissue, her structure (neurons and auxiliary cells) and properties (excitability, conductivity). Structure of neurons (a body and shoots), a nervous impulse (an electric wave), its conducting by shoots. Transfer of nervous impulses on other cells (specific contacts) and its value (conducting impulses on nervous chains,activity regulation of neurons and others cages). Excitation and inhibition of neurons. Types of neurons: sensitive (transfer information from organs), inserted (transfering impulses between neurons) and executive ((transfering impulses to organs). Peripheral nervous system: structure (somatic and autonomous parts) and functions (neuroregulation of skeletal muscles – somatic part, neuroregulation of internals – autonomous part). Spinal cord. Structure of a spinal cord: covers, longitudinal furrows, grey and white substance, their mutual positioning ("butterfly"), the spinal channel with liquid, parts (cervical, chest, lumbar, sacral, coccygeal), segments, spinal knots, backs and nerves. Functions of a spinal cord (reflex and conductional), spinal reflexes and their arches. Reflex arc of knee reflex. Injuries of a spinal cord, their consequences (paralyzes, sensitivity disorders).
Brain. Brain structure: covers, parts (rhombencephalon: medulla, bridge and cerebellum; mesencephalon; forebrain: intermediate and final). Functions of brain parts: communication with a spinal cord, positionof nervous centers regulating the breath, digestion, work of cardiovascular system, protective reflexes of cough, sneezing and vomiting, innervation of language, throat, throat, thyroid glands, large blood vessels, internals (medulla); communication between oblong and other departments of a brain, facial and acoustical nerves (bridge); maintenance of balance and pose, coordination of movements (cerebellum); communication between rhomb and forebrain, visual and acoustical centers (mesencephalon); thermal controling centers, thirst, hunger and saturation, hypothalamus and it hormones (intermediate brain). Big hemispheres of a forebrain, their cortex: furrows, crinkles, shares (frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal), zones (motive, spatial orientation, visual, acoustical, olfactory), their localization and functions (analysis and control of corresponding kinds of activity and feelings, formation of programs of behavior and regulation of work). Specialization of the left and right hemispheres: acoustical and motive centers of the speech, implementation of abstract thinking (left hemisphere), acoustical and visual recognition of images, musical and art creativity – figurative thinking (the right hemisphere). Сranial nerves, their number (12), examples (olfactory, visual, oculomotorious, trigeminal, facial nerve, acoustical, glossopharyngeal, vagus, etc.) and functions (innervation and neuroregulation activity of appropriate organs). Damages of the brain, their consequences.
Autonomous (vegetative) nervous system – sympathetic, parasympathetic and metasympathetic parts. Sympathetic part: position of vegetative nerve ganglions (a boundary sympathetic trunk is near a vertebral column), arces of sympathetic reflexes (nucleus of lateral horns of all chest and first three lumbar spinal cord segments – ganglion in a sympathetic trunk – the nervous terminations in the innervated bodies). Parasympathetic part: disposition of vegetative nerve ganglions (near the innervated body or in his paries), arces of parasympathetic reflexes (nucleus of a segment of a midbrain, three segments of medulla, three segments of sacral department of a spinal cord – nerve ganglions bodies – the nervous terminations in the innervated organs). Antagonism of vegetative regulation of internals, its mechanism (various neuromediators). Metasympathetic part: disposition of reflex arches (paries of innervated body), autonomic regulation of heart work and digestive tract.
Analyzers (sensory systems), their structure: conductive receptor, the inferior centers (spinal, oblong and intermediate cord) and the superior center (zone of a cerebral cortex), functions (perception and information processing). The highest centers of analyzers: visual (parietal zone), flavour (frontal and temporal zone), acoustical and vestibular (temporal zone), olfactory (forebrain subcortex), skin and tactile (parietal zone). Associative zones of cortex (frontal, parietal and temporal zones), their functions (integration of analyzers, perception of difficult images).
Reflexes (conditional and unconditional) – organism response on irritants by nervous system. Reflex arcхes and their structure: sensitive, inserted and motor (executive) neurons, braking reflexes (external and internal). Role of associative cortex zones of big hemispheres in conditioned reflexes formation (formation of temporary communications). The highest nervous activity. Dream is the physiological condition of a brain and all organism which is characterized by immobility, sharp decrease in reactions to external irritants and person organization of activity of a cerebral cortex. Dream stages are: falling asleep (somnolence), superficial dream, deep sleep. Periods of a deep sleep: slow (slow wave on the electroencephalogram) and fast, or paradoxical (fast wave on the electroencephalogram), their characteristics (decrease of methobolism and frequency of heartbeat, rare and superficial breath, decrease of body temperatures – a slow dream; strengthening of the metabolism and frequency of heartbeat, increasing of blood pressure, increasing of breath , the movement of the closed eyes – fast dream). Regularity of changing dream periods of a deep sleep. Significance of a dream: rest and restoration of normal activity in organism (slow dream), processing of information, received during wakefulness (fast sleep). Dreams are difficult mental phenomena based on the impressions endured earlier which can be combined between themselves during fast sleep. Sleep disorders: snoring, gnashing teeth, sleeptalking, somnabulism (sleep- walking), enuresis, children and adults nightmares , sleeplessness.
Sense organs – the general review of their structure and functions.
Organ of vision. Eyeball structure: sclera and cornea, vascular cover, retina and optic nerve, iris of the eye and pupil, aqueous chamber, crystalline lens, vitreous body. Oculomotorius muscles, plaintive gland and channel, eyelids with eyelashes. Retina structure: pigmentary layer, photoreceptor cells (sticks and flasks), layer of neurons and visual nerve fiber, a yellow spot (the retina site containing only flasks) and a blind spot ( exit of an optic nerve from a retina). Mechanisms of visual perception: role of crystalline lens (focusing image on a retina due to change of the curvature), sticks (lightsensing) and flasks (color perception). Sight disorders: short-sightedness (the extended shape of an eyeball or the increased curvature of a crystalline lens), far-sightedness (the flattened shape of an eyeball or crystalline lens), daltonism (a color blindness because of the flasks defects ), a twilight (chicken) blindness because of sticks defects , turbidity of a cornea, cataract, - and possibilities of their treatment. Hygiene of sight.
Auditory organ. Structure of an organ is: external ear (auricle and acoustical pass with glands), a middle ear (an eardrum, a hammer, an anvil and stapes, acoustical pipe) and internal ear snail (oval and round windows, snails liquid , a webby partition, a membrane, inner hair cells - acoustical receptors, acoustical nerve). Acoustical perception and its mechanisms: air fluctuations → external ear → fluctuations of an eardrum → fluctuations of acoustical stones → fluctuations membranes of an oval window → fluctuations of a snail liquid → irritation of inner hair cells → emergence and carrying out nervous impulses. Diseases of an auditory organ are: accumulation of ear sulfur, decrease of eardrum elasticity , inflammation in middle ear (otitises), hereditary deafness (defects of acoustical stones,inner hair cells, acoustical nerve). Hygiene of an auditory organ.
Organ of equilibrium (vestibular apparatus). Structure of an organ is: semicircular ducts, sacks with limy crystals, gelatinous liquid, receptors in inner hair cells and nervous fibers; communication with an inner ear. Functions of organ are: perception the information about position of the head (body), beginning and completion of the rectilinear movement, his acceleration or delay, change of gravity; their mechanisms (role of gelatinous liquid, limy crystals, inner hair cells) . Motion sickness (seasickness) and its reasons. Hygiene of vestibular appararus.
Organs of smell and taste. Olfactory receptors, their disposition (mucous epithelium of a nasal cavity), a structure (club-shaped cells with eyelashes) and functions (interaction of eyelashes with molecules of odorous substances and nervous impulses formation ). Flavoring receptors, their disposition (flavoring nipples on a surface language), flavoring zones (sweet – a language tip, salty – a lobby and lateral parts language, sour – side edges of a middle part of language, bitter – back part of language).
Organs of muscle and skin sense. Muscular receptors, location (muscles) and functions (excitement at reduction or a muscle strain, providing coordination of movements). Skin receptors, its location (skin), a variety of a structure in connection with a variety of functions (the receptors perceiving touch, pressure, cold, heat, pain).
Endocrine system.
Endocrine glands. Thyroid gland, its location (middle area of a neck under a throat), structure (two lobes consisting from follicles, connected by an isthmus), and functions (ability to absorb iodine, to synthesize and secrete thyroid hormones which increase intensity of absorption of oxygen and power metabolism, stimulating growth of an organism, activate excitability of the central nervous system, memory and emotions). Violations of functions of thyroid gland: a myxedema (deficiency the thyroid hormones at the adults, inducing decrease in metabolism and body temperature, puffiness, dryness of skin and partial hair loss), cretinism (deficiency the thyroid hormones at newborns, resulting in dwarfism and strong intellectual backwardness), a Graves' disease (surplus the thyroid hormones, which is followed by the increased metabolism, temperature increase of a body and excitability, weight loss against raised appetite).
Pancreas, its location (to the left of a body axis, under big curvature of a stomach), endocrine function (synthesis and secretion by special groups of cells of the hormones regulating a carbohydrate metabolism). Insulin - one of hormones of pancreas, reducing concentration of glucose in blood by her increased absorption by cells (muscles, liver, adipocyte); diabetes, which is caused by deficiency of insulin, its symptoms (the increased concentration of glucose in blood, presence of glucose in secondary urine, frequent and plentiful urination, thirst). Consequences of excess of insulin in an organism (low concentration of glucose in blood, violations of work of neurons of a brain, the general weakness with loss of consciousness and spasms).
Adrenal glands, its location (pair of glands near the top of kidneys), structure (cortical layer and brain substance) and functions (synthesis and secretion of hormones, regulating an electrolytic balance - mineral corticosteroids of a cortical layer, carbohydrate and protein metabolism – glucocorticosteroids of a cortical layer, pubescence in men - androgens of a cortical layer, activity of all types of muscles of an organism, carbohydrate and lipid metabolism – adrenaline and noradrenaline of brain substance.
Gonads (ovaries and testicles). Ovaries: its location (cavity basin on uterine sheaves), a structure (bodies of connecting fabric with follicles), endocrine function (synthesis and secretion of estrogen – female sex hormones). Functions of female sex hormones (maturing of ova and ovulation, obesity on female type, female type of behavior), consequences of their deficiency (infertility, development of man’s signs type appearance) and surplus (premature puberty). Testicles: its location (scrotum), a structure (a difficult cover, segments with seed tubules), endocrine function (synthesis and secretion of androgens – man's sex hormones special cells of seed tubules). Functions of man's sex hormones: development of man's sexual characters and behavior, control spermatogenesis, stimulation of ossification of cartilages, increasing of synthesis of proteins in muscles and liver. Consequences of deficiency of male sex hormones (infertility, development of female type appearance signs) and their surplus (premature puberty and low-tallness).
Hypophysis: its development (outgrowth of the lower side of an intermediate brain), structure (forward and back shares) and functions (synthesis and secretion of hormone of growth and the tropic hormones regulating function of other glands and organs: sexual, dairy, thyroid, adrenal glands, kidneys, uterus. Hormones: their structure (peptide – insulin, steroid – sexual and corticosteroids, derivative amino acids - thyroxine) and the mechanism of their action (interaction with specific receptors with the subsequent activation or synthesis of certain cellular proteins) Hormones of a hypophysis, adrenal glands, pancreatic, thyroid and gonads: functions and consequences of their violation (see above).
Neuro- and humoral regulation of activity of an organism. Hypothalamus: its location (intermediate brain) and function (synthesis and secretion of neurohormones, regulating work of a hypophysis on the principle "stimulation suppression"). Hypophyseal portal system and scheme of its work: level of hormones in blood → hypothalamus → secretion of neurohormones → hypophysis → secretion of hormones of a hypophysis → glands of internal secretion → secretion of hormones of glands → bodies and fabrics, hypothalamus The principle of feedback in work of hypophyseal portal system.
Reproductive system. Organs of reproduction: gonads (gonads – ovaries and testicles), internal genitals (uterine tubes, uterus and vagina; spermatic cord, ejaculatory duct and prostate gland), external sex organs (labia majora, labia minora, clitoris; scrotum and penis), their structure and functions.
Sex hormones and puberty. Diseases of reproductive system, prevention of venereal diseases.
Formation of gametes (ova and spermatozoa): zones (periods), reproduction (oogonium and spermatogonium), growth (oocytes 1 and spermatocyte 1), maturing (oocytes which are formed by meiosis with polar bodies and spermatocyte from a spermatids), formations (ova and spermatozoa).
Embryo and fetus development. Fertilization of an ovum and its segmentation (fetus from 30-32 cells) in uterine tubes, pre-natal development in a uterus with development of placentae and umbilical cord, structure and role of these temporary bodies (gas exchange and exchange of substances between blood of mother and a germ). Development of a fetus (1-6 weeks of gestation): emergence and development of rudiments of bodies and extremities, heartbeat) and fetus (7-8 week of pregnancy and further): development and further growth of a body and organs. Pregnancy: its features (increasing of release of hormones ovaries, increase in the sizes of mammary glands and uterus, increase in arterial pressure and water-salt balance, need for vitamins) and hygiene (personal hygiene, correct diet and sleep, medicines only on doctor's prescription, no smoking of alcohol intake).
Child's birth, growth and development: Mechanism of childbirth (contraction of muscles of a uterus and a belly wall), breath after a ligature and cutting of an umbilical cord (accumulation of carbon dioxide in organism of the newborn and excitement of the respiratory center), development periods later childbirth: baby age (first year of life), toddler (age 1-3 years), preschool period (from 3 to 7 years), gradeschool period (7-17 years), teenage period (11-17 years) – a physiological, psychological and social maturity.
Circulatory and lymphatic system. Organs of blood circulation: heart, aorta, arteries, capillaries, veins, - the general review of structure and functions. Heart, its structure (pericardial bag, cardiac muscle, atria and ventricles, folding valves) and work (the movement of blood in heart from hollow and pulmonary veins to atria, from atria in ventricles, from ventricles in an aorta and pulmonary artery). Cardiac cycle: contraction of atria (0,1 sec.) → contraction of ventricles (0,3 sec.) → the general relaxation (0,4 sec.), - a role of semi-lunar and folding valves.
Automatism of work of heart (ability to spontaneous rhythmic contraction) and his mechanism (existence of special auto-excited muscle cells with great concentration in the right atrium). Electrocardiogram – reflection of action of the heart on the basis of registration of the bioelectric signals generated by heart. Neuro- and humoral regulation of heart work: receptors in walls of cavities perceiving changes of pressure of blood; role of sympathetic (decreasing heart rate) and parasympathetic (increasing frequency of contractions) departments autonomous nervous system, role of physical work and emotional state; increasing of heart beating under the influence of adrenaline and calcium salts, decreasing of heart beating by action of acetylcholine and salts of potassium.
Big and small circles of blood circulation: blood vessels, their structure (epitelialny, gladkomyshechny and connecting fabrics, semi-lunar valves). Systemic circulation: the movement of blood in vessels from the left ventricle to the right atrium (the left ventricle → an aorta → arteries → capillaries from arterial blood to a brain, organs, muscles and skin; veins with a blue blood from the head, neck and the top extremities → vena cava superior→ the right atrium, veins from venous blood from a trunk, the lower extremities and abdominal organs → the vena cava inferior → right atrium). Small circle of blood circulation: the movement of blood from right ventricle to the left atrium (the right ventricle with a blue blood → pulmonary artery → pulmonary capillaries → pulmonary veins with arterial blood → left atrium). A role of semi-lunar valves in blood circulation (providing the one-way blood movement), a blood pressure (the maximum arterial - in an aorta, reduction of ventricles and the minimum arterial - in an aorta in time of relaxations of ventricles) and its regulation (receptors in walls of vessels → nervous impulses in the centers of a medulla → muscles of vessels and a cardiac muscle; increase of pressure → dilatation of vessels and weakening of work of heart, pressure decrease → constriction of vessels and strengthening of work of heart), measurement blood pressure using tonometer, pulse. Negative influence of nicotine and alcohol (increase of adrenaline in blood) on cardiovascular system. Cardiovascular diseases (hypertension, atherosclerosis, myocardial infarction), their prevention. First aid at bleedings. Blood. Composition of blood: plasma, erythrocytes, leukocytes (neutrophils, basophiles, eosinophils, monocytes, macrophages, lymphocytes), platelets, their structure, functions, concentration in blood. Blood types (the AVO systems and the Rhesus factor), their importance for blood transfusions. Blood diseases (anemias, hemophilia), their reasons and prevention. Bodies of a lymphokinesis (vessels, nodes), communication with the blood circulatory system, formation of a lymph. Extracellular fluid of an organism (blood, lymph, tissue fluid), her unity.
Immune system. Organs of immune system: red marrow, thymus, spleen, lymph nodes. Immunity: cellular and humoral, active and passive, natural and artificial. Role of phagocytes and lymphocytes in the immune response. Immunological prevention of infectious diseases (vaccine and serum). Diseases of immune system (immunodeficiency, allergy), reasons. AIDS and its prevention.
Urinary system. Organs of urination (kidney, ureters, bladder, urethra), their structure and functions. Primary and secondary urine: a blood plasma filtration in malpighian tuft; reabsorption of water, glucose and aminoacids in kidney tubules. Neuro and humoral regulation of an urinary system. Diseases of urinary organs, Prevention of diseases.
Respiratory system. Respiratory organs: a nasopharynx, lungs (a trachea, bronchial tubes, pulmonary bubbles - alveoli), a pulmonary bag (pleura), - their structure and functions. Respiratory movements, role of intercostal muscles and diaphragm. Gas exchange in lungs, its mechanisms (free diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide). Neuro- and humoral regulation of breath. Artificial respiration. Diseases of respiratory organs, their prevention. Vocal apparatus.
Gastrointestinal tract. Digestive organs: teeth, mouth, tongue, esophagus, stomach, intestines (small, large, cecum, colon, rectum), - structure and functions.
Digestion in various departments of a digestive tract, enzymes digestion. Absorption of products of digestion and water in intestines. Liver role, salivary and pancreatic glands in digestion. Intestinal bacteria and digestion. Neuro and humoral regulation of digestion. Diseases of digestive organs, prevention. Nutrition hygiene.
Integumentary system. Skin: structure (epidermis, shit – actually skin, subcutaneous fat, hair, nails, sweat and sebaceous glands, nervous receptors, blood vessels), and functions. A skin role in thermal control (thickness of subcutaneous fat, diameter and number of open capillaries, activity of sweat glands) and touch (types nervous receptors of skin). Hygiene of skin, first aid at thermal, electric and solar burns, heatstroke. Diseases of integumentary system, their revention.
Musculoskeletal system.
Skeleton: skull (frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal, zygomatic, nasal, lachrymal, maxilla and mandibular bones), spine (cervical, chest, lumbar, sacral and occygeal departments, vertebras), thorax (vertebras, ribs, breast), pectoral arch and upper extremities (scapula, clavicle, humeral, ulna and radius bones, carpus, metacarpus, fingers), pelvic arch and lower extremities (pelvic, femoral, big and small tibia bones, a patella, a tarsus with calcaneal bone, fingers). Bones: structure (organic and inorganic components), structure (long and flat, tubular and spongy), growth and types connections (motionless - a suture, semimobile and mobile - joints) bones. Skeletal muscles: structure (fibrous cover, sinews, muscular bunches, multinuclear muscle fibers, blood vessels, nerves), properties (excitability and contraction), main groups, functions. Mimic muscles. First aid at sprains, bruises, dislocations and fractures of bones. Diseases of musculoskeletal system, its prevention.
Metabolism and energy. Metabolism: plastic and power metabolism (anabolism and catabolism). Metabolism of proteins, fats, carbohydrates, mineral salts and water, its value.
Vitamins (water-soluble – B1, B6, B12, C and fat-soluble – And, D), their role in metabolism. Diseases of a metabolism, hyper - hypo - and avitaminosis, its prevention.
ZOOLOGY
Systematization of live organisms: empires, kingdoms, subkingdoms, types, subtypes, superclasses, classes, groups, families, childbirth, types.
Empire Non-cellular, Kingdom Viruses: structure (RNA-viruses and DNA-viruses, protein and membrane covers), life cycle (interaction with a cell, penetration into a cell, release from covers, replication, transcription, translation of virus proteins, assembly of virus particles, exit from a cell), ecological, industrial and medical value. Virus diseases of the human. HIV (human immunodeficiency virus), ways of infection, prevention of AIDS.
Empire Cellular, Prokariota, Eubacteria: structure (cellular wall, cellular membrane, flagella, cytoplasm with ribosomes, nuclear apparatus), food and a metabolism (autotrophs: photo- and chemosynthesis, heterotrophs – saprophyte and parasites), life cycles (simple binary division, sporogenesis), ecological (producers, consumers and reducers), industrial (lactic bacteria) and medical (intestinal microflora, causative agents of infections) value. Prevention of bacterial diseases.
Eukariota, kingdom Animals, subkingdom Unicellular (Elementary) animals: origin, systematization, structure, metabolism, life cycles, evolutionary, ecological, industrial and medical value.
Sarcomastigophora phylum: general characteristic. Sarkodina class: subclasses Rhizopoda, Radiolaria and Heliozoa. Sarkodina – parasites of the human (dysenteric amoeba). Class Flagellates: subclasses Animal and Plant flagellates. Flagellates – parasites of the human (lamblia).
Type Ciliophora: general characteristic. Infusorians – parasites of human (Balantidium).
Sporozoa type: general characteristic. Sporozoa – parasites of the human (malaria plasmodium, coccidia).
Subkingdom Multicellular animals: origin, systematization, structure, metabolism, life cycles, evolutionary, ecological, industrial and medical value.
Type Coelenterates: general characteristic. Classes Hydrozoa (hydra), Scyphozoa (jellyfishes) and Anthozoa (actinium, corals). Dangerous to the person jellyfishes.
Type Flat worms: general characteristic. Planarian worms. Trematodes – parasites of the person (liver fluke).
Cestoda worms. Cestoda worms are parasites of the person (Diphyllobothrium latum, beef and pork tapeworms, echinococcus).
Type Roundworms: general characteristic. Roundworms are parasites of the human (ascaris, pinworm).
Type Annelidas (ringed worms): general characteristic. Classes Polychaeta (nereid), Oligochaeta (earthworm, sludge worm), Leeches.
Type Arthropods: general characteristic. Branchiata subtype, class Crustacea. Crustacea (Cyclops, crayfish, crabs) – intermediate owners of parasites of the person (Diphyllobothrium latum, Paragonimus westermani)
Subtype Chelicerata, class Arachnida. Arachnida – are human's parasites and infection carriers (scabby and taiga ticks). Venomous arachnida (scorpions, spiders: tarantula and karakurt). Tracheata subtype, class Insects (orders of Dragonfly, Coleopterous, Lepidopterous, Hymenopterous, Dipterous, Semi-coleopterous, Louses, Fleas). Insects – are human's parasites and infection carriers(a louse, fleas, bugs, gadflies, mosquitoes, mosquitoes, flies, gadfly). Venomous insects (wasps, bees, bumblebees, hornets). Mollusca type: general characteristic. Classes Bivalvia (swan mussel, perlovitsa, oyster, mussel), Gastropoda (pond snail, planorbidae, grape snail, slug), Cephalopoda (octopus, squid, cuttlefish). Gastropoda – intermediate hosts of flukes. Chordata type: general characteristic. Acranial subtype, class Lancelets. Cranial subtype (Vertebrata). Fish's superclass, Cartilaginous fishes class (orders of Sharkes and Slopes). Bony fishes class, Sarcopterygii's subclass (Crossopterygii's orders and Dipnoi), Actinopterygii's subclass (orders of Acipenseriformes, Salmoniformes, Clupeiformes, Cypriniformes, Gadiformes, Pleuronectiformes, Perciformes, Anguilliformes). Bony fishes – intermediate hosts of flukes (Opisthorchis felineus and Clonorchis sinensis) and Diphyllobothrium latum. Venomous and dangerous fishes (the Tetraodon – fugu fish, morays, piranhas, slopes, sharks). Class Amphibians: orders of Caudata (triton, salamander), Anura (frog, toad), Gymnophiona (Caeciliidae). Venomous Amphibia (frogs, toads, salamanders). Reptilia class: orders of Squamata (lizards, snakes), Turtles, Crocodiles. Fossil reptiles. Venomous snakes (viper, adder, gloydius, echis carinatus, cobra, macrovipera lebetina), dangerous reptiles (crocodiles, boas). Mammal class (Animals): subclasses of Monotremata, or Yinotheria (echidna, duck-bill), Marsupialia (kangaroo, koala, etc.), Placentalia (orders of Insectivora, Chiroptera, Rodentia, Lagomorpha, Pinnipedia, Cetacea, Artiodactyla, Perissodactyla, Proboscidea, Carnivora, Primates). Mammals – hosts of human's parasites. Aves class: Paleognathae (orders of Struthioniformes, Rheidae, Casuariiformes, Apterygiformes), Carinatae (orders of Spheniscidae, Galliformes, Anseriformes, Piciformes, Trochiliformes, Psittaciformes, Strigiformes, Falconiformes, Gruiformes, Passeriformes).
Recommended literature
БИОЛОГИЯ. ЧЕЛОВЕК (под ред. А.С.Батуева). Учебник для 9 класса общеобразовательных учебных заведений. М. Просвещение. БИОЛОГИЯ. ЖИВОТНЫЕ (авт. А.И.Никишов, И.Х.Шарова). Учебник для 7-8 классов средней школы. М. Просвещение.
Structure of question cards and evaluation criteria of question cards Question tickets for an written form of an entrance test contain 4 questions: 2 of general biology, anatomy question, 1 question of animal’s, bacteria’s, virus’s biology. You can rich 25 points (maximum) for each question. For each mistake points will decrease for 1-5 points depending on importance of a mistake. Besides, there will be evaluation of fullness of answer. Also points will decrease because of absence of pattern information. (the absence of answer or answer for another question will be evaluated as 0 points). After evaluating of each question all of the points will be summed up to give you a final score. The maximum of points is 100.
Examples of question cards of last years.
Question 1 – Structure of the cell nucleus
Superficial structure of the nucleus
Nuclear sap
Nuclear matrix Chromatin and chromosomes
Nuclear function
Question - 2. Evidence of Evolution.
Comparative anatomic
Rudiments and atavisms
Embriologic
Paleontologic
Zoographic
Questionh - 3.
Bony fish class.
Class systematization
Particular qualities fish bones Structure of the main organ systems:
- digestive
- nerve
- excretory
- vascular
-respiratory
Fish senses
Reproduction and development
Question-4
Cardio-vascilar system.
Structure of the heart
Structure of the heart muscle
Heart automacity
Heart beat
Neurohumoral regulation of the heart
Head of the department of biology and genetics Korzhenevskaya M.A. Pro-rector of educational process Yaremenko A. I. Head of the First Pavlov State Medical University of St. Petersburg Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences, professor Bagnenko S.F.
Evaluation criteria of the written answer at First Pavlov State Medical Universityof St. Petersburg Biology entrance examination
Question tickets for an written form of an entrance test contain 4 questions: 2 of general biology, 1 anatomy question, 1 question of zoology. You can rich from 25 points (maximum) to 0 points (minimum) for each question. After evaluating of each question all of the points will be summed up to give you a final score. The maximum of points is 100. 25 points: the answer for 1 question is full, logical, reasoned. University entrant showed deep knowledge and understanding of biological terms, theories and also understanding of intra subject and intersubject connections. University entrant has integrative point of view to an explanation of the phenomena. There is no mistake in information of written answer and writing. 24 points: the answer for 1 question is full, logical, reasoned. University entrant showed deep knowledge and understanding of biological terms, theories and also understanding of intra subject and intersubject connections. University entrant has integrative point of view to an explanation of the phenomena. There is a little significant remark to an answer. 23 points: the answer for 1 question is full, logical, reasoned. University entrant showed knowledge and understanding of biological terms, theories and also understanding of intra subject and intersubject connections. There is one little mistake. 22 points: the answer for 1 question is full, logical, reasoned. University entrant showed knowledge and understanding of biological terms, theories and also understanding of intra subject and intersubject connections. There are two little significant mistakes. 21 points: the answer for 1 question is full, logical, reasoned. University entrant showed knowledge and understanding of biological terms, theories and also understanding of intra subject and intersubject connections. There are three little significant mistakes. 20 points: the answer for 1 question is full, logical, reasoned. University entrant showed knowledge and understanding of biological terms, theories and also understanding of intra subject and intersubject connections. There are 4-5 mistakes (no more than5). 19 points: the answer for 1 question is full, logical, reasoned. University entrant showed knowledge and understanding of biological terms, theories. But there is no understanding of intra subject and intersubject connections. There is wrong logic of the answer and there are some little significant mistakes. 18 points: the answer for 1 question is full, logical, reasoned. University entrant showed knowledge and understanding of biological terms, theories. There is wrong logic of the answer and there are mistakes of biological terms. 17 points: the answer for 1 question is full but unreasoned with wrong logic. University entrant showed knowledge and understanding of biological terms, theories. There are 5-6 little significant mistakes. 16 points: the answer for 1 question is full but unreasoned with wring logic. University entrant showed knowledge and understanding of biological terms, theories. But there is no understanding of intra subject and intersubject connections. There are some mistakes. And there is 1 mistake in 1 biological term. 15-14 points: the answer for 1 question is not full enough (there is no explanation of all general characteristics of type, class of animals; there is no all of organ system functions; there is no explanation of theory). There are 1-2 significant mistakes and some (no more than 10) little significant mistakes. 13-12 points: the answer for 1 question is not full enough (there is no explanation of all general characteristics of type, class of animals; there is no all of organ system functions; there is no explanation of theory). There are 2-3 significant mistakes and 2 little significant mistakes. 11-10 points: there is an answer for half of the question. But there is an explanation of general terms. There is wrong logic in answer. There is no explanation of all general characteristics of type, class of animals; there is no all of organ system functions; there is no explanation of theory. There are 3-4 significant mistakes. 9-8 points: there is an answer for less than half of the question. But there is an explanation of general terms. There is wrong logic in answer. There are 3-4 significant mistakes and 2 little significant mistakes. 7-6 points: there is little information in answer. There are 4 significant mistakes. There is a wrong explanation of general terms. 5-4 points: there is little information about terms without any connection between each other. There are significant mistakes. There is a wrong explanation of general terms. 3-2 points: there is little information in answer. There is no explanation of general terms. There are significant mistakes. In genetic questions there are mistakes of schemes of crossings, parents and posterity genotypes, gametal cells. 1 point: the answer doesn't correspond to a question. 0 points: there is no answer.
Head of the department of biology and genetics Korzhenevskaya M.A.