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!....__ -^ ALBERT R. MANN LIBRARY
New York State Colleges OF Agriculture and Home Economics
AT
Cornell University Cornell University Library S 511.S83 1889 V.4 The book of the farm; detailing the labou
3 1924 000 275 820 Cornell University Library
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http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924000275820 JVOTE TO THE BIJVDER.
With this Division of 'The Book of the Farm' are given Titles and Contents for rehinding the Work, in Three Volumes, for the convenience of those who may wish to do so.
THE BOOK OF THE PAEM
DIVISION VI. Wherefore come on, young husbandman ! Learn the culture proper to each kmd. VlKGIL. THE BOOK OF THE FARM
DETAILING THE LABOURS OF THE
FAEMEE, FAEM-STEWAED, PLOUGHMAN, SHEPHEED, HEDGEE, FAEM-LABOUEEE, FIELD-WOEKEE, AND CATTLE-MAN
HENRY STEPHENS, F.R.S.E.
correspondikq membeit of the national and central society of agriculture of france,*
of the agricultural society of calicia ; of the agricultural institute of goregoretzk in russia; of the royal agricultural society of Sweden; of the royal improvement society of norway
FOURTH EDITION
REVISED, AND IN GREAT PART REWRITTEN, BY JAMES MACDONALD OF THE 'FARMING WORLD*;
author of 'food from THE FAR WEST*: JOINT AUTHOR OF 'POLLED CATTLEj' 'HEREFORD CATTLE,' ETC., ETC.
IN SIX DIVISIONS
DIVISION VI.
WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS EDINBUEGH AND LONDON MDCCCXCI
\
. .
CONTENTS OF DIVISION VL
*J' The Index to the Complete Woek being included in lids Division, the Contents are con- sequently not so copiously given as in the: earlier Divisions, iM referhi^e to any subject under its
title in the Index will supply the information required. : 1
PRACTICE—AUTUMN {continued):
PAGE
Mole-drainage . 28r Steading for arable farming 324
Process of mole-draining . 282 Steadings for mixed husbandry 326 Surface-draining 285 Steadings for dairy farming 336 Improving waste land 286 Steadings for suburban farming 338 Eules for land improvement 286 Farm-houses .... 340 Scotch example 287 Plans of farm-houses 344 Other methods 287 Outline and ornamentation 353 Improving poor land 291 Second-class farm-house . 353 Improvement of hill pasture 292 Third-class farm-house 353 A Mid-Lothian example . 293 General principles . 357 Improvements at Glenbuck 294 Plans of farm cottages 358 Trench and subsoil ploughing 295 Family cottages .... 359 Liming land . 297 Single-storeyed detached cottage 362 Injury from imprudent liming 297 Two-storey cottages 363 Quantity of lime per acre 300 Cottages of different sizes 374 Chalking land . 301 Composite cottages . 374 Marling land . 302 Outhouses of cottages 375 Limestone 302 Bothies .... 375 Preparing lime 303 Evils of the bothy system 376 Over-liming 303 Iron buildings 378
Compost . 304 Specifications . . . . . 378 Gas-lime .... 304 Specification for a steading for a farm Irrigation 304 of 5CC0 acres .... 378 Systems of irrigation 308 Specification for modem stone stead- ing 385 Specification Faem Buildings, of labourers' cottages . 389
Modern homesteads 3" Breeds op Fabm Live Stock. General principles . 316 Farms and steadings 316 Horses 393 Situation of the steading , 317 Shire horses 393 Principles of arrangement 318 Clydesdale horses 396 Plans of steadings . 319 Sufi'olk horses . 401 Pastoral farming 319 Cleveland bays 402 Cattle pastoral farming 319 The hackney horse 404 Sheep pastoral farming 321 Cattle 405 Pastoral and arable farming 321 Shorthorn cattle 406 Sheep and arable farming 323 Hereford cattle 409 vi LIST OF ILLUSTKATIONS IN DIVISION YI.
ANIMAL POETEAITS. PLATE POULTRY ...... 2
GUERNSEY COW . 23 OXFORD DOWN RAM .... 28 BORDER LEICESTER EWE AND LAMB (1850) 32
FAKM BUILDINGS.
DETACHED PASTORAL FARM-STEADING FOR REARING CATTLE ^ ' ' COMPACT PASTORAL FARM-STEADING FOR REARING CATTLE f
FARM-STEADING FOR REARING CATTLE WITH ARABLE CULTURE ) FARM -STEADING FOR REARING SHEEP WITH ARABLE CULTURE |
SMALL DAIRY FARM-STEADING ] ' ' ' SUBURBIAL FARM-STEADING FOR ARABLE CULTURE f COMMON FARM-STEADING ...... CARSE FARM-STEADING ...... PLAN OF A DAIRY HOMESTEAD FOR EIGHTY COWS AND FORTY YOUNG CATTLE FARM-STEADING AT INVERQUHARITY ...... FRONT ELEVATION OF FARMHOUSES ......
GENEEAL ILLUSTEATIONS.
AU T U M T!(—continued.
FIG. 668. Mole-draining 281 679. Upper floor of a steading for carse 669, 670. Mole- draining ploughs 282 farming ..... 325 671. Junction with main drain 283 680, Upper storey of a steading for com- 672. Auxiliary and mole-drains 283 mon farming .... 327 673. Closing coulter-track 284 68r, 682. Ground-plan of complete stead- Mattock 288 674. ing for farm of 500 acres . 328, 329 675. Levelling-box, or scoop . 290 683. Entrance elevation of main build-
676. Catch-work water-meadow 310 ings . _ 330 floor of steading for cattle 677. Upper a Back elevation of main buildings . 330 pastoral farming with arable cul 685. Side elevation of shed, barn, stables, ture ..... 322 330 678. Upper floor of a steading for sheep 686. Side elevation of main buildings 330 pastoral farming with arable cul 687. Section and elevation of main build- ture ..... 324 ings at A B 331 . —
Vlll ILLUSTEATIONS IN DIVISION VI.
of single-storeyed de- 688. Section of mam buildings at C D . 331 734. Ground-plan tached cottage . . . • 361 68g. Section of stables at E P . .331 single-storeyed 6go. Ground - plan of modern Scotch 735. Front elevation of a steading 332 detached cottage 362 Ground-plan of a single-storeyed 691. Section of cow-byre . . . 333 736. 692. East elevation .... 333 detached cottage 363 693. South elevation .... 333 737. Front elevation of a single-storef^ed 694. North elevation .... 333 detached cottage 363 Ground plan of a two-storeyed de- 695. Section at A B . . . .334 738. tached cottage 364 696. Section at C D . . . .334 .... Chamber-floor plan of a two-storeyed 697. Upper or roof plan . . . 334 739. 698. Upper storey of a steading for detached cottage 365 of the two-storeyed small dairy farming . . . 336 740. Front elevation 699. Butter-dairy 337 cottage in flg. 738 365 -plan of single-storeyed 700. Section at A B . . . . 338 741. Ground
double-detached cottages . 366 701. Section at C D . . . -338 702. Front elevation .... 338 742. Alternative ground-plan of single- 703. Upper storey of a steading for sub- storeyed double - detached cot- urban farming with arable culture 339 366 704. Ground-plan of a kitchen, &c., of 743- Front elevation of the double-de- farmhouse ..... 342 tached cottages in fig. 741 366 elevation front 705. Cheese-room, &c., of farmhouse . 343 744- Alternative front to
in fig. . 706. Ground-plan of farmhouse . . 345 elevation 743 367 to ground- 707. Chamber-floor plan of farmhouse . 346 745- Alternative ground-plan 708. Alternative arrangement of part of plan in fig. 741 .... 367 chamber-floor storey . . . 346 746. Alternative ground-plan to ground- fig. 709. Side elevation of farmhouse . . 347 plan in 741 .... 367
. to ground- 710. Back elevation of farmhouse . 347 747- Alternative ground-plan 711. Side elevation of farmhouse, finished plan in fig. 741 .... 368 to show stone-rubble walling . 348 748. Ground-plan of two-storeyed double- 712. Back elevation of alternative design 348 detached cottages 368 713. Vertical section of milk-house and 749- Chamber-floor plan of fig. 748 368 cottages in cheese-room, figs. 706 and 707 . 349 750. Front elevation of the 714. Ground-plan of farmhouse in Italian fig- 748 369 style 349 751- End elevation of cottages in fig. 715. Cellar plan 350 748 369
716. Alternative cellar plan . . . 350 752. Ground-plan of two-storeyed double- 717. Chamber-floor plan of farmhouse in detached cottages 369 Italian style .... 350 753- Chamber-floor plan of fig. 752 370 718. Front elevation of farmhouse in 754- Front elevation of cottages infig. 752 370 - Italian style . . . -351 755- Two storey double cottages 719. Back elevation in the Italian style 351 ground-plan .... 370 720. Side elevation in the Italian style . 352 756. Upper floor ..... 371 721. Side elevation in the Italian style . 352 757. Section ...... 371 722. Ground-plan of a second-class farm- 758. Front elevation .... 371 house ..... 354 759- Ground-plan of modern English 723. Cellar-plan of a second-class farm- cottages . . . . 372 house 354 760. Upper floor ..... 372 724. Chamber - plan of a second - class 761. Front elevation .... 373 farmhouse ..... 355 762. Ground - plan of single - storeyed 725. Front elevation of a second-class double cottages, consisting of farmhouse ..... 355 larger and smaller houses . 373 726. Side elevation of a second-class 763- Small two-storeyed double cottages 374 farmhouse ..... 356 764. Elevation of small two-storeyed 727. Side elevation of a second-class double cottages .... 374 farmhouse ..... 356 765. Upper storey of composite cottage 728. Ground-plan of a third-class farm- applied to fig. 734 375 house ..... 357 766. Ground - plan of a two - storeyed 729. Chamber-floor plan of »• third-class bothy 376 farmhouse ..... 358 767. Chamber-floor of a two-storeyed 730. Front elevation of a third-class bothy 376 farmhouse ..... 358 768. Ground-plan of a single-storeyed 731. Ground-plan of a small hind's house bothy 376 of one room .... 360 769. Iron buildings .... 378 732. Ground-plan of a large hind's house 770. Window-sill 380 of one room .... 360 771. Coping to yard wall 380 733. Ground-plan of a small hind's house 772, 773. Mangers 380 with two rooms . . . .361 774. Shepherd's dog or collie 438
rtATE II
IPlLATm §s
IPRATE g®
—
MOLE-DEAINAGE. 281
MOLE-DEAINAGE. sandy or friable, it cannot retain the shape of the mole, the channel being On land of a suitable nature mole- obliterated by the collapse of its walls. drainage is frequently found to be a Mole-draining Permanent Pasture. desirable substitute for pipe - drainage. —It is on land under permanent pasture It has, for instance, given satisfactory- that this system of drainage may be re- results in most of the eastern and mid- sorted to with the greatest prospect of land counties of England. permanency, and least injury to the Advantages.—^The chief advantages surface. it offers are that it is less costly, and The slit made by the coulter remains that it may be more expeditiously carried longer open under such circumstances, out. as there is little loose soil to fill it up, Its cheapness commends it specially to drawing off the rain-water and prevent- the tenant-farmer, for although it may ing the forming of pools on the surface. require repetition after the lapse of from Mole -draining Tillage liand.-—In twelve to twenty years, the initial ex- the case of. land under cultivation, the pense does not amount to more than seeds break affords the best opportunity from one-sixth to one-fourth of that of of doing this work ; and when seeds are the ordinary method; hence it is from down for several years, the last season, his point of view the more economical. just before the land is broken up for a Different Soils and Mole-draining. grain crop, is the time generally chosen. —A strong firm clay or loam, free from Occasionally the fallow break is drained, stones, offers the greatest facilities for and, more rarely, the land on which mole-drainage. wheat is actually growing; but it is The presence of a few boulders, which obvious that a considerable amount of may throw the implement out of the surface damage must result in either ground occasionally, need not be re- case. garded as an insuperable obstacle. Very Time for Mole-draining.—The sur- fine plastic clays are liable to shrink and face of the field need not of necessity crack excessively in dry seasons, thus be perfectly flat or even, for the mole- allowing particles of loose soil to crumble plough may be raised or lowered to some into the conduit and choke it up ; while, extent to suit irregularities of surface, on the other hand, if the subsoil be too but it must admit of a moderate and
Fig. 668. Mok-dminitig. tolerably uniform fall being given upon the amount of autumn rainfall. In throughout the entire length of each wet seasons a start may be made in No- drain. vember or December ; but the work has The time of the year at which mole- often to be postponed until February or drainage may be commenced depends March, when the winter's rains have made VOL. III. S2 ;
282 DKAINING LAND.
the subsoil sufficiently soft. Autumn the medium of a windlass and horse-gear work, wlien it can be undertaken, has anchored at the higher end of the in- the advantage that the soil can bear the tended drain. See fig. 668, which, with weight of the engines with least injury, the kind permission of Messrs Blackie and there is time for the inevitable com- & Sons, we reproduce from Morton's pression of the surface to be counter- Encyclopaedia of Agriculture. Now, acted by the frost before the following however, the work is invariably done seed-time. by the steam ploughing engine. Mole -draining Ploughs. — The ac- Process Mole-draining. of companying illustrations, figs. 669 and Formerly the work of mole-drainage 670, of Fowler's larger and smaller was performed by horse-labour through draining-ploughs, show the construction
Figs. 669 and 670. —Mole-draining ploughs.
of the implement adapted for steam trac- are placed two in front and two behind, tion as now used. the front pair being connected with worm In both of these ploughs the frame, a, and pitch-chain steerage, in the same man- is of wrought iron, and slides on the ner as the steam cultivator. Attached to ground when the implement is at work the frame, in such a manner that it may but when travelling from place to place be raised and lowered to regulate the it is raised in relation to the four wheels, depth of the drain, is a broad flat coulter, B, upon which it is borne. The wheels E, which carries a wedge-pointed " sock," — " —
MOLE-DEAINAGE. 283
F, at its lower extremity. The pitch or tivation (q.v., vol. i.) are applicable to angle of the sock, in relation to the steam drainage. Sometimes two engines ground, may be adjusted by means of a are used, usually 14 horse-power; occa- rod and screw. The " mole," g, an iron sionally one engine and roundabout clog, somewhat oval in shape, and about tackle; but more commonly an engine, 3}4 inches in diameter, is attached to placed at the higher side of the field, the hinder extremity of the sock by draws the mole-plough when at work, a means of a couple of links or a jointed team of horses returning it out of work bolt. It is this " mole," forced through to the lower side. the ground at the required depth, which Outfall. — Nothing is more injurious forms the drain-conduit. The front of to these drains than the presence in them the frame bears the windlass, d, round of standing water, and, to avoid this, a which passes the steel-wire rope, d, from free and ample outfall should be secured the engine. By the use of the windlass before the work of mole-drainage is com- half the power required for direct trac- menced. tion is sufficient, but the rope must con- Main Drain.—The main is cut in the sequently be double the length of the ordinary manner along the lowest side of drain. Any of the systems of steam cul- the field, and laid with pipes of a calibre
"... ^.. .ju... *...niD" „ ilr. V -» ..,.1^.1... .nw. (I..,. . /..
" '! '...""-. p—'" .Hi*.,. »U../... -" v.. ...^ ""-^^ -'..*... -.^.(< H./«U/J.}i7. {..-'„. .1... .'U.,.X ' " "'-''" «... .V.11.... w. ..! p-i-iC'*- -"-^
<'"... -u;...- '--; ..Jli,,. Mli.W. „„
'•'^'^^"*' '"" ''" ' "" * -> '" "' \ V A" HEtSa ' " \ n f
W< III. .1 . \i.. , 11. - .11 "'./,.. .-»,. ihi. ,. ttp, t.f/. .»(, ...... ri.. ,
Fig. 671. Junction ivith main drain. *, B Main drain piped and filled up. d Mole-track, the arrow showing the direction c Branch, also piped and filled. in which the mole-plough has heen drawn. E Branch left open to receive the mole. in accordance with the area to be drained. advisable to cut an auxiliary main across Brushwood and sundry other materials the middle of it, so as to relieve the occasionally take the place of pipes, but strain on the mole-drains. there can be no doubt as to the superior When depressions traverse the field in economy of the latter. any direction, it be- The main should be six to nine inches comes necessary to lay deeper than the mole-drains, to facilitate a main along each. To the discharge of the water into it. Be- obviate the trouble and fore returning the earth over the main expense of connecting pipes, branches, four to six feet in length, the mole -drains with are cut at the proper distances apart, to the auxiliary mains, form the terminations of the mole-drains the latter may be cut and to connect them with the main. In nine inches deeper, and each of these branches a couple of pipes the trench having been may be laid, to form a junction with the filled up with gravel, b, Fig. 672. Auxiliary main, which is then filled up. Part of fig. to 672, a depth of and viole-drains. the branch, e, fig. say three feet 671, 12 or 15 inches above A Pipe of auxiliary in length, is left open, so that the mole the pipes, and the soil main. Mole conduit drawn may be dropped into it and start work returned to the top of through gravel, b. at the proper depth. this, the mole may be Auxiliary Mains.—When the field drawn through the gravel, when its water is more than ten chains in width, it is will readily percolate to the pipes, a. — —
284 DKAINING LAND.
On some parts of the Essex coast, noticed, indicated by the implement slip- where cockle-shells may be had in abun- ping rapidly through them, they should dance, they are used instead of gravel, be at once marked, in order that the for which they form an excellent sub- mole-channel may there be opened and stitute. laid with pipes. This precaution will Depth of Mole-drains.—In the days save much trouble from subsequent de- of horse-traction mole-drains were made rangement. as shallow as eighteen inches ; but with Contracting, and Price for Mole- steam-power the common depth is 2j4 draining. — Draumge of this kind is feet, and occasionally 3 feet. sometimes contracted for at so much per Chaiinel.—The mole is usually 3)^ acre for mains, pipes, and mole-drains, all inches in diameter, and, when this has complete. It is also undertaken at a forced its way through the soil, it leaves fixed price per chain, usually 4j4d. to a channel at first about three inches in 6j^d., depending upon the depth and bore. The compression of the sides of calibre of the drain, and upon the nature the conduit by the mole is no doubt a of the ground, the farmer in this instance disadvantage ; but this is largely counter- providing the mains, and supplying coal acted by the slight upheaval of the soil, and water for the engines. A third and and by the slit which the coulter leaves common arrangement is for the contrac- behind it. tor to supply one engine and tackle, or Distance apart.—The distance apart two engines, and the draining - plough, at which the mole-drains are made varies together with a ploughman, and an considerably according to the nature of engineer for each engine. the soil and the regularity of the surface. A fair day's work may be reckoned at When there are high-backed ridges to 300 to 350 chains. take into account, the drains are best Cost per Acre.—^Respecting the cost drawn up the furrows, and may be eight per acre, let us take, for example, a field or ten yards apart ; but when the surface ten chains in width, with mole-drains at is flat, one rod is a favourite and con- one-rod intervals : each chain-length of venient width. such a field will have four mole-drains, Coulter-track.—In order to prevent measuring together forty chains. Under the coulter - track opening too widely average circumstances the items of cost during times of drought, it against the farmer might be thus ap- is a useful practice to run proximately stated : the ordinary plough along the course of the proposed Hire of steam-power, mole-plough, engineers, and ploughman, at 5d. Per acre. drain to turn back a furrow- per rod £0 15 slice then, when the mole ; Coal .... 016 plough has been drawn up Cartage of coal and water . .009 the grip so formed, the fur- Cutting main (1 chain), laying pipes,
and filling . . Fig. 673. cios- row-slice is laid over into .023 ing coulter- Pipes for main . .030 track. its original position, form- " " Digging branches at 3d. each . 10 ing a flap over the opening Sixteen 3-inch pipes for branches . 6 left by the coulter, and preventing the earth from falling into it (see fig. 673). £14 Method.—When aU the necessary pre- parations have been made, the mole is It is sometimes necessary to continue dropped into the open branch, and, the the main to a brook or ditch at a dis- engine being set in motion, the draining- tance from the field, thereby augmenting plough is slowly pulled to the higher the cost. side of the field. It is drawn back to When the farmer owns the engines the lower side by the other engine, by and plough himself, the expense may be horses, or by steam tackle, to start again reduced to, say, i8s. or 20s. per acre. from the next branch, the operation Cost of Mole and Pipe Draining being repeated until the whole field is Compared. — In comparing mole and drained. pipe drainage as to economy, we must Whenever beds or pockets of sand are allow 5 per cent interest on ;
SURFACE-DRAINING. 285
6s. 9d.,, the more permanent part inches wide at the surface, 18 to 20
of the work . . . .£004 inches deep, and 4 to 9 inches wide at And, on the coat of mole - drains, the bottom. Where the soil is of a 17s. 3d., an annual sum sufficient to pay 5 per cent and refund the sandy nature, or "rotten" friable peat, capital outlay in, say, li years .019 the sides should have a greater inclina- tion whilst if boulder-clay or other stiff Total annual charge £0 2 1 ; soil, or tough fibrous peat, the sides may Duration of Mole - drains. — The be steeper. duration of mole -drains varies greatly, Caution in Surface - draining. — according to the nature of the subsoil, the " Flows " or flat bogs, producing " draw- amount of fall, and the manner in which moss " (the Eriophorum vaginatwm of the work has been performed. When botanists), so invaluable for spring food, well done and in a suitable soil their must be dried with caution. Draw-moss average life may be estimated at four- can flourish only where there is abun- teen or fifteen years ; under less favour- dance of moisture, and on such land no able circumstances eight or ten years other plant will yield half so great an whilst occasionally in a very firm subsoil amount of food. Hence bogs of this they may be found in working order at kind should be dried only sufficiently to the end of twenty or even thirty years. allow the sheep to feed upon them with Destruction of Mole-drains.—The safety and comfort. It is by no means ultimate destruction of mole -drains is difficult to overdo the surface -draining usually due to their becoming blocked of hill pasture, and in this matter there by silt or roots, or to the collapse of the is need for the exercise of great care and sides and roof of the conduit under the practical experience. continued action of the water passing Distance apart.—In draining "flows," through it. therefore, wide distances, 20 to 100 yards, Enemies of Mole-drains.—The live are adopted, as the condition of the sur- mole and the water-rat are amongst the face may indicate. most dangerous enemies of mole-drain- In grassy hollows and slopes much age, and their thorough extermination greater frequency is desirable, as these, is necessary to its preservation. save in exceptional cases, cannot so easily Kepair.—The repair of mole-drains be made too dry. is always unsatisfactory. Short lengths Occasionally it is expedient, in remote may be patched up by cutting them open situations, to preserve a certain quan- and laying with pipes. tity of " sprit " (Juncm articulatus) for When the mains have been properly laid thatching purposes, and as after drain- they may be regarded as permanent, and age that plant is displaced by others, it new lateral drains may be connected with may be desirable to leave certain patches them as often as the land is re-drained. undrained on that account. Under or- dinary circumstances surface -drains are cut in such land six to ten yards apart. SURFACE-DRAINING. Arrangement of Surface -drains.— The general arrangement is similar to " " Thorough, methodical, surface that recommended in the case of deep drainage, variously called "open drain- drainage. " ing" or sheep -draining," is quite as The mains, which are somewhat larger essential to the successful management of than the lateral drains, are usually cut our higher sheep-walks, where the nature along the bottom of the slope, the lateral of the ground and the value of the land drains entering them at regular intervals. render the more expensive systems im- The lateral drains should curve in the practicable, as deep drainage is to our direction in which the water is flowing, arable lands and old pastures. at their junction with the mains, to les- Considerable skill is required to carry sen the risk of silting up. out effectively and economically the sur- On long slopes, sub-mains should in- face-drainage of Mil-farms. tercept the lateral drains where required, Form of Surface -drain.—The ordi- to prevent the washing out of gullies nary surface-drain is a ditch 20 to 22 along their course. — , —
286 IMPEOVING WASTE LAND.
Cutting Surface -drains.—Tlie cut- Cost.—The price, dependent upon the ting of surface-drains can be best done nature of the soil, varies from 3d. to 6d. by skilled men who spend the whole or per chain, when the ordinary tools are nearly the whole of their time at the sufficient ; but if the trenching-spade be work. The work is most economically required, the cost may amount to yd. or performed by two men together. One 8d. per chain. cuts the sides with the " ritting " spade, Repairing Surface - drains. — Sur- while the other shovels out the bottom face-drains ought to be cleared out at of the drain. The turfs are taken out frequent intervals, at least once every by the latter with a two-toed hack with eight years on black ground, and every curved handle, and prongs about lo inches five years on green land. in length, while the former detaches them with the cross-cut spade, using the handle as lever to assist in starting. a Note.—In the portion of the chapter on Placing the Sods.—The sods should Drainage in Divisional vol. v. a typographical be deposited on the lower side in a regu- error occurs. In the paragraph on "Sub- " lar line, not less than two feet from the mains," p. 261, it is stated tha.t Any neces- sity for making the minor drains of a greater edge of the drain, so that they may not length than two chains may be obviated by readily fall it if into disturbed by providing sub-mains." It should be read as cattle. ten instead of two chains.
IMPEOYING WASTE LAND.
The method to be pursued in the re- Sir John Sinclair, Bart., for the improve- clamation of waste land will of course ment of waste land, which are as appU- depend very much upon the character cable to the present day as to the time in and condition of the land to be operated which he vnrote : upon. Throughout the British Isles vast 1. Not to put in practice any scheme tracts of rough uninviting land have been, of improvement without the fullest con- by the enterprise of landovniers and sideration, nor without the command of tenant-farmers, reduced to a useful con- an adequate capital. dition for arable or pastoral farming 2. Not to begin on too great a scale, the cost of reclamation in many cases nor untU, by experience, it be found that exceeding ;^io per acre, not unfre- the design is suitable to the soil, situa- quently running to ;^i5, ;^2o, or more, tion, and climate. per acre. In recent years less has been 3. When the intention is to cultivate done in this way than formerly. In bogs or peat-mosses, not to begin crop- most parts of the country the limits of ping till at least one season aiter the advantageous reclamation have been drains are completed, and the soil nearly reached ; in some cases they have thoroughly reclaimed from superfluous been exceeded, and it is hardly probable water. that there will be great activity in this 4. To plough or delve peat-mosses in direction in the immediate future. autumn, that it may first be efi'ectually StUl there are, no doubt, considerable exposed to winter frosts and rains, and areas of land which might be reclaimed not to summer heat, which would harden with advantage, so that the methods of it and prevent its decomposition. improving waste land demand notice 5. Whatever is done, to do it efi'ec- here. At this time of day, however, tually,—not to think of laying on four brief notes wiU suffice. acres the manure necessary for three, nor the lime, chalk, IMPROVING WASTE LAND. 287 the dung necessary for the improved part until the succeeding spring or winter, of the farm ; and when it was again ploughed, and then 7. To lay down any land improved made suitable for the reception of seed. from waste, in high and bleak situations, In the second year the land sown with as soon as possible into grass, and to re- oats was put under turnips, and as time tain it in that state as long as it is toler- went on the turnip break was gradually ably productive. For though grain and increased. A second crop of oats was roots may be cultivated on waste lands, taken where the land was rough and the when properly improved and favourably turf not decayed. situated, yet grass land pastured particu- Part of the land being peat-moss, the larly by sheep is principally to be de- drains were put down to the clay if prac- pended upon for improving weak soils in ticable; but where this could not be done barren districts and remunerating the 5 feet was about the average depth. improver.! A considerable time was allowed to elapse before ploughing was commenced, so as Scotch Example. to allow the drains to dry the land, and We have in our mind an instance of to let the boggy parts settle and con- somewhat extensive improvement effected solidate. upon waste land in the north of Scotland, In the course of some ten years over in which these rules were carried out to 600 acres were in this instance reclaimed, a considerable extent during the progress the entire work being done by the ordi- of the work. nary implements of the farm, with little Original Condition of Iiand.—This extra strength, except where the land farm before the improvements were be- was much broken and rough, when labour- gun consisted of heath, with patches of ers had to be engaged to fill up the holes mixed waste land which had been at one and delve such of the roughest places as time under cultivation. For many years horses could go over it. the whole farm been had under sheep. Result.—Even the first rotation of Steading.—The position for the stead- crops left the land level and fairly planted ing was chosen near the centre of the with grass. From the success in this in- land to be brought under cultivation, and stance one would infer that in the recla- at a level where all the water drained mation of land extra time may lessen from the higher ground could be used for expense to an extent out of all proportion driving the threshing-mill, and for other to that required to effect the same object purposes. in a shorter period. Process of Beclamation.—The first Stones.—The stones turned up were part of the operation was laying oflf the used for building dykes, forming leader land near the steading into fields of about drains, and making the farm-roads. 20 acres each. Along the boundary-lines of the fields open ditches were cut during Other Methods. the first year. Into these ditches the In other cases, where the surface of the leaders for the furrow drains were made ground is rough and much covered with to fall, and after about 40 acres were fur- hassocks of coarse grass, it requires to be row-drained, the whole was ploughed as brought into cultivation by other means deeply as possible. Two men followed than the plough. When the ground is each plough, one holding the plough and the site of an old plantation, it is impos- the other turning over any part of the sible to bring it in with the plough. furrow the plough left unlaid, and mark- When the subsoil contains a large quan- ing the position of land-fast stones by tity of stones, of whatever size, it may means of wooden pegs. not be possible to stir it with the plough. Cropping.—During the first year very Where much brushwood exists — as of little of the land was put under crop. hazel, alder, birch, broom, and whin The only parts so treated were where the the plough should not be tried. land admitted of being brought into or- Trenching.—To bring the land soon dinary tilth. The rest was allowed to lie into cultivation in all these cases the best method is to trench it with the spade. ^ Rwral Cyclopcedia. Spade-work is expensive, but it is effec- — 288 IMPKOVING WASTE LAND. be tive amongst roots and stones, and the as the cost of draining would much amongst roots and stones. ground is put by it in so prepared a state increased that the succeeding operations are exe- Deptli and Cost of Trenching.—No boulders cuted with ease and satisfaction. trenching among tree-roots and Keolaiming Plantation G-round. — should be less than 18 or 20 inches deep The cost of In trenching the site of a removed plan- of the solid ground. such trenching be heavy, tation, a good plan is to mark out the depth of may but ground in divisions of 30 feet in breadth. then by it rough useless land is at once Three men working together will do more brought into a fit condition for cropping. and better work than each man alone, Although trenching may not be the cheap- the one assisting the est mode of making land available to the others when extract- plough, it is the most pleasant and satis- i^='**'^^*Hlt ing the roots of the factory. trees. Trenching may be executed at any sea- No implement is son. To allow time for subsequent opera- so efficient in cutting tions, however, it is best and most com- the ramified roots of fortably done in the long dry warm days a tree as the common of summer. Small hoUows and heights mattock, fig. 674, should be levelled in trenching. The which on one arm contractor shoidd be bound to be always has a horizontal cut- with his workmen, and the farmer should ting face, and on the have a superintendent to overlook the Fig. ill,.—Mattock. other a vertical. It work, as even the contractor may direct is used like a hand-pick, and one or both the men to make the trenched ground faces alternately are required to cut seem as high as it should be, although through a strong root. An axe would the solid ground has not been dug to the soon be blunted by the earth adhering proper depth. to the smaller roots, though a large root Removing Turf.—If turf is desired for is easier cut through with an axe than a any purpose, it may be cut from waste mattock. land about to be improved. In many The roots and stools, great and smaU, parts good tough turf is not easy to are laid upon the surface of the trenched be obtained, and at all times it fetches ground behind the workmen, and the a high price. A man wiU cast from hollows left by them in the ground fiUed four to six cart-loads of one ton each up, and the surface levelled. in a day, according to the smoothness Trenching Stony G-round. — In and softness of the ground. trenching very stony ground, the foot- In most cases, however, the best plan pick is the most efficient implement for wiU be to reclaim the land as it stands, loosening them out of the subsoil. The ploughing down the turf as in the Scotch crowbar or pinch is required to raise instance referred to. what cannot be effected by the foot-pick; Levelling Kidges.—In levelling high, and the largest boulders may have to be gathered-up, crooked ridges in clay soil, blown to pieces by gunpowder or dyna- much precaution is requisite, because the mite. The stones are laid upon the soil, exposed after the lowering of the trenched ground. In many parts stones ridges, will take some time to be rendered are so numerous in the subsoil that they fertile. James Carmichael, Raploch farm, are not only sufficient to form the drains Stirlingshire, thus describes his mode of for the land, but that to get quit of the doing it : overplus, " consumption-dykes," several "In v?inter, ploughing the land in- feet in height and breadth, are built in tended to be levelled and straightened in lieu of fences. As many as 800 tons of the succeeding summer, the plough was stones have been trenched out of one acre entered in the side of the ridge, exactly in the county of Kincardine, in the north- in the middle between the crown and east of Scotland. open furrow ; and thus one-fourth of the Draining.—In improving the site of ridge was gathered up from the open fiK- a plantation, or very stony ground, it row on each side of the ridge, while the should be trenched before being drained, open furrow was left as open and deep as IMPROVING WASTE LAND. 289 possible. The remaining half of the ridge more subsoil should be ploughed than was then cloven down, without gore-fur- can be removed during the course of the rows, the crown being laid completely day.i bare, so that every ridge was divided into Iievelling Iiand.—Besides larger ine- two. The work thus remained high and qualities of surface, minor ones require dry during the winter. emendation, the neglect of which renders " In May or June following, the plough the surface of improved arable land un- gathered up about 2 feet on each side of pleasant to the sight. The inequalities the crown of the ridge of the exposed we allude to are slight hollows, low subsoil, which was about 5 feet in breadth. heights running across several ridges, After this it was ploughed into drills, and making one side or part of a ridge higher removed, either by shovels or with a two- than the other, or part of the head-ridge horse levelling-box, into the deep open higher than the ridges, and suchlike furrows. The plough was again employed blemishes. to make drills in the crown, and the sub- Levelling-box.—The best and most soil removed into the open furrows ; and economical method of getting quit of the same operation was repeated until them is with the levelling-box, fig. 675, the open furrows were raised apparent- which, according to the nature of the ly above the level of the crowns. This soil to be removed and the distance to be being done, part of the formerly accumu- carried, may be worked by one or two lated soil on the sides of the ridges was horses. The two sides having the same cloven down by the plough upon the depth where they join the back, are curved recently removed subsoil in the open fur- off to nothing at the front. It is requisite rows on the one hand, and upon the bared for strength that it be made of hardwood; crovTns on the other hand. The land was but the common willow, from its tough- then cross-harrowed, and two times cross- ness and lightness, is perhaps better ploughed and harrowed alternately as adapted than any other wood for this deep as possible, and every inequality re- purpose. The sole of the scoop is armed moved before the ridges were re-formed with a strong shoeing of iron, termina- straight. ting in a sharp cutting-edge. Two skeds "The whole process is exceedingly or bolsters are fixed on the lower side of simple, and its advantages are perfectly the sole, thinned off forward to give obvious : for while every particle of the facility of entrance in the soil to the cut- original surface is thus carefully pre- ting-edge of the scoop, and upon which served, the subsoil is so sparingly and it runs like a sledge when filled. All equally incorporated with it, that not a the corners are strongly bound with doubt can remain of the beneficial result iron plates, and the skeds upon which it of the operation. Where the ridges have runs are covered with strong sheet or been very broad and high, it vrill be hoop iron. The handles are bolted to found necessary to remove part of the the sides, and so fitted as to bring their subsoil from the sides of the ridges also extremities to a convenient distance for after the crown has been refilled, par- being held in the hands of the conductor. ticularly when the subsoil is tilly; but The draught-chains, with their stretcher, this is easily performed by two or three are attached to an eye-bolt or a staple on women or boys going after the plough either side of the scoop. and throwing the remains of till turned The levelling-box is used in this manner. up into the furrows ; or should the ridges After the plough is first made to turn be too broad for this, the levelling-box over the soil lightly on the height to be will effect the purpose." removed, the levelling-box, worked by The labour attending this operation one pair of horses, then follows, and takes will depend on circumstances, such as the up from one end of the ploughed ground breadth and crookedness of the ridges, as much soil as it can contain, the con- and the strength of the clay soil. In dry ductor holding by the stilts or handles. weather the operation will be more ex- The box is filled by the conductor allow- peditiously and better done than in wet, ing the handles to rise as much as that the soil being rendered light by the heat of the sun. In changeable weather no ' Tram. High. Agric. Soc, ix. 37-39. VOL. III. T — — 290 IMPEOVING WASTE LAND. the load of earth, the handles falling the edge of the sole shall bite the ground ; of and on these being drawn forward by the and resting upon the stretcher ; and horses, the box is filled to any extent, whenever it is emptied, he levels the when by the handles being pressed down earth by passing the box over it. the front edge is relieved from the ground, The box is returned to its working and the machine travels upon its skeds. position upon its bottom immediately, On arriving at the hollow place to be or it may move along upon its mouth, filled up, the conductor, by raising up the smoothing the surface till it reaches the handles, capsizes the box, and gets quit ploughed soil, when, by a sudden pull of Fig. 675. Levelling'box, or scoop. bti,ba Two sides of box. a a Sharp edge of iron sole, d Stretcher attached to the b b Back of box. c c Handles. draught-chains. a rope attached to one of the handles, it An Irish Example. regains its working position. In all these movements the horses are On the estate of Brockley Park, Strad- not stopped, but proceed from one place bally, Queen's County, a scheme of suc- to another as directed, while the box is cessful improvement of land carried out filling and emptying in constant succes- by the proprietor, Mr William Young, is sion. A strong active man is required worthy of description here. to work this implement. Original Condition of th.0 Iiand.— Cropping New Ijand. — Land so When Mr Young succeeded to the estate, drained and trenched usually bears for about i860, it contained a considerable its first crop either potatoes or turnips area of rough, " cut-away" peat bog. that is, if a sufficiently fine tilth can be Uneven in the surface, and full of stag- obtained. Turnips are generally pre- nant water, it was in parts so soft and ferred to potatoes, because they may be boggy that people or animals could not eaten on the ground by sheep, and thus at safely walk upon it. The drier portions once put the drained land into a state of were covered with furze and scrubby comparative fertility. Where the land is hazel bushes ; while the other parts car- ploughed, oats are a favourite crop for ried a strong growth of reeds and rushes. the first, because it assists in rotting turf This rough land was almost worthless quicker than green crops. Where grass except as a resort for snipe and wild has been ploughed, it is the best first crop duck. Anxious to turn it to some good that can be taken. Waste land broken account, and to give employment to the up by the plough cannot be made suitable people, Mr Young decided to reclaim it. for a turnip crop, it being so rough and Process of Reclamation.—^In the first tough that ordinary implements have place the land was under-drained with little or no effect in breaking down the tiles and collars, great difficulty having furrows. been experienced in many parts in getting IMPEOVING WASTE LAND. 291 the drains formed, owing to the extreme the following year sown with 4 lb. of fineness of the sandy subsoil. In fact, rape, i bushel of vetches, i^ bushel of here and there it was found necessary to perennial rye-grass, J^ bushel of Italian use boards in binding up the sides of the rye-grass, 4 lb. of cocksfoot, 4 lb. of drains. timothy, and 4 lb. each of alsike and The land (except where it was so soft white clover per Irish acre. This crop that horses could not walk upon it) was came up exceedingly well, giving a close then ploughed twice—the one furrow at heavy yield. In the autumn of the same right angles to the other, and the large year—in August and September—^it was cross-cut sods were left exposed to the consumed on the land by sheep. The winter's frost. Some of the softer spots crop was so rank that much loss would had to be cut and levelled with the spade. have been sustained by allowing the sheep rirst Crop.—In the following spring to trample upon it, and therefore they the ploughed land was harrowed, the had to eat it through wooden hurdles. roots and rougher sods burned, and the These hurdles, made for the purpose at ashes spread over the surface. It was Brockley Park, were light, with upright then sown with rape. The rape plants bars. 'They were shifted forward every came irregularly, and the crop was not of second day ; and with a scythe a much value. It, however, cost very little, "swathe" or "bout" of the crop was and the action of its roots, together with thrown up against them every morning. the treading of the sheep that consumed The sheep were allowed a moderate quan- it, assisted in breaking up the surface and tity of cake along with what they could in preparing it for further cultivation. eat through the hurdles, and thus the Second Crop.—The first crop having land, while robbed of its richness through been eaten oflf by sheep, the ground was the crops it yielded, was being recuperated again ploughed, and, in the following by the droppings of the sheep. June, sown with 14 lb. of rape and about Eesults.—The results of the treatment a bushel of Italian rye -grass per Irish briefly described were eminently satisfac- acre. A top-dressing of 3 cwt. of Lawes's tory. The sheep were withdrawn from turnip manure was allowed to the Irish the land during winter, and next spring acre,- and with that treatment the land there came up a beautiful growth of per- gave a good crop. This crop was also manent pasture. No accurate account of eaten off the land by sheep. It made the cost of the reclamation could be given, excellent feeding the first autumn ; and as the work was carried out from time to the sheep having had an allowance of time along with other estate improve- cake upon the land, the rape and grass ments, and with the ordinary operations came up well the following spring, afford- of the home farm. Mr Young, however, ing a very useful change for ewes and feels certain that these crops to which lambs. we have referred fully repaid him for the Third Crop.—In May of that year it cost of reclamation, and that the per- was once more ploughed up, harrowed, manent value of the land is increased at and drilled, and manured with about 25 least five-fold. tons of farmyard manure and 3 cwt. of Improving Lawes's turnip manure per Irish acre. Poor Land. The main portion was planted with cab- Another and larger portion of Mr bage, but wherever the tilth could be Young's property at Brockley Park, men- made fine enough, turnips were sown. tioned above, consisted of poor worn-out Both these crops were heavy and of good land. This presented difficulties of a quality, and both were consumed on the different character, which were also suc- land by sheep. cessfully overcome. This land, like a Laying to Pasture.—The land was great deal of the poorer and partially now in a fit state for being laid down waste lands of Ireland, consists of a thin, for permanent pasture. It was clean, in moory, or peaty soil, with sandy or gra- good heart, and wonderfully fine in the velly subsoil. Such land is generally tilth. Accordingly, as soon as the turnip kept in what is called "pasture," on and cabbage crops were consumed, the which a few half-starved cattle drag out land was again ploughed, and in May in a miserable existence. 292 IMPROVING WASTE LAND. One great hindrance to the improve- August. During winter the land was ment of land of this class is that a large left clear, and early next spring it again extent of it is of so poor a nature that presented a nice rich cover of rape and when reclaimed it cannot be calculated rye -grass, which was once more eaten upon as certain to prove remunerative un- dovm by ewes and lambs. der either arable farming or mixed farm- In June of that year it was ploughed ing, or as likely to carrypermanent pasture up as in the previous year, manured as with any reasonable degree of success. on that occasion, and then laid down We therefore look upon Mr Young's sys- into permanent pasture. The seeds sown tem of improving and utilising such land upon the Irish acre were 4 lb. of rape, as of the utmost public importance. 14 to 20 lb. of vetches, 2 bushels of He found, in the course of some years' perennial rye-grass, J^ bushel Italian rye- experience, that even after being thor- grass, 4 lb. of timothy, 4 lb. of cocksfoot, oughly drained, it would not pay under 4 lb. of alsike clover, and 4 lb. of white any system of regular cultivation. It clover. In the part where clay and not would not even repay him for his outlay bog or moss prevailed, 4 or 5 lb. of red in an ordinary course of corn and root clover were added; while for the pur- crops. As the manure seemed to go pose of learning the young sheep to eat down through the subsoil and give no roots, a very small quantity of turnip- adequate return, it was only when under seed was also thrown in. grass that the land was really useful. Besult.—The land thus treated was Renewing Pasture.—But seeing that generally ready to carry sheep some time the land would not carry a sufficient cover in August, and, without exception, the of pasture for more than two or three pasture laid dovm in this manner has consecutive years without the grasses excelled that sown in the course of an being renewed, and seeing also that a ordinary rotation. The rape and vetches course of cropping — the usual method afford useful feeding for sheep—no cattle adopted when grasses have to be re- are put upon the land—early in the first sown—always resulted in a loss (the crop season; afterwards the vetches die out being so poor as not to repay seed, labour, and leave a wonderfully close rich cover and manures), it became necessary to de- of grass and clover. The sheep take very vise some other means by which the kindly to this sort of food, and thrive grasses might be profitably and effectively remarkably well upon it. renewed. This stubborn difficulty was at Mr Young finds it advantageous to last successfully overcome by the adop- sow, for variety of feeding, a small patch tion of the following treatment, which of mustard instead of rape. The mustard we have no doubt might vrith much plant grows rapidly, affording good feed- advantage be pursued in many similar ing six weeks after being sown. Sheep cases. are fond of mustard, and it prevents When the permanent pasture on any liability to scouring. field or division was observed to be giving In addition to the method of renewing way, the short sweet cover of grass the pasture land which Mr Young pur- which usually came up early in the sea^ sued, and which we have briefly described, son was at once eaten down by sheep, being efficient for the desired object, it and then the land (that is to say, the was also in itself a profitable operation. field or portion giving way) was ploughed The extra feeding which the rape, vetches, up in the first week of June, and imme- &c., afforded more than repaid the cost diately sown down with 10 lb. of rape of the labour and manure which were and I y2, bushel of Italian rye-grass per employed in that work.^ Irish acre. It was at the same time top- Improvement Hill Pasture. dressed with 3 cwt. of superphosphate of and 2 cwt. of Lawes's special manure per The improvement of hill pasture and of Irish acre, the value of this dose ranging grazing land which cannot be advantage- from 35s. to 40s. per Irish acre. The ously put through a course of cropping rape and rye -grass generally came up is a matter of considerable difficulty. In rapidly, and were eaten down by ewes and lambs about the middle or end of ^ Irish Farmers' Oaz., Nov. 26, 188 1, 467. ; IMPKOVING WASTE LAND. 293 all probability the prospects of return ture. The attempts at improvement by would not justify a heavy outlay, and lime as by manures should be confined to without this it is not easy to effect any the green land. If the land is wet it marked improvement in the pasture. must first be drained, either by under- Deterioration of Hill Pastures.—It ground drains, or by open or "sheep" is not surprising that complaints of de- drains (the former are the more eflec- terioration in hUl pastures should occar tive, and of course also the more expen- sionally be heard. By the system of sive), and about a year or so after the grazing pursued on these, there is a draining has been completed, the lime gradual exhaustion of the natural re- may be spread. A good dressing would sources of the soil without the slightest be about four to six tons of lime per acre. compensation from any external source. Iiffects of Iiime.—^The lime has a The repairing and replenishing forces of wonderful effect upon the rough green nature are ever at work, but these are pasture. It brings up a growth of sweet- often inadequate to recoup the land for er, greener, and more juicy grasses than what has been removed from it in the grew there before, so that in a few years bodies of the animals reared upon it. the character of the herbage is vastly Deterioration becomes manifest in the changed. The sheep soon discover the pasture, and the farmer is puzzled to portion that has been limed, and show know what should be done. by their partiality for it what they think Cropping.—On hill pasture little can of the "lime-sweetened" pasture. Six be done with advantage in the way of months after the application of lime they improvement by tilling and cropping the feed on the land with avidity. land. In certain' cases small portions Enduring Effects of Lime. —More- have been renovated by this method, but over, the good influence of lime upon the cost is great, and the results rarely pasture is by no means short-lived. It satisfactory. The process of renewing endures for twenty or thirty years, and the grasses on poor land followed by Mr has in many cases been visible for even a Young of Brockley Park, Stradbally, longer period. Queen's County, Ireland, and described Heather - burning. —By systematic above (p. 292), might be carried out with and judicious heather-burning, much may good results on low -lying permanent be done to improve black hill pasture. pasture which has become deteriorated. See Divisional vol. iv. p. 437. Manuring Hill Pasture.—Many ex- Bracken-cutting. — Brackens should periments have been tried in the way of be kept in subjection by cutting with the manuring worn-out hill pasture with scythe. If they are allowed free growth, bones and superphosphate. The effect they may seriously lessen the supply of on the pasture has usually been marked pasture. On the other hand, a clump of but, as a rule, we believe it is acknow- rank brackens here and there may be ledged that the results are too uncertain an advantage on a hill-farm, on account to warrant such heavy expenditure, at of the excellent shelter afforded to lambs. any rate on an extensive scale. A few Irrigation. — Hill pasture may be patches of specially good pasture, on well- greatly improved by irrigation. In many sheltered low-lying parts, are a great ad- cases where streams or springs exist this vantage on a pastoral farm, and these may be carried out with little trouble or may profitably have an occasional dress- expense. Water from running streams ing of artificial manure. is preferable to water immediately from The manuring of hill pasture, however, the spring. By a network of shallow has never been regularly or extensively runs, the water may be carried over black practised in this country. or partially barren land, which will be Xiiming Hill Pasture.—In the im- thereby much improved for pastoral pur- proving of hill pasture, lime has been used poses. This work of irrigation is carried much more extensively than manures, and out in spring and early in summer. the results from the former have, as a rule, been highly satisfactory. It can A Mid-Lothian Example. hardly be expected that it would pay to A good example of what may be done spread lime upon poor black moory pas- in the improvement of hill pasture by 294 IMPEOVIISrG WASTE LAND. draining and liming without the aid of which were limed eighteen and twenty tillage is to be found on the compact ad- years ago can be traced by the eye at joining little estates of Baadpark and the distance of a mile. On close exam- East Cairns, Mid-Calder, the property of ination the difference between the im- Mr William Hamilton. These estates lie proved and unimproved land is most on the north side of the Pentland Hills, marked. running from 900 to 1800 feet above sea- The property is entirely under sheep, level. The geological formation is car- the stock consisting of blackfaced ewes boniferous sandstone. At a former period and lambs. Prior to the improvement portions of the land had been under cul- of the pasture these were smaller in size tivation, but had been allowed to go back and of less value than any other stock in to natural pasture. At the time Mr the neighbourhood. They have now Hamilton began his improvements even been increased 15 per cent in numbers, the once-cultivated land was producing and at least 20 per cent in value. From coarse herbage of poor feeding quality, 95 to 100 lambs are now reared from while the other portions were in their every 100 ewes, a considerable number natural state, growing bent, other coarse of doubles being obtained. The wedder grasses, rushes, heather, &c. Most of the lambs usually make about the top price lower-lying land was green on the sur- at Messrs Oliver & Son's sales at Edin- face, but the pasture was coarse and wiry. burgh, while the cast ewes run up to 46s. Drainmg. — The improvements con- There has also been a substantial increase sisted of tile-draining and liming. The in the clip of wool, while the death-rate drains were cut from 6 to 16 yards apart, has decreased. The whole of the ewes and from 3 to 5 feet deep, according .to put to the ram in November 1883 were the nature and condition of the land. with one single exception on the roll at Two-and-arhalf-inch tiles were used for clipping-time in the following July. the most part, and Mr Hamilton says The blacker and poorer portions of the that if he had the work to go over again property were not touched, for it could he would be inclined to use 3-inch tiles. not be expected that these would repay The drains have worked admirably, but such heavy outlays as are involved in tile- they, of course, require a little repair draining and liming. In certain parts a now and again. little has been done with advantage in Liming.—The lime was spread on the the way of surface-draining. surface at the rate of about six tons of We had the pleasure of going over this shells per acre. The liming of the wet property quite recently, immediately after land was delayed about a year after the a heavy rainfall, and were much delighted draining, so as to allow the soil to get rid with its condition. The drained land was of its excess of water. Such portions of remarkably dry, and the character of the the green land as were naturally dry were pasture showed unmistakably that a per- limed without being drained, and on these manent improvement of great value had and on the drained land the lime was been effected. equally beneficial. Cost. — These improvements were Improvements at Glenbuclc. begun in 1870, and they have been ex- In his report on " The Improvement of tended over an area of nearly 300 acres. Hill Pasture," in the Transactions of the The draining cost on an average about Highland and Agricultural Society,^ Mr _j^S, los., and the liming about ^4, 4s. Alexander Macdonald gives the following per acre. notes in reference to improvements on Keaults. — The total sum expended hill pasture carried out by Mr Charles " was about _^i8oo, and Mr Hamilton Howatson of Glenbuck : The farm of considers that the investment has been Grlenbuck, Lanarkshire, which carries one a good one. By the draining and liming of the finest sheep stocks in Scotland, the character of the pasture has been has been vastly improved through liming entirely changed. A growth of fine and draining by its enterprising owner nutritious grasses has come up in place and occupier, Mr Charles Howatson. of the coarse wiry herbage which before cpvered the ground. ' Even yet patches Fourth Ser., xix. 170. — TRENCH AND SUBSOIL PLOUGHING. 295 Draining.—"The greater part of it a rule 50s. per acre. By this system of has been intersected with tUe- drains, top-dressing the character of the pasture most of them 18 feet apart, and others has been materially enriched and im- 36 feet. Between each of those 36 feet proved, and parts of it which were limed apart, a shallow tile-drain is sunk, and is some thirty years ago are still green and found to do good work. The size of the vigorous, while the adjoining land that and sterile. tiles used is 2j^ inches, and the open got no lime is perfectly bleak — drains, of which there are a great many, Breaking up Unsuccessful. " With are 20 inches wide at the top, 18 inches a view to compare the results of an ex- deep, and 9 inches wide at the bottom. periment in breaking up hill pasture, in The cost of laying the tile-draina 18 feet trying to improve it, with the liming and apart and at the ordinary depth was draining of it without breaking it up, Mr about ^g per acre. Mr Howatson re- Howatson trenched 2j4 acres, gave it commends in cutting open drains that all two tons of bone-manure, and sowed it stones or tree roots which may impede down with grasses and clover, but it is the spade should be extracted, and the not likely to prove successful. It cost earth taken out removed 3 feet off the nearly ;^i7 per acre. Mr Howatson side of the drain. finds that ploughing, before top-dressing Iiiming.—" Lime has been applied to hill pasture, is no advantage whatever, the pastures at various times, costing as while it incurs considerable expense." TEENCH AND SUBSOIL PLOUGHING. When Mr Smith of Deanston, by his face, is stirred or broken up, which allows example and precept, had put the drain- water and air to percolate through the age of land on a systematic basis, he soil, thus dissipating the injurious ele- turned his attention to the deepening of ments and improving the whole character the staple of the soil. This he found of the land. Subsoiling also increases could be effected by trench-ploughing or the beneficial action of drains. Air, by subsoiling, it altogether depending when it enters a soil, raises the tempera- upon the character of the soil which of ture, renders the dormant ingredients these operations would be most suitable. active or soluble; and, lastly, the opera- Trench-ploughing.—Trench - plough- tion of subsoiling increases the area for ing can be done in two ways. It may be the ramification of the roots of plants. done by one plough drawn by three or Subsoiling can be best done when more horses taiing an extra deep furrow, ploughing the fallow, and ought never or by one plough following another in to be attempted until the soil is perfectly the same furrow. The latter method dry. The subsoil ought to be broken up , enables the farmer to take up an inch and not cut, which would be the case if or two of the subsoil for mixing with the operation were carried out whUe the the upper soil. land is wet. The subsoiling ought to Injurious Ingredients in Subsoil. be done across the line of the drain, But in deciding to carry out this process especially if the subsoil contains any of of taking up subsoil, to be mixed with the numerous forms of " pan," which can the surface-soil, great care must be exer- be more readily broken up by following cised. The subsoil often contains sub- this method. It also helps the drains, as stances that are deleterious to plant- it forms ruts to each drain for the water growth, and if these are brought up the to run in. soil may for a time be seriously deteri- Trench - ploughing following Sub- orated. soiling.—After this subsoiling the land Subsoiling.—The use of the subsoil- may be safely trench-ploughed when it plough is the safer practice. By it the comes next into fallow, as all the dele- subsoil, without being taken to the sur- terious substances will have been either — 296 TEENCH AND SUBSOIL PLOUGHING. washed out of the soil or rendered in- less practice too common is to urge the soluble by the action of oxygen or other horses on when encountering a stone, elements. running the risk of breaking the plough, Subsoil-plough.—Various implements straining the horses, and snapping asun- have been devised to descend as far into der some part of the harness. The two the soil as to stir the subsoil effectually, labourers are at hand to bring up the and theyhave obtained the name of sub- deeper stone to the ploughed surface. soil and trench ploughs, according to their An acre is stirred every day with these action upon the subsoil. The subsoil- two ploughs in autumn; the horses are ploughs stir the subsoil lying under the not oppressed, the men are quite able for upper soil, -without affecting their relative their part of the work, and the work done positions, whereas trench - ploughs com- is effectual, satisfactory, and permanent. mingle more or less the subsoil with the Perhaps a better plan in medium land upper soil. The working of the subsoil- is to start the plough with two horses, plough is shown in fig. 46, p. 119, and and let the man have pegs to mark the fig. 47, p. 120, Divisional vol. i. stones, the subsoU-plough following with Economy of TrencMng and Sub- three horses. The land-fast stones can soiling.—One great advantage attending be removed then at the convenience of this mode of trenching and subsoiling is, the farmer. that in thus stirring the soil in autumn Such a subsoiling is sufficient for a the upper soil requires only to be stirred lease of nineteen years, and even longer. in spring by a grubber to effectually pul- The stones which can be lifted by hand verise the surface and prepare it for a are carted off the surface. Some boulders green crop. When a facility is put into may require blasting with gunpowder on the power of the farmer to work his land the spot, and others have to be drawn off in a short time and in the most efficient on a sled. manner, two good results must ensue This operation is 'most effective a few the entire fallow-break may be devoted years after thorough drainage. The sub- to a green crop, and a smaller horse-power soil trenching is not required in a natu- will suffice for the work. rally porous subsoil, but deep stirring of Process of Trenching and Subsoil- the surface-soil is a necessity on every ing.—The execution of subsoil trenching class of land. with the trench-plough and subsoiler is Hand Trenching. — Trenching with as follows : The trench-plough, drawn by the fork is more efficient than ordinary three horses, takes the lead and lays open subsoil-ploughing as regards the stirriog a furrow of 10 to 14 inches deep, accord- of the soil and subsoil. It is also a more ing to the character of the soil. "When perfect operation, inasmuch as it exposes a large stone is encountered, the horses the subsoil to view, breaks every portion are not urged, but taught to stand stiU of it to a greater depth, and frees it of until the ploughman marks its spot. He every stone that, from its size, would passes the stone the best way he can, injure the implements in any future and goes on with the ploughing until he operation of culture. The cost, however, meets with another stone. Two labourers is great, and the process a slow one. follow the plough, one with a spade and " In digging light soil, or any soil in another with a hand-pick or crowbar, to a friable state, the spade should be driven turn out the stone upon the ploughed to the head into the ground by one pres- land. sure of the foot, and thus twenty cuts The subsoil trench - plough, provided may be made in one minute. In Ireland with four horses, the extra ploughman one perch of soil is dug 9 inches deep, walking beside the foremost pair, follows at the same cost that half a perch of in the furrow, same and goes 6 or 7 drain, 2^ feet deep, is cast out; but inches deeper into the subsoil. Should more wages should be obtained for cast- a stone be encountered, the extra plough- ing drains than digging soil, to provide man marks it, and he also helps to turn against the extra tear and wear of shoes the horses at the end of the landing. and clothes, and the risk of injuring These horses are also taught to stand health by cold and wet. The most when coming against a stone. A reck- economical way of digging a large piece 7; — LIMING LAND. 297 of land is to set from twenty to thirty spade has to be thrust in 700 times, and diggers at work together, at so much for 1 1,900 lb. of earth is lifted. To dig one one acre, and place a confidential man acre takes 112,000 spadefuls, weighing over them to see that every spadeful is 850 tons, and adding the weight of the properly formed and turned over." ^ A spades, 1278 tons: the space travelled spit by a common spade No. 5, weighing over in doing this is fourteen miles. An 8 or 9 lb., should be 7 or 8 inches broad, able man can dig 10 square perches in 9 inches deep ; and the earth weighs 1 one day, provided the soil is light and lb. In digging one perch of ground, the moderately moist. LIMING LAND. Lime has been applied to land in the and mellow. It is, moreover, itself also a farming of this country for many years. direct plant-food. This has been done with the double ob- Lime acts mechanically inasmuch as it ject of increasing crops and stimulating changes the texture of a soil, opening the action of the ingredients of which and rendering more friable stiff loams the soil is composed. and heavy clays, and giving cohesion and Sources of Iiime. — Lime, or, to be firmness to loose and sandy soils. more definite, " oxide of calcium " is Benefits from Iiime. —The result of met with in nature chiefly in the form these changes effected by the use of lime of the compound carbonate of lime, are an increase of produce, grain of better otherwise known as limestone, chalk, quality and colour, stifi'ened straw, sweet- &c., also as phosphate of Ume or ened herbage, and an earlier harvest. coprolites, sulphate of lime or gypsum. Lime often almost entirely changes the It is likewise present under other forms herbage of pasture -land, notably when but the preceding are the compounds, of applied to rough grass or heath, which which lime forms a part, that fall to be it kills out to make room for a higher considered from an agricultural point of order of vegetable growth. view. Injury from Imprudent Iiiming. Action of Lime. — Lime when ap- But there are disadvantages attendant plied to the soil acts in several ways, upon the too free use of lime. By its both chemically and mechanically. When action we must look upon it as a stimu- the carbonic acid and water are driven off lant rather than as a manure. Indeed, by heat it becomes a strong alkaline if it were regularly applied to land with- earth, and in this caustic state com- out other manures, the soil would soon bines with the oxygen and carbonic become exhausted. This well-established acid set free by the decomposition of character of lime has been aptly expressed organic bodies present in the soil. The in the saying that " lime without mulch decay of organic matter is thereby enriches the father and impoverishes the quickened. It also breaks up the com- son." pounds of inorganic matter which have Application of Lime.—Before green become dormant or insoluble, and by crops found a permanent place in the combining with the elements of which rotation of the farm, the most convenient these are made up, renders them active time for applying lime was to the bare or soluble in water, and so available or summer fallow in spring. It is now for plant -food. It combines with and generally applied to the leas in autumn neutralises or utilises free or injurious or winter before they are broken up. In acids which are present in a soil, and some counties the custom is to spread it which render it sour, thereby chang- on the land after the turnip crop has been ing its character, and making it sweet removed. Others spread the lime when the land is being prepared for the turnip ^ Yule's Spade Husb., 86, 2d ed. seed, or in small heaps immediately after — — 298 LIMING LAND. the turnips are sown, and consider that the nitrogenous materials which are the after- cultivation of the crops mil accumulated in the soil. mix the lime with the soil. These three " These reserves are precious, and if, methods, however, are objectionable, as on the one hand, it is useful to draw by placing the lime into such close con- upon them, it would be a very short- tact with the manure, the latter may be sighted policy to waste them recklessly. seriously dissipated. As the most luxuriant vegetation can Iiime Dissipating Plant -food. only absorb annually a small quantity of Caustic or quick lime applied in excess nitrogen, it is important to introduce to newly manured land is apt to liberate lime only in such proportions as to a greater quantity of the most valuable render assimilable the quantity of nitro- ingredients of the food of the plants gen necessary for the growing crop. than the crop can immediately absorb. Guided by the Crop.—" One must On this account much plant-food may be guided in this matter by the appear- be lost by being washed into the drains, ance of the crop. If scant of growth, or evaporated in the form of ammonia and of poor colour, the quantity of lime or other volatile gases. should be increased. On the other hand, Iiime and ITitrifioation. — Lime, it should be diminished if the growth is says Professor Wrightson, "is the base too quick, the colour too deep, the ripen- required in the process of nitrification,^ ing difficult, and the laying of the crops to seize upon newly liberated nitric acid. frequent. The nitrification of nitrogenous matter Regulating Action of Iiime. existing in a state of organic combina- " When the soil is rich in Ume, the em- tion is one of the most recent, and one ployment of lime is not only useless, but of the most important facts brought out vrill be positively prejudicial for the by agricultural chemistry. Lime plays an reasons I have given. In such a case important part in this process, by promot- the difficulty will be to regulate the ing the oxidation of nitrogenous matter, action of the lime, which the plough and then furnishing a base for combina- brings up and mixes with the super- tion with nascent nitric acid. Nitrate ficial nitrogenous layers. The most of lime is easily washed through the simple means of eflfecting this is to soil, and a great deal of it passes away gradually mix the superficial humus- in solution to the lower strata of the soil, holding layer with the subjacent lime or is discharged by drain water." 2 by shallow ploughing at first, and sub- Lime and Soil Ifitrogen. —It is a sequently ploughing deeper and deeper. common practice, and a prudent one, to But since good cultivation demands a apply lime to land which has been for a soil deeply stirred, the plough may be considerable time under grass, and which followed by a subsoiler, so that the soil is now to be broken up for cropping. may be stirred to a suitable depth." ^ This is done for the purpose of rendering Iiime for Sandy Soils.—The late Dr available to the first crop a portion of Voelcker showed clearly the importance the inert nitrogen that has, under the of liming poor land before dressing it grass, accumulated in the soil in the with dung or other manure.* " The most form of organic matter. Here again, liberal application," he says, "of farm- however, harm may be done by exces- yard manure of the best quality never sive liming. The danger of this is produces so beneficial and lasting an effect well pointed out by M. H. Joulie, who on poor sandy soils as when they have been previously weU marled or limed. " Lime ought only to be employed in There are some soils which swallow up moderation, so as not to overstep the manure with, so to speak, an insatiable mark, and so bring about too active a appetite, without ever feeling the better nitrification, which would cause the grain crops to be laid, and prodigally waste ^ From a paper read at a meeting of the Soci^td des Agriculteurs de France, 1881. Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc. Eng., sec. ser., xviii., _ For description ' of the process of nitrifica- parti. 221. tion, see Div. vol. iii. 105. * Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc. Eng., sec. ser., xiv., ^ Prin. ofAg. Prac, 34. part ii. 546, 547. — — LIMING LAND. 299 for the manure—they are appropriately rate of 5 to 6 cwt. per acre, do positive called very hungry. On all such soils injury to root-crops, and more moderate much manure is wasted, or the most is applications of 2 or 3 cwt. per acre pro- not made of it, if previously to the duce a less favourable result on sandy application of farmyard manure, guano, soils, and on all land poor in lime, than &c., the land has not received a good the same amount of superphosphate poor dose of lime. . . . in soluble phosphate. Indeed, the ex- " Lime not merely acts beneficially on perience of light-land farmers in districts sandy soils in a direct manner, by supply- in England where the land is deficient in ing a deficient element of nutrition, but lime goes to prove that on land of that also because it preserves in the soil the description it is better to apply bone-dust more valuable fertilising matters, which, or precipitated phosphate, or phosphatic like salts of potash or ammonia, rapid- manures containing no soluble phosphate, ly filter through sandy soils, unless a to root-crops, than to use superphosphate, sufficient quantity of marl or lime has or similar artificial manures containing a been previously applied to the land. By large proportion of acid soluble phosphate these means the bases of the more valu- of lime." able saline constituents of rotten dung or Iiime for Grass Iiand.—M. H. Joulie of guano are retained in the land, whilst shows that lime should play an important the acids filter through it in combination part in laying land down to grass. " If with lime—a constituent which is, com- on analysis," he says, "the soil does not paratively speaking, inexpensive. show at least 5 per cent of lime, it is Iiime and Soluble Phospliates. absolutely necessary to give it a calcareous " The presence of much or little lime in a dressing before lajdng down to grass. soil has also a powerful influence on the This may be done either with marl or changes which soluble phosphates, or lime. Marl breaks up slowly, and its manures containing soluble phosphates, mixture with arable soil only takes place, undergo in contact with the soil. It is a little by little, under the influence of re- curious, and apparently anomalous cir- peated ploughings, so that it is not suit- cumstance, that on sandy soils, and on all able in the special case before us [laying soils deficient in lime, concentrated super- land to grass], as the soil will not be phosphates, rich in soluble phosphate, do ploughed up again. Lime is infinitely to not produce nearly so beneficial an effect be preferred, since it readily breaks up, upon root-crops as upon calcareous soils, and has, moreover, a much more powerful or upon soils containing even a moderate action on organic matter than marl, due proportion of lime. to the causticity which it retains suffici- " When applied to root-crops upon ently long to allow it to effect some use- sandy soils greatly deficient in lime, a ful reactions." ^ concentrated superphosphate produces a Top-dressing G-rass with. Lime. smaller crop than a manure containing In the paper referred to above, M. H. only one-fourth the percentage of soluble Joulie explains the exhaustion that takes phosphate. When this fact was first place annually by the removal of a hay brought under my notice I ascribed it to crop, or by the pasturing of grass land, prejudice, or accidental and unobserved and discusses the manurial dressings that circumstances ; but direct experiments would be required to repair this exhaust- and an extended personal experience have ion and maintain the quantity and qual- shown me that there is no mistake about ity of the produce. Lime is an essential this matter. The true explanation no ingredient in these manurial dressings, doubt is, that the excess of acid soluble not only because it is necessary as a plant- phosphate in a concentrated superphos- food itself, but because it is required to phate is not precipitated as efficiently in remove the sourness that has been gen- a soil deficient in lime as it is in land erated by the continued accumulation of containing a good deal of lime. debris in the upper layers of the soil "Acid compounds are extremely in- carrying the grass. jurious to vegetation, even in dilute solu- tions ; and hence concentrated superphos- ' Jour. Soy. Agric. Soo. Eng., sec. ser., xviii., phates used in large quantities, say at the part i. 203. — ; 300 LIMING LAND. " It is always well," says M. H. Joulie, when being filled. Slaked lime is heavy " to dress the soil of temporary and per- but all that can lie upon a shovel is light, manent grass lands with a certain amount and each ploughman takes one heap, and of lime, say about 7.96 cwt. per acre with one of his horses in a cart, for a annually, to prevent sourness, to favour yoking, fiUs his own cart, and spreads the decomposition of the organic debris, the lime from it upon the ridges allotted and to render assimilable a certain to him. The direction in liming should amount of the nitrogen it contains. This be against the wind, and the men should dressing of lime will not add to the ex- arrange themselves on the ridges so that pense of maintenance, for it will always the cart farthest down the wind takes the be possible by its means to reduce pro- lead in spreading. portionately the expense of nitrogen or In spreading lime, the man walks along potash, according as the Graminacese or the middle of the ridge, and casts the Leguminosae are most abundant. Lime shovelfuls right and left from the middle is useful even for permanent grass lands towards the furrows, which wiU become, on calcareous soils, for it is not rare to by ploughing, the crowns of the future find meadows soiu- on the surface which ridges. The man who can cast the shovel- at 7 or 8 inches deep are highly cal- fuls with either hand will spread lime careous." better than one who is right or left handed This annual top-dressing of lime M. only. JouKe says should be applied to the grass The hme should be spread evenly over land in autumn. the iurface ; but to suit irregularities in Iiime in Kestoring Grass Iiand. the character of the soil, it may have to In the restoring of grass land which has be spread thicker on one part of the field become deteriorated, M. Joulie states that than another. On light knolls it is spread the very first step should be to apply in thinner than in hollows, where the soil is the autumn about 16 cwt. of lime per deeper or stronger. acre. This, he says, should be done in Whenever rain falls, liming should be order to render a sufficient quantity of discontinued. the nitrogen in the soil assimilable by Care of Men and Horses in Ijim- the ensuing spring, when the application ing.—In the operation of spreading hme of other mineral manures is advised. it is advisable to put a cloth over the Xiime for Hill Pasture.—In the notes horse's back and harness ; while the on improving hill pasture in this vol. men should cover their face with crape, (pp. 292-295) information is given as to to save the eyes, lips, and nose. The the application of lime to permanent horses, whenever loosened from work, pasture on sheep farms, and also as to should be wisped down and brushed, to its efiects on herbage. free the hair of lime; and if the men Burning Iiime.—^For use on land as feel a smarting in their eyes or nose, for mortar, lime is burned in kilns, and sweet thick cream is the best emoUient to conveyed to the farm or field in shells. apply. Many farmers who have limestone within Quantity of Iiime per Acre.—The reach burn their own lime, using peat if quantity of lime applied depends mainly it is to be had, and, if not, purchasing coal on the nature of the soU, the lighter soils for the purpose. requiring less, and the stronger greater Ground Iiime.—^The plan of grinding quantities. On light turnip soils, some the limestone to a fine powder instead of think from 80 to 100 bushels upon one burning it has been introduced and is acre sufficient, whilst others use 150 highly commended, but has not yet been bushels. We have seen as much as 510 adopted to any great extent. bushels applied to one acre of wheat-land, Spreading Lime.—The lime is spread with manifest advantage. But perhaps in this manner : Frying-pan shovels are from 100 to 200 bushels may be considered the best implements for filling carts with average quantities, from the lightest to lime, and spreading it upon land. A calm the heaviest soils. On weak moory soils, is for day chosen the purpose ; but in case 75 bushels are enough to commence its of a slight breeze, the single-horse carts improvement. are placed to the windward of the heaps Frequent Liming. — Formerly the ; ; LIMING LAND. 301 prevailing custom was to apply large be avoided), a rotation may pass before dressings of lime at long intervals, most it shows any effect ; when harrov^ed in, likely once in fifteen or twenty years. and the land ribbed for barley after tur- The general custom now is to give mod- nips eaten off by sheep, it has effect at erate applications at short intervals-— once; when ploughed with a light fur- perhaps from 80 to 100 bushels every row above the dung in summer-fallow eight, ten, or twelve years. This is un- (which, however, is in the long-run a questionaisly a marked improvement upon wasteful practice), even after the lapse the old plan. It employs the lime much of a few weeks it has a sensible effect on more economically, and the effect upon the first crop ; it has its best effect on the land is evener and altogether more grass of any crop, and most upon clover satisfactory. Lime has a strong tendency it has often an injurious effect upon the to sink in the soil, and when a large potato crop ; it loses effect on the same dressing is applied at one time, a good land after several repetitions ; it has deal of it may be lost by sinking into the little effect on soils in the neighbour- subsoil before it has had time to exert hood of large towns ; it has good effect its beneficial influence upon the upper on fresh soil, on moss that has been stratum. thoroughly drained, on all drained soils, Many farmers now apply lime once and it is wasted upon undrained land. in every rotation of crops. With soils While it is true that lime has a sensible specially requiring the action of lime, effect on the first crop, when applied this plan is the most effective. As has above or in close proximity to it, it been explained above, M. H. Joulie re- should be kept in view that, as already commends the plan of applying a small pointed out, this is liable to cause loss in dressing of lime to grass land every year. the manure. Varieties of Lime.—It must also be Effete Lime.—It is the opinion of remembered that lime varies in strength. some farmers that lime is equally effi- In deciding as to the quantity, the cacious in the soil in the effete as in the strength of the lime, as well as the caustic state, and Lord Kames was of character and wants of the soil, must be that opinion ; so that the precautions to considered. English lime is more caustic preserve it in a caustic state in winter than Scotch. are by them deemed unnecessary; but Lime with much magnesia in it is unfit as the general opinion is in favour of for land. quicklime, we have treated the subject Covering in Iiime.—In view of the accordingly. There is the advantage in tendency of lime to sink in the soil, it is using quicklime of its being easily spread desirable that it should be covered in as upon, ploughed into, and mixed with the lightly as possible. If the lime is ap- soil; and if pulverisation is of use, it plied on lea, as it now usually is, the should mix with the soil, and act with it land should h& ploughed with a shallow more quickly than in an effete state. furrow. If the lime is applied on the fallow or root break after ploughing, a Chalking Land. turn of the harrows will suffice for the A top-dressing of chalh is given in first covering, and the first furrow there- several districts of England for afford- after should be shallow. ing calcareous matter to the soil. It Weight of Lime.—^Lime weighs from has a striking effect upon fresh-broken- 75 lb. to nearly i cwt. in a bushel, which up land; but at length it loses its effi- indicates that it ought not to be laid on cacy. It is applied again when its effect by measure alone, but by measure and becomes inert. weight, giving preference to the lightest For this purpose the solid chalk of the weight. lower stratum is preferred to the more Varying Effects of Lime.-— The porous substance near the surface. It effects of lime are manifested in a re- is taken out of pits in lumps, which are markable manner. When ploughed down put upon the ground to be dressed ; and, with an ordinary furrow by itself, no the lumps being wet, the frost in winter effect is observed on the first crop causes them to fall down into a powder, when ploughed in deep (which should which is then spread over the surface of — ; — 302 LIMING LAND. . 8.4 tte ground. Dry chalk will not fall Carbonate of lime Oxide of iron and alumina 2.2 down, and is therefore useless for the Organic matter 2.8 purpose. Clay and silicious matter 84.9, Chalk is used in Hampshire to render Water .... 1.4 the soil more loose, and in the wolds of 99.71 Yorkshire more firm. Limestone. The quantities applied vary. In Essex, in the clay -land district, about The lime used in the agriculture of this fifteen cart-loads, of 40 bushels each, are country is derived chiefly from the moun- considered a full dressing on one acre. tain-limestone of the carboniferous series, In Lincolnshire, 80 cubic yards of chalk as also from the coal-formation. The are applied to one acre. rock forms a broad belt across the centre of Scotland, along the centre of England, Marling Land. and in the whole of the centre of Ireland. The composition of peat shell-marl of Lime in Scotland is mostly derived from Logie, in Forfarshire—a county which the coal-formation, where it is associated afibrded and used so large a quantity of with shales, sandstones, and ironstones. this substance as positively to become In Ireland large beds and knolls of lime- detrimental to the soil—is this: — stone nodules, in the form of gravel, are From the From the found in many districts. The gravel, top of the bottom of when laid upon the land, acts as lime in bed. the bed. the course of time ; and it affords a very Carbonate of lime . . 77.6 81.7 Oxide of iron and alumina . 1.8 0.6 ready means of reclaiming drained bogs, Organic matter . . . 14.6 14.6 and of reducing their vegetable into Insoluble, chiefly silicious matter 6.0 3.1 earthy matter. Composition of Limestone. — The composition of some good limestones for Shell-marl retards the ripening of corn agricultural purposes is here given : crops, while lime hastens their maturity. Carluke. Cockermouth, Kilnhead. Bellg. It is not suited to gravelly soil, and its Carbonate of lime 93.91 94.86 tenacity in rendering and keeping all Sulphate of lime 0.85 0.23 Phosphate 1. soUs loose for a long time is remarkable. of lime 14 Carbonate of mag- \ ^ The process of marling as practised in nesia . . / Alumina and oxide \^ ^ England is similar to that of claying. '•'3 of iron . f Marl is a clay containing particles of Silica . '. 0.41 chalk, which are visible in the mass of clay. The marl is applied both to heavy and light land. On heavy land it is used on newly broken-up pasture, and mixed with farmyard manure in com- post. On light soils it is more exten- sively employed, and its benefits are chiefly derived from an improved texture of the soil. From 40 to 50 cubic yards are applied on an acre. Its action produces better quality of grain and regularity of crop. Excess of organic matter in a new soil loosens it, which the marling corrects; dry and loose texture of sand is rendered more adhesive and retentive of moisture and peat is benefited by consolidation and the supply of inorganic matter. The following analysis may give a fair idea of the composition of a clay marl. The specimen was found in Ayr- shire : LIMING LAND. 303 agricultural purposes ; it is then said to which is the end aimed at in putting be in the fattest and strongest state. Of limeshells on the land in small heaps the varieties of limes whose analyses ap- along the ridges. pear above, it would seem to me that the Slaking. — They are more properly Kilnhead is the best for applying to the slaked, however, by water being poured land. Plasterers like fat lime, as it runs upon them. Pouring water too quickly best and makes the strongest putty. upon shells causes the lime to be gritty, WTien a considerable proportion of sand and to contain many small lumps which occurs, it is the better adapted for com- refuse to be slaked. The spontaneous mon building purposes, as it then requires slaking is attended with the least trouble less sand to convert it into good mortar, as usually practised, but in effect it chills and the natural union of silicious matter the surface and produces much gritty is much better than any artificial method lime; and it gives sufficient time for of adding that can be devised. Of these much of the powdered lime to absorb the Cockermouth is the best for buildings. carbonic acid from the air, and go back Much magnesia in lime is hurtful to to the state of carbonate and become vegetation, and is therefore unsuited for effete. the land ; but it is a useful ingredient in To succeed well with the spontaneous lime intended for buildings under water, mode of slaking, the heaps should be such as piers and docks, where it becomes covered vsdth sods, which is a trouble no very hard, and on that account is called farmer will undertake with heaps lying hydraulic lime. Of these Hmes the Car- on the field. Farmers will willingly cover luke would seem best suited for building large heaps of limeshells that are to re- piers ; but the proportion of magnesia in main over winter, to be spread upon the it is but small compared to much of the land in spring, by which time most of the magnesian lime of England, as at Hartle- lime will be found slaked in an excellent pool, where it contains about 45 per cent state for mixing with the soU. of the carbonate of magnesia, one ton of Lime absorbs about one-fourth of its which affording no less a quantity of the weight of water; it increases from two calcined magnesia of the shops than 9^ and a half to three and a half times its cwt. bulk ; and the powder has strong caustic and alkaline properties. Preparing Lime. Composition of Slaked Iiime.-—The Limestone, on being broken into handy ultimate results are, that the slaked hme lumps, is packed in alternate layers with consists partly of caustic lime, partly of coal or peat in kilns and burned, when a carbonate of lime, partly of hydrate of very material effect is produced upon its lime, somewhat in these proportions in appearance and character. From being one ton :- a close-grained, hard, heavy stone, it is Cwt. Carbonate of lime . reduced to a porous, light, splintery cin- 57-4) fii 3=-4 Hydrate' of lime j'™,' der. One ton of limestone, when thus t water lo. 2 burned, yields about 11 cwt. of the cinder. Over-liming. Iiimesliells. — The cinder is called limeshells, and is the state in which lime There is no doubt that Kme is an ex- is taken to the farm. Being light, they hausting substance for the land. Long are easily carted, though not safe to the ago it was quite common in Scotland for skin to handle. The burning has the tenants, who grudged to purchase manure, effect of driving off water and carbonic to procure lime and apply it as manure, acid from the limestone ; of forming gyp- just as the shell-marl was used, until the sum with the sulphur of the coal, and land was rendered almost incapable of with the pyrites of the limestone; and growing any crop, when it was laid down silicate of lime with the silicious matter to grass to rest for a number of years. present in the limestone and the coal. The various substances of the soil, organic Limeshells have a strong affinity for and inorganic, are more rapidly set free water. They will extract it from the at- mosphere and become in time slaked. ^ Johnston's Use Lime in Agric. of , 44. ; 304 IKKIGATION. after lime has been applied than before fresh matter from the subsoil, and gives and, on being set free, the roots of plants greater body to the land. Now, how- obtain them the more readily and in ever, an instance of over-liming is rarely greater abundance; and then, as the met with. Deficient liming is much plants themselves grow more rapidly and more general. to a larger size, and perfect all their parts Compost. more completely, they carry off a larger quantity of ingredients from the soil, and A compost of lime and earth is a better if these are not replaced in some way, top-dressing for grass land than either the soil must become exhausted. If separately. This compost is usually made more lime is applied to correct the evil, too weak in lime. The proportion should the exhaustion will become the more be one cubic yard of lime to three cubic severe. yards of earth well mixed. But with Over-liming was an evil from which labour scarce and dear the making of the land suffered in a former generation; compost on a large scale would not likely and when it occurred was confined to poor pay the farmer. weak soil, that was soon rendered too The appearance of white clover, Tri- loose by the use of the plough. It is foliwn repens, on top-dressing heathy soil therefore so far correct what Johnston with lime, is a well-knovro fact. Lime says, that " the evil called over-liming is extirpates the corn marigold. Chrysanthe- a mechanical, not a chemical one. The mum segetum, but it encourages the red extreme openness of the soil has been poppy, Papaver Eheas ; and on sinking brought on by prolonged ploughing, and into strong clay it favours the growth of too frequent cropping of corn. An oppo- colt's-foot, Tussilago farfara. site procedure must therefore be adopt- Gas-lime. ed, and mechanical means employed, by which a gradual solidification may be Lime may be obtained from other than effected," among which none is more natural sources. The rubbish of old effective than the eating of turnips by buildings afford it an effete state. sheep on the land. Where the subsoil is Gas-lime is procured from gas-works, of a nature that it may be taken to the and is used as a manure. The use of this surface without serious injury to the crop, substance is noticed in the chapter on the effects of over-liming may be cor- Manures and Manuring, Div. vol. iii. rected by deep ploughing, which briilgs p. I20. lEEIGATION. The artificial watering of land is an will yield none of it to the plant. It is ancient practice. Applied to certain soils well known that under skilful irrigation, and for certain crops it is usually highly or in a moist season, soils which are nat- beneficial. urally poor yield wonderfully abundant Moisture and Vegetation.—^It very crops. On the other hand, no amount of often happens that the vegetable produce manure or inherent fertility in the soil of soils is regulated more by the supply will produce even a moderate crop if of moisture than by the store of other the supply of moisture is insufficient. plant-food. The sterility of the desert is Reasons for Irrigation.—It is not due to the deficiency of water, rather than difficult to understand why moisture is of to the want of soil-food for the plant. so much importance to the growth of Soils, indeed, will not produce vegetation vegetation. Growing plants usually con- of any kind unless they contain a consid- tain water to the extent of from about erable amount of moisture. Professor 70 to 95 per cent, and the whole of this Church states that soils which contain no water has to be absorbed through the to more than 5 9 per cent of moisture soil ; for while plants give off a great deal — — • IKKIGATION. 30s of moisture through their leaves, they the fertility of a soil by carrying into it cannot absorb any directly from the atmospheric air and other gases, and atmosphere. It was found at Rotham- organic and inorganic matter held in sus- sted that an acre of wheat in five months pension or solution in the water used for and eighteen days evaporated through its irrigation. In the great majority of cases leaves no less than 335)^ tons of water. the influence of this is beneficial, but And as has been remarked by Professor occasionally substances decidedly injuri- John Scott, every drop of this water was ous to vegetation are introduced. By more or less instrumental in transporting irrigation plant-food is carried towards an atom of food from the soil to some part the roots of plants, while injurious as of the plant. Plants indeed can take up well as useful elements are often con- their food only in a fluid condition, so veyed beyond the reach of the plants, that in the economy of plant-life mois- most probably into the drains. ture performs a twofold function of the Irrigation and Soil Temperature.— greatest importance. Irrigation has a direct and immediate Professor Church states the reasons for influence on the temperature of the soil. irrigation as follows : In the winter season it will most likely " I. To make up for the absence of communicate heat to the soil and pro- irregular seasonal distribution of rain, or tect it to some effect from the frost. In for a local deficiency of rainfall. warmer weather, by promoting evapora- " 2. Sometimes a particular crop is irri- tion from the surface, it tends to cool the gated because the plant is of an aquatic soil, thus moderating the influence of the or semi-aquatic nature. extremes of cold and heat. "3. To encourage early and rapid Irrigation and Drainage.—It is ab- growth, by warmth of the water, or by solutely necessary that land which is to the dissolved plant -food which it con- be irrigated shall be thoroughly drained. tains. If the natural drainage is imperfect, the "4. That the land may be enriched deficiency must be supplied by forming and its level raised by means of the de- underground drains. Unless the land is posit from the water." ^ well drained, irrigation will most likely Discussing the subject more fully, Pro- be positively injurious, for the soil will fessor Church remarks that the third of be very liable to become water-logged, these reasons " is the determining cause and therefore sour and unwholesome for of nearly all the artificial watering of plants. land in temperate climates. It is not per- Irrigation Exhausting. —Irrigation formed because the soil is dry and hot, exercises a stimulating influence upon for it is carried out mainly in the wettest the land. It promotes the growth of and coldest months of the year. It is a greater produce than would other- not performed because the crop to be wise be obtained, thus increasing the raised is of an essentially aquatic nature, drain upon the natural resources of the for ordinary grasses and meadow herbage soil. To the skilful and liberal farmer are principally watered. But it is per- this is a most useful function. His- formed that growth may be stimulated object is to increase production, and it and fed through certain agencies which will be easy to maintain the condition of the water brings to bear upon the vegeta- the land by judicious manuring. tion in question." Water - meadovir Irrigation. — Dis- Effects on the Soil.—Irrigation faciE- cussing the theory of irrigation as applied tates the decomposition of soluble organic to meadows, Professor Church says : and inorganic matter in the soil, and thus " Although in many cases it is easy to prepares food for absorption by the plant. explain the reason why water, artificially Its immediate effect is to soften the soil, applied to land, brings crops or increases but ultimately land which is submitted the yield, the theory of our ordinary to constant irrigation for a long period of water-meadow irrigation is rather obscure. time is liable to become injuriously dense For we are not dealing in these grass lands and hard. Irrigation may sensibly affect with a semi-aquatic plant like rice, nor are we suppljdng any lack of water in the ^ Ency. Brit., 9th ed., art. Irrigation. soil, nor restoring the moisture which VOL. III. ' — 3o6 lEEIGATION. a plant cannot retain under a burning ing-machine, or for field-watering, a mea- sun. dow may be formed ; and whether you " We irrigate cHefly in the colder and ' have a right to take as much water from wetter half of the year, and we ' saturate a rivulet, which forms the boundary of with water the soil in which are growing the estate in which your farm is situate, such plants as are perfectly content with as your water-meadow will require—you earth not containing more than one-fifth can use the water of a brook which wholly of its weight of moisture. passes through your farm as you please, " We must look, in fact, to a number provided it be not injured in its quality, of small advantages, and not to any one nor directed out of its natural channel striking beneficial process, in explaining when it enters the property below ; but the aggregate utility of water-meadow you cannot appropriate to your particular irrigation. use more than half the water of a march- " We attribute the usefulness of water- burn. If haK the water is not sufficient meadow irrigation then to the following for the purpose of irrigation, you should causes : — negotiate with your neighbour for the " I. The temperature of the water being use of the whole. It would be a pity to rarely less than io° Fahr. above freezing, allow the water to be useless to both t\e severity of. frost in winter is thus parties because either can legally use obviated, and the growth, especially of only the half. Assuming that there is the roots of grasses, is encouraged. sufiicient water for irrigation, it is better "2. Nourishment or plant-food is actu- , to take it direct from the brook than ally brought on to the soil, by which it is erect a dam across it ; because the nearer absorbed and retained, both for the im- the bottom the water is obtained the mediate and future use of the vegetation. better it is for irrigation, on account of " 3. Solution and redistribution of the the sedimentary matter in it ; and the plant-food, already present in the soil, more clay and vegetable matter the sedi- occurs mainly through the solvent action ment contains, the richer it is for irrigated of the carbonic acid gas present in a dis- plants. These general remarks apply solved state in the irrigation water. alike to bed-work and catch-work water- " 4. Oxidation of any excess of organic meadows. matter in the soil, with consequent pro- Advantage of Water-meadows.—In duction of useful carbonic acid and nitro- the southern counties of England great gen compounds, takes place through the advantage is derived from the water- dissolved oxygen in the water, sent on meadows. The irrigation forces up an through the soil, where the drainage is early growth which is a great boon to the good; and ewes and lambs. Then follows a crop "5. Improvement of the grasses, and of hay, and after that again a heavy especially of the miscellaneous herbage, cutting of aftermath. It is within the of the meadows is promoted through the mark to say that on many of these mea- encouragement of some, at least, of the dows the produce is doubled by the arti- better species, and the extinction or reduc- ficial watering. tion of mosses and of innutritions weeds." Water-meado-wB for Highland Dis- There are several points which should tricts.—Great as are the benefits deriv- be carefully weighed before deciding to able from water-meadows in the low form a water-meadow. country, catch-meadows would prove of "Water-supply.—It must in particular perhaps still greater advantage to our be considered whether there is likely to Highland districts, where hay is the most be a sufficient supply of water in a dry valuable food for stock in winter that can season to irrigate the meadow thoroughly, be raised at such altitudes. That the for- and if not, it should be abandoned; mation of water-meadows is practicable in whether water can be spared for irriga- all our Highland glens is apparent from tion, without depriving other purposes of these statements of G. Stephens, which we its use, as threshing corn and watering commend to the consideration of such as live stock in grass-fields—if water can be may betake themselves to hUl-farming : used in irrigation before it is wanted for, "FaUaws Meadow, on Sir George or after it has been used by, the thresh-i Montgomery's large sheep-farm, contain- : IRKIGATION. 307 ing 15 acres, was enclosed from moorland won, before the departure of summer. in 1816, and, by collecting the water from Such a meadow is useful in a backward the surrounding sheep-drains, 5 acres are spring for the support of ewes and lambs jDartially irrigated, and the remaining 10 and . the sheep belonging to Sir George are top-dressed with the manure made Montgomery would have inevitably per- from part of the produce which is con- ished in the cold and backward spring of sumed in winter by the sheep of the farm 1826 had it not been for the grass afibrded in a wooden shed near the meadow. By by a water-meadow from the middle of this simple method of improvement, 15 April to the beginning of May; after acres of common sheep pasture-land gave which latter period the meadow was irri- the proprietor from 3500 to 4000 stones gated, and produced nearly 300 stones of hay per annum, averaging 6d. per per acre. The attention of hill-farmers stone. In that year of drought, 1826, cannot, therefore, be too strongly drawn the hay of this meadow was sold from to the subject of water-meadows. Any IS. to IS. 3d. per stone. attempt to irrigate meadows in such situa^ "What an immense advantage to a tions in winter, and to pasture them in sheep-farmer ! By this simple process of early spring, would but injure the mear enclosing and cutting a few small feeders dow by means of frost, and at the same and drains, the owner is enabled to pro- time rot the sheep; but sheep may be vide food for his flock, when his less for- pastured, if necessary, in perfect safety tunate neighbours' sheep must either on dry meadow-land in spring ; and the afterwards irrigated, starve or be supplied from the farmyard ; meadow, on being but I am afraid there are few sheep- might yield a good crop of hay." ^ farmers who are so fortunate as to have Soils for Irrigation.-—Irrigation will, any hay over and above what is requisite as a rule, give the best results on sandy for stock at home. Sir George fed the and gravelly soils. A retentive soil may same number of sheep on the farm as he be injured by irrigation, for instead of did before the meadow was cut off and percolating through it the water may enclosed, and I am fuUy persuaded that lodge on the surface, increasing the the same improvement might be made on tendency to sourness, and lowering the almost every sheep-farm in Tweeddale; soil temperature by excessive evapora- for in almost all of them there are situa- tion. It is generally recognised that a tions where 5, 10, or 15 acres might be sandy soil, with a slight admixture of enclosed and partially irrigated, as in clay, is the best of all soils for irrigation. every pastoral district there are numerous Climate and Irrigation.—As would rills which might be easily collected, and be expected, irrigation is more beneficial used to the greatest advantage, at a very in dry than in moist climates. It is trifling expense ; so that, instead of being useless, may even be injurious, in a wet obliged, in snowstorms, to send 50,000 season. The best results are obtained sheep to a milder climate of the south in a genial climate. parts of Dumfriesshire, where the owners Crops for Irrigation.—Where mois- are obliged to be at the mercy of their ture is deficient, all crops will be bene- neighbours — not to mention the very fited by prudent irrigation. For certain serious injury the flocks receive by so crops, however, it may be employed with long and fatiguing a journey—by adopt- greater advantage than for others. In ting the above system of improvement a the British Isles irrigation is confined considerable portion of the losses gener- almost entirely to meadows ; but in other ^ ally sustained would be prevented." warmer and drier countries it is used Time for Irrigation.—" As it is im- largely for other crops upon arable land. practicable to irrigate meadows in winter Rye-grass and lucerne are especially suit- in Highland districts, that process should able for artificial watering, while, to a be delayed till every chance of frost has certain extent, turnips and grain crops subsided—until May, after which there will—in their earlier stages—in a dry will still be sufficient time for a crop of year be benefited by a moderate amount natural hay to grow, be cut down, and of irrigation. ' Stephens's Prac. Irri., 82. - Stephens's Prac. Irri., 82. — ; ; 3o8 lERIGATIOJSr. Sewage Irrigation. — By means of deeper than the feeder wiU draw the irrigation applied to meadow -land, the water out of it ; neither is it of any use of the feeder any sewage of towns is now, in many cases, to make the bottom turned to excellent purpose. The Edin- deeper than the last floating gutter (or burgh sewage meadows afford a good irrigating channel) will draw it off. . . . " example of what may be done in this In forming the master-feeder it will way. From permanent grass, cut four be necessary to ascertain the breadth and the that or five times aryear, a gross yield of nearly depth that will hold all water it, and thence 40 tons per acre is obtained per annum the conductor brings to while land sown with Italian rye -grass to the end of the feeder, where the last affords five or six cuttings, and perhaps floating gutter goes out. Its breadth as much as 60 tons of produce in one should be diminished all the way ; and year. The grass is used by cowfeeders whatever its breadth may be at the be- in Edinburgh, and brings from £,20 to ginning, it should end about 2 feet in ^35 a-year per acre. breadth, where the last floating gutter goes off. Systems of Irrigation. "If the ridges or beds be 10 or 12 The systems of irrigation best known yards wide, and about 100 yards long, are bed-work irrigation, catch-work irri- with 6 or 8 inches of fall, the breadth of gation, sub - irrigation, side - irrigation the floating gutters should be about 18 with open drains, irrigation by pipe and inches at the head, or 2 feet, according hose, irrigation by surface pipes, flooding to the length of the gutter, and about 6 or swamp irrigation, warping, sewage inches at the lower end of the ridge. irrigation, and irrigation by watering- This diminution of the gutter serves to carts, water-drills, &c. force the water out over the sides of the Bed-work Irrigation.—This system beds; and as a part of the water is al- is applied only to grass land that is ways going out of the gutter, it is always nearly level on the surface. The ground growing less, and consequently does not is laid out in sloping beds or ridges, the require so much room to hold it. The ridges varying in width from 10 to 12 stuff that is taken out of the feeder feet, according to the nature of the soil should be laid smoothly along its sides, and lie of the land. The supply of water with a slope outwardly, and raised about is introduced by a main feeder at the 6 inches above the surface of the ground highest points, so that by gravitation it and in crossing ridges the hollows must may be distributed to all the irrigation be filled up with superfluous stuff from channels. the high places or out of the drains, so The process of forming water-meadows that the top of the banks of the feeder on the bed-work system is thus described may represent a straight horizontal line, by Sir John Sinclair : and keep the water above the surface of " The water being carried with a pro- the ground, which is necessary to make per fall—^that is, with from i inch of fall it flow down and over the sides of the in 20 yards to i in 30 yards, according floating gutters with proper effect. to the weight and velocity of the water " In making the floating gutters, after above the mouth of the conductor — to both sides of one are cut with a spade, the highest part of the meadow, the next by a line, then cut again with a spade object is, to make the conductor large down the inside of your lines on both enough to receive aU the water that the sides, beginning at the head about 5 or 6 stream contains if there is land enough inches from your line, so diminishing all to use it. If there is a great fall from the way down to the end, and pointing the wear or dam (sluice) to where the the edge of your spade so as to make it meadow is to begin, it (the conductor) intersect your outside cut. When both may be made comparatively deep and sides are done, the land in the breadth narrow ; but on nearly level ground it of the gutter will be divided into three must be made shallower and wider, as it strips, the outside of which will be loose, is only near the top of the stream that and will turn out whole in triangular the water has any draught. It is of no furrows, which form the sides of the use to make the bottom of the conductor gutters and keep up the water above the ; IREIGATION. 309 surface of the ground. After the sides These small drains, if in a dry soil, will are cut, there will remain a fast strip in do 6 inches wide at the head and 18 the middle, which must be taken oi^t and inches at their junction with the main laid in equal portions on the outsides of drain. The stufif that is taken out of the said furrows, or into the lowest places. them is always wanted to make up " In taking out the fast strip, it is hollows, or to make up the banks of the best to leave here and there a piece un- feeders, to carry them through low places removed, which serves for stops and to higher ground ; but wherever it is put saves putting in afterwards. These stops it must be properly smoothed to let the will be wanted more or fewer in number, water flow regularly over it. according as there is much or little de- " When a meadow is large and the scent in the floating gutters. When surface not all upon one section, but has there is nothing left in for stops as high and low places in it, more feeders above, the defect must be supplied by must be made, and more cross or master putting in boards or sods to check and drains. Sometimes it happens that a raise the water to the height you want feeder must cross a drain in carrying it. Without stops the water would all the water from one eminence to another flow to the lowest end of your work, and through a hollow: in this case a trunk there run out too deep ; while the higher must be made with boards of the size of parts of the meadow would remain dry. your drain and placed in it, and the Notches are commonly used at first in feeder carried over it. The trunk must letting out the water from the feeders be as much longer than the width of the and gutters over the beds; but when feeder as will be sufiicient to give room the sides become older and firmer, it for proper banks to the feeder, otherwise may be made to flow over them. the weight of the water will force them " The breadth of the beds should not out. If the feeder be small and the exceed 10 or 12 yards; but if less than drain large, it will be cheaper to make 8 yards, it is best, in general, to put two the trunk or spout correspond with the into one, either with the spade or the size of the feeder, and carry the water plough. The length of a division of over the drain in it. Hatches or sluices floating gutters should never exceed 100 (one or more, according to the size of the yards in the ridges or beds ; because, if feeders) are always necessary in the they are too long, it makes the water mouths of them, for excluding or ad- more difficult to regulate, and if the mitting the water at pleasure, and also stream be fluctuating when the water for changing it when the meadow is falls in, the upper parts of the beds wiU divided into divisions." be dry. All floating is the better of a Catoh-vsrork Water-meadow.—The descent, from the crown of the ridge to catch-work form of water-meadow is well the furrow, of from i inch in a yard to adapted to pastoral farms. It is appli- 2 inches. This must be attended to if cable to an irregular surface of grass; and the land is to be formed into beds with the irregularity being varied, no descrip- the spade or the plough; but where it tion can be given which would have a is in proper ridges before, they may be imiversal application. " To give exact taken as they are, be the descent less or directions for the formation of catch- greater than as above. work," remarks Stephens, " is beyond the " At the lower end of the meadow, ingenuity of man; for no two pieces of and indeed at the end of every set of land are precisely alike, which renders it beds, there must be a main drain, and impossible for the irrigator to follow the betwixt every two gutters there must be same plan in one field that he has done a small drain, to receive the water that in another. Each meadow, therefore, re- flows over the beds and carry it into the quires a diflferent design, and the con- main drain. These small drains must struction to be varied according to the be parallel with and reverse in their di- nature of the ground and the quality mensions to the floating gutters, least at and quantity of the water." It may be the upper and largest at the lowest end useful, however, to describe the system whereas the gutters are largest at the as applied to patches of smooth grass upper end and smallest at the lower. near brooks. — 3IO IRKIGATION. a feeder, In fig. 676 the ground is supposed to it as a drain; but it is in its turn fall from atod and from c to u; and p and disposes of its surplus water down sends it to i, is a ridge of ground falling from to p, the descent to g h, which from which the ground declines on the which sends it to k, and which lastly drain m. Part of the right to q t, and on the left to v z. A sends it to a main u main conductor, a b, cut at the highest water finds its way to the drain n, which part of the ground, conveys the water conveys it to the main drain at m. In down the incline from a to 6, where it is like manner the water issues out of the divided into the two feeders c and d, main conductor a b into the sub-con- feeders being channels cut widest at their ductor p, from which it flows, being a origin, and coming at their extremities to ridge or watershed to the right to the a point, to impel the water in them to feeders q, r, s, t; and to the left to the overflow and run to a lower level. In the feeders v, w, x, y, and z; to all of which overflow from c to d the water finds its feeders I u acts as a main drain. From the horizontal position of d, way to e f, which collects what comes to c the water Fig. 676. Catch-work water-vzeadow. will impart most of its sedimentary con- water flows with unequal velocity, whe- stituents to the ground between it and ther in conductors or feeders, stops are /«, and by the time the water has reached placed in them to retard the velocity. k, very little foreign matter will be left in The stops are made of various materials it, so that the grass in the upper part of —of projections of the natural turf left the meadow will be better nourished than uncut, of pins of wood driven into the in the lower ; but the perpendicular sub- middle of the channels, of sods pinned conductor o p carrying the water from down, of one stone, of stones piled in a the main conductor a b directly to all the heap, and of short boards of wood thrust feeders in connection with it, the water into the edges of the channels at an angle. bestows equal advantage upon every por- But all the stops enumerated are objec- tion of that part of the meadow. Each tionable. Pins collect straws and sticks feeder may supply water for 30 feet of brought by the water ; stones and turfs ground in breadth, if the descent is cause holes in the channels by the water gradual ; but if sudden, the breadth may falling unequally over them ; and notch- be increased to 40 feet. boards injure the edges of the feeders, Kegulating 'Water - flow. — Where besides causing deep holes by waterfalls. FAEM BUILDINGS. 311 The best stop consists of a piece of wood and from which it passes into the open forming two wedges with their bases drains, where it collects till it rises to the united, which, when placed firmly at the level of the surface or very near it, ac- bottom between the edges of a conductor cording to the extent of watering desired. or feeder, the water flows over in an Sluices are then opened in the canal and unbroken mass, with a retarded velocity. the water is withdrawn. A number of such stops of different Other Methods.—Irrigation by pipe breadths should be kept to fit any size of and hose, and by rows of stationary pipes, channel. No stops are required where hardly needs description here, any more the water directly overflows from h c and than irrigation by the water-cart and h d (fig. 676) ; but where it is guided water-drill. from the main conductor a 6 to o down Swamp Irrigation is of little value in the steep sub-conductor p, one stop is the United Kingdom, except for growing requisite at each of the feeders q, r, s, t, water-cress. and V, w, x, y, z. Warping is not capable of extensive Where the ground falls continuously application on the British Islands, yet in from one patch of grass to another, the certain cases it has been carried out with water should be conveyed in a lead from advantage. It consists of the repeated the lowest main drain as from m of one flooding of low-lpng river or tidal land. water-meadow to the main conductor of The object here is not merely to water a lower meadow. the land, but also to enrich it, and Liquid Manure for Irrigation.— probably raise its level by allovring the Where there is a scarcity of water, water to deposit the alluvial matter liquid manure may be poured into the which it has held in suspension. The main conductor to enrich the irriga- water to be employed in warping is tion. Many are of opinion that liquid admitted to the land to be warped by manure gives better results applied in a canal from the sea or river, sluices this way than when it is applied directly being provided to regulate the admis- upon bare soil. sion and discharge of the water. The Side-irrigation.—For the system of land to be treated is hedged in by side-irrigation with open drains, open water-tight banks, to confine the water drains are formed in the field, perhaps to the fixed area. Where warping can from 10 to 12 yards apart. These open be carried out efiectually, it will most drains communicate with drainage canals, likely enhance the fertility of the land into which the irrigation is admitted. to a remarkable extent. PARM BIJILDINGS. The equipment of a farm with appro- MODERN HOMESTEADS. priate buildings is a matter which de- mands careful consideration as well as For some general notes on modern the exercise of special knowledge. It is farm homesteads, as well as for assistance one of those subjects as to which one in the general revision of this chapter, we cannot, in book form, give precise direc- are specially indebted to Mr Gilbert Mur- tions suitable for all circumstances. By ray, agent to the Earl of Harrington, El- the perusal of what follows, however, vaston Castle, Derby. Mr Murray has especially by the intelligent study of had much experience in the erection of the plans submitted, landowners or farm steadings, alike in the tillage and farmers may derive information and grazing districts of England, and his ideas which will be useful to them in notes, which are as follows, form a fit- designing buildings to suit their particu- ting introduction to this chapter. lar wants and circumstances. The Eflfeots of Cheap Transit.— — 312 FAEM BUILDINGS. "The extension of railways in foreign intelligent and skilful farmer so to blend lands, and the vast improvement effected and balance the various kinds of food in ocean-going steamers, have placed the as to ensure the most eflScient results produce of distant continents within easy •with the least possible waste. Not only reach of our shores. From New York is this object fully attained where the to Liverpool is a far cry, and yet the buildings are skUfully arranged, but swift steamers cover the distance in six another important point is likewise at- days. It is well within the recollection tained, and that is the conservancy of of men now Kving, that in pro-railway the manurial elements contained in the days about the same time was spent by residue. the drovers of fat cattle which during Mixed Husbandry a IT'ecessity. the season weekly travelled by road from " We hear much of small industries and the great feeding districts of the north small occupations. The small industries, midland counties to the London markets. poultry and fruit, where well managed, It is idle to say that population and contribute to the income of a large occu- prosperity have increased by leaps and pation. If they do not greatly swell the bounds. The scanty supply of salt beef balance-sheet, they contribute to the and mutton has been replaced by a pro- comfort and lessen the household ex- fusion of fresh meat throughout the year. penses, and in the case of poultry pre- Cheap land and sparse population have vent waste about the farmyard by pick- enabled the pioneers of civilisation to ing up the stray corns. supply us with their surplus ; and this is " The craze for the indiscriminate lay- not confined to live cattle or dead meat. ing down of land to grass has spent its Dairy produce and cereals are largely fury and settled down into a more ra- imported into every seaport of any im- tional state. The future of British portance in Great Britain, and prices agriculture is more than ever dependent have receded all round .— more particu- on the numbers and quality of its Uve larly in the case of cereals, prices having stock. Intelligent men have now come touched a point at which, under former to fully realise the fact that more stock circumstances, they could not be raised at can be kept on mixed occupations than a profit. In all probability population can be kept where inferior soils are all in will sooner or later jibe the heel of pro- grass. An increase of cattle necessitates duction ; whether this may be a near or greater steading accommodation. A con- a distant contingency depends on causes siderable portion of the produce of the beyond human control. land is converted into beef, mutton, and Importance of Suitable Buildings. wool, and by this means the fertility of —"Yet by legitimate combination the the soil is steadily increasing, while more owners and occupiers of British soil will stock are kept, and better crops grown. hold the field against all comers. Our Rainfall and Climate.—"The rain- present task is to suggest a means of fall, elevation, and temperature are fac- aiding in this purpose, and that is by tors not to be ignored either in the system designing and describing a well-equipped of working and stocking the farm, or in homestead, so arranged that the labour the arrangement and construction of the of attendance is reduced to the mini- buildings necessary for the occupation of mum, and where the requisite amount the land. The structural details neces- of shelter is furnished at the least pos- sary to withstand the storms common to sible cost, consistent with economy and a maritime district require strength and stability. — stability much beyond what is neceSB&ry Breeding and Feeding. "Circum- for inland and sheltered localities. Pro- stances alter cases, yet under present vision has to be made for the reception, conditions the great majority of farms conveying, and storage of the rain-water should supply their own requirements in collected from the roofs—in providing live stock, whether it be cattle, sheep, or for such conservancy the mean rainfall of horses. We have lately made immense the district is an important factor in the advances in our knowledge of the feed- calculation. A critical and close observer ing value of the diflferent products within will form a tolerably correct idea as to our reach. This knowledge enables the the different climatic zones by the indica- FARM BUILDINGS. 313 tion of tlie crops and general system of ding for 20 head per 100 acres, including management. the work-horses, was considered the maxi- Farmyard Manure. — " The con- mum. Now, on good mixed occupations servancy of farmyard manure is an im- accommodation for double the number is portant consideration in tlie arrangement not too much. and construction of farm buildings. "In designing a new homestead the Manure made in open yards surrounded chief point is economy of labour. All by unspouted buildings is of very inferior the cattle should be fed from the front quality compared witb that made in of the stall, and if practicable should covered yards. In the latter there is no stand in double rows with a feeding waste through drainage, and, contrary to passage down the centre, and of sufficient popular opinion, the manure is fit to apply width to allow the passage of a trolly to the land at any time. The difference for the conveyance of the food. All the in value between the manure made in gangways for feeding passages must com- open and covered yards is often 50 per municate directly with the food-store or cent in favour of the latter. mixing-room. Economy of Hay and Straw.—" The Barn Machinery.—" The use of fixed economical use of hay and straw is an- barn machinery is now in England matter other important factor in the financial of ancient history. If the holding is not results of a holding. Very little of either sufficiently large to warrant the outlay should be fed in a long state; both for a portable engine and threshing- should be prepared and fed with a mix- machine, the owner of itinerant tackle ture of pulped roots and meals. Except will be glad to do the work at about the under peculiar circumstances, very little sum it would cost to take the sheaves straw should be used for litter, for the from the stackyard to the barn. The feeding value of straw is greater than is threshed grain requires at most only once generally supposed. On most farms spent passing through the vpinnowing-machine hops and peat-moss litter should take the to make it fit for market. If it is de- place of straw for litter. The very es- sired to cut the straw into chaff, a cutter sence of the manure, the liquid part, is is attached to the tail of the threshing- fully absorbed by these and retained, and machine, and the work done at a single when applied to the land produces an operation at the cost of two or three immediate effect. extra hands. Barns are not now neces- "Warmtli and Shelter.—"These are sary except on a small scale, chiefly as a important food economisers, although in store-room for the threshed grain. the case of store stock they may be easily Pastoral Farms.—" These are of two carried too far. Growing animals require classes, the hiU-farms of the north and plenty of fresh air. By this means they those on the rich grazing lands of the are hardened, and so to speak acclimar midland counties of England. The former tised, and are less affected by a change requires at most only a comfortable resi- from the yard to the pasture. dence for the tenant, with a stable and Importance of Position. —• " ^^Tien- cow-shed on a small scale. On the purely ever an entire new homestead is erected stock farms of the more elevated districts care should be taken to select a central cultivation is seldom attempted. In many position, more particularly in the case of cases the tenants of the more extensive a tillage farm, where the cartage is a sheep-walks are capitalists, occupying and matter of considerable import. Roads residing on lowland farms; hence all cae,.be made and the site embellished by that is required is a dwelling-house for judicious planting. A homestead placed the shepherd and a rude winter shelter on the extreme boundary of a farm entails for his one or two cows. The home of a heavy tax on the occupier, which con- the shepherd is often many miles from a tinues for generations. town or village. With his store of oat- General Arrangement. — " The ex- meal, and the scanty produce of his gar- tent of the homestead is regulated ac- den and the rich milk of his cows, he cording to area and quality of the land, leads a happy and contented life. keeping in view the stock-raising capa- " On the rich feeding pastures of the bilities of the holding. Formerly shed- south the tenant is almost invariably 314 FAEM BUILDINGS. resident on the holding. A comfortable delivered into a trapped drain outside dwelling-house is a great inducement to the buildings. a good tenant, and considerably enhances "Water-supply.—"All buildings are the value of the farm. In addition to spouted, and provision made for receiving the dwelling-house all the buildings re- and storing the rain-water. In well- quired are a good hackney stable having arranged holdings the water-supply is an two loose-boxes and one stall, and shed- important consideration. In hilly dis- ding for two or three cows for supplying tricts the farmyard can be supplied at a the family wants. On this class of land moderate cost by conveying the water only a few cattle are wintered, and these from a higher level into service - tanks chiefly remain outdoors in all weathers. which supply the yards and sheds, so The owners of such land are fortunately that all the animals may have a constant circumstanced in that only a small supply at will. It is likev?ise convenient amount of capital is required to provide and useful for flushing the drains and the necessary buildings. washing out the mangers. For all kinds Dairy and Breeding.—"A farm of of stock an abundant supply of pure this class, if worked on a modern system, water is of the utmost importance. In- requires the most complete equipment of deed, vsdthout a liberal supply of pure any. The best system of housing dairy water the health of the animals of the cows is in double stalls, 6 feet 6 inches farm cannot long be maintained. Purity to 7 feet wide, with a feeding passage in is an important condition. Soft water is front. The best mangers are made of better adapted for the animal require- fireclay, in lengths that two will fill the ments, and more conducive to health width of the stall. These are glazed in- than hard water. Wherever practicable side, and easily cleaned and kept sweet. the homestead should be supplied by The division at the head is constructed gravitation. Where the contour of the of I - inch iron gas - pipes, which pass country is rolling, there is little difficulty through the front stall posts. This leaves in this. The water can be collected into the shed more airy, and therefore more a surface-reservoir, from which a service- healthy. pipe is carried to the homestead, and then "In the case of milking cows a fre- distributed as required. Although the quent mistake is made in having the water may be originally charged with standing too high and too long. The mineral impurities, the agitation by the length should be 4 feet from the front of wind and the exposure to the atmosphere the manger to the outside of the heel- has the effect of softening and purifying post —• a greater length hampers the the collected water. Observant veteri- milker. The standings should be 4 feet nary practitioners are familiar with the high at the shoulder and 3 feet 3 inches class of diseases which follow certain at the heel-post, measured to the top of geological formations, where the water the rail. On well-managed farms the old used for the stock is chiefly drawn from system of hay-racks has disappeared. deep wells. Floors.—" All the beds and floors are Ventilation and Exercise.— " All laid with well-prepared hydraulic lime sheds should be well lighted and venti- concrete, finished off with fine stuff and lated. A constant circulation of pure air hatched to prevent the cows from slip- is necessary to health. In the case of ping. The beds have a gentle fall to young cattle exercise is also essential. the grip, which never exceeds 4 inches In well-sheltered yards a certain amount in depth, 20 inches wide, and quadrant- of exposure is conducive to healthy shaped on section, and gradually sloping development. into the back passage without forming Stalls and Boxes.—"In the case of an abrupt angle. dairy cows in milk the tie-up system is Drains. — " Underground drains are the best. For rearing and fattening inadmissible in cow-sheds or stables. stock the loose -box or hammel system Where spent hops or moss litter is used, of the Border counties, combining the there is no liquid drainage to carry away. covered and open yard, is to be preferred. Where straw is used for litter, the drain- Not more than eight animals are con- age is conveyed in open channels, and fined in one hammel. The divisions FAEM BUILDINGS. 315 throughout should consist of gas-pipes my experience both with hard -worked passing through iron standards. This draught -horses and with hunters. On ensures better ventilation ; the cattle the other hand limit the supply, and they rest better, and the labour of feeding is frequently drink to their own injury. reduced to the minimum. The cow- For all stables well-laid concrete floors sheds should be well lighted. As a rule, are the best. The fall from front to lighting the cow-shed from the roof is heel should be very slight. A steep objectionable, owing to the danger of gradient is uncomfortable and injurious breakage, and the difficulty of maintain- to the horses' legs. Under no pretence ing the joints in a sound state. whatever can underground drains be Food-preparing MacMnery.— "An tolerated in a stable. The drainage is important part of a modern homestead carried in a slightly dished open channel, is the food-preparing department. This tUl it reaches the outside of the building, should be easy of access from the out- when it may pass into a well-trapped side, and centrally situated as to the rest socket pipe -drain connected with the of the premises. It is essential to liquid-manure tank. If straw is used economy both of food and labour that a for litter, aU the wet portions should be front gangway should be provided to the removed daily. If the ventilation is entire buildings. The food is conveyed carefully arranged, the horses will be from the mixing-house by a trolly or maintained in a healthy and efficient small three-wheel truck, and each animal state. has its allowance in turn. Before feed- Calves' Shed.—" There are no ani- ing commences, an attendant goes round mals on the farm requiring more atten- and sweeps out the mangers where the tion and mpre comfortable lodgings than last feed has not been all eaten up. By the young stock. Young animals need this means souring and fermentation is plenty of exercise in order to encourage prevented. Every animal should have the healthy development of bone and access to water at will. muscle. They should not be overcrowded. Internal Divisions and Ventilation. "Weaning calves thrive best in warm —" In all cases, with the exception of well-sheltered yards of a composite char- stables and cow -sheds, the internal di- acter—that is, partly covered and partly visions should be of gas -pipe passing open. For litter we prefer peat-moss to through oak posts or wrought - iron straw, as it absorbs the urine, and is standards. By this means we obtain a always free from noxious smells. The freer circulation of air, which promotes yards do not require cleaning out oftener the health of the animal. Much remains than once in six months. The buildings to be done to further our knowledge of should be furnished with rain-water the chemical nature of the organic im- conductors emptying into underground purities of the air. It is now an accepted drains as already described. The calf canon that a large proportion of these yards are divided by iron gas-pipes. The organic impurities consists of germs of young animals thrive much Isetter than living organisms. These are frequently when isolated and confined in small the floating germs of disease, which only pens from which they cannot see around require a genial host to increase by them. myriads. Hence it is obvious that our General Principles.—" In aU cases efforts should be carefully directed to we prefer covered or partly covered perfecting ventilation, and as far as yards to open yards, and except in the case practicable maintaining the purity of the of dairy cows, stock thrive best when surrounding air. kept loose in the yards. If dairy cows Cart-horse Stable.—"This is a de- were not tied up there would be loss of partment that requires great care in time and inconvenience in milking. In designing, for here are lodged the most the use of large quantities of straw under valuable part of the live stock of the the old system of open yards, a great loss farm. Provision should be made for of manurial. constituents was entailed an ample supply of pure water; allow through excessive fermentation. Loose the animal access to water at all times, straw, when mixed with urine or water, and it never drinks to excess. This is gives off ammonia as soon as it reaches 3i6 FAEM BUILDINGS. in describing the plans a temperature of 170°, and thus the discussed in detail presently. Here it will essence of the manure is dissipated and to be submitted that while the outlay on lost. suffice to say kept as moderate as " Good buildings, well arranged and buildings should be with efficiency, it is centrally situated, on an ordinary mixed possible consistent capacity of the occupation, are seldom appraised at their very important that the should be amply sufficient for full value. Nevertheless the suitability steading of the holding. The or unsuitability of the buildings may the requirements be looked for from add or detract from the yearly rental best results cannot is provided with value of the land not less than from any holding unless it per acre over the entire sufficient house accommodation. 5 s. to 7 s. 6d. — occupation." Burden of Costly Buildings. ^It is assuredly of the utmost importance that farms of all classes should be equipped GENERAL PRINCIPLES. with appropriate and comfortable build- Before submitting detailed plans it ings. It is, however, equally desirable will be well to glance at one or two that a careful eye should be kept upon important points of a preliminary and the outlay. To burden poor land with general character. Chief amongst these costly buildings is unwise policy. The are—(i) the designing of buildings to suit substantial farm steadings of Scotland the extent of the holding and the pur- have long been the pride of that country. poses for which it is employed or best With their cold northern climate the the situation of the build- farms of Scotland must be provided with adapted ; (2) houses that are both substantial and com- ings ; and (3) the principles upon which the various compartments should be fortable. Yet there is little doubt that grouped. in many cases more money has been sunk in farm buildings in Scotland than was Farms and Steadings. absolutely necessary or was justified by Different Classes of Tarms.—^With the character and extent of the holdings. the almost infinite variety in the char- And it should be borne in mind that any acter and management of the agricul- outlay beyond the actual requirements of tural holdings of the British Isles, it the farm is even worse than the actual follows that there must be great varia- sinking of so much money. It stands tion in the de'sign of the farm buildings. there as an incubus upon the holding, The purposes for which the farm is em- adding to the original burden by occa- ployed or is best adapted in the main sional repairs. determine the general principles of the There is much to be said in favour of design, the details varying with climate, the custom which has been so prevalent local custom, and individual fancy. The in Scotland of building farm steadings in general design having been decided upon, a form so substantial as to endure for the capacity of the steading is adapted to several generations. Landowners who the extent of the holding. can thus equip their properties without The main classes of farms are pastoral borrowing money to do so are no doubt farms for cattle or sheep or both, purely well justified in taking this course. But arable or carse farms, mixed husbandry the prudence of the custom may be ques- farms, dairy farms, and suburban farms. tioned when the money to construct these Of these systems there are many modifi- costly buildings has to be borrowed, and cations. Indeed, in certain parts of the the farm thus burdened with a heavy tax country the one runs into the other so in the shape of the high interest charged gradually that it is difficult to say where upon such loans. In this case would it the line should be drawn. There is thus not be wiser poKcy to build cheaper ample scope for ingenuity and careful- houses, even if they should also be shorter ness in the designing of buildings to lived ? Let it be remembered that any suit each individual holding or group of additional outlay incurred to provide holdings. extra substantiality not only imparts no The nature of the accommodation re- corresponding benefit to the holding at quired by the different holdings will be the present time, but is actually to the . FARM BUILDINGS. 317 full extent of the annual charge for that town or railway station is a natural in- additional outlay an absolute and un- ducement to place the steading beside necessary burden. With these considera- it. But this advantage, natural as it is, tions in view, the prudent course will be may be purchased by the sacrifice of a to spend no more money in buildings greater. Should the steading be placed, than is necessary to provide the required in consequence, at the extreme angle of accommodation, with reasonable comfort, the farm, such a sacrifice would be made. the maximum of labour-saving conveni- We know a large steading which is thus ence, and economical substantiality. inconveniently placed for the sake of a good road and the command of water- Situation of the Steading. power ; but these advantages were The situation of a steading is a point obtained at the additional expense of which demands most careful considera- maintaining a man and pair of horses, tion. with their implements, to work the most Were theory alone to determine the distant fields of the farm. Better make site of the steading, it would be at the a good farm-road to the turnpike from centre of the holding. the centre of a farm, and erect steam- Difficulties, however, of a physical power, than place a steading at its utmost nature often interfere with the choice of corner. the centre as the site. The centre may Shelter.—Good shelter induces the be very much elevated above the other placing of a steading in it. A warm and parts, or it may be a low marsh or a comfortable situation in winter conduces lake. In either case, the steading can- much to the wellbeing of the stock lodged not be placed in the centre of the farm. in a steading. But this desideratum When the farm contains both per- alone should not induce the placing of a manent pastoral and low arable land, the steading at a point whence the farm steading should be placed as near as would have to be worked at increased practicable to the centre of the arable cost. portion, whether that be the centre of View.—^A pleasant view from the the farm or not. farmhouse may naturally induce the "Water-supply.—Command of water- placing of a steading a short distance power is a strong incentive to place the away from the centre of a farm. It steading by the side of a river or stream. is desirable that the farmhouse should But it is worthy of consideration at first, be situated so as to command a view of whether the river or stream is capable of the fields of the farm, and also be near affording a constant supply of water the steading; and if any sacrifice of throughout all the seasons. If it is, position on the part of either is neces- then the steading may be economically sary, the house should give way to the placed near it, though that may not be steading. at the centre of the farm; but if the Sites to Avoid.—There are particular water be deficient in quantity, if it affords spots which should be avoided as sites a sufficiency only in winter, then it is for steadings. A rocky knoll presents more economical to place the steading difficulties in making a foundation for near the centre of the farm, and erect buildings, and it is unsuited to proper steam-power there. If it should be in- drainage from a steading. Close to a convenient to place the steading close to river or lake, on a level with its banks, the water-supply, it may be possible to renders drainage from a steading im- select a site to which the water may be practicable, and such a site should be diverted. avoided on account of dampness. A One essential consideration should be bed of dry loose sand is unsuitable for given to all sites, which is, whether a secure foundation to a steading, though j)ump-water is obtainable or not. Where the difficulty might be overcome by it is abundant, some inconvenience may artificial means. A clayey substratum be submitted to ; but if scanty, the most in front of a rising ground is not eligible site ought to be abandoned at an eligible position for the site of a once. steading, inasmuch as it will always Beads.—^A good road to a market retain dampness, whatever may be the 3i8 FAEM BUILDINGS. drainage. A very exposed spot in a strict conformity with the system of gap between two hills is an uncomfort- agriculture adopted on the farm. able position for a steading, both for These points demand consideration in man and beast. detail. Sites on Sloping Farms. — It is a Straw.—Straw is not only the most question whether it is more economical bulky article in the steading, but is also to place the steading at the higher or largely used by all classes of stock, and lower part of an inclining arable farm. having, though heavy and unwieldy, to be If situate at the higher part, all the pro- distributed in every apartment by manual duce of grain, turnips, and potatoes has labour, it should, of necessity, be placed to be carried up-hill ; and if on the lower, centrically, and at the shortest distance the manure is subject to the same incon- from the stock. Bearing in mind the re- venience. Where the surface of a farm lations of these particulars, it is obvious forms a round-backed ridge sloping both that they constitute the principle upon ways, the apex of the ridge is the most which the construction of steadings economical site for the steading, and the should be based; and as the centre is case is the same when the steading is the nearest point to the circumference, it placed in the centre of a long slope of is also obvious that the original recep- land. It should not be forgotten that tacle for the straw should occupy the loads have to be carried both to and central point of the steading. There from a steading, so that the high or low can be no exception to this rule for every position will answer, provided there be variety of farming where straw is in no steep ascent or descent immediately use. Every apartment occupied by at the steading. When both high and stock should thus encircle the straw-barn. low situations are equally circumstanced, Different classes and ages of stock re- reason and experience would prefer the quire different cjuantities and kinds of low. straw, so that those which require the Having thus pointed out the best most should be placed nearest the straw- position for the steading to occupy on a barn; and in all cases straw should be farm, our next endeavour shall be to carried short distances, and not at all explain some general principles which from any other apartment than direct should guide the construction of stead- from the straw-barn. ings for every variety of arable hus- The threshing-machine supplies the bandry. straw at once to the straw-barn. That machine should therefore be erected Principles Arrangement. of nearest to it. The stackyard supplies There are certain principles which, it the corn direct to the threshing-machine, seems to us, might be followed with and should thus be contiguous to it ; and advantage in arranging or grouping the as the corn and straw are threshed most various compartments in almost all easily and quickly in a straight line, it classes of farm steadings. follows that the stackyard, threshing- Briefly stated, these general principles machine, and straw-barn should be in a are : That straw, being the most bulky straight line ; and it also follows that as article in a steading in winter, should be the straw-barn should be in the centre of placed at its centre, as the point most the steading, and as the threshing-ma- accessible to every apartment; that the chine intervenes between it and the apartments required for each sort of stackyard, the stackyard should be placed work in the steading should be placed on the outside of the steading. next each other, as it were in groups, to Admission of Sunshine.—Another avoid crossings when different sorts of important corollary, as regards the con- work are simultaneously carried on, as struction of the steading, follows from are inconveniently experienced in too these premisses. The sun is an important many existing steadings ; that ample source of warmth, and, in consequence, accommodation should be afforded to of comfort to the animals in a steading each sort of work to be done ; and that in the winter season. Every facility the groups of apartments should bear should therefore be allowed the sun to such a relation to each other as to be in enter, and the removal of one obstruo- PLANS OF STEADINGS. 319 tion to the greatest amount of sunshine the principles explained above to those is, placing the length of the central in which straw is used. straw - barn north and south ; and in The plans, in illustration of these prin- settling this point, the straw -barn, ciples, are the results of much thought threshing-machine, and stackyard will as and practical experience in the endeavour a consequence be in a line north and to apply them to actual use. In this south. endeavour, it will be observed that in This being the case, the building re- several of the plans the apartments quired to accommodate the threshing- appropriated to arable culture—such as machine, and its accompanying corn- the work -horse stable, cart -shed — are barn, being always two-storeyed, a con- placed on the one side of the straw- venient position for the granaries will be barn, while those devoted to live stock, to place them east and west, where they whether in a dairy, breeding, or feed- will form a good screen from the north ing farm, are placed on the other side. wind. The plans might be adopted just as they Here, then, we have fixed a principle stand, or modified according to circum- in the construction of steadings which is stances—the arrangements being rather capable of extensive application—^namely, suggestive than imperative. For ex- that the straw-barn should occupy the ample, the apartments consigned to the - centre ; that the threshing machine use of the arable part of the farm may should be nearest to it and in a line be placed on the right or the left of the with it; that the stackyard should be straw-barn, according to convenience in near the threshing-machine; and that relation to the fields ; and the same trans- all three should be in a line north and position may be made as regards the south. apartments occupied by breeding, feed- Live Stock.—It shall now be our ing, or dairy stock; or any apartment endeavour to illustrate this principle in may be larger or smaller, according to its application to all classes of steadings. the work expected to be done in it. Cattle fattening, whether in hammels, boxes, or byres, requiring most straw, PASTORAL FAEMING. should be placed nearest the straw-barn. Younger cattle, being lighter, require Simple pastoral farming embraces the less straw, whether for fodder or litter, breeding and rearing of cattle or of and should be placed either at a greater sheep, or of both combined; and that distance from the straw-bam than the sort of farming, combined with arable fattening cattle, or at the same distance culture, devotes itself to the same ends. on the other side of it. Cattle Pastoral Farming. Horses and cows requiring the least straw, may be placed at the greatest On a purely pastoral farm on which distance from the straw-barn. cattle are bred and reared, the steading The leading principle involved in the required is simply a protection in winter above arrangement is comprehensive and for the cows and young stock, and this simple, and is applicable to almost every being the case, the rule propounded size and kind of steading. But indis- above does not apply to it particularly. putably correct as the principle is, it is The calves are put under protection in very seldom adopted in practice ; and winter when the weather is severe, or we may safely assert that, the greater the the ground covered with snow, and sup- deviation from it, the less commodious plied with hay and water, or let out to are steadings as habitations for stock in the water to drink every day. Such a winter. steading may be erected in any convenient place, detached or near, as desired, to the farmhouse and herd's house. PLANS OP STEADINGS. Houses for Cattle.—A plan of such a steading is given at fig. i, Plate I., We shall now attempt to describe and where it is named "Detached pastoral illustrate the steadings suitable for the farm steading for rearing cattle " : a I, different sorts of farming, and to apply c d, each 30 feet long, and 18 feet in 320 FAKM BUILDINGS. of his herds, and width, are the sheds for , the shelter of family and those he also fowls and pigs. the stock, and c, /, g, h are their respec- will have tive courts, each 30 feet square. The Such a steading is represented by entrances to both sheds and courts should fig. 2, Plate I. It is most easily and be 9 feet in width. The entrance to the economically erected in a long straight sheds i i i i may be arched overhead if building in which the apartments are built of stone and lime, or have a flat conveniently arranged, a is the killing- wooden lintel. The walls should be 8 house, which is a necessary apartment in feet in height above the ground. The a pastoral steading, for when a beast is roof may consist of trees placed in the taken ill, and not likely to recover, it breadth across the walls, and covered should be killed : it is 18 feet in width, with broom, whin, fern, or branches of and 20 feet in length, vrith a window in spruce, all of which materials will last front and door at the back ; 6 is an out- several years. But, if desired, the roof house in which implements and other may be made of ordinary couples of articles may be locked up, 18 by 25 feet, timber and slated. The courts should with a window and door in front ; c the be provided with water-troughs, one gig-house, 18 by 9 feet, with a wide door trough to two courts, an arched opening in front ; d the riding-horse stable of two being made in the common wall at Tc h. stalls, 18 by 12 feet, with a window and Gates are placed at the openings 1 1 II. door in front ; e the hay-house, in which The completed roof and the flat lintels the corn-chest may be placed to contain over the doorways may be seen by the the com for all the horses, 18 by 15 feet, perspective dotted lines of the isometrical with a window and door in front ; / the over the sheds abed. The walls may cart-horse stable, furnished with three be made of dry stone rubble, toothed or stalls, to accommodate a strange horse pointed with lime on the outside ; or they when it comes, 18 by 18 feet, with a be of where timber is in front may made wood window and door ; ff the hjie or plentiful on the estate. But the best shippen, 18 feet by 20, with a window and most durable materials are stone and and door in front, and four divisions for lime, where these can be procured. eight cows, if as many are wanted,—if Such a plan may be contracted or en- not, it can be made proportionally larged according to the wants and extent smaller; h the hen-house, 18 by 8 feet, of the farm, and several may be erected with a window in front and a door at the on the same farm at places convenient back, and a bole with steps leading up for the making of hay, to save the carry- to it by the side of the door ; and i is ing of that fodder to a distance. Cows the cart-shed, 18 by 12 feet, witha9-feet in calf and calves will be well sheltered openrQg. in such a steading in wet stormy weather, The stables and byre, being most in or when snow covers the ground; and use, are placed at the centre of the build- even year-olds may be accommodated on ing, while the less used apartments are an emergency, or on a much -exposed at the outer ends. The hay-house may farm. From the dimensions given, it have internal doors leading into the rid- is easy for farmers to estimate the ing and work stables, but in a small number of cattle, at their respective steading such as this it is unnecessary to ages, which could be accommodated in incur the expense. The walls should he the sheds. 9 feet above the ground, and the roof Other Hduses.—Besides this accom- made of good couples of wood, and slated. modation for the breeding stock, a pas- The steading may be placed near the toral farm requires a steading for various cattle-sheds, fig. i, or at a distance, as other purposes. The farmer must have most convenient for both sheds and stead- a horse and a vehicle to take him and ing. The dotted lines show the structure his family to church and market. One of the walls and roof, and the positions or two work-horses are required to bring and forms of the door and windows. corn, provisions, and artificial food to the The farmhouse and cottages for the farm, as well as to carry a carcass to the herds should be near the steading. butcher, and hay to the stacks. The The scale for figs, i and 2, Plate I., is farmer must have a cow or two for his half an inch to the foot. ; PLANS OF STEADINGS. 321 The extreme length over walls of fig. i, The walls are 9 feet in height from Plate I., is 125 feet; the extreme breadth, the floor, and the dotted lines show the 51 feet ; and the width of the sheds is 18 structure of the walls, windows, doors, feet within walls. The length of fig. 2 and roof ; the roof being made of wooden over walls is 153 feet, and the width of couples, and slated. the apartments within walls is 18 feet. The extreme length over walls of fig. of . The arrow indicates the direction of 3, Plate I., is 164 feet. The length north. the upper wing is 91 feet, and that of Compact Pastoral Steading. — It the lower 91 feet. The width of the may be deemed desirable to have the sheds and courts over walls is 52 feet. cattle-sheds connected with the steading. The width of the apartments and sheds Such a plan is represented by fig. 3, within walls is 18 feet. " Plate I., where it is denominated Com- The scale of fig. 3, Plate I., is in the pact pastoral farm steading for rearing proportion of three-eighths and a third cattle," and where the central part of of an inch to the foot. the building is occupied by the cattle- The farmhouse and cottages for the sheds abed, each 30 feet by 18, with herds should be placed near the steading, their respective courtyards e fg h, each which should be erected in the most 30 feet square. With the sheds here, accessible part of the farm. the apartments of the steading are not Sheep Pastoral Farming. in a straight line, as in the above case, but are thrown into the form of wings, §heep on pa"Btoral farms are never the lower one in the plate being devoted housed in a steading in winter, although to the operations of the farm, and the in modern agriculture in the low country upper one to those of the house. The they are not unfrequently fed in sheds lower wing is occupied by i, the riding- erected beside the steading. Neverthe- horse stable with three stalls, 18 feet by less, sheep are at times protected in a 18, with a window and door in front certain class of buildings, named stells, k the hay-house, 18 feet by 12, in which in the upper pastoral districts. a large corn-chest for all the horses may The construction of these and the pro- be placed, with a door and window in viding of other forms of shelter for sheep front ; I the cart-horse stable, 18 feet by have been fully discussed in Divisional 18, furnished with three stalls, and a vol. i. p. 202, and Divisional vol. iii. door an(^ window in front. The hay- p. 48. house being placed between the two Pastoral and Arable Farming. stables, internal doors of communication may be made if desired. The gig-house There are many farms which are partly m, 18 feet by 12, ivith a wide door in pastoral and partly arable. Most likely front. The litter-house n, 18 by 24 feet, the lower-lying land wiU be under tillage is provided with a window and door in and the higher -lying in pasture. The front, as well as a door at the back, to tenant of a holding of this kind endeav- allow the litter to be carried either way, ours to have as much arable land as as required. will produce corn for the support of his The upper wing contains 0, the hen- family and servants and horses, and sup- house, 18 feet by 10, with a door in ply straw and turnips for the use of his front, and a window and bole with steps stock in winter. Such a farm requires at the side. There is another hay-house an adequate steading, and such a stead- here at p, 18 feet by 10, for the use of ing is usually provided with a threshing- the byre q, which is 18 feet by 20, fur- machine and straw-barn. Wherever these nished with four divisions for two cows requisites are available, the principle we in each. Both the hay-house and byre advanced at the outset is applicable in the or shippen have a window and door in construction of the steading. front. The outhouse r is 18 feet by 18, Combined Arable and Pastoral with a window and door in front ; s the Steading.—Fig. i, Plate II., presents killing-house, 18 feet by 26, with a door such a steading, where the central part and two windows in front, and may be is occupied with the threshing-machine used for other purposes. and straw-barn in a line north and south VOL. III. : 322 FARM BUILDINGS. of a range of building having apartments propriated to any kind of live stock. in the upper wing connected with the The cattle courts and sheds may accom- operations of the arable part, and in the modate either breeding-cows and calves, lower one with the pastoral department or young stirks and heifers bought from of the farm. The corn-barn a is i8 feet the breeders. The turnip-store w may by 26, with a door at the back to the be the gig-house, the gig-house / a stackyard, and a window looking into guano-store, and the turnip-store 2 al- the cattle-court p; 6 is the site of the lotted to any other purpose. Turnip- threshing-machine ; c the chaff-house, 5 stores could then be feet wide, with an internal door to the made in front of the straw-barn and a window into the cattle- walls of the cattle-courts 6' court p ; d the straw-barn, 18 feet by n and ^ g' at and c'. 21, has four doors, two to cattle-courts, The walls are 9 feet and two outside them, to the stables and high above the ground, byre ; e the cart-shed, 18 feet by 22, with and the dotted lines two port-holes; / the gig-house, 18 feet show the structure of the horse-course, 26 feet in roofs, the two-storeyed by g ; and h the diameter. To the right of the central portion of the steading, range of buildings are the cattle-sheds I and the position of the and OT, 18 feet by 30 each, with their doors and windows. respective courts p and q, 30 feet by 30 The highest part of each. To the left of the central range the building contains are the cattle-sheds i and ^,18 feet by two floors or storeys. 30 each, with their respective courts n The upper floor or storey and o, 30 feet by 30 each. consists of the apart- In the right wing are these apartments ments shown in fig. 677, for arable culture : r the boiling-house, where a is the upper 18 feet by 7 feet 6 inches, having a door barn immediately above at the back and a window in front ; s the the corn-barn ; b the site implement-house, 18 feet by 8, with a of the threshing-machine door in front ; t the cart-horse stable, 18 with its gearing, drum, feet by 32, having four stalls and a loose- and shakers; c the dotted box, 8 feet wide, with a door and two win- lines showing the posi- dows in front; u the hay-house, 18 feet tion of the beams of by 12, with a door at the back towards Fig. 677. — Up^er wood which sr^port the the straw-barn d for carrying the straw Jloorqfa. steading threshing-machine; c^the /or cattle pastoral to the cart-horse stable t, and a window farming with ar- door, 6 feet wide, which in front; v riding-horse stable, 18 feet able culture. leads into the stackyard, by 12, with two stalls and a door and from which the sheaves window at the back; and w a turnip- from the stacks are brought either in store, 18 feet by 12, for the cattle-courts wheel-barrows along a gangway, or in p and q. carts placed right under the door and In the left wing are these apartments forked into at the barn ; ^ is a window for the pastoral department of the farm the right hand of the man who feeds the v. the hen-house, 18 feet by 9, with a sheaves into the threshing-mill; « is a door in front and a window and bole at hatch, 3 feet by 3, communicating with the back; x an outhouse, 18 feet by 17, the corn-barn below, for the purpose of with a door and in front window ; y the jjassing the roughs of the grain to be killing-house, 18 feet by 18, with a door re-threshed, where there are no elevators and window in front; z a turnip-store, connected with the mill ; A is a bole, 4 18 feet by 18, for the cattle-courts ra and feet by 3j^, communicating with the o and cow-byre a', with a door at the straw-barn i, through which the straw back ; and the cow-byre a', 18 feet by 18, is forked, to be again passed through the Avith a door and window in front. The mill when necessary; I is the granary over killing-house is a convenience in all pas- the cart-shed and gig-house, 18 feet by 32, toral farms, and here, as it should be, it with an entrance by an outside stone stair is situated between apartments not ap- k, with four windows, two on each side. PLANS OF STEADINGS. 323 The granary is placed here for sim- The corn-barn is a, 18 feet by 32, with plicity of construction, but it would be a door and window in front. Off the better to extend the central range into corn-barn is the space 6, 18 feet by 8 two storeys over the cattle-sheds k and I, feet 6 inches, for the threshing-machine, fig. I, Plate II., and thus have two gran- as also the space c, 5 feet wide, for the aries, each 30 feet in length, with an chaff-house, with a door to the straw- entrance direct from the corn-barn. In barn and a window in front. The straw- that case, the roof of the cart-shed e and barn d is 18 feet by 40, with a door in gig-house / should be brought down to front, and another at the back to the one storey, and the end wall of the straw- stackyard and horse-course, and also a barn elevated into a gable. bole at the back. The horse-course / is The extreme length over walls of fig. 26 feet in diameter. The killing-house I, Plate II., is 188 feet. The length of ^f is 18 feet by 10, with a door and the right wing is 96 feet, that of the window at the back. This apartment is left wing 95 feet. The length of the far removed from any occupied by middle division over walls is 73 feet. animals. The cartshed h, 18 feet by 18, The width of the sheds and courts is has two arched ports. The implement- 53 feet, and that of all the apartments house ^ is 18 feet by 18, with a door and of the sheds is 18 feet. and window at the back. All these The scale of fig. i, Plate II., is in the apartments are situate in the central proportion of rather more than three- range of the building. eighths of an inch to the foot. The scale The two wings are so arranged that the of fig. 677 will be found at fig. i, Plate II. lower one is devoted to the arable work The farmhouse and the herd's cottage of the farm, and the upper to the should be placed .near the steading, pastoral. The lower wing contains the which should be erected in an accessible following apartments : the cart-horse part of the farm. stable i, 18 feet by 32, having four stalls and a loose-box k, 8 feet wide, with a Slieep and Arable Farming. door and window in front ; the hay- It is useful and convenient to have house Z, 18 feet by 10, with a door and some arable husbandry connected with a window in front, as also an internal sheep pastoral farm, as well as with that door leading on the one hand into for the rearing of cattle, and hence a the cart-horse stable, and, on the steading is required for it also. As this other, into the riding-horse stable m, 18 sort of farming is furnished with stells feet by 12, with two stalls, and a door for the sheep, and does not require and window in front; n the gig-house, courts, the apartments might be placed 18 feet by 10, with a wide door; and in a single row; but as such a form the boiling-house, 18 feet by 14, with would place the apartments at the a door and window in front, and a boiler extreme ends at a considerable distance and furnace at the gable. from one another, it is more convenient The upper wing has these apartments to make it into that of a hollow square in it : the byre or shippen g', 18 feet by or parallelogram. Where arable culture 25, contains five divisions, for two cows is practised, it is advisable to have a in each, if required, with a door and threshing - machine, unless itinerant window in front; r the hen-house, 18 threshing-machines are obtainable. feet by 8, with a door at the back, and a No courts being required, it is not bole and a window in front; s the outhouse, absolutely necessary to place the straw- 18 feet by 17, with a door and window in the barn within hollow square, although front; and the wool-room <, 18 feet by it is necessary to have it at hand ; and 28, with a door and two windows in " this is the case in the plan of a Farm front, and three windows at the back fo)- steading, for rearing sheep with arable air and ventilation, and an internal door culture," given in fig. 2, Plate II., show- to the outhouse for convenience. There ing a slight modification of the principle is also a fireplace in it at the gable, with laid we have down as an axiom, in its a chimney-stall!: ; w is a pump-well shaft, application to a case where little straw 5 feet in diameter, in the centre of the is required. space common to all the apartments. 324 FAEM BUILDINGS. The dotted lines show the structure of same dimensions ; 6, the site of the the building, roofs, doors, windows, and threshing - machine, with its gearing, chimney-tops. drum, and shakers ; c, in dotted lines, The highest part of this steading is the are the beams of wood supporting the central range which is divided into two threshing-machine ; d, the door, 6 feet floors or storeys. The upper floor con- wide, leading to the stackyard, from sists of three apartments, as shown in fig. which the sheaves of the stacks are 678, where a is the upper barn imme- brought either on wheel-barrows over a diately above the corn-barn, and of the gangway, or by carts loaded at the stack. ;;v^^s^^>aJ=te*»»^^M '-- xNi4-=l%>'!#^-^ -.»;i=iH^>xxi.»Ky-^--,.>,,~l r =n2^si=is ETT D saizE^si^sss: risC Fig. 678. — Upperjioorofa steadingfor sheep pastoralfarming with arable culture. and then placed right under the door, the j)rinciple of construction we have laid and the sheaves forked from it into the down, wherein the straw occupies the ; the central position, and all the other apart- barn e, the window ; /, a hatch in floor, 3 feet by 3, communicating with ments cluster around it as a centre. the corn - barn below, for passing the The corn-barn a is 31 feet by 28, with roughs of grain to be re-threshed when a door to the stackyard and a window no elevators are appended to the thresh- into a court, containing within it the bole, feet com- space for the threshing-machine 5, 18 ing-mill ; g, a 4 by 3}^, municating with the straw-barn, for the feet by 8 feet 6 inches, and for the chaff- purpose of forking up any straw that house c, 5 feet in width, with a door may require to go again through the leaxiing into the straw-barn d, 18 by 46 threshing-mill ; h is the straw-barn, with feet, with four doors, two leading into boles in the wall; and i the granary, 18 the cattle-courts, 1 and two into the open feet by 48, extending over the killing- space conducting to the cart-horse stable house, cart-shed, and implement-house, and cow-byre. The boiling-house e, 18 with three windows on each side, and by 24 feet, for the cooking of food for entered directly from the corn-barn by a the horses, is a continuation of the straw- stair. barn, and being in a two-storeyed range, The extreme length of fig. 2, Plate II., is provided with a cock-loft or gangway over walls is 125 feet. The length of to contain at hand the ingredients to be both wings is 113 feet. The width of cooked, and with a door towards the the apartments within walls is 18 feet. stable and a window in the gable between The scale of fig. 2, Plate II., is in the the two boilers; / is the steam-engiae proportion of three-eighths and one-third room, 18 by 11 feet, with a door and of an inch to the foot. The scale of fig. window, as also a trap -door into the 678 will be found in that of fig. 2, Plate II. boiler-house g, 20 by 10 feet, with which is connected by a door the coal-store h, Steading for Arable Farming. 20 feet by 5, having a window at the Such holdings as carse farms and any end. The chimney - stalk, 50 feet in that are entirely under arable husbandry height, is seen at the end of the boiler- require steadings specially designed for house g ; i is a shed for cattle, 18 feet by that purpose. Accommodation has to be 30, and k a court, 30 feet by 30, con- provided for the corn and straw, for the nected with it ; Hs a shed for cattle, 18 animals of labour, for fattening cattle, by 38 feet, and ni its court, 38 feet by and a few cows to supply the farmer's family and the work-people with milk. In the plan (Plate V.) the cattle-courts are open, but the greater if not the A plan of a steading suited to these portion, whole, should be covered in. The merits and requisites is given in Plate V. It will demerits of covered and open courts have been be found that this plan fully illustrates fully discussed in Div. vol. i. p. 226. ; ; PLANS OF STEADINGS. 325 30 ; n and are the turnip-stores for the building, which consists of two floors or respective cattle-courts, n being 24 feet storeys. The upper storey contains the 9 inches by 7 feet, and 0, 26 feet 9 inches apartments as shown in fig. 679, where by 7 feet. These apartments constitute a a is the upper barn immediately above the central portion of the steading. the corn-barn and steam-engine room, In the right wing are these apart- with a bole for air ; h, the site of the ments : p, a loose-box, 18 feet by 18, threshing-machine with its gearing, drum, in front the ; c, lines, with a door and window ; q, and shakers the dotted the beams gig-house, 18 feet by 12, with a wide of wood which support the threshing- door in front; r, a hay-house, 18 by 20 machine; d, the door, 6 feet wide, lead- feet, with a window and door in front, ing to the stackyard, from which the and an internal door into the cart-horse sheaves are brought from the stack either stable s s, 18 by 78 feet; i is a central on wheel-barrows or by carts loaded at door to bring the straw from the straw- the stack and placed right under this barn into the stalls, and in front are a door, and the sheaves forked into the door and four windows; u is another barn; e, the sky-light in the roof for hay-house, 18 feet, with window giving by 14 a light to the barn ; /, a hatch in in front and a door at the back ; and v is the floor, 3 feet by 3, for passing the the riding-horse stable, 18 feet roughs of grain from the corn- by 18, with a door and window, barn, to be again threshed by and ,an internal door to the hay- the mill when elevators are not house u. appended to the mill ; g, a bole, In the left wing are the fol- 4 feet by 3^^, communicating lowing apartments : w is the with the straw -barn, through hen-house, 18 feet by 18, with which to fork any straw that a door and window in front, and may require to go again through a bole at the back : x x the cart- the mill ; h, the straw-barn ; i, shed, 18 feet by 55, with six one granary, 18 feet by 45, arched ports ; y the cow-byre or entered from the corn-barn by shippen, 18 by 40 feet, with 8 a stair through the engine-room, double-stalls for 16 cows, should with three windows on one side the hinds have a cow's keep as and two on the other, and one part of their wages, with a door at the gable, and h is another and two windows in front : z an Fig. 679. — U^per granary, 18 feet by 61, entered implement-house, 18 feet by 18, Jlooro/a steading by a stair direct from the corn- /or carsefaruting. with a door and window in barn, with three windows on front ; aa' an outhouse,outnouse, 18it feet each side and one at the gable by 15, with a door and window in front I, a cock-loft or gangway over the boil- and V another outhouse for any purpose, ing-house, entered by a fixed trap-stair with a door and window in front. in that house ; and m, is a good place The pigs may share the sheds and of warmth from the boiler for a pigeon- courts with the cattle, but a pig-sty for house, 18 feet by 6, up to the roof, feeding them for domestic use may be and the pigeons to enter through the erected as a lean-to against the gable of gable. the boiling-house e. The scale of this plan is in the propor- The dotted lines show the construction tion of two-eighths and two-thirds of an of the building and the style of roofing, inch very nearly to the foot. The scale with the positions of the doors and win- of fig. 679 will be found in Plate V. dows and chimneys. The extreme outside length of the They also show the highest part of the principal east and west range of the build- ; 326 TAUM BUILDINGS. oxen could thus be fattened at ing is 145 feet ; the length of the middle oxen, 120 of course a propor- range north and south is 83 feet ; the the same time, and length of the right wing is 169 feet, that tionate larger number of smaller cattle, of the left 170 feet. The width of all rig. 2 represents the mode of feeding in the apartments within walls is 18 feet. boxes, which consist of pens large enough On looking at the plan on Plate V., to hold one large ox or two small ones, with the view of amendment, we think all under a roof. The same number of it would make a more compact arrange- cattle could be accommodated in a smaller ment to push the hay-houses and cart- space in boxes than in hammels. Sixty horse stable up to the loose-box p, and cattle can be contained in boxes in the place the gig-house q at the end of the space represented, as that number are in building on this side of the riding-stable, the two divisions of hammels on either with its wide door looking this way. side of the straw-barn. The third mode of feeding is in byres under a roof, as Steadings for Mixed Husbandry. seen in fig. 3, in which the cattle are Mixed husbandry is the system of farm- arranged in double stalls, and tied by the ing most largely pursued in the British neck to a stake ; and in the space repre- Isles. Practised on every variety of soil sented, the same number, sixty, can be between the two extremes of pastoral and accommodated as in the boxes, fig. 2 —so carse farming, it is a combination in vary- that byres take up the least room of the ing degrees of arable farming and the three modes of feeding. breeding, rearing, and fattening of live Most farmers would now prefer covered stock. courts to the hammels, chiefly on account This mode of farming requires a large of the saving in labour. accommodation for arable purposes and In fig. I, Plate IV., a is the corn-bam, for stock, and the arrangement of the 18 feet by 27 at one part, and 18 feet by apartments for these two purposes should 20 at another part, with a door and win- be kept distinct, to avoid confusion in dow in front and one window at the back conducting the business of the steading. h is the space occupied by the threshing- This system may be prosecuted either on machine ; and c that by the chaff-house, a large or small scale, but the arrange- 9 feet by 5, with a window in front and ment of the apartments are similar in an internal door leading into the straw- both. barn d d, 1?, feet by 85, with two doors In fig. I, Plate IV., we have given a opposite at the threshing-machine, and plan of steading for farming on a mixed two opposite at the other end ; / is the a large scale, in order to show the above steam-engine room, 18 feet by 12, with a requirements of the system in their ful- window in front and a door at the back ness. In the centre of the principal range, g the boiler-house, 20 feet by 8, with a as it should be, is the straw, to the right door in front and window at the end, of which are the apartments for arable and an internal door to the coal-store h, purposes, and to the left are those for 20 feet by 5, with a window at the end. live stock, and on either side of the straw- The chimney-stalk, 50 feet high, is seen barn are the apartments for fattening the rising from its basement. cattle in. In the right wing is i, a passage, 4 feet There are three accommodations for wide, leading into the stackyard ; hk \s fattening cattle—namely, in hammels, in a turnip-cutting-machine house, 18 feet boxes, and in byres. All these three we by 50, with two doors and two windows have illustrated in the plan. Fig. i com- in front, and a door at the back leading prehends the feeding of cattle in to hammels, the turnip-store i' i', 58 feet by 4 ; Hs which consist of small sheds with small a food-store, 18 feet by 24, with a door courts, open in which cattle, few in num- and window in front ; m m is the work- ber—two, three, or four together, accord- horse stable, 18 feet by 72, having twelve ing to their size and ages—are accommo- stalls and a loose-box ji, 18 feet by 8, with dated. The hammels are arranged in a door and two windows in front ; hay- four divisions, two on one side of the house, 18 feet by 23, with a door and straw-barn and two on the other. Sup- window in front, and an internal door to posing each hammel to contain two large the work-horse stable and to the riding- ; PLANS OF STEADINGS. 327 horse stable jo, 18 feet by 18, with a door other boiling-house, 18 feet by 18, with a and window in front, and provided with door and window in front. three stalls; q is the gig-house, 18 feet The hammels for containing the fatten- by 12, with a wide door; r the horse ing cattle are at /' /,' /' /', 1 2 feet by i o boiler house, 18 feet by 18, with a door in the sheds, and 14 feet by 10 in the and window at the back towards the courts g' g', g' g'. There are two rows work -horse stable; s the implement- of hammels in each division, on both house, 18 feet by 12, with a door and sides of the straw-barn, each row con- window in front ; and < < is the cart-shed, taining fifteen hammels. We have pref- 18 feet by 57, with six port-holes in placed the hammels in the plan in front. erence to boxes and byres, because we ac- In the left wing are these apartments : believe they are the best kind of M M a second turnip-cutting- machine commodation for cattle to be fattened house, 18 feet by 50, with two doors in the most healthy and sound con- and two windows in front, and a door at dition, though the most expensive in con- the back leading to the turnip-store h' h', struction. 50 feet hj 4; V another food-store, 18 A tramway, 3 feet wide, starts from feet by 24, with a door and window in opposite each of the doors m' m', of the front; iv w the cow-byre or shippen, 18 food-stores v and I, and runs parallel to by 40 feet, for eight stalls, with a door them and the cutting-machine rooms u u and window in front ; and x the and h h; then turns at right calf-house, 18 feet by 28, with a angles and runs jDaraUel to the door in front and two windows at straw-barn d d ; turns again at the back. Where only as many right angles, and runs parallel cows are kept as serve the farmer's to the walls of the courts where no calves are brought up, and h' h' ; then passes up the the byres may be of a size to suit side of the hammels, and along the number of cows, and the calf- their back, to the door m' of the house dispensed with altogether, food - stores. The small arrows and used for some other purpose indicate the routes of the tram- y the servants' cow-byre, 18 feet ways to and from the food-stores. by 35, with a door and two win- The food prepared in the cutting- dows in front, and furnished with Fig. 6io.— upper rooms v, u and ^ A is placed in eight stalls. Where the farmer 'l°gJ„fcom^n trucks upon the tramway, and does not breed any cattle, the farming. delivered to each hammel over servants dispose of their calves the front walls g' g' of the courts, to other purchasers; z the hen-house, into the feeding-troughs inside. 18 feet by 18, with a door and win- Fig. 2, Plate IV., is an illustrative dow in front, and a bole at the back; plan of cattle -boxes, which may be a' a hatching-house for poultry, 18 feet adopted where this method of feeding is by 9; V an outhouse, 18 feet by 18, preferred to hammels : « a is the central vidth a door and window in front ; c' c' passage, 10 feet wide, for receiving the pig-sties, six in number, the sties 8 feet cattle and removing the dung from the by 4 each, and their courts 10 feet by central boxes ; b b, h b passages, 5 feet 4 each. The pig-sties may be extended vidde, along which the food is delivered as desired, or their space occupied for to each box on each side ; c c are the some other purpose, and they erected by boxes, 8 feet square, to hold one ox ; d themselves elsewhere ; d' the guano and are the doors by which the dung is re- bone-dust store, 18 feet by 20, with a moved when desired. These boxes con- door and window in front ; and e' an- tain sixty cattle, the same as in a double 328 FAEM BUILDINGS. ' :...'! -if W SO SO 70 BO l^f 'f ^ ' J^^ 'f Fig. 6ii.—Crmmd-p!an ofcomflete steadingforfarm of ^aa acres. PLANS OF STEADINGS. 329 row of hammels. The bottoms of the boxes are usually dug 18 inches or 2 feet below the surface of the ground. Cattle-boxes are best lighted from the roof. In fig. 3, Plate IV., is an illustrative plan of cattle-byres, when they are preferred for fattening cattle either to boxes or hammels : a a is the middle passage, 5 feet wide, with a dung-grupe on each side ; 6 6 and c c the feeding pas- sages, 5 feet wide, and d d, d d the stalls affording ac- commodation to sixty cattle. These byres may be lighted either by windows in the outside walls, or by sky-lights in the roof. Where the arrangement of byre-feeding is adopted, a place for the dung will be required, and this is provided for in the covered dung-stance e e, fig. 4, Plate IV., the dimensions of which are 18 feet by 50, and a door, 9 feet wide, at each end, for a cart to be backed through to re- move the dung. It may be both curious and interesting to state the space occupied by each ox respectively in hammels, boxes, and byres. The hammels give 191^ square feet to each ox, the boxes 115^ square feet, and the byres 106^ square feet—so that hammels occupy i^ and boxes 10 per cent more of space than byres. Power can be derived from the engine to drive turnip- cutters in the cutting-machine rooms u and h, and corn and oilcake bruisers in the food-stores v and I, as also a straw- cutter in the straw-barn d. The dotted lines show the structure of the buildings and their roofs, and the positions of the doors and ^vindows, and of the chimney-stalks, and specially of the engine-stalk rising 50 feet from its basement. The highest part of this steading is a part of the princi- pal range on each side of the threshing-machine and the centre range, the principal range being divided into upper and lower storeys. In fig. 680 is the plan of the upper storey in both ranges, in which a is the upper barn, 18 feet by 30 in the widest part, and 18 feet by 20 in the narrowest, directly over the corn -barn and the engine- room; h the site of the threshing-machine, with its drum and shakers and gearing ; c the door, 6 feet wide, by which the sheaves of corn are brought from the stackyard ; d a sky-light in the roof for light to the barn ; e a hatch in the floor, 3 feet by 3, through which the roughs may be handed up from the corn-barn below to be again passed through mill there bole the when are no elevators ; /, to admit air to the sheaves when stowed in the barn; g an oj)ening, 4 feet wide by 3j^ feet high, for permitting straw to be forked up from the straw-barn, when it is desired to be again passed through the mill; h the straw-barn; i a granary, 18 feet by 76, with four windows on each side, and entered by a stair from the corn - barn ; k a granary, 18 feet by 72, with three windows to the north and four to the south, and entered by a stair from the corn-barn across the engine-room ; and I the pigeon-house, partitioned from the granary Ic, 18 feet by 6, vrith a trap-stair from the food-store ;; below, and entered by the pigeons through the Fig. 682. — Ground-plan— continued. gable. BUILDINGS. 330 FARM PLANS OF STEADINGS. 331 The scale of this plan is in the pro- portion of rather more than i J^ eighth of an inch to the foot. The scale of fig. 680 wiU be found in Plate IV. The extreme length of this plan of steading over walls of the principal range is 463 feet, that of the right wing 128 feet, that of the centre range 106 feet, and that of left wing 129 feet. The width of all these ranges is 18 feet within walls. The length of each row of hammels over walls is 1 74 feet, and width 33 feet. The length of the cattle-boxes, fig. 2, over walls, is 125 feet, and width 57 feet. The length of the cattle-byxe, fig. 3, over walls is 153 feet, and width 42 feet. The length of the dung-house, fig. 4, is 55 feet, and width 29 feet. Modern Snglisli Steading. — In figs. 681 to 689 are given the illus- trations of a modern English steading or homestead, suited for a farm of about 500 acres. In figs. 681 and 682 are given the ground-plan of complete steading ; in fig. 683, the entrance elevation of main buildings; in fig. 684, the back elevation of main build- ings ; in fig. 685, the side elevation of shed, barn, stables, 332 FARM BUILDINGS. stored, and the byres, cattle-courts, and The granaries are over the cart-shed, gig- stables are grouped around them, so that house, turnip -shed, and oilcake - store. the labour of conveying the food to the The grain is thus stored above compart- animals may be lessened as far as possible. ments in which no animals are kept, so The stables, byres, and cattle-courts all that it cannot be injured by animal ex- communicate with the straw -barn by halations. covered passages, which prevents straw The byres and stables surround the from being strewn about the steading. cattle-courts, into which the dung can be Fig. 6go. Grouitd-plan ofmodern Scotch steading. easily conveyed, and in which it is pro- comfort of the cattle. In all the other tected from deterioration by exposure to courts there is a small portion uncovered. rain. The factor on the estate thinks it desir- It will be observed that the cattle-court able to have a small uncovered space in adjoining the stables and cart-sheds is all courts in which are wintered young entirely covered in. It would perhaps cattle to be turned out to grass in the have been the better of a small opening, following spring. Even for fattening but it was felt that if this had been formed cattle he would have an open space, here it would have caused a draught be- when it can be provided without caus- tween the two courts, and destroyed the ing draughts. —— PLANS OF STEADINGS. 333 The cow-byre, poultry-house, stable, Fig. 691 gives a section of the cow-byre, gig-house, and workshop are placed near If it were desired to have a few pigs in the dwelling-house. Obviously this is a the courts, a small retreat for them could convenient and desirable arrangement. easily be formed in a corner. Fig. 691. Section o/cow-byre. The steading is constructed in a sub- In fig. 692 is given the front elevation stantial form, and finished with excel- of this steading; in fig. 693 the south lent taste. From the elevations given elevation ; in fig. 694 the north eleva- it will be seen that the outward features tion ; in fig. 695, section at A B ; in fig. are attractive and symmetrical. 696, section at C D ; and in fig. 697, Fig. 694. North etevation. plan of the roofs, lofts, and men's this steading are given in this vol., sleeping-place. p. 385. The specifications for the erection of Torfarsliire Steading.—It maybe ad- — BUILDINGS. 334 FAEM Fig. 695. Section at A B. Fig. 6g6. Section at C D. Fig. 697.— Upper or roo/plmu : PLANS OF STEADINGS. 335 visable before concluding this part of our feet by 93, with four doors in front ; r work, to give an illustration of how an old hen-house, 14 feet by 14, with a door in and inconvenient steading may be altered front; s s cow-byre, 16 feet by 60, of into a new and convenient one. nine stalls, with doors into the adjoining Plate VII. contains all the particulars cattle-byre p, open passage v, and cattle- connected with the alterations and addi- court IV ; t loose-box, 16 feet by 11, with tions effected on the steading at Inver- a door in front. quharity, in Forfarshire. Fig. i contains The open space between the left wing the ground-plan of the new and old parts and central range is occupied by four of the steading, the open outlines show- covered cattle-courts w, one being 31 ing the old, and the shaded lines the new feet by 41, another 31 feet by 45, a parts of the steading. Fig. 2 is a roof- third 31 feet by 45 at the widest part plan of the entire steading as amended. and 30 feet at the narrowest, and the Fig. 3 is a south elevation of the steading fourth 31 feet by 41 at the broadest part, as amended, the plain part showing the and 14 feet at the narrowest, with doors old, and the stippled part the new por- into the passages and gates in front; tion of the steading. Fig. 4 is a vertical 2 the urine-tank, 15 feet by 5 ; and y section of the finished buildings, indi- turnip-store, 15 feet by 31, with a gate cated by the horizontal line A B in fig. i. in front. This store supplies turnips of feed- Fig. S is a vertical section at the vertical from its centre to a double row line C D in fig. i. And fig. 6 is a verti- ing-troughs along a 3 -feet passage x, cal section at the vertical line E F in through the centre of the cattle-courts fig. I. la, as also through three boles in each In fig. I, Plate VII., in the central of its side walls into feeding-troughs in range are : a the corn-barn, 15 feet by 33, two of the courts at h' V. These covered with a door and window in front ; b chaff- courts are lighted by eight sky-lights in house, 7 feet by 28, with a door into the the roof, as seen in fig. 2. They are straw-barn; c straw-barn, 22 feet by 51, separated from the central range by a with two doors opposite near the mill ; d covered passage u, 5 feet by 72, and implement-house and guano-store, 12 feet from the principal range by an open by 22, with a large gate to the front. passage v, 6 feet by 97. In the right wing are these apartments : The two-storeyed portions of this e cart-shed, 19 feet oy 58, with five port- amended steading are the principal holes : /hay-house, 18 feet by 19, with a range to the right and the central range. door in front, and an internal one to the The upper storey of the principal range cart-horse stable; c/ cart-horse stable, 18 comprehends the upper barn, 33 feet by feet by 65, of eleven stalls, with a door 22, over the corn-barn and chaff-house, and window at the back, a window into and the granary, 19 feet by 77, over the the cattle-court k, and two sky-Ughts in cart-shed and hay-house, having a stair the roof; h loose-box, 18 feet by 10, with from the corn-barn, with windows on a door in front ; { cattle-shed, 18 feet by both sides. The upper storey of the 23, furnished with a feeding-trough and central range consists only of one apart- a turnip-shed ; k cattle-court, 22 feet by ment over the implement-house d. 23, with a gate in front; I riding-horse The double dotted lines show the urine stable, 12 feet by 16, with a door; m drainage from the byres and covered boiling-house, 12 feet by 11, with a boiler courts to the urine-tank 2. and furnace, and a door in front ; and a It will be seen by the plan roof, fig. outhouse, 17 feet by 6, with a door. 2, Plate VII., that only two stretches In the left wing are these apartments terminate in gables, at the loose-boxes h n water-wheel ark or steam-engine room, and t, the most in pavilions, while the 17 feet by 6, with a window in front, outhouse a has a lean-to roof. and door into the open passage v ; cow- The extreme length of this steading byre, 17 feet by 11, with a window in over walls is 226 feet, and its extreme front and door to the passage v ; p cattle- breadth in the right vdng is 98 feet, and byres, 1 7 feet by 93, of four compartments, that of the left wing 108 feet. The each with a door into the open passage width of the apartments varies from 16, V and turnip-shed q ; q turnip-shed, 14 17, 18, 19, to 21 feet. 33^ FAEM BUILDINGS. What the original form of this stead- are pursued along with dairying. In ing was, we do not know, but in the others the only live stock kept are cows amended form, as represented in Plate (the stock of these being maintained by VII., it is arranged very much on the purchases), pigs, poultry, and horses to principles we have been advocating, hav- work the arable land. Steadings for ing a principal range, a central one, and dairy farms must therefore vary con- right and left wings. The straw is con- siderably in design. veniently placed in the central range for Large Dairy Farm. the stables on the right, and the covered cattle-courts on the left, and not far from In Plate VI. is given the ground- the cow-byre s. Instead of having the plan of a modern steading for a large wings extended to afford accommodation dairy and cattle-breeding farm. This to feeding cattle, the space between the plan was designed by Mr Gilbert Murray, central range and left wing is occupied and specially prepared for this edition. by covered sheds and courts, with access The houses are adapted for the accom- to them by means of passages. This modation of eighty cows and forty young arrangement admits of putting these cattle. The plan shows clearly the ar- apartments under one roof. Upon the rangement of the buildings. whole, this is a compact, convenient Small Dairy rarm.—The plan of a steading, and is a good illustration of farm steading for a small dairy farm is how an old faulty steading may be con- given at fig. i, in Plate III. verted into a good new one. There Here the centre is devoted to the pur- should be a window in the hay-house to poses of the straw, where a is the corn- afford light to the men when taking the barn, 1 8 feet by 24, with a door and hay for the horses. The cattle-shed window at the back in the stackyard, marked p should be fitted up as a byre including the space appropriated to the for feeding cattle, in order to allow the threshing-machine at 6, and the chaff- turnips to be wheeled into the cow-byre house at c, 5 feet wide, with a window s from the store at q. in front, and an internal door leading into the straw-barn d, 18 feet by 24, Steadings for Dairy Farming. with a door in front and one at the back Dairy farming may be conducted en- into the stackyard ; e is the horse-course, tirely by itself or in conjunction with 27 feet diameter, in which a two-horse other systems of farming. In many power driving-gear is fixed. cases breeding the and rearing of cattle In the right wing is /, the cart-horse ig. 6<)%.— UpJier storey of a steadingfor small dairy/arming. stable,_ 18 feet by 18, for three stalls, In the centre and left wing, connected and with a door and window in front ; g with the dairy, are the following apart- cart-shed, 18 feet by 18, with two port- ments : o is the churning-room, 18 feet holes; h the riding-horse stable, 18 feet by 18, with a door and window in front; by 12, with a door and window in front, q is the food-store and cheese-press room, and furnished with two stalls; i is the 18 feet by 12, with a window and door gig-house, 18 feet by 9, with a wide in front; r the milk-house, 18 feet by door; h the implement-house, 18 feet by 25, with a door in front and two win- 10 feet 6 inches, with a door and window dows at the back, and furnished with in front; I, an outhouse, 18 feet by 12, stone shelving all round ; ^ s the byre for with a door and window in front; and ' An improvement on this plan would be the m, a bull's hammel, 18 feet by 11, with a removal of the churning-room, cheese -press door and window in front. room, and milk-house to a separate building — ; PLANS OF STEADINGS. 337 heifers, i8 feet by 24, -with a door and under-ground, into the hay-house v, for window in front; t t the cow-byre or driving a hay-cutter there. shippen, 18 feet by 56, having seven The dotted lines show the structure of double-stalls, each 8 feet wide ; and u is the building, and the position of the the hen-house, 18 feet by 8, with a door windows, doors, and chimneys; at the back, a window in the gable, and The highest part of this steading is a bole in front. confined to the principal range, which is In the space between the wings are divided into an upper and lower floor. these apartments : v the hay-house for The upper one contains the apartments supplying hay to the stables and byres, shown in fig. 698, where a is the upper 18 feet by 24, with a window, and with barn immediately above the corn-barn a door on each side ; w the wash-house, h the site of the threshing-machine, with 18 feet by 12, with a window and door, its gearing, drum, and shakers. It would and boiler for cleansing the dairy uten- be better to have the mill near the sils; X the boiling-house, 18 feet by 18, power, in which case the positions of with a door on one side and a window the corn-barn a, in Plate III., fig. i, and on the other, and two boilers for pre- the mill 6 and chafi-house c should be paring food for the cows, horses, and reversed, c the door, 6 feet wide, for feet the sheaves ; hatch in the pigs ; and y y y are pig-sties, 5 6 receiving d a inches by 5 feet each, with courts t z z, floor, 3 feet by 3, to pass the roughs of the central one being 5 feet 6 inches by grain from the corn-barn below to be re- 5 feet, and the two extreme ones each 6 threshed by the mill ; e a bole, 4 feet by feet by 5. These sties are covered with 3j^, communicating with the straw-barn a lean-to roof against the gable of the to allow any of the straw to be forked up adjoining boiling-house. to be again passed through the mill if necessary the straw-barn the Gearing may be erected for driving a ; / ; g gran- straw-cutter in the straw-barn d, and the ary, 18 feet by 35, entered by a stair churn in the churning-room ; and the from the straw -barn, to which direct gearing might be extended in front, access is given by the back-door of the Fig. 699. Bwiter-dairy. straw-barn from the corn-barn ; and A is The scale of this plan is in the propor- the cheese-room, 18 feet by 15, with a tion of one-third and three-eighths of an window on each side, and one in the inch to the foot. The scale of fig. 698 gable, and entered by a stair from the will be found at fig. i, Plate III. cheese-press room below. The extreme length of the central range over walls is 103 feet, that of the right near, but still detached from the steading. These now usually adjoin the rear of the farm and left wings 119 feet, and that of the dwelling-house. • intermediate range 71 feet. The width VOL. III. —8 — 338 FARM BUILDINGS. within walls of all the apartments is 1 Steadings for Suburban Farming. feet. The land in the immediate vicinity of towns is usually devoted to the cultiva- tion of vegetables for the domestic use of the inhabitants. Around large towns this garden culture may extend for a mile or so, and beyond that distance commences what we have denominated suburban farming, the object of which is to supply those products to the inhabi- tants which are not afforded by the ^.^.^AAA/.^ 700. —Section at A B. Fig. 699 shows the ground-plan of a modern English butter - dairy, designed by Mr Gilbert Murray. Fig. 700 gives a section at A B, showing the position Fig. 701. Section at C D. of the engine ; fig. 701 a section at C D, showing the positions of the separators garden, such as straw, hay, turnips, for- and refrigerator; and fig. 702 the front age, potatoes, milk, &c. Suburban fann- elevation. ing is therefore either entirely arable or Fig. 702. Front elevation. entirely dairy, each of which requires a central portion occupied by the straw, different arrangement. and the right wing is devoted to arable Suburban Farming -with. Arable culture, while the left is appropriated to Culture.—The plan of a steading appli- domestic purposes. In the central range cable to a farm of this description is is the corn-bam a, 18 feet by 30, with a given at fig. 2, Plate III. It has its window in front, and a door and window ; — ;; PLANS OF STEADINGS. 339 at the back, in the stackyard. The barn door to the straw-barn ; v the hen-house, inchides the space for the threshing- 18 feet by 13, with a door and window h, outhouse, 18 feet with machine and the chaff-house c, 5 feet in front J w by 10, by 9, with a window in front, and an a door and window in front ; x imple- internal door leading into the straw-barn ment-house, 18 feet by 17, with a door d, 18 feet by 40, with one door in the and window in front; y turnip-store, 18 front, another on the opposite side lead- feet by 18, with a door and window at ing into the cattle-court w, and a third the back; and 2 cow-byre, 18 feet by 31, into the space in front of the cow-byre z with a door and window at the back. f is the boiling-house, 18 feet by 20, It would be an improvement to transpose with door and in front is three compartments, the hen-house a window ; ff those the steam-engine room, 18 feet by 12, V, the outhouse w, and the implement- with a door and window in front, and a house X, and the turnip-store p, and the trap-door at the back entering at level cow-byre z. The turnip-store would then of the top of the boiler, and leading by be in the corner, and within easy access steps to the floor of the engine-room ; h of the cattle-shed t, cattle-court «, and is the boiler-house, 20 feet by 7, with a cow-byre z. A cart-door should open to door in front and a window at the end, the outside of the turnip-store. A roof and an internal door into the coal-store i, should be thrown over the cattle-court u. 20 feet by 4, having a window at the The dotted lines show the structure of end. The chimney-stalk is seen rising the buildings, the position of the doors 50 feet in height from the basement. and windows, and of the chimney-stalks. The cart-shed I, 18 feet by 38, The highest part of this has four arched port-holes, with steading is along the prin- a door at the back at k, leading cipal range and the south into the stackyard. At the inner projection as far as the end of the cart-shed are three open straw- barn, and the range pig-sties, each 13 feet by 5 feet 3 is divided into two floors or inches, with a door to each. storeys, the upper one con- In the right wing are the fol- taining the apartments as lowing apartments : n the cart- shown in fig. 703, where a horse stable, 18 feet by 50, for is the upper or feeding -in eight stalls, with two doors and barn, immediately above the a window in front and a window corn-barn; 6 the site of the at the end Fig, 703. Upper storey ; q a hay-house, 18 threshing-machine, with gear- ofa steadingfor sub- feet by with 9, a door in front, urban farviing vAth ing, drum, and shakers ; c the arable culture. and two internal doors, one lead- beams of wood which sup- ing to the cart-horse, the other port the threshing-machine to the riding-horse stable ; r the riding- d the door, 6 feet wide, leading to the horse stable, 18 feet by 18, having three stackyard, from which the sheaves are stalls and a door and window in front, brought from the stack to the barn, and an internal door to the hay-house either on wheel-barrows or on carts loaded and s the gig-house, 18 feet by 12, with at the stack, and then placed under this a wide door in front. door to be forked into the barn ; / sky- In the centre and left wing are these light in the roof over the head of the apartments : t a shed for cattle under man that feeds the sheaves into the mill the principal range, 18 feet by 32, with g a bole, 4 feet high by 3^^ feet wide, an arched port 9 feet wide, and outside a communicating with the straw-barn, for courtyard u, 45 feet 9 inches by 26 feet, allowing any straw to be forked that having a gate to the space outside, and a requires to be again passed through the — 340 FAEM BUILDINGS. steading mill ; h is the straw-barn ; h one granary, which the farmhouse and should " 1 8 feet by 64, with four windows on occupy, it has been remarked that it each side, and entered by a stair direct is generally advised that the farmhouse from the corn-bam ; i another granary, should be placed directly in front; to 18 feet by 62, with five windows on one which, however, it may be objected that side and four on the other, and entered it casts a shade over the southern from the corn-barn by a stair through the entrance of the yard, if very near; and engine-room; and I the pigeon -house, if too far ofi^, its distance will be found 18 feet by 6, entered by a trap-stair from to be inconvenient. Perhaps the best the hen-house below. situation is on one side of the farmyard, The scale of this plan is in the propor- with the common parlour and kitchen tion of nearly three-eighths of an inch to opening nearly into it : farmers may the foot. The scale of fig. 703 will be talk as they like about unhealthy odours found at fig. 2, Plate III. arising from the stables and yards, but The extreme length of the principal there never was any one injured by range over walls is 158 feet, that of the them, and they cannot keep too close an ^ right and left wings 95 feet, that of the eye upon their servants and stock." middle range 64 feet, and all apartments If farmers " cannot keep too close an 18 feet in width within walls. eye upon their servants and stock," and Suburban Dairy Panning.—In sub- if the position of their houses will enable urban dairy farming the chief object is them to do so, they should do something the production of new milk for immediate more than place them " on one side of the consumption in towns. For this purpose farmyard" ; they must remain constantly a large accommodation should be pro- in them, and cause " their servants and vided for cows, and for the preparation stock " to be continually in sight in the of their food. At the same time, there farmyard, otherwise their watching will should be facilities for converting some be of no avail; for when the servants of the milk into butter, and even into come to know that the house has been cheese. There must always be arable placed there merely to watch their pro- culture in connection with dairy hus- ceedings, they, at least, if not the stock, bandry, and in case the entire arable pro- can and will easily avoid the particular ducts should not be consumed on the place constantly overlooked by the house. farm, the surplus is sent to market. It The truth is, and every farmer knows it, will thus be easily understood that sub- that it is not the spot occupied by his urban dairy farming should be conducted house, whether here or there, that main- on a somewhat large scale, and that the tains his authority over his servants. He size of the steading should bear an ade- knows that he himself must be " up and quate proportion to the extent of the doing " in the fields, in the farmyard farming. The cows in a suburban dairy everywhere—ere he can ascertain whether being purchased, either calved or about his servants are doing their work well to calve, in the weekly iharkets, no ac- and his stock thriving apace. commodation is required for the rearing Inconvenience to himself in going a of young stock; nor are hammels for great distance betwixt his house and the bulls needed in such farming, as the cows steading will induce the farmer to place are allowed to yield milk as long as they his house near rather than at a distance can, and are then disposed of to the from the steading. He wishes to be butcher in fair condition. within call,—to be able to be on the spot in a few seconds, when his presence is required in the farmyard, the stable, the FARMHOUSES. byre, or the barn; but more than this he does not want, and need not care for. The principles which should regulate Place the house, therefore, if the choice the choice of the relative positions of the is given, on some pleasant spot, neither farmhouse and steading are deserving of " direct in front " nor much in the rear careful consideration. of the steading. If there be no such Position of Farmhouse and Stead- ing.—In regard to the relative positions ^ Bntish Hmhandry, i. 86. FARMHOUSES. 341 spot at hand, make one for the house, manner as to combine all that is desirable place it there, and dwell in it with the both in beauty and effect, as well as in comfortable assurance that servants will utility, to make up a perfect whole in not regard their master the less, or the the family residence. stock thrive the worse, because he " Attached to the building site should happens to live beyond the influence of be considered the quality of the soil as the "unhealthy odours arising from affecting cultivation and growth to stables and yards,"—odours, by the way, shrubbery and trees—at once the orna- of the unpleasantness of which we never ment most effective to all domestic build- heard a farmer complain. No one of ings, grateful to the eye always as objects that class but a sloven would place his of admiration and beauty—delightful in house beside a dunghill. the repose they offer in hours of lassitude Site of rarmhouse.—^With reference or weariness; and to these, that indis- to site, Mr Allen, in his American work pensable feature in a perfect arrange- entitled Sural Architecture, has some ment, the garden, both fruit and remarks worth quotation : "A fitness to vegetable, should be added." the purpose for which the dwelling is Trees and Shrubs.—On the subject constructed should unquestionably be the of trees and shrubs—a due appropriation governing point in determining its posi- of which "to an agreeable residence is tion. The site should be dry and slightly equal in importance to the style and declining, if possible, on every side ; but arrangement of the house itself"—the if the surface be level, or where water same author has some remarks worthy of occasionally flows from contiguous notice. " The proper disposition of trees grounds, or on a soil naturally damp, it and shrubbery around, or in the vicinity should be thoroughly drained of all of buildings, is far too little understood, superfluous moisture. That is indispens- although tree-planting about our dwel- able to the preservation of the house lings is a practice pretty general through- itself and the health of its inmates. The out our country. Nothing is more house should so stand as to present an common than to see a man build a house, agreeable aspect from the main points perhaps in the most elaborate and expen- at which it is seen, or the thoroughfares sive style, and then plant a row of trees by which it is approached. It should be close upon the front, which, when grown, so arranged as to afford protection from will shut it almost entirely out of view, wind and storm to that part most usually while he leaves the rear as bald and occupied, as well as be easy of access to unprotected as if it were a barn or a the out-buildings appended to it. It horse-shed—as if in utter ignorance, as should have an unmistakable front, sides, he probably is, that his house is more and rear ; and the uses to which its effectively set off by a flanking and back- various parts are applied should distinctly ground of tree and shrubbery, than in appear in its outward character. It front—and this, is called good taste. Let should combine all the advantages of us examine it. Trees near a dwelling are soil-cultivation, water, shade, and shelter, desirable for shade ; shelter they do not which the most liberal gratification, con- afford, except in masses, which last is sistent with the circumstances of the always better given to the house itself by owner, may demand. If a site on the a verandah. Immediately adjoining, or estate command a prospect of singular vidthin touching distance of a house, trees beauty, other things equal, the dwelling create dampness, more or less litter, and should embrace it; if the luxury of a frequently vermin. They injure the stream or a sheet of water in repose walls and roof by their continual shade present itself, it should, if possible, be and dampness. They exclude the rays enjoyed ; if the shade and protection of of the sun, and prevent a circulation of a grove be near, its benefits should be air. Therefore, close to the house, trees included—in fine, every object in itself are absolutely pernicious, to say nothing desirable, and not embarrassing to the of excluding all the architectural effect main purposes of the dwelling and its from observation, when, if planted at appendages, should be turned to the best proper distances, they compose its finest account, and appropriated in such a ornaments." — 342 FARM BUILDINGS. Working Part of the House.—^Tte mon to both, and which gives access by principles whicli should regulate the another door to the principal kitchen en- arrangement of that part of the farm- trance door through the porch p. The house which is exclusively devoted to porch j>, 6 feet square, is erected for the labour have an intimate connection with purpose of screening both the kitchen and the management of the farm. The part scullery from wind and cold, and it has we allude to includes the kitchen and a window. On going to the right from dairy, and their accompanjdng apart- the kitchen to the kitchen-pantry Ic, is a ments. Now it may frequently be seen wall-press in the passage at s. The in the plans furnished by architects, pantry i is provided with a door; a that to give the farmhouse a fashion- window which should look to the east able and airy appearance, the working or north; a larder I, and abundance of portion of it is contracted and incon- shelving at o; it is 12 feet square, hav- veniently arranged. The principle of ing a roof of 10 feet in height. Beyond its construction should be, to make this this pantry is the milk-house or dairy m, part of the house thoroughly commodi- having two windows also facing to the ous in itself, and at the same time pre- north or east; a lock-up closet n, and vent its giving the least annoyance to shelving around the walls ; it is 18}^ the rest from noise or disagreeable feet by 12, and 10 in height. effluvia, which cannot at all times be These are the different apartments on avoided in the labours of the kitchen. the ground-floor, and their relative posi- Both objects would be accomplished by placing it independent of the main body of the house, and this is best effected by a jamb. Whatever may be the external form given to the house, the relative positions of its two parts may easily be preserved, whether in the old-fashioned form of a front tenement and back jamb, or the more modern and beauteous form of the Elizabethan style. Plan of Kitohen, &c. — The ground-plan which we recommend of the kitchen and useful parts of the farmhouse in which work is per- formed, may be seen in fig. 704, where a is the kitchen, 18 feet by 16, and 10 in height, provided with two windows; a door into the in- terior of the house, another to the kitchen-pantry h and dairy »i, and a Fig. 704. Ground'plan ofa kitchen, &^c., qf/armhovse. third to the scullery d and porch p. A large kitchen-range, oven, and furnace- tions, required for conducting the busi- pot are at 6, a commodious lock-up ness of a farm within the house, and in closet c, a wall-press A, and a dresser the fitting up of which are many par- and table g g. There is a stair at c to ticulars which require attention. The the servants' and other apartments above, floor of the kitchen should be oi flagged and which also leads to the principal pavement polished, that it may be cleaned bedrooms in the upper storey of the with certainty and ease. house. Beyond the kitchen is the scul- In the scullery, the sink / should be lery d, which contains a large furnace- of polished free-stone, made to fit the pot «, a sink in the vrindow /, a waU- window-void, with a proper draiu from press h, and a dresser g. This apart- it, provided with a cesspool. The floor ment is 18 feet by 10 feet, and 10 in should be of the same material as that of height. A door from it, and another the kitchen, for the sake of cleanliness. from the kitchen, open on a lobby com- The large furnace-pot e should be built — : FARMHOUSES. 343 times be filled with va- in with fire-brick, surrounded with com- which jnust at milk a substance mon brick, plastered and protected with pours injurious to — delicately sus- cloth on the outside, rubbed hard into which is at all times the plaster, and the mouth of the pot ceptible of injury. the protected with a 4-inch thick pavement Upper Storey.—On this side of stair. It is pohshed. To carry oflf the superfluous kitchen will be observed a steam, a lead-pipe should be fastened 4 feet in width, and intended to lead to as also into a narrow immovable portion of the the storey above the kitchen-floor, principal part pot-lid, and passed through the wall into to the upper storey of the storey above the the flue. A tin pipe soon rusts and of the house. The wastes. kitchen may be subdivided in this way Milk-house.—The outside walls and let a continuation of the brick or stone ceiling of the milk-house m should be wall which separates the kitchen and lathed, and the walls and roof plastered. scullery from the milk-house and kitchen- The flooring should be of polished pave- pantry be carried up, in the form of a ment, for the sake of coolness. The win- partition of lath and plaster, to the roof dows should be protected in the movable of the second storey, which may be 9 feet part with fly zinc-gauze, which is much in height, as seen on the right of g, fig. h should better than wire-gauze ; and the side and 705 . The wall of the kitchen-flue door of the lock-up closet n should also of course be carried up to a chimney- be lined with zinc -gauze. The best stack above the ridging, containing at shelving for a milk-house is marble, and though this substance may appear extravagant in a farmhouse, the price of marble is now so much reduced that it is worth the extra expense. Marble is always cool, and easily cleaned and freed of stains. Scottish marble is hard and unequal of texture. The grey-veined marble from Leghorn is therefore prefer- able, though the black marble of the county of Galway in Ireland is equally good ; but the grey colour has a coolness and freshness about it in a dairy which the black does not possess. Polished pavement is the next best material for coolness, but it is very apt to stain with milk or butter, and the stains are difiB- cult of removal. This shelving should be 2 feet broad, ij^ inch Fig. 705. C/ieese-rooJltf ^c., of/arm/ioitse. thick, and, to be convenient, should not exceed the height of 3 feet from the least four flues from below, one of the floor. kitchen flre, one of the small furnace- It is necessary to make the wall which pot of the kitchen, one of the oven, and separates the kitchen and scullery from one of the large furnace-pot in the scul- the milk-house and pantry of brick or lery ; but there should also be one from stone, to keep the latter apartments more the room above the scullery, and one cool, and less likely to be affected by the from one of the rooms above the heat and vapour which must of necessity kitchen ; and, to render both kitchen sometimes escape from the scullery. It and scullery as wholesome by venti- would no doubt be convenient for the lation as possible, there should be a removal of the milk -dishes to have a small flue from the ceiling of each to door between the scullery and milk- carry oflf heated air and vapour. The house ; but it is much better to avoid kitchen stack would thus contain six every risk of contamination from a place flues from below and two from above. ; 344 FARM BUILDINGS. The upper storey should be partitioned and the one k down to the kitchen could off in the way as seen in fig. 705. Let be lighted by a long window at n. If the apartment a above the scullery be there is no garret, then the cheese-room fitted up with a fireplace /as a bedroom wiU be 32 feet 3 inches in length, by dis- for the female servants, having a closet pensing with the stair I, as also with the c in the outer wall. After taking off a window n. passage g oi -^yi, feet in width along the These dimensions of kitchen and other whole length of this part of the house, apartments would be suited to the farm- this room will be 14 feet by 10. The house of a farm of from 500 to 1000 space above the kitchen may be divided acres, under the mixed husbandry. The into two bedrooms, one h, 14 feet by 9 milk-house may perhaps be large enough feet, and g in height, vrith a fireplace / for a small dairy farm ; but should it be and window, and closet c. This might be preferred in the farmhouse, and it be too occupied as a sitting-room and bedroom small for that purpose, it might easily be by the housekeeper, if the services of such enlarged by increasing the length and a person are required ; if not, it might breadth of the building. be a large store-room, with a fireplace, which would be useful for various pur- PLANS OF FARMHOUSES. poses. The room f?, 14 feet by 8 feet 3 inches, and 9 in height, having a win- We now proceed to give illustrations dow in it, but no fireplace, might be a of farmhouses of various sizes and in bedroom for occasional stranger servants. different styles. It has a closet e in it, 3 feet by 2 in rirst Design for Pirst-class Tarm- depth. house.—In fig. 706 we give a ground- At the end of the passage is a water- plan of a first-class farmhouse : a ]the closet i, lighted by a window in the entrance - steps ; 6 the ante-hall, 7 feet gable of the jamb. It is 5 feet 3 inches wide, with seat c; d library, office, or by 2)^2 feet. It has water from the study, 12 feet square. There are two same cistern that supplies the sink in doors to this room — one, the public, the scullery, and its soil-pipe descends in entering from the ante-haU h, the other an appropriate recess in the wall. Its leading to the hall e e, feet wide 7 ; / / ^r window could give light to the passage drawing-room, 20 feet by 16 ; 5" the fi by a glass window above the door, or dining-room, 20 feet by 16 ; A /i store- light might be obtained by a cupola in room, 16 feet by 12 ; ii stairs to second the roof, or from the cheese-room h by floor, 3 feet 6 inches wide ; h h kitchen, windows in the lath-and-plaster wall. 16 feet square; I kitchen-pantry, 10 feet ClieeBe - room. — The entire space 6 inches by 8 feet ; m m milk-house, 25 above the kitchen-pantry and milk-house feet by 16, with closet n, 8 feet by 5 feet may be appropriated to a cheese-room h, 6 inches. A lift o is placed in this closet, 29 feet 2 inches by 12 feet, and 9 in by which articles are conveyed to the height, with windows. Besides the cheese-room above scullery, feet 3 ; p p 14 floor, proper shelving m m would afford by 8 feet 6 inches, with pantry q, wash- accommodation to the cheese, in its boiler r, and slop-stone s. The back various stages towards maturity j and stairs to servants' bedroom are at t t; the lower halves of the windows pro- u u & passage, 3 feet vidde, leading to vided with Venetian shutters, outside the back-entrance v ; w a, water-closet, 3 feet glass, to regulate the air into the room 6 inches wide. when the windows are opened. Except In the upper floor, fig. 707, aa,bi are in dairy farms, the milk -house and the principal bedrooms, 20 feet by 16; cheese -room are most conveniently c c small bedroom, 12 feet square; d d placed within the farmhouse. nursery, 16 feet by 12; e linen-closet, 7 If there is sufficient room in feet water-closet, feet wide the roof square ; / 3 above these various apartments for a g g servants' bedroom, 16 feet square; garret, access can be obtained to it by a h h cheese-room, 33 feet 9 inches by 16 stair at I, which would have to return feet ; i lift : k k roof of scullery. upon itself in ascending the 9 feet, the Fig. 708 shows an alternative arrange- height of the storey ; and both this stair ment of part of chamber-floor storey, in — ; FARMHOUSES. 345 which a corresponds with g g, fig. 707 design in the Italian style ; fig. 2 being a passage 6 being taken off it, to give a second alternative design, adapted for entrance to a bedroom c built over the three storeys, in the Tudor Gothic style. scullery h k, fig. 707, or p p and pantry In fig. 709 we give a side elevation q, fig. 706 ; d cheese-room ; e a room. (left hand in plan fig. 706); in fig. 710 In Plate VIII., fig. i, we give a back elevation (along the back of the drawing of front elevation in the Tudor plan, fig. 706); in fig. 711 side elevation Gothic style ; fig. 3 being an alternative (right-hand side of plan in fig. 706), Fig. 706. Grotind-pian o/farmlwusc—scale in Plate VIII. finished to show stone-rubble walling; and alternative cellar plan, and in fig. in fig. 712 back elevation of alternative 717 chamber or first-floor plan of a farm- design in same style as fig. 3, Plate house, designed in the Italian style, with VIII. ; in fig. 713 a vertical section of campanile tower. milk-house m to, fig. 706, and above it Ground-plan.—In fig. 714, a is the cheese-room h, fig. h 707. entrance-hall, 8 feet square ; h h draw- Second Design Tirst - class ing-room, for 16 feet by 12 ; c c parlour or Farmhouse.—In fig. 7 14 we give ground- dining-room, 15 feet by 12; d d the plan, and in figs. and cellar plan, kitchen, 715 716 15 feet by 12 ; e the scullery, — 346 FAKM BUILDINGS. ' ir^ Jimmi-='^(:immi-:'-=mi Fig. qoT ,^Chainier-flijor plan of/arjjlhaitse—scale in Plate VIII. J==« 'iiy///iW//////////////////M//////^^^^ Fig. 708. Alternative ar^angcTneni ofj>ari 0/ chavtber-Jloor storey. — FARMHOUSES. 347 Fig, 709. Side elevation o//armhouse—zc:i\t in Plate VIII. Bfflfflfflffll Fig. •jz.Q.—Sack elevation offarmJiouse—^osX^ in Plate VIII. — — 348 FAEM BUILDINGS. Fig. 711. Side elevation offannJwuse, finished to show stone-rubble ivalling—^z2!\s. in Plate VIII. DODC anibc —ET TJ U' Fig. "^iz^—Back elevation ofalierttaiive design—%ca.\Q m Plate VIII. ; — — ; FARMHOUSES. 349 12 feet by lo; where the " cheese-room " and " milk- " / the larder, house are not in the ground-floor, and 6 feet square; where a is the stair, 3 feet wide ; b the g the china - coal-store, 9 feet by 5 feet 6 inches ; c the pantry, 6 feet beer and wine store, 9 feet by 5 feet 6 square ; h the inches; d d milk-house, 24 feet by 11. central lobby, In this arrangement the bedroom d, fig. 4 feet wide 717, is taken as the cheese-room. In fig. i i staircase, 6 716 the cellar plan is shown as under the feet wide ; h milk-house 1 1, and cheese-room m m, fig. water - closet 714. In fig. 716 the part a a is arranged, and place for as in fig. 715, with coal and beer stores, hats, 3 feet as there indicated; h h being a general wide ; 1 1 milk- store-cellar. house, 25 feet Chamber Plan. —Fig. 717 : a a bed- by 12 ; mm room, 12 feet square: h balcony; c c cheese - room, bedroom, 15 feet by 12; d bedroom, 12 C-2 25 feet by 12. feet by 11 ; e e bedroom, 12 feet by 10 Cellar Plan. Fig. 713. Vertical section of at widest, and 6 feet at narrowest part jnilk-liouse and cJieese-roojn, — Fig. 715 figs. 706 and 707. //bedroom, 12 feet by 10; ^bath-room, shows the 8 feet square ; h balcony. cellar arrangement under the kitchen, Elevations and Section of !Parm- 25 '""'II _J L_ Scale, Fig. 714. Ground-plan o/farmhouse ift Italian style. — — 350 FARM BUILDINGS. >i 0^ I Fig. "ji^i.—CeUar ^lan—5cz\^ in fig. 714. Fig. 716. Alternative cellarplan—scale in fig. 714. Fig. 717. Chamher-Jloor plan qffartnhouse in Italian j/y^—scale in fig, 714. — — FARMHOUSES. 3SI Fig. 718. Front elevation of/arjnhouse in Italian style—ground-plan and scale in Hg. 714. Fig. 719, Back elevation in tlte Italian style—scale in fig. 714. — 352 FAKM BUILDINGS. Fig. 720. Side elevation in the Italian style—scale in fig. 714. Fig. -jzL-^Side elevation in the Italian style—scale in fig. 711. ; — —— ; FARMHOUSES. 353 house, of wliicli plans are given in figs. outline which will embrace this accom- 714, 715, 716, and 717. —Front elevation modation will be obtained as cheaply, at in fig. 718; back elevation in fig. 719; least very nearly so, as one which in its elevation of side towards left hand in tameness will ever be a blot on the land- ground-plan, fig. 714, is given in fig. 720 scape and an eyesore to the man of taste. the elevation of side towards right hand A pleasing building does not depend on in plan, fig. 714, is given in fig. 721. The its external decoration for effect, but, as scale to which these drawings are con- we have already said, upon its general strticted is given in fig. 714. design or variety of outline. The ex- ternal decoration appropriate to the style Outline and Ornamentation. doubtless gives a finish to the building, It may be objected to the designs but it may be dispensed with without in which we have given for first-class farm- any degree marring the effect of the houses that they are too ornate, and structure. would involve in their erection a far Second-class Farmhouse. greater sum than the ordinary circum- stances of farming economy would war- The drawings which follow here illus- rant or justify. While conceiving it to trate the arrangements and decoration of be our duty to give each design complete, a farmhouse giving less accommodation with the peculiar ornament fitted to its than those preceding. style—leaving this to be adopted or not Grrotuid-plan, fig. 722. a entrance- as desired—we have endeavoured to meet lobby, 6 feet wide; 6 h dining-room, 16 the above objection by giving plans in feet by 14; c c parlour, 13 feet by 12 which the picturesque effect, which should feet 6 inches ; d d kitchen, 14 feet 6 be striven aftir in all rural structures, inches by 12 feet 6 inches; e scullery, can be obtained by the outline of the 10 feet by 9; /'pantry or store-room, 9 buildings, rather than by the ornaments feet by 5 feet 3 inches ; g stair, 3 feet by which their exteriors may be decorated. wide ; A back-passage, 3 feet 4 inches It is possible, nay, a matter of easy attain- wide. ment, to erect a house in which large Cellar Plan, fig. 723. a stair, 3 feet sums may be expended in the exterior wide, entered from the back-passage h, decoration of its doors, windows, &c., fig. 722, by a door at the point i; h the and yet a bald, tame, and anything but landing-place, 6 feet wide ; c c beer and picturesque effect will be produced; wine cellar, 13 feet by 12 feet 6 inches; while, on the other hand, a house may d d store or general cellar, 16 feet by be erected with its exterior positively 14 feet. destitute of decoration, and yet present- Chamber or First Floor Plan, fig. ing to the eye of the beholder a pleasing 724. a a principal bedroom, 16 feet b}' picturesqueness of outline. In the one 14; b b bedroom, 13 feet by 12 feet 6 case, the outline or general design of the inches ; c linen-closet, 6 feet by 7 feet 6 building has been bald and tame—tea- inches; d d nursery or back bedroom, 14 box fashion, so to speak — attributes feet 6 inches by 12 feet 6 inches, with which no amount of external decoration closet e, 3 feet by 4 feet 9 inches; /' could overcome ; while in the other case, servants' bedroom, 12 feet 6 inches by 9 general design has been calculated to feet closet, feet feet ; g 3 by 4 3 inches produce a picturesque effect —^by the h water-closet or bath, 6 feet by 3 feet variety of outline or projection calling 4 inches. into existence the effect of light and Elevations. — Fig. 725, front eleva- shade—which the lack of ornament does tion ; fig. 726, side elevation towards not diminish, and yet, if added thereto, apartments c and d in fig. 722 ; fig. it would at the same time be perfectly 727, side elevation towards apartments appropriate, and tend to give the house 6, h, and / in fig. 722. a more perfect because more finished appearance. Third-class Farmhouse. The minimum of internal accommoda- In fig. 728 we give ground-ijlan, and tion being determined on, it may be con- in fig. 729 chamber plan, of two-storeyed sidered as axiomatic that a picturesque small farmhouse. VOL. III. — 354 FAEM BUILDINGS. Fig. 722. — Ground-plan ofa. second-classJarjiihousc. Fig. 723. Cellar plan of a second-classfarnikouse—scale in fig. 722. — FAEMHOUSES. 355 Fig. "jz^, — Chamber plan nfa second-classfarmhouse—scale in fig. 722. y y Fig. 725. Front elevation o/a second-class/armhoJise— scale in fig. 722. — 356 FARM BUILDINGS. I I I A Fig. 726. Sid£ elevation of a second-classfarniliouse—scale in fig. 722. Fig. 727. Side elevation ofa second-classfarmhouse—scale in fig. 722. —— FARMHOUSES. 357 fig. Ground-plan, 728. a entrance- 9 feet by 4 feet 6 inches ; g water-closet, passage, 5 feet 6 inches wide; h stair- 6 feet 9 inches by 2 feet 6 inches. case, 2 feet 6 incites wide; c c living- Of this house we give front elevation room, 14 feet square ; d d office or in fig. 730. parlour, 14 feet by 10 feet 3 inches; e e Genercd Principles. back-passage, 2 feet 6 inches wide ; / / kitchen, 14 feet by 12; y scullery, 11 Plans of farmhouses, large and small, feet by 9 ; h pantry or store-closet, 9 could be given in endless variety. Those feet by 4 feet 6 inches. submitted here are given more as sug- Chamber Plan, fig. 729. a a land- gestions for such structures than as per- ing-place, 5 feet 6 inches, and 2 feet 6 fect plans of their respective classes. inches wide ; 6 6 front bedroom, 14 feet Comfort and Convenience. — Con- square; c c nursery, 14 feet by 12 ; d d venient arrangement of apartments, and bedroom, 14 feet by 10; e servants' ample room in those of them which are bedroom, 11 feet by 9; / linen-closet, constantly occupied, are requisites as — 358 TAEM BUILDINGS. rig. j2g.—Chamber-J!iior^lanl>/a tjiird-class farmhouse—sz^X^ in fig. 728. Fig. 730. Front elevation of a. third-class famthouse— scale in fig. 728. Ample accommodation in liis house is PLANS OF FAEM COTTAGES. due to every farmer ; but a large ornate house should be provided only for farijis It is gratifying to be able to say that bearing a rental of several hundred much progress has been made in the pounds per annum. improvement of the dwellings of farm- PLANS OP FARM COTTAGES. 3S9 labourers, although in many parts of the labourers maybe of the same description, country much still remains to be done. although it shall be our special duty to Classes of Servants.—Farm-labour- describe such arrangements in the apart- ers consist of two classes—those who are ments of cottages as shall be most suit- constantly employed in the daily opera- able to farm-servants. tion of the farm, and those who occa- Family Cottages. sionally work on a farm, but principally support themselves by independent la- Accommodation.—While deprecating bour. Farm -servants are stewards or the fault of too limited accommodation, bailiffs, ploughmen, shepherds, cattle- we, on the other hand, conceive it neces- men, hedgers, and field-workers, who are sary to say a word against the fault on hired by the year, half-year, or month, the opposite side of giving too much. A and are, or ought to be, lodged on the larger house than a hind can well furnish farm. is a burden to him ; and whatever part Residence on th.e Farm.—In Scot- he cannot furnish becomes a dirty lum- land it is almost the universal prac- ber-room, or is let to some stranger in tice for servants to reside on or very the capacity of a boarder—a very objec- near to the farm on which they are tionable class of persons on any farm. employed ; but it is otherwise in many A house that will just accommodate the parts of England, where they have to number of persons of his household is walk long distances to and from their what the servant wants. houses in villages, thereby inflicting an Cottages of Different Sizes.—This undue strain upon their physical powers. object can be attained only by building The obvious remedy for this strain is to cottages of different sizes. The usual build cottages near the steading. It has practice, when building cottages for farm- often been a source of wonder to us to servants, is to adopt a uniform plan, upon what cause may be ascribed the practice which all are built. The practice is not of placing the dwellings of farm-servants founded upon sound principle, nor even at a distance from the scene of their on consistency, because it implies that labours. One should suppose that com- families consisting of very different num- mon-sense would fix the lodging of a bers should, nevertheless, be accommo- man who has worked ten hoiu-s in the dated with similar spaces. Instead, day with a pair of horses, upon the farm therefore, of a family accommodating it- itself, in which he might rest his wearied self to the size of the cottage, the cottage body, and from which he might easily ought to be adapted to the size of the tend the animals intrusted to his care, family; and there is no way of fixing the rather than farther to fatigue him by a proportions between the cottages and long journey after the labours of the their inmates but by building them with day had ceased, and at the same time to different extents of accommodation for remove him entirely from the animals families of different numbers. This is under his charge. The payment of week- the only rational course to pursue, and, ly money-wages entices the English farm- in pursuance of it, it is as easy to build servant into the beer-shop of the village a given mmiber of cottages on different in which he dwells, rather than spend plans as on the same plan. his leisure hours with his family. The Following out this principle, we shall Scotch farm-servant, who is paid greatly give a number of plans, suited to fami- from the produce of the farm, and lives lies of different sizes, taken from practical upon the spot where his horses are housed, examples, but modified in some instances feels a greater interest in the welfare of to suit our own notions of the conveni- the farm, and has no temptation to waste ences, comforts, and means of cleanliness his hours in imbibing liquor. which such dwellings should possess. Independent labourers are hired by Single - roomed Single - storeyed the day ; and as the scene of their work Cottages.—Objections have been made may frequently be changed, it may be to accommodating a family in one room. most convenient for them to live in The force of the objections entirely de- villages. pends upon the number of the family. The dwellings of both these classes of In some parts of the country the ser- — ; — ; 36o FARM BUILDINGS. vant's family may consist of himself and where a is the entrance-door; 6 the wife only, in which case a single room porch ; c the door of the apartment d and a single bed will suffice for their e the fireplace; / the window of the accommodation. In other parts the room; g the plate-rack; h the dresser; so arranged that servant is obliged to supply the farmer i m n are three beds, with a female to work in the fields, when TO enters from the room d, i from the a bed must be procured for her. In this small closet entered by the door 1, and case, at least two beds are required in the house ; and even these may be ac- commodated in one room. Fig. 731 shows the manner of accom- modating two beds in one room : a is the door of entrance ; 6 the porch ; c the door into the room d; eis the fireplace the room the plate- / the window of ; g rack for holding the crockery, (fee. ; h the dresser ; i and h are the two beds, i en- tering from the room d, and h from the small room n, provided with a window, which is divided by a partition between Fig. 732. Ground-plan of a large hind's this room and the store-room I, which is house of one room. entered from the porch by the door m. The apartment n has a door hinged on having the window 'k divided between the corner of the bed h, if a box-bed, it and the store-room 0, which is entered and on the wall if not so. by the passage p, where is a door, and If the beds are box-beds, which is the has a bed in it, n. Box-beds would most common form, the inmates at night make a complete separation of their occupants by being so arranged. Tent- beds would require wooden partitions to separate m, from ra; and i would re- quire one along the back next p, and at the end next 0. If this cottage were of n the same size as fig. 731 —that is, 22 feet by 15—the room d would be equally large, but that the lobby 6 is taken off ^f^.. it, to make up for which the size should be extended. 26 feet in length, and 15 in breadth. Box-beds.—Box-beds are objected to by medical men, as they are too con- Fig. 731, Grouiid-plan ofa small hinSs house ofone room. fined and inconvenient in form when any of the family are sick. Modifica^ will be sufficiently separated, the married tions in their form may be effected, couple entering the bed i from the apart- chiefly by having the bacji and ends to ment d, and the field-worker Ic from the open on hinges, and the top made mov- small chamber n. Should the beds be able, to promote ventilation, as well as of the tent-bed form, with curtains, far- to allow freer access to the patient. ther separation might be efiected by a Curtains suspended from movable rods, wooden partition between the two beds, made to draw forward in front, instead and at the ends of A next I and d, and of sliding panels, have been recom- at the back of i next I. Such a cottage mended, to screen the person dressing measures 22 feet in length, and 15 in and undressing, when the beds do not breadth—giving the floor of cZ a space of occupy separate apartments; but were 15 feet by iij^, which is enough for the beds arranged in the manner repre- three adult persons. sented in figs. 731 and 732, such a con- Even three beds might be accommo- trivance with the curtains would not be dated in one room, as shown in fig. 732, required. It is questionable, however. — — PLANS OF FAEM COTTAGES. 361 that box-beds will be voluntarily relin- is required in a servant's house, a separate quished by farm-servants, and certainly room for it is better than any arrange- not so until every cottage is accommo- ment that can be made with the beds dated with fixed beds or separate bed- within one room, and the feeling of security and separation is more satis rooms ; and if the fixed beds have the factory in the second apartment. Fig. 733 gives the ground-plan of such a cot- tage, where a is the entrance-porch, 3 feet 3 inches by 4 feet 9 inches ; h the apartment, 15 feet by 14, with a win- square, with dow ; c the bedroom, 10 feet a window; d a light pantry, 4 feet 9 inches by 6 feet 6 inches ; e e are fire- places, i,y-2, feet by 3^ feet; and / a wall-press, 3 feet wide. One bed can stand against the back wall of h for the hind and his wife, and another if re- quired for two children; and one bed Fig. 733. Ground-plan of a siitall hind s might be put into the room c, for the house iviih i-wo rooms. field-worker, and another for two chil- dren, if required. Thus three adult per- alcove form, which most of them have, sons can well be accommodated in such they are equally inconvenient for a a house, along with four children, if sick patient as the box-bed itself. required. Separate Booms.—But it must be In such a house as fig. 733 tent-beds owned that, where more than one bed and curtains would look neat and be Fig. 734. Ground-plan of singlc-storeyed detached cottage. appropriate. Iron bedsteads are now adapted for hinds than wooden ones, quite common, and, for convenience of They also possess the advantage of giv- putting up and taking down, and avoid- ing no shelter to bugs. The curtains of ing fracture, they are much better beds to be used in such houses ought to — ; 362 FAEM BUILDINGS. be made of wool to resist fire, and not of bedroom (with fireplace), 9 feet 6 inches cotton, which, would, in the circum- by 7 feet 9 inches; g a bed or store closet, feet inches by feet ; h stances, only be a little less dangerous 7 9 5 _ than a covering of tinder. scullery, with slop-stone or sink, and boiler, 7 feet 9 inches by 5 feet 6 Cottar/e. Single-storeyed Detached inches. In fig. 734 we give the ground-plan of In fig. 735 we give a, front elevation of a single-storeyed detached cottage : a the the cottage of which, in preceding figure, porch, 5 feet 6 inches by 4 feet; c c we have given the ground-plan. living-room, 15 feet by 11, having a cup- Second Design.—In fig. 736 we give board d d &i each side of the fireplace. ground-plan of a cottage in which a is A bed may be placed at the part e • ff the entrance-porch, 3 feet 6 inches square Fig. 735. Front elevation ofa single-storeyed detached cottage—scale in fig. 734. h h the lobby or passage, 3 feet 6 inches Improved Aecommodation.—^A more wide; c c bedroom, 13 feet 6 inches by correct idea now prevails in regard to the 12 feet; d d bedroom, 10 feet 3 inches extent of accommodation absolutely by 10 feet 6 inches ; e e nursery or bed- required by a farm-servant and his family. room, 12 feet by 9, with closet / off it, It is deemed proper that a man and his feet 6 inches square 3 ; g store-room or wife should have a bedroom to them- office, 10 feet 6 inches by 6 feet; h h selves; and as he is the head of the living-room, 16 feet 6 inches by 10 feet; house, and probably works harder than i scullery, 8 feet by 3 feet 6 inches. This any other members of the family, he cottage would do for a farm-bailiff or should have the principal and most com- steward. fortable bedroom in the house. When Front elevation of this plan is given in a separate room from the living-room is fig- 737- offered him for that purpose, he prefers — PLANS OP FAKM COTTAGES. 363 to have his bed near the warm fire, for themselves, and so must the boys. that he may turn into bed with the Thus three bedrooms at the least are least trouble and exposure to cold. The required for a ploughman and his family. girls of the family must have a bedroom Moreover, if he is obliged to supply a Fig. 736. Ground-plan of a single-storeyed detached cottage— scale, three-sixteenths of an inch to the foot. Fig. 737- -Front elevation 0/ a smgle-storeyed detached cottage- scaie ill fig. 736. field-worker for the farm, another room proprietors now prefer that plan for is required for her, for such a person is accommodating a large family. generally a woman. It should, however, be held in remem- brance that a second sitting-room in a Two-storey Cottages. servant's house is an unnecessary appen- Such an extent of accommodation in dage to it ; it will never be used as such. the ground-plan would imply a large and When in the second storey it will be expensive roof. two-storey house is into A converted a sleeping-room ; and thus necessitated to be made, and many when on the ground-floor, into a meal or — ; — — 364 FAEM BUILDINGS. potato store, beside the beds that may- figures are drawn of this example is the be put into it. The iire will never be same as given in fig. 734. kindled in it, and it will consequently- Dou'ble - detached Cottages. — become damp and cold. It is only when Labourers' cottages are most commonly the labourer is a fixed resident, holding built in long rows, and when several are directly under the landlord, that he -will required for a large farm, they fre- furnish his second room in the ground- quently assume the form of three sides floor comfortably, and warm it by of a square. When outhouses are af- occasional fires. forded, which ought always to be the Design for a T-wo-storeyed Detached case, much inconvenience is experienced Cottage.—In fig. 738 we give ground- by the inhabitants living in long rows plan, and in fig. 739 chamber or bed- of houses, in going to and from them. room plan of a single two - storeyed This row form originated, no doubt, be- cottage. cause of a larger number of houses being Ground-plan.—a entrance-porch, 5 feet erected at the same expense than in any by 2 feet 9 inches ; 6 a pantry or store- other form, and economy of the ground taken up by them had also entered into the calculation. For comfort and convenience combined, no form is equal to the double - detached house, having entrances at different parts, and the fireplaces in the centre of the building. Of this class of cottage we now give examples, dividing them, as in the cases of the single- storeyed detached class of cot- tages, into single and two-storeyed cottages. Single -storeyed Double -de- tached Cottage — Ground-plan, fig. 741. a a passage or lobby, 3 feet 6 inches wide; 6 h living- room, 12 feet by 12, -with space for bed at c; cZ scullery, 7 feet 9 inches by 5 feet 6 inches ; c pantry, 5 feet 6 inches by 3 feet 6 inches; / coal-closet, 5 feet 6 inches by 3 feet; g press, 3 feet by ; rig. 11%.—Ground-plan of a two-storeyed detached cottage— 2 feet h h back bedroom, 12 scale in fig. 734. feet by 11 feet six inches ; i i front bedroom, 12 feet by 8 feet closet, feet 5 9 inches by 2 feet 3 inches; 3 inches. c c stairs to second storey, 2 feet 6 inches Alternative Plan, fig. 742. a pas- wide; d d living-room, 12 feet square, sage, 3 feet 6 inches vride, with locker with cupboard e on one side of fireplace seat h; c c kitchen, 15 feet by 12 feet 6 / scullery, 8 feet square g store-closet, inches, ; with space for bed d, 6 feet by 3 8 feet by 3 feet 6 inches. feet 9 inches ; e e back bedroom, 14 feet Chamber Plan, in fig. 739. a a stairs 9 inches by 8 feet 6 inches front ; / / h h landing, 2 feet 6 inches wide ; c c bedroom, 1 feet 1 6 inches by 1 1 feet : g front bedroom, 12 feet square, -with closet scullery, 12 feet 6 inches by 5 feet, with d off it, feet 5 by 3 ; ee back bedroom, coal-bunker h. 8 feet by 9 feet inches; 3 /linen or In fig. 743 we give front elevation for clothes closet, 6 feet by 2 feet 6 inches. above plans, with an alternative design Front elevation of cottage, of which in fig. 744 ; the front wall for this hav- the preceding are the plans, is given in ing sets-off at the points a h, as shovm in fig. 740. The scale to which all the part of the ground-plan of wall in fig. ;; — — PLANS OF FARM COTTAGES. 365 744. The scale for all tliese drawings is given in fig. 741. In fig. 744 is the alternative front elevaticm to the front ele- vation in fig. 743. Alternative Plans.—In figs. 745, 746, and 747 we give alter- native plans of house in fig. 741. In fig. 745 « n. is the passage, 3 feet 6 inches wide; b b living- room, 14 feet by 12 ; c scullery, 7 feet 6 inches by 6 feet, with pantry d, entering off it, 3 feet wide ; e e bed-closet, 8 feet 6 inches by feet back bed- 7 ; // room, II feet 6 inches by 11 feet; g g front bedroom, 12 feet 6 inches by 8 feet 6 inches. In fig. 746, a a jjassage, 3 feet 6 inches wide ; b b living-room, 14 feet 6 inches by 12 feet 6 inches; c scullery, 7 feet by 6 feet, with pantry (/, entering Fig. 73g. Chainber-Jloor j>la7i of a two-i.torey d detached from it, feet wide ; e bed- 3 cottage—scale in fig. 734. closet, 9 feet 3 inches by 7 feet /bedroom, 12 feet by 11 feet at the broadest, and g feet at the narrowest part. In fig. 747, a a passage, 3 feet 6 inches wide ; b b living-room, 14 feet by 12, with c space for bed, 6 feet by 4 feet 6 inches d scullery, 8 feet 6 inches by 6 feet ; e pantry, 6 feet by 3 feet inches 6 ; / back bedroom, 9 feet 6 inches by 8 feet 6 inches; g front bedroom, 12 feet by 11, with space for bed h ; i privy L coal-cellar. The scale to which figs. 745, 746, and 747 are made is given in fig. 747. T-wo-storeyed Double-de- tached Cottages.—In figs. 748 to 754 inclusive we give draw- ings of two-storeyed double-de- tached cottages. Ground-plan.—In fig. 748, a a passage, 3 feet 6 inches wide 5 b stairs; c c living-room, 13 feet by 12; d scullery, 9 feet by 7, with back-door protected by porch e pantry, entering ; / from scullery, 5 feet by 3 feet 6 inches; g g bedroom, 11 feet, and 7 feet wide by 10 feet 6 inches, and 7 feet long ; h coal- cellar. 740, Front eletiation oj the two-storeyed cottage in fig. 738. — — 366 FARM BUILDINGS. _, Ft. Fig. 741. Ground-plan of singU-storeycd double-detached cottages. Fig. 742. Alternative ground-plan of single-storeyed double-detached cottages—scale in fig. 741. Fig. Ts^-^.—Front elevation of the double-delacked cottages in fig. 741. — — PLANS OF FAEM COTTAGES. 367 ^^^S^^^^H__^1 "T^^EE ^^i: Fig. 744. Alternativefront elevation to front elevation in fig. 743. ^ «^^il;=;^^.-Y^m;==(^ Fig. 745. Alternative ground-plaK to grotmd-plaii ifi fig. 741. Fig. 746. Alternative ground'plan to ground-plan in fig, 741, —— 368 FAKM BUILDINGS. n. Fig, 747. Alternative grat^nd-plan to ground-plan in fig. 741, Fig. 748. Ground-plan 0/ tixio-btoreyed double-detached cottages. H\ .^-B..^^,.-^ W'W9M?iCl^F=^^^^M' Fig. Ti,^).—Chamber-Jloor plan ^/"fig. 748. ———— ; — PLANS OF FARM COTTAGES. 369 Fig. 750. Front elevation 0/ the cottages in fig. 748. Chamber Plan, fig. 749. a stairs h landing; c front bedroom, 17 feet 4 inches by 9 feet 6 inches ; d back bedroom, 14 feet 9 inches by 9 feet e bed-closet, 5 feet 6 inches square. In fig. 750 we give front elevation, and in fig. 751 end elevation—both adapted for brick, and rising two steps from ground-line. Ground -plan, fig. 752. a porch, 5 feet 6 inches by 5 feet; J stairs; c living-room, 15 feet by 12 feet 6 inches, with two pantries d d enter- ing from it ; e pantry, entering from scullery scullery, feet by feet ; / 7 5 coal-closet ; bedroom, 6 inches ; g h 12 feet 6 inches by 11 feet; i privy; h pig-sty ; I ash-pit. Fig. 751. End elevation ofcottages in fig. 74S. Chamber Plan, fig. 753. a landing : ^Tin 3S5?Sss Fig. 752. Grou7id-plan oftwo-storeyed double-detached cottages. VOL. III. — — 370 FAKM BUILDINGS. Fig. 753. Ckafiiber-JloQr plan q/^g. 752. Fig. 754. Fru7it eltvation ofcottages in fig. 752. ' Jy^^^Hi^-^J^^'^^ ^'^^^"-^^ ^'^a' 755' —Two-storey double cottages—ground-plan. PLANS OF FARM COTTAGES. 371 Fig. 756. — Upperfloor h h closets; c c bedroom, 13 feet square; d, d bedroom, 13 feet by 11. In fig. 754 we give front elevation. Other Designs. •— Fig. 755 gi'^es the ground -plan of comfortable two - storey cottages recently erected in Morayshire. Fig. 756 gives upper floor, fig. 757 a sec- tion, and fig. 758 the front elevation. We give the specifications for the erec- tion of these cottages — see page 389. Fig. 759 gives the ground-plan of comfort- able cottages erected on Lord Harrington's property at Chatsworth, from plans Fig 757 —Section prepared by Mr Gilbert Fig. 758.— Front elevcition. — 372 FAEM BUILDINGS. Fig. 759- Ground-plan of modem English cottages. Fig. 'i(y:>.-*Upperfloor. — — PLANS OF FARM COTTAGES. 373 Fig. 761. Front eUvatit 'Willi I I I I I Fig. 762. Ground-plan ofsingle-storeyed double cottages^ consisting of larger and svialhr houses. ; —— 374 FAEM BUILDINGS. Murray. Fig. 760 gives the upper floor, things as to leave the sitting-room c and fig. 761 the front elevation. always clean and comfortable. One large or two small bedrooms are placed Cottages Different Sizes. of over the sitting-room c. In the plans of the double cottages A larger house has an entrance-porch given above, the houses are of the same e, fig. 763, which is also the staircase for size, so that families of the same number the upper storey; g is the sitting-room, would have to occupy the same double entering from the porch, and having two cottage ; but as we have already said, cot- tages for work-people should be planned of different sizes, so that a larger or smaller family should have the cottage that best suited their number. With this view we now give jjlans of double cottages containing houses of different sizes ; and as it is desirable that large families should not be associated to- gether, the numbers of their persons being too many in one cottage, we have arranged the i^lans so as to unite a. large and small house together in each cottage. Small Single-storeyed Double-de- tached Cottages, with Houses of Fig. 763. Small iwo-storeyed double cottages. different Sizes.—In fig. 762 we give a ground-plan of such a cottage, of which vsdndows, a fireplace, a pantry Ic, and on the right hand is the smaller house, passing into the back -kitchen A, which where a is the entrance - porch, 4 feet has a window, boiler, and back-door, wide ; 6 the living-room, 1 7 feet 6 inches and enters to a light closet i. The light by 14 feet; c bedroom, 12 feet by 14; d closet / enters from the porch e. Two scullery, 4 feet by 8 ; and e coal-house, large or three small bedrooms are placed 4 feet by 3. In the larger house on the left hand, / is the entrance-porch, 4 feet wide ; g the living-room, 17 feet 6 inches by 14 feet h front bedroom, 12 feet by 14; i back bedroom, 12 feet by 14; A scullery, 4 feet by 8 ; and coal-house I, 4 feet by 3. It would perhaps be more acceptable to the inmates were the bedrooms c and h to enter from their respective living- rooms instead of from their respective entrance-porches. Small Tvy^o - storeyed Double Cot- tages Detached, with Houses of Fig. 764. Elevation ofsiHall two-storeyed different Sizes.—Instead of having the double cottages. sleeping apartments upon the ground- floor, they may be placed in a storey over the apartments g and h and the above. Fig. 763 shows such an ar- closets i and h. rangement, in which a is the entrance- Fig. 764 represents the elevation of porch of a small house ; h the staircase the houses whose ground-plans are given leading to the upper storey ; c the living- in fig. 763. room, entering from the porch a, having Composite a vsdndow, a fireplace, and wall -press, Cottages. and continuing on to a back-kitchen d, It will be useful to give a sketch having a window, a boiler, and a back- illustrative of what has been termed door. This apartment is useful for composite cottages—that is, two-storeyed washing clothes in, and doing such cottages, but of which the upper and — — —; BOTHIES. 375 lower storeys form independent houses to kitchen c c—this room corresponding with separate entrances, the upper house to the apartment marked// in fig. 734. being generally entered from the back. The scullery d is entered from kitchen In fig. 765 we give sketch of plan of d corresponding to the apartment h in ; fig. to porch house over that given in fig. 734 : a a fig. 734 the closet / 765, living-room correspond- outside stairs; h porch, giving entrance a in fig. 734 ; e e Fig. 765. Upper storey ofcomposite cottage applied to fig. 734—scale in fig. 734. ing to same apartment c c in fig. 734; cases the men cook the whole or part of bed-closet g g^jO that marked g in fig. 734. their own food, but in all instances the cooking, cleaning, and bed-making should Outhouses of Cottages. be done by a woman. Although, in some of the examples of Improved bothies have separate com- cottage arrangement which we have partments for cooking and for sleeping. given, we - have shown the privy or The Eev. Harry Stuart, Oathlaw, Forfar- water-closet connected with the house, shire, in an interesting pamphlet on the we would recommend the space to be housing of labourers, recommended that used in some other way, as a closet for to avoid the evils of the bothy as gener- coals, pantry, &c. This will necessitate ally arranged, every bothy "ought to having the privy apart from the house, have a cooking and a sleeping apartment an arrangement which is in every way the one furnished with a strong table better. The separate structure should and chairs with high backs, well bolted be placed in the garden at a consider- and stayed with iron rods, and the other able distance from the house, and should with small iron bedsteads one for each also comprise a place for coals and a man—^both these apartments of health- pig-sty. ful dimensions and construction. The In many cases vegetable-gardens are sleeping apartment floored with wood, now provided for married servants along well lathed on the walls, quite free of with comfortable cottages. damp, yet well ventilated with venti- lating flues." Plans of BotMes.— In the "Third Annual Keport of the Scottish Associa- A bothy is a structure in which a tion for Improving the Dwellings and single man lives without the comforts of Domestic Condition of Agricultural a resident housekeeper. In not a few Labourers,'' Mr Stuart illustrates and — — : 3/6 FAKM BUILDINGS. describes an improved bothy, of wMcli screen rising about 2 feet above the tlie ground-plan is given in fig. 766, and surface of the bed. upper floor plan in fig. 767, where a a In fig. 768 we give a plan of bothy are the beds. for two men, designed also by Mr Stuart The dimensions of the whole structure a kitchen, 9 feet 6 inches by 9 feet 4 are 22 feet by 16; the side-walls being 14 feet in height, measured from the sole of the outer door. The thickness of the walls is 20 inches, but those of the lower storey are lined with hollow tiles. A fire-brick sink is placed in the lobby a, Fig, 768. Grottnd-plan ofa single-storeyed bothy, inches, with sink h ; resting bed c ; d and e bed-closets, 6 feet 6 inches by 7 feet meal-bins in the kitchen. ; // Evils of the Bothy System. There has from time to time been much discussion as to the evils of the bothy system. Fig. 766. Ground-plan a two-storeyed iothy. of In some districts the bothy system cannot, under present circumstances, be fig. 766—a foul-air flue being carried up got rid of, but it behoves the parties " from this into the chimney or vent " of having interest in these localities to see the wash-closet 6. This has a fireplace that the bothies are improved so far as in it, so that it can be used as a spare to secure comfort to their occupants. room when any of the men are sick. The The advantages obtained in healthier dimensions of this apartment are 12 feet workmen would amply repay the cost incurred in this way. Origin of the Bothy System.—No diflSculty ever occurred in accommodat- ing married servants on a farm, for they must have their cottage and garden ; but the best manner of lodging unmarried men has been a difficult question in many parts of the country. There are just three modes of doing it. One is to lodge them in the farmhouse; another is to provide a house for them to live in together ; and the third is to lodge them in the houses of married men. Boarding in the Kitchen.—In prim- itive take Fig. 767.- -Chamber-Jloor ofa two-storeyed bothy— times the farm lads used to scale in fig. 766. their meals in the farmer's kitchen, at the table of which the farmer and his by 5. Under the Stairs c space is obtained wife presided. Under this arrangement for coals. In the ifeitchen d there is space they were well fed, and passed their time for a resting bed e, the side of this bed happily and under good influence. But next the door being finished and pro- there were drawbacks to it nevertheless. tected from its draught by a low wooden In wet weather the lads could not easily — " BOTHIES. 377 have their clothes dried at the kitchen part of the construction of farm build- fire, and at night they had to go to a loft ings. Our object has been mainly to in the work-horse stable to sleeis. At assist landowners and tenants ^in the length, as the progress of refinement ad- selection of suitable designs for such vanced, when the farmer preferred his buildings as they may require. own snug parlour in the company of We therefore abstain from discussing his family to the kitchen and its in- and describing the merits and character- mates, such an arrangement could not istics of the materials used in the con- be continued. Left to themselves thus struction of farm buildings. One point, in the kitchen in the evening, all the however, deserves notice, and that is the servants did not conduct themselves with greatly increased and steadily growing propriety, so that the farmer was glad extent to which iron is being employed to purge his house of its unruly in- mates. He provided a house for the young men to live in together, near the steading. The Botliy. — This house was called the hothy. The change was an agreeable one to both parties : to the farmer, inasmuch as it restored order and quietness to his house; and to the men, because they were freed from the surveillance of the Fig. 769. Iron buildings. farmer's wife; and their bed in a bothy was more comfortable than the in the formation of these buildings. Cor- one in the stable. But, like most cases rugated iron is now very extensively used of compromise, the bothy system has not in covering cattle-courts, hay-sheds, cart- advantageously for either party. sheds, worked and other buildings on the farm ; The farmer finds idle company congre- and in many cases the entire building is gating in the bothy in the evenings, constructed of iron. Fig. 769 illustrates given to drinking, card - playing, and a homestead constructed of iron by F. other evil work. Morton & Co. This is a step in the Remedy.—The remedy for the bothy right direction, for iron is both cheap system is obvious : Let cottages be and durable. built on every farm where the bothy sys- tem exists. They will soon be crowded by the bothy men, anxious to marry and OUTLAY ON BUILDINGS. settle in life, or as inmates with their re- lations. The change from the confused For the tabulated statement of the crowd of a bothy to the comfort of one's estimated expense of buildings on farms own house will soon work a marked of various sizes on p. 378 we are indebted change for the better in the character of to the commissioner on an extensive the young men. They will then have no landed property in Scotland. The esti- desire to change their service. There mated cost of farm buildings is exclusive will then be no loss of time and work of local carriage of materials, usually per- every half-year; no hiring-market will formed by the tenants. Rent is taken then be frequented for a bad purpose, as the basis instead of acreage, as the and the outcry against them, and the former is a safer indication of the stock- bothy system itself, will cease for ever. ing the farm will carry. This is no inferential result, but one established from our own experience. SPECIFICATIONS. IRON BUILDINGS. The value of the plans we have given and described will be all the greater It is not intended that we should in if we introduce one or two " samjjle this work enter into the more technical Specifications. 378 FAEM BUILDINGS. Kent of Farm. SPECIFICATIONS. 379 lawful for the proprietor to employ other to both rain and soil drains in 9-inch workmen as requisite, and any extra ex- brickwork in mortar of the required pense that may be incurred shall be de- depth to suit the drains at the different frayed by the contractor, and be con- points : each cesspool shall be 2 feet 6 sidered as ascertained damages, and be inches wide and 3 feet long, rendered in- deducted from any money due or to be- side with cement J^-inch thick, with pro- come due to the contractor on account of perly formed concrete bottom, covered on these works. top with a 3-inch York or other approved In case any dispute shall arise as to the stone flag, with iron ring in centre. meaning of the specification or the draw- Gullies.—Form small gullies in yards, ings, or with regard to any alterations, &c., where shown, for surface drainage, additions, or omissions, the decision of comjjosed of 9-inch brickwork, in mortar, the architect shall be final and binding I foot 6 inches square and 2 feet deep, on all parties. rendered, &c., inside as large cesspools, The contractor shall be responsible for and provide and fix to same stone dished any damage of any description that may and perforated covers 4 inches thick, with be caused in consequence of these works. extra -strong 9-inch cast-iron grates let The contractor shall pay all fees, and into same. serve all notices required by the local Provide and fix to each division of the authorities that may be necessary, with- covered cow-shed, calves'-shed, feeding- out any charge to the proprietor for so boxes, and stables, approved trapped doing. earthenware gully, extra -strong 9 -inch The contractor shall keep the buildings cast-iron grate fitted to same. herein referred to in a thorough state of Water-tank.—Excavate for and form repair until three months after their final the rain-water tank, where shown on plan, completion. 12 feet long, 5 feet wide, and 5 feet deep, below the inlet drains and the springing Specification. of arch, the side and end walls to be Excavator, &c.—Excavate the ground built 14 inches in thickness, in mortar, and over whole area of site to a depth of 6 shall have proper footing courses resting inches, and further excavate as shown on a bed of concrete 2 feet thick, domed and required for concrete foundations, over on top with an arch to rise 9 inches walls, cross-feet, &c. The whole of the in height, and to be formed of two half- excavations shall be level at bottom, and brick rings in mortar. Eender the tank be well rammed before the concrete is on sides and bottom in Portland cement thrown in; also fill in and ram the J^-inch in thickness. ground round the walls below ground- Gravel Ploors.—Form gravel floors level, and distribute the earth round the to all open yards, cart and implement site, and level same as directed. sheds, on a 6-inch foundation of approved Drains.—Note. The rain-water drains hard and dry material, such as broken are indicated on plan by blue colour, and stones, bricks, slag, &c., and lay on top the soil drains by red colour ; each are to of same a 6-inch bed of good and ap- be laid separately, the rain-water to be proved gravel, all carefully laid to proper conveyed to a tank, and the soil to some falls, the lower and top beds being each convenient site of land. well rammed as the spreading proceeds. The whole of the drain-pipes are to be Concrete to Foundations to be com- of the best quality and description of posed of one part hydraulic lime and one cylindrical glazed socket-joint stoneware part sand, and four parts of stone, brick, pipes, having all necessary bends and or slag—or one part lime and five parts junctions, and laid with proper falls, and gxavel—all to be broken to pass a 2-inch jointed in prepared clay. ring, and to be well and thoroughly Excavate for, provide, and lay the mixed. Form concrete foundations to drains in the positions shown and as fig- all walls, cross-feet, tank, &c., as shown ured on plan; fill in and well ram the on drawing. ground after the pipes are laid. "Well.—Form a circular well 8 yards Cesspools.—Excavate for and build deep, 3 feet 6 inches clear internal diam- the large cesspools where shown on plan eter, steened with proper well bricks, ; 380 FAEM BUILDINGS. and covered over on top witli a 5-incli plinth bricks. Also form weatherings York stone landing, with hole formed in to all external piers in walls in a similar same. manner. Iiitne.—Approved hydraulic lime shall Coping to Yard -wall. —Form cop- be used in all mortar and concrete below ing to all yard-walls where shown with ground-line, and ordinary local lime of blue brick coping (fig. an approved description shall be used for 771), and finish same all other works. against gate-piers where Mortar.—The mortar shall be com- required in yards to cow posed of approved lime as aforesaid, and and calves' sheds with clean sharp sand, one part of unslaked stone coping 18 inches lime to two equal parts of sand well and long, 12 inches wide, properly mixed. No mortar which has Fig. 771. worked to mitre with become perished shall be used. blue brick coping. Bricks, &c.—The brickwork shall be Caps to Gate - piers.—Provide and executed with good and approved quality fix to top of piers to each of the gate- and description of common local bricks ways to main yards a tooled, weathered, the external facings shall be executed and throated approved stone cap, 2 feet Avith carefully selected and picked com- 3 inches by 2 feet 3 inches by 12 inches mon bricks, neatly pointed in mortar as deep. the work proceeds. The bond shall be Hook -stones. — Provide and fix to Old English. No four courses of bricks each of the piers to two gateways to shall rise more than i inch in addition to main yards approved stone hook-stones. the height of the bricks set dry. All No. 2 to each pier, each i foot 6 inches brickwork shall be executed plumb and by I foot 6 inches by 9 inches, tooled, true, and in mortar as aforesaid. rebated, and sunk for and provided with Bed and set all stone and woodwork strong wrought-iron hooks, with i^-inch and point to same ; neatly point the pins 3 inches high, properly wrought on inside walls as the work proceeds. same. Also provide and fix to all other Build the whole of the brick walls, as gateways in brick walls requiring same shown on the drawings, vsdth proper No. 2 hook-stones in each pair, i foot 6 all openings, footing courses, forming .^ .,,•; inches by i foot 2 piers, ckc, as required for the proper : inches, i inches by 6 completion of the works. tooled, rebated, Turn common brick arches over all ifec, as above. door and vsdndow openings as shown. Also build in other Windovr-sills.—Form blue brick vpin- doorways requir- dow-sills in cement to all window-open- ing same. No. 2 fig. ings as in 770. Fig. 772. hook-stones in one Bull-nosed Angles.— pier, and No. i Put bull-nosed angles to catch-stone in the other pier. all inside piers and angles Mangers.—Form mangers to feeding- of doorways. boxes and cowand calf sheds in main build- Kerbs to stop Con- ings where crete Flooring.—Provide wooo, POST shown, of pur- Fig. 770. and fix blue brick on edge posely made kerbs to stop concrete and approved floors in all cases, the kerbs to be well blue bricks bedded in concrete, and bedded and (fig. 772), the jointed in cement. Also form thresholds ends against to all doors in a similar manner. Fig. 773. each division Salient Courses. —Form projecting being formed courses to gables, &c., as shown, and with solid blue brickwork, having the di- details hereafter. vision posts built in same, see fig. 773. Plinth and Weathering to Piers.— The whole shall be bedded, jointed, and Form plinths to gate-piers and cap same built in Portland cement, and the manger with two courses of pressed blue splayed bricks set i inch below floor-level. SPECIFICATIONS. 381 Air - grates, &c. — Provide and fix roof^ where shown. Each post shall be where directed No. 50 cast-iron air- carefully selected, and go into the ground grates, 9 inches by 6 inches, and prop- 5 feet ; and have 9 inches by 4 cross-feet, erly form air-holes to same. Also form and No. 4, 6 inches by 6, struts secured No. 25 ventilation openings in walls as to posts and cross-feet, with ^-inch diam- will be directed. eter wrought-iron bolts passing through Generally.—Kun cement filleting to posts, and provided with proper heads, roof where gables abut against wall, nuts, and large washers. The cross-feet and any other place requiring same. shall be secured to main posts with a i- Execute any and all incidental brick- inch diameter bolt, 2 feet 6 inches long, work and bricklayer's work necessary let up the centre of the post, and secured for the proper completion of the whole with a nut let into side of post. Each of the works. cross-foot shall rest on a bed of concrete Damp Course.—Form damp course 18 inches wide and 18 inches deep, and over whole area of all walls with prop- of the necessary lengths. erly prepared asphalt, J^-inch in thick- Eoof 20-feet Spans.—Provide and fix ness, laid on hot and covered with to each of the 20-feet spans of roofing sand. over covered cow-sheds and covered calf- Concrete rioors. — Form concrete sheds No. 6 roof - trusses, one being floors to covered feeding - boxes, cow- placed over each main post, and secured - - inches prin- sheds, calves' shed, passages, mixing to same. Tie-beams, 9 by 5 ; room, engine, cake and root houses, cipal rafters, 7 inches by 5 ; struts and - foot-pieces, inches purlins, ridge, stables, loose -box, harness room, and 5 by 4 ; corn -barn, with Portland cement con- and plate next open side, 11 inches by crete, as hereafter specified, and a 6-inch 3 ; wall-plates, 4 J^ inches by 3 ; oak pads, bed of broken bricks or stones, and a 9 inches by 5, 3 feet long, under ends of 2-inch bed of fine concrete, composed of principals resting on walls. Wrought- one part of Portland cement and five iron king - rod i inch diameter, with parts of granite chippings, the lower proper head and J^-inch washer 5 inches bed to be carefully laid and thoroughly square at bottom, and proper nut and well rammed, each piece of brick or washer at top. Provide and fix to each stone being broken so as to pass a 2-inch king -head an iron casting as detail, ring, and the upper surface to be laid weighing 56 lb. each. Bolt the feet of in the best possible manner, care being principals at each end to tie-beams with a taken to fill up all the cavities in the ^-inch wrought-iron bolt passing through lower bed, the whole being floated over both timbers, and having proper heads, with a flnishing surface 1}^ inch in nuts, and washers. Secure the ends of thickness, and composed as above, but each tie-beam to each post with a 2j^- 1^2 of chippings to i of cement, and inch by ^-inch wrought-iron looped and left a perfectly even surface, laid with tvidsted strap, passed over end of beam such falls as shall be directed. and extending dowTi posts 18 inches, secured to same with one J^-inch bolt Carpenter Joiner. and passing through post and strap and one The whole of the timber used in these 6-inch coach-screw, and secured to tie- works shall be of the best description of beam with No. 2 5-inch screws. seconds Memel, free from sap, shakes, Put to each bearing of purlins on prin- large, loose, or dead knots, and all de- cipals a 1 2-inch by 7-inch by 4-inch block, fects. The whole shall be sawn square well spiked to principal rafters. on all sides, and have the outside slabs Eoofs 24-feet Spans.—Provide and taken off. All timbers shall hold their fix to each of the 24-feet spans of roof- required scantlings throughout. All deals ing over cow-shed and one of the covered and battens shall be best selected red- feeding-boxes No. 6 roof-trusses, one wood. Any of the long timbers to roofs being placed over each main post and may be of pitch pine, of good and ap- secured to same. Tie-beams, 11 inches proved quality. by principals, 8 inches S ; by 5 ; struts Main Posts.—Provide and fix No. 15, and foot-pieces, 5 inches by 4; jjurlins, II inches by 11, main posts to support ridge, and plate next open side, 1 1 inches ; ;; 382 FARM BUILDINGS. by 3—^id in all other respects similar to formed by extending the purlins, ridge, the 2o-feet spans herein last specified. and wall-plates of the last specified roof Eoofs 44-feet Spans. — Provide and over same from wall to wall. fix to the 44-feet span of roofing over the Eoof 24-feet Span.—Construct the two central covered feeding-boxes No. 3 roof over harness and food rooms in buildings roof-trusses, one being placed over each small block of with No. 3 main post and secured to same. Tie- roof-trusses. Tie-beams, 9 inches by 4 beams, 13 inches by 6; principals, 9 principals, 7 inches by 4 ; kings, 9 inches collars, inches by 6; 12 inches by 6; by 4; struts, 4 inches by 4; purlins, 7 ; ; inches queens, 12 inches by 6 struts and plate inches by 4 ridge, 7 by 2 ; wall- on tie, 6 inches by 6; jack-rafters and plates, 4)4 inches by 3 ; blocks to pur- inches purlins, ridge, lins, inches king, 7 by 5 ; and 9 inches by 6 by 4 inches plate next open sides, 11 inches by 3. and pads under ends of principals 9 inches Put 12-inch by 7-inch by 4-inch blocks by 3, 3 feet long. The feet of principals to each purlin. Provide and fix, to se- to be secured to tie-beams with ^-inch cure the principals to tie, and head of diameter wrought-iron bolts, and the principals to straining-beams and queens, head of king and principal to be secured and also foot of queens to tie, wrought- together with 2^ -inch by ^-inch iron straps 3 inches wide and J^-inch wrought-iron straps on each side, bolted thick, secured with gibs and cotters at together with ^-inch bolts, and foot of feet of principal rafters; No. 3 ^-inch kings to have 2j^-inch by |^-inch straps bolts to queen-heads, and No. i similar and ^-inch bolts. bolt to foot of queen. Secure each end Koof 20-feet Spans.—Construct the of tie-beam of each truss to main posts roofs over cart -shed with No. 4 roof- with a 3-inch by J^-inch wrought-iron trusses, roof over corn-bam with No. 2 looped and twisted strap passed over trusses, roof over stables with No. 3 ends of beams, and extending down roof-trusses, and roof over implement- posts 2 feet, and secured to same with shed with No. 1 truss, all as follows: No. 2 ^-inch bolts passing through post Tie-beams, inches principals, 9 by 4 ; and straps and secured to tie-beam with 8 inches by 4; kings, 8 inches by 4; No. 2 6-inch coach-screws. Put block i struts, 5 inches by 4; purlins, 7 inches foot 6 inches by 6 inches by 4 inches by 4 ; ridge, 7 inches by 2 ; wall-plate, against sides of queens, well and securely inches 4}4 by 3 ; blocks to purHns, 9 spiked to same. inches by 6 inches by 4 inches ; the Roofs 37-feet Spans.—Provide and feet of principals to be secured to ties fix to the 37-feet span of roofing over with ^-inch bolts, and the heads of fodder-mixing room No. 3 roof-trusses, kings to principals with aj^-inch by ^- resting on the walls as shown. Tie- inch straps on each side, secured together beams, 12 inches by 4; principals, 8 with ^-inch bolts. The principals over inches by 4 ; collars, 1 1 inches by 4 cart -shed, which rest on posts, to be queens, 1 1 inches by 4 ; struts and plates secured to same with 2 J^-inch by J^-inch on tie-beams, inches jack-rafters 5 by 4 ; looped straps, and secured in a similar and kings, 6 inches by 4; purlins and manner to those hereinbefore specified. ridge, 9 inches by 3 ; wall-plates, 4}^ Put to foot of kings 2^-inch by ^- inches by 3 ; and pads under ends of inch straps and J^-inch bolts. principals, 9 inches by 3, 3 feet long. The whole of the hereinbefore speci- Secure the feet of principals to tie- fied roof-trusses shall be mortised, ten- beams with 2^-inch by ^-inch wrought- oned, birdsmouthed, framed, and finished iron straps; and similar straps to head in a thoroughly workmanlike manner. and foot of queens, secured with gibs Ventilators.— Construct No. 3 ven- and cotters and ^-inch bolts in similar a tilators on roof over cow-shed, and No. 3 manner as specified to the 44-feet span- similar ventilators over stables 3 feet 3 trusses. , Put block against sides of inches square inside, each having No. 4 queens under straining-beams i foot 6 angle-posts, heads, and sills, 3 inches by 3, inches by 6 inches by 4 inches. covered externally with i J^-inch wrought, The roofs of root-house, portable engine- rebated, and v-jointed horizontal board- house, and cake and meal store shall be ing ; hip-rafters and intermediate rafters SPECIFICATIONS. 383 3 inches hj z)4, the rafters to overhang fixed vertically for securing into stone, the heads 9 inches all round, and to have let into ground, also a strong rim latch g-inch by i)^-inch wrought and beaded and approved strap with eyes and staples, fascia fixed to same ; the external board- with padlocks complete. ing to be finished at top level with lower Provide and fix to each of the large edge of fascia, the space above being left gateway openings, where shown on draw- for ventilation. Fix to each of the said ings, 2)^ -inch wrought, rebated, cham- ventilators a i-inch wrought ledged door, fered, and square-framed gates, filled in hung to open on a centre, and fitted with with I /^ - inch wrought, rebated, and regulating cords. chamfered vertical boarding, each gate, Roof Boarding.—Cover the whole of where shown, to run and have 6-inch the hereinbefore specified roofs with ^- diameter wheels, secured by wroughi^iron inch approved spruce boarding, laid from straps to top of gates, and run on 3-inch eaves to ridge, properly nailed at each by ^-inch wrought-iron rails carried by 3- bearing on each purlin with No. 2 2-inoh inch by ^-inch wrought-iron stays, built strong cut-nails. The boarding shall be into the waU at distances of about 3 feet laid so as to have a close joint. Any apart. Each gate shall have proper stop, joints opening to an extent of tV of an and be provided with 3-inch by ^-inch inch shall be taken up and relaid at the wrought-iron knuckle-jointed strap, vnth cost of the contractor. eyes formed in same for securing to Loft Floor.—Construct the loft floor staple, built into wall, and be provided over harness-room with a 12-inch by 9- with approved padlock and key. inch wood beam, running through the Provide and fix to all stable doorways centre of room and resting on wall by 2j^-inch wrought, rebated, and cham- stables at one end, and wall of barn at fered doors hung in two heights, panels other end, supported by No. 2 9-inch by filled in with 1 34! -inch wrought, rebated, g-inch posts, with cross-feet, 1 J^-inch rough deal floor, closely jointed, fied ; the top outside half of each band secured with No. 2 3-inch cut-nails at each to each door shall run full width of door, bearing on every joist. Form step-ladder and the inside half and both sides of the up to same, strings 9 inches by 2j4, bottom band shall be 15 inches long, all treads 7 inches by 2, with 3-inch by 3- well and properly secured with bolts. inch handrail on one side, supported by Each top half of each door shall be sup- 4-inch by 3-inch uprights about 4 feet plied with an approved thumb-latch and apart. Form proper trap-door at top of stock-lock, and one bottom half of each same, with tee-hinges, &c., complete. door shall have a strong g-inch barrel- Entrance-gates.—Provide and fix to bolt fixed on inside. the two main entrances to yards 2}^ -inch Provide and fix to all other small door- wrought, rebated, and chamfered square ways ledged doors of the sizes shown, framed gates, hung in halves, filled in covered with i^-inch wrought, rebated, with i%- inch wrought, rebated, and and chamfered boarding, hung with pro- chamfered boarding, fixed vertically, the per bands to hooks built into walls. Each top of gates to be finished with a 3 J^-inch door to have an approved latch and strong by 4-inch wrought, rebated, and weathered g-inch barrel-bolt. capping. Each gate shall be hung with Windows.—Fit up all window-open- 2 J^ -inch by /j-inch wrought-iron bands, ings with i^-inch deal casements, pro- the top band on one side of each gate ex- perly hung with strong butt-hinges to tending its whole width, and on other 4j^-inch by 3-inch wrought, rebated, and side to a length of i foot 6 inches. The chamfered deal frames, with oak sunk bottom bands shall extend on both sides sills, and provided with strong wrought- of each gate 2 feet, and have proper iron casement-stays and turnbuckles, and shoulders, eyes, &c., neatly formed, and to details to be hereafter supplied. be bolted to gates at every 9 inches with Stable Mangers.—Provide and fix to iVinch wrought-iron bolts. Each gate cart-horse stables and loose-box wrought shall have a strong wrought-iron bolt deal mangers, as details, TOth ij^-inoh — 384 FARM BUILDINGS. fronts, bottoms, and backs, and 3-inch by through post and have nut and washer, 3-inch oak wrought and grooved and the bottom hook to be driven into posts rounded capping on front edge, with a 3j4 inches. The L-shaped falling-post 3-inch strong wrought -iron ring and to each pair of gates shall have a strong staple iixed in centre of its length. Put bolt riveted to same at bottom, and cast- a 4-inch by 3-inch bearer tenoned into iron socket let into a stone in ground for same, and built into wall at other end. securing same, and each pair of gates Stall Divisions.—Construct the stall shall be provided with a strong vsrought- divisions with 6-inch by 6-inch heel-posts, iron loop or ring riveted to one of the standing 6 feet 6 inches out of ground falling-posts for looping over the other. and 4 feet below, with clump ends, and Water-troughs.—Provide and fix No. 5-inch by 4-inch head-posts 6 feet 6 inches 12 approved strong wrought galvanised above ground, securely bolted through iron water-troughs in yards where shown, walls with No. 2 ^-inch bolts to each 4 feet 6 inches long, i foot 9 inches wide, post. Each post shall be grooved for and I foot 6 inches deep, and to be 2 boarding, and chamfered on outer edges, inches less in size at bottom, to give the and neatly wrought and weathered on sides and ends a slope, each tank having top, and the divisions formed with proper hole with ferrule, plug, and chain 1 1^ -inch wrought, both sides grooved, complete. and tongued boarding, fitted into grooves Pelt on Roofs.—Cover the whole of on head and heel posts, all as details to the roofs with thick roofing felt of ap- be given. proved quality, and equal to sample, laid Posts and Fencing to Yards, &c. longitudinal way of roof, each joint hav- Provide and fix where shown on drawings ing a 2-inch lap and nailed with strong the fencing between yards, and at heads flat-headed tin tacks, at distances apart of mangers, 4 J^-inch by 4 J^-inch wrought of 3 inches. The bottom edge next eaves posts, standing 4 feet 9 inches above shall be turned down over edge of board- ground and 3 feet below ground, with ing and nailed the same as at joints. clump ends, each post being chamfered The ridge shall be covered vsdth a cap- at angles, neatly wrought and weathered ping of the same material 12 inches on top, and to have No. 4 holes bored wide, and nailed in a similar manner. through same. Provide and fix in con- The valleys shall also be laid in a similar nection with same No. 4 tiers of extra manner. strong iron gas-piping, the top pipe being The whole of the aforesaid felting shall I J^ - inch diameter, the second i - inch be well and thoroughly gas-tarred all over diameter, and the two lower pipes ^- one coat, and afterwards gas-tarred and inch diameter. Where these pipes run sanded two coats, and shall be left at into a main post supporting roofs, they the completion of the works free from all shall have cheek-pieces 4 inches by 2 defects, sound and watertight. spiked to same and bored to receive the Ironfoutider. ends of the pipes. Wrought-iron Gates.—Provide and Eaves Gutters.—Provide and fix to all fix No. 32 pairs of wrought-iron gates eaves 4j^-inch strong half-round eaves of the size shown, and to details to be gutter, with all necessary stopped ends, given hereafter, with hanging-posts i^ outlets, bends, and nozzles, well and inch by ^, falling-posts ij^ inch by securely fixed with proper wrought-iron 3^, one of the latter to each pair of gutter-stays, the joints being caulked gates shall be thus, L, to form stop for vidth red-lead. other half of gate, struts i^ inch Down-pipes.—Provide and fix from by /^, top and bottom bars i^ inch eaves to drains (where shown on plan) and two all by y^, intermediate 1% inch 3 J^ -inch clear bore down-piping, with by iV, the whole being properly riveted necessary swan necks, and securely fixed u.p and put together in the neatest and to the walls. most workmanlike manner, and hung by Provide all the wrought and cast iron- strong eyes riveted on to heel-posts to work to roofs, sliding-gates, doors, &c., ^-inch wrought hooks properly shoul- as specified in the carpenter's work and dered and formed, the top to pass elsewhere : the whole shall be forged or SPECIFICATIONS. 38S cast and finished in the strongest, best, given in by contractor. Employer or and most workmanlike manner. inspector to have power to reject any workmanship or materials which are de- Glazier, Painter, Limeiohite, dr. fective or not in conformity with plans Glazing.'— Glaze the whole of the and specifications. Contractor to make windows with ^-inch rough rolled glass, good any damage to his work, and properly puttied and back-puttied, and uphold it for twelve months from date left free from all defects at the comple- of completion. Works to be commenced tion of the works. on acceptance of estimates, and to be Gas - tar and Sand.—The whole of finished on dates to be specified. Pay- the posts and cross-feet below ground- ments to be made in not more than level shall be gas-tarred two coats. three instalments, the two first during Carbolinium.—The whole of the posts the progress of the works, at the rate of above ground and other exposed portions 75 per cent on value of work executed, of wood shall be covered with two coats and balance when work is finished. Con- with Carbolinium Avenarius. tractors to give detailed estimates and Painter. — The whole of the wood schedules of their prices. gates and doors shall be painted three Mason-work. coats with good lead and oil colour, of an approved colour. Best rubble stones to be used for out- The whole of the eaves, gutters, down- side work. piping, iron gates, iron fencing, and iron- Mortar to be composed of good fresh work, &c., shall be painted two coats with lime and clean sharp river or pit sand, similar paint. in the proportion of i measure of lime Limewhite. — Limewhite two coats and I J4 of sand, thoroughly incorporated, the whole of the inside wall of buildings, soured fourteen days before being used, also the underside of boarding to all roof and to be tvsdce beaten over with a baton. and all roof timbers. Trades for foundations to be cut to Allow in amount of tender the sum of depths shown on sections, or to such for extra works ; any portions depth as will secure a good firm founda- of same not required shall be deducted tion, and all intermediate area of build- from the amount to be paid to the con- ing to be entirely cleared of soil. tractor at the completion of the works. All foundations to be of large flat- bedded stones, going two-thirds through wall, and forming SPECIFICATION" FOE MODERN STONE a scarcement of 4 STEADING. inches on each side. Stones to be laid on their broadest and flattest beds, pro- The following is an abstract of the perly bonded, packed, bedded, and specifications for the construction of the grouted with good Ume mortar. Inverness-shire steading referred to at Walls to be of best quality of rubble p. 331, and illustrated in figs. 690 to building, and built to thickness figured 697. on plans, with two headers in every super- General Conditions.—Each contrac- ficial yard going at least two -thirds tor to supply all materials, working through walls. Stones to be laid on their tackle, and implements necessary for his broadest and fiattest beds, and not to department of the work; all materials rise higher than 8 inches or less than 3 to be of the best quality, and all work inches, and all to be bedded, packed, to be executed in a thoroughly efficient and grouted in good lime mortar. Sur- and workmanlike manner ; tenant of farm face of outside walls to be of roughly to perform all cartages of materials, the squared rubble, pointed neatly, horizon- rubble stones from nearest quarry, all tally and vertically, and drawn in with other materials from nearest railway a " key." All inside walls to be neatly station. Employer may make altera- sneck-harled. tions on the plans and specifications Dwarf walls to be built under all during the progress of work, the value partitions, 14 inches thick, and finished of work caused or saved thereby to be on top to the depth of 4 inches viith regulated by schedule of prices to be cement. The inside sills of all windows VOL. III. 386 FAEM BUILDINGS. and ventilators to be finished on top, to the byres to form one side of urine strand, depth of 3 inches, with cement, finished to be set in bed of sand and properly smooth, and all to slope to inside. causewayed around. Dressings.—^All outside comers, rybats, Cesspools to be built of stone and lime window-soles, lintels, mulHons, scuntions, under urine strands i foot 6 inches deep arch-stones, put-stones, pillars of cart- and 1 foot square, and to be coped on shed, skew-tabling, and balls on gables to top with a stone 5 inches thick, and to be freestone, clean scabbled. Keystone of have a strong malleable iron grating arches, along with every second stone of checked into it. same, to be of length to pass through the Drains from these cesspools to be of wall, as well as inband rybats and scun- 5 inches spigot and faucet glazed fire- tions throughout walls. Corners and clay pipes, to be jointed with fine clay, scuntions to be not less than 7^ inches and laid with a fall of i in 30. broad on the bed. All inside doors and Urine Cesspool to be 10 feet by 3 feet openings to be built with neatly hammer- by 5 feet deep. Side waUs to be 1 foot dressed scuntions from rubble quarry. 4 inches thick, and to be built of stones Lintels, sills, and mullions to be in and cement. Bottom to be laid with single lengths, the two former to have 8 4 inches of concrete, and it and the inches wall-hold at each end, and the sides to be pointed with cement and latter to be dowelled into the sills and made perfectly water-tight. Top to be lintels, with oak dowels and white-lead. covered with Caithness pavement 2^ Balls on gables to be similarly fixed. inches thick. Bases of solid masonry to be built Concrete. — Floors of corn -room and under feeding troughs in covered part of straw-barn to be laid with ce- courts and byres, and to be covered on ment concrete. Soil and rubbish to be top with fair-faced, chip-edged Caith- removed, and a layer of 6 inches of ness pavement, to be of size to breadth gravel or road metal laid down, and to the top of troughs, and not thinner than be firmly beaten down and grouted with li/z inch, to be laid level and bedded lime mortar. The first layer of concrete in, and neatly jointed with mortar. to be the depth of 4 inches, composed of Bases of stone and lime, i foot 8 inches five measures of smaU gravel or broken square, to be built under metal pillars stones and one of best Portland cement, in cattle-courts where shown on plans, and to be finished to the depth of i inch and coped vrith a block of stone i foot with concrete composed of one of best 6 inches diameter and 9 inches thick, cement to one of fine sharp sand. Sur- and to be checked for bases of metal face to be made smooth and level. Con- pillars. Stone corbels i foot 9 inches crete to be properly prepared on a board- by 10 inches by 6 inches to be built ing, and applied fresh. into side walls of straw-barn, at 8 feet Pavement. —All parts of ground -plan between centres, to support roofs of coloured blue—gig-shed, tool-house, poul- courts. Bases of hard stone, 12 inches try-house, feeding material store, and cube, to be placed for heel - posts of feeding-troughs — to be laid with fine- stable travises, and to be bevelled and faced, chip-edged Caithness pavement, checked for posts, and to stand 4 inches not thinner than i ^-inch thick, to be laid above causeway. Stop stones for large on properly prepared beds of small stones opening doors to be similar, to be bored grouted with mortar. for bolts of gates, and to be firmly fixed Mill-wheel Arc. —WaUs to -be of best in the ground. common rubble masonry. All the inside Causeway.—All parts on plans tinted of arc, where it comes in contact with the light pink, stables, implement - house, water, to be of square dressed rubble byres, and feeding -passages, to be laid stones, not less than 1 foot 6 inches with selected egg-shaped causeway-stones, long, 6 inches high, and 9 inches broad, in a bed of sand at least 6 inches deep, and to be laid in and neatly jointed and blinded with same, and well bishoped pointed with cement. Openings for down. entry and exit for water to be formed, Curb. — Dressed curb-stones, i foot and to be built with scuntions and lin- deep and 3 inches thick, to be fitted in telled. Bottom of wheel-pit to be laid SPECIFICATIONS. 387 with flag-stones, to prevent its breaking and to have 9 inches wall-hold at each with, water. end. Beams for support of mill machin- Conduit for Water to and from Wheel- ery to be 8 inches by 9. roofs, except those of pit. —Conduit to be 3 feet by 3, inside Sarking.-—All measurement. Side walls, i foot 6 cattle-courts and inside roofs of byres, inches of common rubble, 3 inches of to be covered with sarking deals, ^-inch side next conduit to be built with ce- thick, close -jointed, double -nailed, and ment, foundations to be 9 inches below made to break band at proper intervals. finished bottom. Bottom to be cause- Roofs of cattle-courts and inside roofs of wayed firmly, so as water may not under- byres to be fitted with rinds 2 inches by hav- mine it. Top to be of flag-stones 2,% i^, to suit slates 14 inches by 10, inches thick at least, with a wall-hold of ing 3 inches of cover. Rinds to be of 7 inches on each side, and closely laid redwood. and pointed on the joints with mortar. Brackets to be fitted up for cast-iron Gihlet- checks to cut for all arched gutters. Sky-lights.—The sky-lights to openings, which are to be fitted with clos- be I foot 4 inches by 2 feet, daylight ing doors ; and recesses for down water- measure, of cast-iron, with proper flange pipes from roofs to be made. Raggles to frames, 12 to open, the others flxed, and be cut when necessary. Mason to up- all to be glazed with glass ^-inch thick, hold his work for twelve months. each strip being in one piece. Hanging- posts, in lofts over implement, gig, and Carpenter-wo7-h. tool houses, and in men's sleeping-place, Timber to be of the best kind, free to be 4 inches by 2 ; to be nailed to raf- from blemishes, large or loose knots, sap- ters and joists ; to be prepared for lath wood, or' shakes ; to be of uniform colour, and plaster in men's sleeping-place, and and of the sizes specified; all to be of lined from floor to sarking in lofts, with Norwegian whitewood, except for win- ^-inch thick dressed and ploughed deal dows, and rinds for two-thirds slating, lining. which are to be of redwood : all wood to Partitions.—Wooden partitions to have be sawn die square and thoroughly seas- standards 4 inches by 2 placed 27 inches oned. Lintels.—Safe lintels to be 1 5^ -inch apart, and to have braces at top and deep for every foot of carry, and to have bottom and intermediate, not more than 8 inshes wall -hold. Joisting. — Joists 2 feet apart, firmly checked and nailed for support of grain -lofts and sheaf- together, and to be lined with dressed and barn to be 9 inches by 2}^, those for ploughed lining ^-inch thick. Those men's sleeping - place 8 inches by 2j^, along feeding passages to the height of placed at 18 inches apart from centres, 3 feet above bottom of feeding-troughs. on wall-plates 6 inches by i. Other wooden partitions to be lined on Roofing. —Rafters and ties to be 6 both sides to height of side walls, there- inches by 2j^, placed 18 inches apart after on one side to apex. Openings 2 from centres. Rafters for dormer win- feet 6 inches by i foot 6 inches in parti- dows to be 5 inches by 2, diagonal raf- tions of cattle-courts for feeding from. ters 7j^ inches by 3^^. Rafters over Passage to be fitted with doors of ^-inch cattle-courts for two-thirds slating to be deal, with strong backings, and to be placed 22 inches between centres. All hinged from top, and to have fasteners rafters and ties to be checked and spiked at bottom. at the apex with two nails that will rivet. Troughs and Saiks. — Crib - trees in Pillars. —Pillars for support of roofs byres and cattle - courts to be 9 inches of cattle-courts to be 5 inches diameter, by 3, securely fixed. Hailcs to be fitted metal J^-inch thick, wdth flanges at top over troughs in byres and in cattle- and bottom, the top to be bolted to courts where marked on plans. Upper wooden beams over, and the bottom sunk rail, 4 inches by 3 ; lower, 3 inches by in stone cases. 3; splits, 1 3^-inch square, placed 4j^ Beams.—Beams over metal pillars to inches apart, angle out. be 8 inches by 9 ; those over stone cor- Byre Fittings.—Travises to have head bels at side of walls 6 inches by 7. All and heel posts—the former to be batted to be scarfed and bolted at the joinings. to the wall, the latter sunk 2 feet 3 ; 388 FAEM BUILDINGS. inclies in the ground. Planking, ij4 be batted to walls. Stops, ^-inch, to inch, to be raggled into posts dowelled be fitted for doors. Doors for large at the joints, and to have a 2 J^- inch openings to be in two leaves ; backings coping firmly fixed on. and one diagonal to be 5 inches broad Stable Fittings.—Travises to have head and I ^-inch thick, and lined on face with and heel jsosts, the latter to be octagon- i^-inch dressed, ploughed, and beaded shaped, 8 inches in diameter ; to be sunk deal. Each leaf to be hung with crooks in stone bases supplied by mason; and and bands. Bands 28 inches long, i^- fixed at top to runner, 8 inches by 3, inch broad, and ^-inch thick. Crooks to fixed to under side of ties. Head-posts be of ^-inch iron. SHp-bolts, 2 feet long, to be batted to walls. Posts to be rag- to be put on doors, and made to slip into gled for planking. Planks, ij^ - inch iron socket at top and into stone at bot- thick, are to be beaded, closely put to- tom. Bar of malleable iron, 3 feet long, gether, and dowelled with strong iron 2^ inches broad, and j4-inch thick, and dowels, not more than i foot 6 inches iron catches, to be bolted on each large apart. Travises to be coped with strong door. hoop - iron. Striking plates, i foot 6 Locks, on heel-posts. Low hacks to be fitted up to have 9-inch stock locks ; stable doors top and bottom rails, 5 inches square; to have concealed latches. All other front and bottom spars to be firmly nailed doors to have lo-inch flat slip-bolts, with together. bowl handles on both sides. Corrv-hoxes to be formed of ij^-inch Windows.—The windows to be made plank, I foot 6 inches by i foot 3 inches as on elevations, 2}^ inches thick, dead by I foot 2 inches, strongly dovetailed framed ; the upper half to have astragals, at joints, and put together with white- and be glazed with third crown glass; lead, and to have a hoop-iron coping. the bottom to be fitted with opening Binding - rings, 2^ inches diameter, doors, having hinges, snecks, and stops. to be fitted on top rail of each stall. Window in men's sleeping-place to be Iron hooks to be fitted on heel-posts for glazed in lower part, and hung with bridles, (fee. Fittings for hanging harness pulleys, weights, and cords. to be put up on wall behind each stall. Louver-hoarding.—Openings in stone Stairs.—Stairs to sheaf-loft, granary, walls for ventilation to be fitted with lou- and men's sleeping-place to be fitted up ver-boarding : frames of 2-inch wood bat- as trap-stairs. Treads and stringers to ted in ; louver-boards i inch thick, and to be i||^-inch plank, firmly put together, be hung on iron pivots, and to have iron and lined on back with ^-inch dressed jointed guide for opening and shutting. and ploughed deal lining. Painting. —The whole outside wood Flooring.—All jDarts on plans tinted and iron work, including iron pillars and light yellow to be laid with i-inch thick sky-lights, to be painted with three coats flooring, close-jointed, dressed oflf, and of good oU-paint; tints to be selected. firmly nailed down. Skirtings to be 6 The inside of byre doors and windows to inches high, and to be firmly fixed to get two coats of paint. walls, (fee. Doors.—Small outside doors to have Slater-work. four backings 6 inches by i^, lined on Eoofs, except those of cattle - courts face with i ^ - inch dressed, ploughed, and inside roofs of byres, to be covered and beaded deal. Linings not to exceed with best sizeable Ballahulish slates, put 5 inches in breadth. Inside doors to on with 1 2 lb. malleable-iron nails, which have linings i^-inch thick, otherwise have been dipped in oil while red-hot. same as outside doors. Stable doors to Slates to be properly dressed and close be in two leaves. All doors to be hung laid, having 3 inches of cover at the with crooks and bands. The latter to eaves, gradually diminishing to 2 inches be I foot 8 inches long, 1% inch broad, at the ridge, and all to be shouldered and Yz thick. Crooks to be made of %- with weU- haired lime mortar. Eoofs inch iron. Door-posts, 6 inches by 3, to of cattle-courts and inside roofs of byres SPECIFICATIONS. 389 to be two-thirds slated with best blue pipes, and weather-vane to be painted Port slates, 14 inches by 10, three coats of good oil-paint, colour to and not thinner than ^-inch, securely be selected. nailed to rinds with 3 inches of cover at Drains and Pipes.—Pipes to be of eaves, diminishing gradually to 2 inches 5 inches diameter, fireclay, spigot and at ridge. Pointing.—The skews and faucet, and to be jointed with clay, in raggles to be pointed with cement, and tracks at least 12 inches from surface, left perfectly water-tight. and laid with a fall of i in 30. Ventilators. — Double - horned venti- Lath and Plaster Work. lators will be fitted on roofs where shown on plans. Ridges.—The ridges Lath to be of the best quality of Bal- to be of Arbroath stone, and to be laid tic material, jj-inch thick, and to be in a properly prepared bed of mortar, evenly split, and put on with cast-iron and to be pointed with cement. The lath-nails, and giving sufficient rivet for slater will leave the roofs complete and the plaster. water-tight, and maintain them in that Plaster.—Plaster to be composed of state for twelve months free of expense fresh lime, clean, sharp, fresh - water to the employer. sand, and long fresh hair, mixed in proper proportions, and to be thoroughly soured, Plumher-ioorl: beat, and prepared twenty days before Lead.—-AH lead used to be 5 lb. per being used. The partitions and ceilings superficial foot, and of the best milled of men's sleeping-place to be lathed, and kind. Valley and pared lead to be 12 they and the stone walls to receive two inches broad, aprons of sky-lights 15 coats of plaster, jjroperly prepared, inches broad and turned up at the edge. straighted, floated, hard rubbed in, fin- Gutters.—Cast-iron gutters of Macfar- ished smooth, free of blisters or any lane's pattern. No. 35, 19 inches by 5, defects. The stone walls of stables, tapered, to be properly fitted in between oil -cake store, gig -house, tool- house, roofs, and to be jointed together with workshop, poultry - house, grain and bolts and red-lead. At side of granary sheaf lofts to receive one coat of plaster, and straw -barn, over stone corbels, properly put on, finished smooth, and boundary - wall gutters, Macfarlane's free of blisters or defects. Any holes pattern, No. 28, 16 inches by 6, will be behind skirtings to be pointed up. fitted in, and to have a 6-inch lead flash- Window-cases and door-frames to be ing on walls, pointed with cement. The bedded in fine lime, and reveals to be gutters to be laid so as to have a proper made up with cement, and to be left fall to the down-pipes. Boion-pipes.— water-tight. All breakages in plaster Down-pipes from gutters to be 4 inches to be made good, and the whole works diameter, of cast-iron, to be properly left complete and satisfactory. joined to gutters and drains, and to have a castiron rose grating on top, to prevent SPECIFICATIONS OF LABOUEEES' leaves rubbish entering or pipes. COTTAGES. Pones. — All eaves to have 5 - inch cast-iron semicircular rones, and to be The following is an abstract of the supported by straps ij^ inch by ^ at specifications of the mason, carpenter, every 4 feet 6 inches apart. Down-pipes slater, plumber, lath and plaster works from rones to be 2j^ inches diameter, of the labourers' cottages recently erected of cast-iron, to be secured to walls by in Morayshire, which are illustrated in clips, and let into tile-drain. figs. 575 to 578, pp. 370, 371. Vane.—One weather - vane, Macfar- General Conditions.—Each contrac- lane's pattern, No. 57, to be securely tor will supply all materials, working fitted on front centre gable. tackle, and implements necessary for Ventilators. — Double - horned venti- the due completion of his department lators, 6 inches diameter, to be fitted on of the works. roofs of byres and stables where shown Cartages. — The tenant of the farm on plans. will perform all cartages from nearest Painting. — All rones, gutters, down- railway station or a liie distance. 390 FAEM BUILDINGS. Materials, d-c. — All materials used partitions. Inside of all walls will be shall be of the best quality, and all neatly sneck-harled. work shall be executed in an efficient Dressings. — Sills, lintels, mullion, and workmanlike manner, and to the rybats, comers, chimney -head coping, satisfaction of any inspector the em- jambs of fireplaces, and coping of ash- ployer may appoint. pits to be of well-dressed freestone, clean Payments. —The first two payments to scabbled. Kybats and corners, chimney- contractors will be made during the pro- head, &c., will be finished with 2 inches gress of the works, at the rate of 75 per droved margin, and the tails neatly pick- cent, and the balance paid when the dressed. The mullion reveals of doors work is completed and taken off con- and windows to be tooled to match mar- tractors' hands. gin. Lintels, siUs, and mullion will he Scaffolding.—Each contractor to sujs- in single lengths, the two former to have ply centres, moulds, scaffolding, &c., 8 inches wall-hold, and latter to be dow- necessary for own department of the elled into sill and lintel. works. All freestone to be set in fine hme. Ventilation. — Four cast-iron ventila- Mason-wm'k. tors, 6 inches square, vnll be fitted in Stones. — Stones for rubble building freestone frames, and built into walls will be taken from Quarry, and under floors. to be of good, sound, durable material. Door -steps. —Door -steps will be in Mortar.—Mortar wiU be composed of single blocks. one measure of good lime to one and a Vents.—^Vents wiU be 12 inches diam- half of clean sharp river or pit sand, the eter from living-rooms, and 10 inches lime and sand to be well mixed together diameter from bedrooms, carried up fair first in the dry state, in order that the and smooth, and made to vent freely. ingredients may be thoroughly incor- Hearths for living-rooms to be 4 feet porated, and to be soured fourteen days, 6 inches by 2 feet 2 inches, and bedroom and twice beaten over with a baton 4 feet by 2, of sawn -edged Caithness before it is used. pavement, to have beds of rubble build- Excavations.—Tracks for foundations ing on ground-floor, and beds of clay and to be cut as shown on section, and the lime on bedroom floor, at 3 inches internal area of building to be cleared within line of wall, and joined to back of soil. hearth 12 inches broad. Foundations. — Foundations will be Pavement.—Floors of lobbies, pantries, laid of large flat-bedded stones, forming and privies, tinted blue on plans, to be a scarcement of 4 inches on each side, laid with i ^ - inch fair-faced Caith- and to be bedded, packed, and grouted ness pavement, to be bottomed with 6 in good mortar. inches of broken stones, and pavement to Walls.—^Walls above foundations will be bedded in and neatly jointed with be built of the best quality of common lime mortar. rubble, building to thicknesses shown on Causeway.—Coal-cellars will be cause- plan, having two headers in every super- wayed with neat causeway -stones, in a ficial yard, going at least two-thirds bed of sand, blinded and bishoped down. through walls, from outside and inside Sundries.—All jobbing in this depart- alternately, all carried up plumb. The ment will be done by the mason, and he stones laid on their broadest beds, and will cut raggles, bore holes, and do every- not to rise higher than 9 inches or less thing necessary so as to complete the than 3, and all bedded, packed, and work. He will uphold it twelve months. grouted in mortar. The front and two end elevations will be of roughly squared Carpenter-worh. rubble, pointed neatly, horizontally and Timber.—Timber for the works must vertically, and drawn in with a key. be of the best kind, free from blemishes, The back elevation to be pointed knots, sapwood, shakes, and of sizes horizontally, with occasional vertical specified. Outside doors, door - posts, draughts. Dwarf walls will be built projections of roofs, lintels and windows, 14 inches thick under sleepers and to be of Swedish redwood. Flooring, SPECIFICATIONS. 391 sarking, joists, stairs, ties, rafters, ]Vall-presses. —Wall-press frames to be sleepers, standards, wall -straps, finish- 4 inches hy ij4, and lined round front ings, (fee, to be wjiitewood. and sides with ^-inch thick grooved and Lintels.—Lintels to be i]^-incli deep tongued lining. to tbe foot of carry, and to have 8 inches Fan-light.—Front entrance doors to wall-hold at each end. have transom of wood and framed fan- Joists, strapped with straps, i inch by ij^, at locks, value 2S. P.C. ; living-room, bed- every 14 inches apart, and nailed to room, (fee, doors will have 6 -inch rim dooks or bondwood at every 20 inches in locks and brass furniture ; cellars 6-inch height, and framed across vents. rim locks. Grounds to be fitted up for finishings. Stops.—Dressed stops to be put round Partitions. — Partition standards, top doors. and bottom runners, and hanging-posts Skirting. — Skirting, 6 inches high, to be 4 inches by 2, all securely fitted with bead on top, to be put round all up, the standards placed at 14 inches apartments. apart, and hanging-posts spiked to joists Facings.—Beaded facings, 4}^ inches and rafters. broad, will be put round all doors and Door-posts. —Door-posts to be 6 inches windows. by 3, and to be dressed and checked for Lining. —The ingoes, breasts, soffits, lath and plaster, and secured in stone and elbows of windows on ground-floor walls by iron bats run with lead. to be lined. 392 FARM BUILDINGS. Beads.—Angles to be finished with Down -pipes.—Cast-iron down-jsipes, i-inchi beads. 2j4 inches diameter, will be fitted up Chimney-pieces. — Bedrooms and liv- where shown, having lead bend at top, ing - rooms -wiH have plain chimney- and connected to tile-drain. pieces. Drains.—Drains will be of glazed Shy-lights.—Four-hinged cast-iron sky- fire-clay, spigot and faucet pipes, 4 inches lights, 2 feet by i foot 6 inches, will be diameter, to be not less than 12 inches placed in roof where shown. Carpenter from surface, and carried with proper will fit up seats in privies with portable fall to point where will be directed. cover. Drains to be estimated for per lineal Painting.—Wood-work to be pruned yard. before glazing. Outside wood -work Finials.—Two finials of Macfarlane's painted three coats good oil-paint—doors pattern. No. 231, to be fitted on roofs marone, windows white, roof projections where shown. The wooden blocks to be oak. Stair balusters and sky-lights to be covered with lead. painted two coats. Painting. — All rones, down - pipes, Glazing.—All windows and fan-lights and finials wiU be painted with two will be glazed with third crown glass, coats good oil-paint. and sky-lights with clear sky-light glass, Sundries. — The contractor will do all cut to requisite sizes, and set in oil everything necessary, so as to render putty, and made water-tight. his work complete and water-tight, and Sundries.—The carpenter will perform uphold it twelve months after com- all jobbing in his department, and leave pletion. all in a proper and workmanlike state. Lath and Plaster Worh. Slater-worh. Lath used to be of the best quality of Slates.—The whole roofs to be covered Baltic material, /j-inch thick, evenly with the best sizeable 3allahulish slates, split, and put on with cast lath-nails, put on with 12 lb. malleable-iron nails leaving sufficient rivet for the plaster. dipped in oil while red-hot. Plaster to be composed of good fresli Cover, &c.—The slates will have 3j^ lime, clean sharp river or pit sand, and inches cover at the eaves, gradually dimin- long fresh hair, mixed in proper propor- ishing to 2 3^ inches at ridge, and all tions, and thoroughly soured, beat, and shouldered round with haired lime mor- prepared fourteen days before being used. tar. Nail-holes drilled i^ inch down The bedroom floor of house will be deaf- slates. ened with a coat of haired plaster-lime, Sundries.—The slater will leave roofs 2^ inches thick, laid close. water-tight, and maintain them in that All strapped walls, partitions on both state for twelve months free of expense sides, ceiling, soffits, breasts, and ingoes to employer. (except where lined with wood), will be lathed and then plastered, two coats; Pluniber-worh. plaster properly prepared, straighted, Lead.—Best milled lead to be used, floated, hard rubbed in, and finished and to be 5 lb. per superficial foot. smooth, free of blisters, water-cracks, or The ridges will be 14 inches broad, any such defects. Walls and parti- and secured by iron straps at every 2 tions will be lathed and plastered down feet; valleys and flashings 12 inches to floors behind skirting. broad. Flashings to stand 4 inches high, Beads to be relieved on each side. and batted into raggle J^-inch deep, The window-cases and door-frames will which will be pointed with cement. be bedded in fine lime, and reveals made Aprons of lead will be placed at sky- up with cement, and left perfectly water- light. tight. All breakages will be made good Bones.—Eoofs will all have 5 -inch by the plasterer when the works are i^ rones; supporting straps i^^ by otherwise finished, and the whole works inch. left complete and satisfactory. — BREEDS OF FARM LIVE STOCK. 393 BREEDS OF FAEM LITE STOCK In the space available in this work it and Cleveland Bay call for special notice would be useless to attempt to give any- in this work. thing like a complete historical account That most useful animal the donkey is of the many varieties of farm live stock well entitled to mention amongst " horses which are maintained in the British used for agricultural purposes," for, par- Islands. Recognising that matters of ticularly in Ireland, it performs an aston- practical concern rather than those of ishing amount of farm-work. The mule historical interest have, in the Boole of is another most useful beast of burden, the Farm, the first claim upon our atten- largely used in street traffic as well as tion, we have in the preceding volumes in farm-work. dealt fully with the management of the different classes of farm live stock. SHIRE HORSES. Here we are compelled, and that re- luctantly, to content ourselves with pre- Origin.—The Shire horses of to-day senting in a brief pen-and-ink sketch the are the lineal descendants of the Old characteristics of the various breeds as English War-horse, which ancient writers they now exist, prefixing to the sketch tell us excited the surprise and admira- of each a few sentences setting forth the tion of the Romans when they first in- outstanding facts or most generally ac- vaded England. They may not be the cepted notions as to the origin and de- only surviving descendants of that noble velopment of the variety. race of horses (which at the time of the We shall take the different classes Roman invasions are said to have been of stock in the following order—viz.. distinguished alike for strength and Horses, Cattle, Sheep, and Swine. courage), but they are now generally regarded as the purest living representa^ tives of that earlier type. HORSES. In an interesting brochure, entitled A Short History, tracing the, Shire It is of course with horses employed Horse to the Old English Great Horse^ " in farm-work that we are mainly con- Mr Walter Gilbey says : Recent in- cerned. The chief breeds of these are vestigations appear to establish that the Shire, Clydesdale, and Suffolk. Be- what during the past few years has yond the limits of these breeds, as been spoken of as the Shire horse is marked by registration in the respective the closest representative of — the pur- stud-books, there are a very large num- est in descent from—the oldest form of ber of agricultural horses throughout the horse in the island. A thousand years United Kingdom. Indeed the rank and ago this form was written of as ' The file of British farm-horses are of mixed Great Horse ; and nearly thousand ' a breeding, and represent types and degrees years before that we have evidence which of merit too numerous for individual men- goes to prove that the same stamp of tion. It must suffice to notice briefly horse then existed in Britain, and that .each of the three great breeds which are it was admitted by those who saw it mentioned above, and upon which the here to be something different from British farmers have mainly to depend and something better of its kind than for the maintenance of their stock of what any of the witnesses (of that day) draught-horses. had seen before : and they had seen most The other leading breeds of horses in of the horses of those times." the British Isles are the Thoroughbred Name of the Breed.—For a long time (Racer), the Hackney, and the Cleveland prior to the advent of the nineteenth Bay. Then there are the Hunter and other varieties, besides ponies of many 1 Published in 1888 luy Vinton & Co., patterns. Of these only the Hackney Limited, London. 394 BREEDS OF FARM LIVE STOCK. century, and for many years thereafter, ment. In all these points a marked the breed was widely known as the Large improvement has been effected. To one Black Old English Horse. It is now who, like the vmter, has been regularly universally recognised by the title of attending the London Shire Horse Shows, "Shire," derived from "the Shire. coun- the contrast between the general charac- ties in the heart of England," in which teristics of the animals exhibited at the Arthur Young, writing near the end of earlier and later shows is most striking. the eighteenth century, stated that the The Society, with commendable prudence, Old English Horse was principally pro- put down its foot firmly in the matter duced. of soundness. A stringent veterinary Shire Horse Society.—The desira- inspection has been insisted upon, and bility of taking steps to encourage the no animal known to have the faintest improvement of the old English breed trace of hereditary unsoundness has been of cart-horses was brought into public permitted to participate in the Society's notice by a paper read by Mr Frederick honours. The effect has been most Street at the Farmers' Club, London, in beneficial, and has in no small degree 1878. The result was the establishment contributed to the advance in the selling of the Shire Horse Society, under whose price of Shires both for home and foreign fostering care the breed has been vastly buyers. improved,—made more uniform in type Coneeption of Form. — There has and character, much sounder in wind from time to time been much discussion and limb, and altogether of a decidedly as to what constitutes perfection in the improved stamp in the general attributes conformation of a draught-horse. Com- of a draught - horse. The Shire Horse plete agreement has not yet been arrived Society issue a volume of the Shire Stvd- at, and never will. A better and more Book every year. The first volume, general understanding, however, now published in 1880, contains the pedigrees prevails on the subject ; and thus we now of 2380 stallions, many of which were find in the displays of draught - horses foaled in the eighteenth century. The of different breeds at leading shows a Society likewise hold a great annual much nearer approach to uniformity in Shire Horse Show in London every the more crucial points and features spring, which has done much to further than was observable in the earlier history the interests of the breed. of horse shows. English and Scotch ITotions.—It is Characteristics. a trite saying that in judging a horse a Colour.—^As would be inferred from Scotchman begins with the feet and legs the use of the title the Old English of the animal, an Englishman with its Black Horse, black was no doubt at one top. By this it is meant that the chief time the prevailing colour of the breed. consideration with the Scotch judge is A very large number are still black, but the feet and legs, and with the English bay and brown of varying shades pre- the body of the horse. Of both judges dominate. Many are grey, roan, or there is truth in the statement, and in chestnut, but light colours are not, as a these habits both are mistaken. It is rule, in favour in the market. true, no doubt, as the Scotchman argues, Size.—It is undisputed that the Shire that without good, sound, well -formed, Horse is the largest of all the varieties of well-set legs and feet to carry and pro- draught-horses which exist in this coun- pel it, the best body one could conceive try, or indeed in any other country. would be of little value. It is equally About 17 hands is a common height true, as the Englishman contends, that a amongst the stallions of the breed. horse with a big well-formed body will Form.—When the Shire Horse Society usually fetch more money in the market began its good work, the rank and file than one with a small weak body. And of the breed presented defects which since both these contentions are well materially impaired the value of the founded, it is surely the duty of judges horses for hard work. Chief of these to have due regard to both features, and were short upright pasterns, wide hock thus encourage the development of a action, unsoundness, and sluggish move- class of horses equally meritorious in — SHIEE HOESES. 395 body and limb. Happily this desidera- Frederick Street thus describes a typical " tum is now being more generally rec- Shire horse : The feet should be firm, ognised than in former years, and as deep and wide at the heel, not too long a result we find better legs and feet or straight in pastern, flat bone, short amongst the Shires, and better bodies between fetlock and knee. A stallion amongst the Clydesdales, than were to should not measure less than 11 inches be seen very generally at one time. below knee, and girth from 7 feet 9 Pastern.-— It is now universally ac- inches to 8 feet 3 inches; should not knowledged that a short upright pastern stand more than 1 7 hands ; should have is an objectionable feature in a horse, wide chest, shoulders well thrown back, whether for draught or other purposes. head big and masculine, without coarse- With such a pastern the shocls; to the ness; full flowing mane, short back, system, in either walking, trotting, or large muscular development of the loin, galloping under a burden, must obviously long quarters with tail well set on, good " be much greater than with the " springy second thighs (this is a point where so plenty action of a moderately long sloping pas- many fail), large flat clean hocks ; tern. This point is more keenly appre- of long silky hair on legs,—or, to sum up ciated in England now than in former in few words, a horse should be long, times. There is still room for improve- low, and vidde, and thoroughly free from ment in the pastern in the vast majority all hereditary disease. A main point is of Shire horses, yet visitors to the Lon- action : he should be a good mover in don shows of Shire horses have observed the cart-horse pace, walking ; and, if re- a marked improvement, which has been quired to trot, should have action like a so well maintained that any defect in Norfolk cob." this respect must ere long be eradicated. In a paper on the same subject, read Iiegs.—Similar remarks would apply before the Kingscote Agricultural Asso- to the general conformation of legs and ciation in November 1884, the late Hon. feet. The unduly wide hind action, so E. Coke thus refers to the typical Shire prevalent at one time in English draught- mare and Shire stallion : horses, is still too common. A bent hind " If I were asked to look at the mare leg, set outside the body, so to speak, is or filly that you intend breeding from, I undoubtedly a source of weakness in a should first of all ascertain whether she draught - horse. An animal with Kmbs has side-bones : if they are there, for my of this sort can have little endurance part I should not care to trouble myself under hard work. Wide hind action was with any further examination, as I should one of the most notable defects in the at once say she is not a mare to breed earlier London shows of Shire horses. from ; but if she is clean, I should then A marked improvement has undoubtedly look at her fore feet, bearing in mind the taken place, yet it is a point to which old maxim, ' no foot no horse.' I should Shire breeders might with advantage hope to find them rather large, well- give still closer attention. formed and open at the heels, not flat, Feet.—The foot of the horse is a point shelly, or contracted; I should like to of the utmost importance. It is there see rather long sloping pasterns, not short very often that, under hard labour, the and upright. Eising upwards, the bone animal first gives way. Flat soft hoofs from fetlock to knee should be flat, with cannot be durable, and with the persistent nice silky hair, big knees and well-devel- striving for large sound feet with deep oped muscles in the arm, the shoulders strong walls, which has been fostered by well thrown back, although they need the show system, the feet of the rank not be as oblique as is required in a and file of Shire horses have attained a riding-horse. decidedly better character than could "Having done with the fore legs, I have been claimed for the breed prior should turn my attention to the hind feet. to the establishment of the Shire Horse These in the Shire horse are often too Society. small. The Clydesdale horse beats us A Typical Shire.—In a paper read there; this being the result of careful before the London Farmers' Club in breeding. I like to find good pasterns March 1878 (already referred to), Mr behind as well as before. Above the : 396 BKEEDS OF FARM LIVE STOCK. pastern there should be a good flat bone, risen greatly in value and popular favour topped by a broad, flat, clean hock, and since 1877, when the Clydesdale Horse upwards a well-developed thigh, full of Society was established. muscle. Origin.—The fullest account of the " Having given you my idea of what origin and progress of the Clydesdale the understanding should be, I will not breed yet written is to be found in the detain you with the less important part Retrospective volume of the Clydesdale of the animal—namely, the body—fur- St-ud-Book. Two theories as to the ther than to say I like a good middle origin of the breed are advanced. The this you will not find unless the mare is one is to the effect that the breed is the what is called well ribbed up. I do not result of a cross between the native think the biggest mares breed the best Scotch mares and some Flemish stallions foals. They can't be too broad; but imported into Scotland by one of the they may be too high. Dukes of Hamilton in the seventeenth " We now come to the horse to which century. The other version is that the you intend to put your mare. What I breed has beenbuilt up by the carefulselec- have said of the mare applies equally tion and mating of the best horses and to the horse ; only that he should be mares in the valley of the Clyde. There coarser and stronger, and the hair, is no documentary evidence of the actual although it should be silky, need not importation of Flemish stallions, and be so fine as that of the mare. . . . although the tradition has obtained a " Before I have done with the sire and wide footing, it is discredited by the dam, let me strongly advise you to try most careful of early writers. Alton, in and breed stock as weighty and massive his report on the Agriculture of Ayrshire as you can. Some of my friends have to the Board of Agriculture in 1810, " told me that, although they admire my records the tradition thus : One of the horses very much, they think them too ancestors of the present Duke of Ham- heavy for agricultural work. That may ilton is said to have imported from be so, and undoubtedly on many arable Flanders, about the middle of the seven- farms lighter horses would do the work teenth century, six fine black stallions, equally well, if not better. Bear in mind, which he kept at Strathaven Castle for however, that you breed for the best the use of his tenants and vassals. These market, and that the agricultural market are said to have greatly improved the is not the best. There is a great and in- breed of horses in the county of Lanark." " creasing demand for horses of the heaviest And in a footnote Alton remarks : I have type, not only in this country but in lived many years at Strathaven, where America and the colonies. It is found these horses are said to have been kept, that the docks at Liverpool, and the and made all possible inquiry into the streets of Manchester and other towns, fact; but no person in that part ever have become so crowded that it is far heard of such stallions tiU they read con- more convenient to use one horse that cerning them in some of the Statistical can move several tons, than some two or Accounts of other parishes or similar three, which take up so much more room. publications. I am confident that such The same remark applies to New York large horses as they are represented to and other seaport towns in America." have been would not, when coupled with A celebrated Shire Stallion is repre- the diminutive mares then in that quarter, sented in Plate 4, vol. i. have raised an improved, but rather an unshapely and unhealthy breed. It must CLYDESDALE HORSES. have been better feeding and treatment that improved the breed anywhere." This fine breed of draught-horses has What part, if any, Flemish blood played its headquarters in the south-west of in the early history of Clydesdales, can- Scotland. It is gradually extending into not now be ascertained with undisputable other parts of its native country, and has accuracy. Anyhow, it would seem that, been exported in large numbers to the of whatsoever materials composed, the United States, Canada, Australia, New breed was first brought to a high state of Zealand, and other foreign lands. It has perfection in the Upper Ward of Lanark- — — CLYDESDALE HOKSES. 397 sHre. The precise time at -which the 1 7 15, cannot now be definitely deter- Upper Ward became noted for its draught- mined; but there can be little doubt horses is not recorded in history, but there that they were mostly of English origin is a tradition (" so well supported as to be and of a mixed character. The old thoroughly reliable ") ^ to the effect that drove -road from Scotland to England " some time between 1715 and 1720, John crosses the Clyde at Hyndford Bridge, Paterson, of Lochlyoch, on the estate and and leads across the hills by Carmichael in the parish of Carmichael, grandson of and Crawfordjohn —the very centre of One John Paterson, who died at Lochlyoch the then horse-breeding district ; and in 1682, went to England and brought the intercourse which the farmers would from thence a Flemish stallion, which is thus have with their neighbours from said to have so greatly improved the the south, and the amount of traffic done breed in the Upper Ward as to have by pack-horses, would doubtless allow of made them noted all over Scotland." many opportunities for selecting animals Discussing this point, the writers of calculated to improve the breed. the historical sketch in the Eetrospective " The Lochlyoch mares were generally volume of the Clydesdale StudrBqok, pro- browns and blacks, with white faces and ceed : "The Lochlyoch mares were famous a little white on their legs : they had in the Upper Ward during the latter half grey hairs in their tails, occasionally of the last and the first two decades of grey hairs over their bodies, and invari- the present century; and a Mrs Pater- ably a white spot on their belly, this son of Lochlyoch, mother of the present latter being recognised as a mark of dis- tenant of Drumalbin, now [1878] ninety- tinct purity of blood. The mares died seven years of age, still has a recollection out at Lochlyoch about thirty years ago. of a noted black mare from which many "The Lochlyoch stock having been of the best stock in the Upper Ward are long noted in the Upper Ward and descended. The family tradition is largely drawn upon by breeders, there strongly supported by the fact that the is no doubt that to them, or more cor- Patersons were in the habit of noting rectly to the black horse of 1715, the down important agricultural items from a Clydesdale horse owes its present dis- very early period ; and the present repre- tinctive character." sentative of the family, Mr Paterson of Gradually the improved Clydesdale Drumalbin, has in his possession a family extended its footing, and in 1823, at its tree of all the descendants of that John show at Perth, the Highland Society for Paterson who died in 1682. the first time opened a class specially for "In the year 1836, in reference to a Clydesdale horses. The wording of the day's ploughing given to one of the Premium List for the two horse classes Patersons on leaving Lochlyoch for possesses a peculiar interest, and merits Drumalbin, the following remarks ap- production here : peared in an Edinburgh newspaper, from "First, For the best Clydesdale or which it will be seen that their claim to other mare well qualified for working being the founders of the breed was then the strong lands, which is brought into recognised. After descanting on the or retained in the county of Perth, the merits of the family and kindred topics, hona fide property of any landlord or ' the writer proceeds : And it may be tenant in the county, and to be kept for here worthy of remark, that it was a the purpose of breeding— 10 guineas. brother of Mr Paterson's grandfather "Second, For the best Cleveland or who brought the notable stallion from mare of any other breed, combining great England to Lanarkshire—the sire of the activity with strength, and otherwise well famous Clydesdale breed of horses, of adapted for draught in the lighter lands, which the county has been so long and and for producing harness -horses, the justly proud.' hona fide property, ifec. — 10 guineas. "What were the distinguishing fea- " ir.5.—The object of the Society in tures of the native breed previous to the awarding these Premiums in the Second introduction of the Flemish horse, about District is to encourage the breeding of "First, Draught-horses calculated for ' Clydesdale Stud-Book, Retro, vol. the strong lands, of which there cannot 398 BEEEDS OF FAEM LIVE STOCK. be a better model than tbe Clydesdale colours, and both are disliked and horse ; and avoided. Latterly the taste for bays has ^^ Second, A very active and at same gradually increased, and now this colour time very strong horse, and which may is probably quite as common as the darker be adapted, according to circumstances, shades of brown. either for working the land or for meet- White markings are very common. ing the demand for harness-horses of Indeed there are few pure Clydesdales every description, which is at present without white on one or more of the supplied from England or Ireland. The legs, and a white star or stripe on the Cleveland Bays are the basis of such a face. The latter, if not so large as to " " breed ; but the Society does not wish to give the countenance a sickly appear- limit the competition to any particular ance, is highly prized. breed." Size.—^The average Clydesdale is not The movement which was thus pub- quite so heavy or so high standing as the licly recognised at Perth in 1823 led to average Shire. In Scotland more atten- increased enterprise in the improvement tion has been given to the formation, both of light and heavy horses through- strength, and soundness of the feet out Scotland. Cleveland Bays were and limbs and to the action than to the very largely introduced, especially into weight of the body, while in England the northern counties, as well as into the body was for long the first and main several districts in the south-west; "but consideration. The average height of the Galloways and the Clyde VaUey the unproved Clydesdale is about 16 counties remained true to their own hands 3 inches, several stallions reach- particular breed; and when the steam- ing, but very few exceeding, 17 hands, engine ran the coach-horse off the road, which is a common height amongst the they had their constancy rewarded by Shires. the great demand from the cities for The general features of the improved horses of the very heaviest description, Clydesdale are admirably described in to meet the increased commercial traffic the following notes, which we take from developed by the railway system." the Retrospective volume of the Clydes- Thus the breeding of improved Clydes- dale Stud-Booh :^- dales has been stimulated by the wants Head.—The typical Clydesdale " has of both town and country, and it is a broad jaw, ending as a rule in a not within the mark to say that for many very fine or well-tapered muzzle, but years no branch of Scotch farming has with large open nostrils. His eye is paid better than the raising of a good usually full and vigorous, yet mild ; his class of Clydesdale horses. forehead broad and fuU between the Clydesdale Horse Society. — The eyes ; while from the eyes the forehead Clydesdale Horse Society has done a tapers gradually upwards to the ears, vast deal to promote the improvement which are long and active. Breeders of and the spread of the breed. It has Clydesdales should attach considerable been conducted with much enterprise importance to these points, as a horse and forethought, and with several other of such a description will generally be societies of the kind, has contributed not found to be of excellent temper, easily a little to the greatly increased and still trained, and very wise in cart or plough. growing wealth of the United Kingdom ITeck and Shoulder.—" Experience in its farm live stock. The Society was alone can teach one when the head is established in 1877, and issues a volume well set on to the neck; but the latter of the Stud-Booh every year. should be strong, massive, and of me- dium height, while the shoulder should Characteristics. be more oblique than in the English Colour.—Brown, of a dark shade, and draught-horse. This, indeed, is one of dappled, is the most popular Clydesdale the distinctive features of the Clydes- colour. Black is also common, and is dale, as to his formation of shoulder is highly esteemed, but grey, or very light largely owing his long quick step, for bay, is not in favour. Neither chestnut which he is so justly admired. . . . nor roan are recognised as Clydesdale Fore Leg.—"Good sound feet and CLYDESDALE HORSES. 399 legs are essential to all horses, and are being in all cases a certain indication of certainly not undervalued in the Clydes- a strong healthy bone, as the hair of a dales—in fact, some judges, in their short, coarse, matted kind suggests a admiration of such good qualities, fre- decided tendency to grease. ' quently lose sight of the top ' alto- "All horses have a tendency to lose gether. their hair when being put into show " Quite as essential as the slightly condition (i.e., loaded with fat like a oblique and closely topped shoulder of bullock), and so 'bhstering,' it is to the Clydesdale for his long quick step is be regretted, is sometimes resorted to a strong forearm. This part, from a side to strengthen its growth. The hair pro- view, should be broad, loaded vpith long duced by this process is not, however, so strong muscles, so as to give him full silken or so fine as the natural, and the power to bring forward the part beneath, difference is easily detected by the prac- and in length should be proportionate tised eye. to the length of the shoulder. A flat Sinevsrs. — " The sinews of the leg and broad knee is also essential; but should be thick, strong, thrown well back this is a point sometimes overlooked by from the bone, and capable of being felt the best of Clydesdale judges, who pre- with the hand ; if not, the leg is not a fer strength of bone immediately under good one, however thick, as a soft round the knee in many horses, and so the leg leg, in which the sinews are not well de- comes to the ground as if there were no fined, will not stand work. joint between the elbow and the pas- Pastern. —• " The lower end of the tern. shank -bone or fetlock should also be "Deficiency of bone under the knee large in all, so as to give full play to the has not unfrequently caused the rejec- tendons ; and Clydesdale judges are also tion of many good horses in the show- very particular as to this, and also to yard in favour of animals which happen the pastern, which during the last few to be thicker at that particular place, years has come in for a large share of yet have not half the strength, owing to attention. Youatt, writing on this point, ' the bone not being of the proper shape, says : The concussion which attends the or to the entire absence of sinew The common action of the cart-horse is little, shank-bone should be flat from a side because his movements are slow, and view, and tapering to an edge as it goes therefore the upright and strong pastern back. is given to him, which he can force into Feather.—" The back of the fore leg the ground, and on which he can throw from the knee down should possess a the whole of his immense weight.' If Mr nice flowing fringe of silken hair, which Youatt had ever seen a draught-horse in should spring from the very edge of the the streets of Glasgow, or any other large bone. This hair should be of what a town, ' forcing his upright and strong judge of a Skye terrier would term a pastern ' into the granite pavement, he ' pily ' nature ; and good judges will would possibly have halted before he not have a horse at all the feather of wrote the above sentence. . . . Short which has a coarse matted appearance. upright pasterns always get worse with Possibly too much attention is paid by age and feeding, and the action in due Clydesdale breeders to this point, and course of time becomes impeded. A many will not exhibit at certain shows, horse with an upright pastern has little because their horses at the particular or no command of his foot, and literally time happen to be what they term ' bare walks as on a crutch ; and if he has no of hair.' The hair certainly creates a power of his foot he cannot have much false impression of strength of bone, as in his shoulder. The streets of Glasgow an animal which has a broad forearm are very trying to horses, which have to and well-developed knee, if deficient in scramble for a footing in the furrows feather, does not compare well with one between the hard smooth paving-stones ; possessed of a nice flowing fringe several and horses vrith upright pasterns are inches long, and this is decidedly dis- sometimes almost powerless to move, advantageous ; but the high value set where those with pasterns moderately upon nice silky hair is on account of its sloped, and of a medium length, can walk — 400 BKEEDS OF FAKM LIVE STOCK. with comparative ease. Farmers around strong and firm, and objection is always Glasgow are alive to this, and will not taken to animals which have them loose readily use a stallion which has this and flabby, or which, to use a breeder's defect, however strong and shapely. phrase, have 'fleshy hocks.' Foot.—" Without a good, sound, well- Hind Leg.—"From the hock to the shaped, healthy foot, a horse is of no use ground the leg should be short, broad, at all, however symmetrical and strong. flat, clean, evenly and straight or slight- The Clydesdale is generally sound on ly inclined forward ; the sinews standing that point, though subject, like all other out from the bone, and having a similar breeds of the equine genus, to its various fringe of hair to that on the fore leg, and diseases. Side-bone and ring-bone are said rising as high as the bottom of the hock- by veterinary surgeons to be less common joint. than in the cart-horses of the south. Hind Pastern.—"The hind pasterns Back.—" An undue length of back is are a little larger generally than the fore not an uncommon defect in the forma- ones, and are more inclined, but not so tion of the Clydesdale, and flat badly much as to give the idea that they are sprung ribs—the last of the latter occa- not supporting the quarters. Short sionally very short—form defects which steep hind pasterns are a very bad fault, it should be the object of breeders to as the animal is always sticking its toes remove. The back is not unfrequently into the ground. low, and the horse at first sight looks as Action. — "In walking, the horse if he had no command of himself, the should, if approaching you, come with barrel merely forming a bridge between his head well carried and with an appa^ the fore and hinder ends. rently measured stride, lifting his feet " Latterly this defect has been much well off the ground, and placing them modified. The most popular stalhon down again regularly, evenly, and with in recent time was Darnley, 222, and apparent deliberation. one very striking characteristic of his " On a side view one can notice if his immediate and more remote descendants action be even i.e., if his fore and hind is their roundness of barrel, depth of action be in unison—for in horses with rib, and lofty formation of shoulder. long backs and weak loins the two ends Chest.—" The chest is generally low, seem to be under different control, and broad, and full, if the body is large the hind legs being in a manner dragged and round-ribbed ; if not, it is narrow, with the toes along the ground, an un- ' and the horse has a wedgy ' appearance, pleasant effect is produced. and in street traffic this want of breadth "In going at a walk, a horse should places him sometimes, in rounding cor plant his hind feet forward as deliber- ners, under command of the shafts of the ately as his fore ones, at the same time waggon or lorry if at all heavily laden. raising and bending the leg at the hock, Hind Quarters. — " Broad, low-set which should be evenly carried forward. hind quarters, with muscular thighs, de- If the hocks are turned out in moving scending into broad and proportionately them forward, the action is not good; developed hocks, sum up the good points and a Clydesdale breeder considers this of the hind—end of the Clydesdale. an exceedingly bad fault in either horse Hocks. "Narrow hocks are so sub- or mare, though it is one which is [used ject to thorough-pin, &c., that most to be] commonly overlooked south of the breeders avoid them, though there should Tweed. be no perceptible marks of unsoundness. "In trotting, the horse should bend Straight hocks are not liked ; but if the the legs at the knees and hocks, and other parts are proportionate and the from a hind view the inside of the fore action sound, no exception is taken to hoofs should almost be seen at every this formation. It is as a work-horse, step. If the animal be inclined to move however, that the Clydesdale should be wide behind, this fault vsdll be easily dis- considered, and it is questionable if a covered at the trotting pace." straight hock affords as much propelling A horse that goes wide behind gener- jjower as one moderately bent. The ally gives a more favourable impression muscles surrounding the hocks should be at the trot than walking. SUFFOLK HORSES. 401 A noted Clydesdale Stallion of modern regards pedigrees, and publishing a first which it is times (1890) is represented in Plate 3, volume or registry, from pro- vol. i; ; Plate 5, vol. i., a typical Draught posed to carry on in future a regular of Stallion of 1840 ; Plate 7, vol. i., a stud-book. Through the courtesy the typical Draught Mare of 1840; and Plate secretaries we have been favoured with 6, yol. i., a Draught Horse of 1840. the loan of some MSS., from which it clearly appears that there is scarcely a SUFFOLK HORSES. Suffolk stallion in the county, of any note whatever, whose ^ pedigree is not The Suffolk Punch is a distinct type of clearly to be traced in a direct male line horse. It has its headquarters in the for seventy years. The records in the county of Suffolk; but although it has possession of the association, which re- long been held in high esteem there, it late to a period between 1790 and 18 10, has never obtained an extensive footing throw some light on the matter, and beyond the south-eastern counties of point to the introduction of materials England. not ill calculated to bring about the Historical.—As to the origin of the transformation that has taken place. Suffolk Punch, various accounts have Infusion of the Thoroughbred, Flemish, " been given. Low says : The colour and heavier blood of native horses, has ' distinctive of this variety connects it with tended to ezert upon the old breed ' the the race widely diffused throughout the influence such elements would be likely north of Europe and Asia, from the Scan- to produce ; but as far as a careful search dinavian Alps to the plains of Tartary, through the lineage of the horses now in which the dun colour prevails. It is extant in the county will show, not one believed to have been carried to the east- seems to have inherited the alloy in the ern cotmties of England from Normandy, male line, all of which terminate in an which yet possesses many fine horses of ancestry in all probability tracing back this variety, introduced, it may be be- to the old breed mentioned by Arthur lieved, by the Scandinavian invaders." ^ Young." Arthur Yoimg was a native of Suffolk, Characteristics. and in his report on the Agriculture of this county, compiled about the end of Colour.—The colour is the most dis- the eighteenth century, he speaks of tinctive feature in the Suffolk breed. It " the old breed " of horses as if it had is a light dun or sorrel, sometimes, as been specially associated with the dis- Low has it, deepening into chestnut, with trict long prior to that date. Writing lighter coloured mane and tail. in 1878, Mr Herman Biddel says : "Two Form.—^Arthur Young did not seem hundred years ago there were draught- to have a high opinion of the breed. horses peculiar to the county, and of He cuts it off with this sarcastic touch : standing enough as a distinct breed to " Sorrel colour ; very low in the fore maintain their prevailing characteristics end ; a large ill-shaped head, vdth slouch- through generations of descendants, long ing, heavy ears ; a great carcass, and after the original type had been consid- short legs : an uglier horse could hardly erably modified by repeated selection, be viewed." Now, however, the breed and the introduction of incidental crosses. is more gainly, although it is still a thick, How long prior to Young's time the chubby, or punchy animal, with a body breed had existed we have no evidence disproportionately large for the lengtla ^ to show." of its limbs. Its legs are stout, but Continuing, the same writer says: "Up rounder in the bone than is considered to the present time [1878] there has been desirable for maximum strength. The - " " no stud book of the Suffolk horse : an feather has not been cultivated on the association is now, however, imder the Suffolk Punch, and so its legs are free presidency of Lord Waveney, formed for from the long hair which characterises the the purpose of collecting information as legs of the Shire and Clydesdale horses. Aptitude for "Work. — The Suffolk ^ Domestic Animals of BritisTi Isles, 619. Punch is a most faithful servant. It is « Uve Stock n. Alk., 1878. probably the hardest puller of the eqiiine 2 — ; ; 402 BEEEDS OF FAKM LIVE STOCK. race. A true Punch, of the olden type in which, as a rule, the Cleveland Bay was a " dour," dull, determined creature breeds to type, both in colour and con- it would tug and pull till it dropped formation, precludes the possibility of his down, rather than give in. It is men- being the result of an elaborate system tioned by Low and other writers that of crossing between the thoroughbred this property was so remarkable in the and the cart-horse. Practically the old Suffolk Punches, that cruel wagers Cleveland Bay is as fully entitled to used to be laid on their powers of draught, be termed a pure breed as any breed of and many fine horses were thus ruined domestic animals, and there seems every by their indomitable spirit. reason to believe that it is descended in The modern Punch retains not a little direct line, with importations of foreign of this useful attribute, and it is vastly blood perhaps, from the aboriginal horses improved in the important matter of of Britain. action. It is a hardy animal, and an It is very probable that the Cleveland excellent feeder. Horses of the breed Bay derives a certain proportion of his are now highly esteemed for van and courage and endurance from a pretty dray work in towns, although under large infusion of Eastern blood, which heavy loads on hard streets they do not doubtless did take place in the earlier wear quite so well as the improved Shire years of the Christian era. and Clydesdale horses. They are capital It is also possible that the Cleveland farm-horses, especially for tillage work. Bay may have been crossed with the Scandinavian horse during the time that CLEVELAND BAYS. the Danes effected a settlement on the north-east coast of Yorkshire. Cleveland Bay horses have played an Characteristics.—The Cleveland Bay important part both in road and farm is a short-legged horse, standing from i6 work. The following notes regarding hands to i6 hands 3 inches, seldom being them are from the pen of Mr W. Scarth found under the one, and only a few Dixon, hon. secretary of the Cleveland specimens being met with that exceed, Bay Horse Society : or even attain to, the other. His head The value of a breed of horses with is rather plain, but is well set on, his size, action, power, and a hardy consti- neck is well placed, and his shoulders tution, and at the same time clear of generally lie well back. His back is carting blood, is incalculable; and such rather long, from the standpoint of a is the Cleveland Bay, or, as it was for- riding man, but it is strong and muscular merly called, the Chapman horse. The his quarters are long, level, and elegant latter name seems the more appropriate and his tail is well put on and well car- one of the two, as in a word describing ried. He is remarkable for the quality " " the general utility horse ; whilst the of bone, which is as clean and flat as that modern name is merely derived from the of a race-horse, and his legs are almost district which became famous for con- clear of hair. His action is of a high taining the best specimens of the breed. standard of excellence, both in a walk Origin.—The origin of the Cleveland and a trot ; and although he has none of Bay has exercised the ingenuity of seve- that knee action so much admired by ral writers, who have puzzled themselves the lover of the hackney, he moves his and their readers in vain efforts to ac- shoulders and hocks in rare style, and count for the existence of the Cleveland in a manner highly suggestive of getting Bay by promulgating elaborate theories over the ground. of crossing between the thoroughbred The following description of a Cleve- stallion and the cart-mare. It is unnec- land Bay stallion that did good service essary to enter into minute detail respect- in the country in which he was located, ing these theories. The very confor- is taken from the first volume of the mation of the Cleveland Bay clearly points Royal Agricultural Society's Journal, out that he cannot be descended from and is from the pen of Mr J. B. the cart-horse, the elegance of his quar- Lloyd, a celebrated Gloucestershire agri- ters esi^ecially showing that there can be culturist. " When old Cleveland was at no kinship between them ; whilst the way his full size," says he, " he measured CLEVELAND BAYS. 403 16 hands ij^ inch high, g^ inches rule, retaining the size and substance of round the pastern, 10 inches round below the Cleveland, and naturally possessing the knee, 21 inches round the arm, 15^ more quality and pace ; but after the inches round the knee, and 6 feet 10 second cross the tendency is for the breed inches round the girth. When measured to lose size and degenerate. As an in- he was in good condition, but not what stance of the value of the Cleveland Bay you would call full of flesh, his legs as as a foundation for breeding hunters may clean as a race-horse." be cited the fact, that some of the best The Cleveland Bay is a capital worker, hunters bred by Lord Middleton at Bird- and on light land he cannot be beaten, sail are third in direct descent from a whilst his great activity and hardy con- Cleveland mare. stitution make him able to hold his own Yorkshire Coacli - horse. — The with the heavier cart-horse on all but the Yorkshire coach-horse is an offshoot of very stififest clays. He can also run in his the Cleveland Bay, and originated in the master's gig, and I have occasionally seen demand which sprang up in the ear- some of the best specimens running in a lier years of the present century for big gentleman's carriage, though the present flash carriage-horses. The short-legged fashion is in favour of a lighter and more compact Cleveland mare was crossed stylish animal. They are not often used with a big, lengthy, and flash thorough- as saddle-horses now, but occasionally a bred horse ; the produce, whether horse farmer in the Yorkshire dales may be or mare, was bred from, and eventually seen riding one to market. Formerly, the Yorkshire coach -horse, or — as he however, they were much used as hacks was sometimes called, from the locality in Yorkshire, especially in the North in which he was principally bred—the Eiding ; and occasionally one was found Howdenshire Cleveland, became recog- that could carry his owner creditably nised as a distinct breed. Possessing to hounds. the length and fine level quarters of the Value for Crossing.^The value of Cleveland bay, as well as others of his the Cleveland Bay for crossing with other good properties, the coach-horse also has breeds is difficult to estimate, and to this much of the elegance of the thorough- very fact is to be attributed in no small bred. He is apt, however, to grow leggy measure that falling off in the numbers in the course of a few generations ; what of the pure breed which a few years ago is gained in quality is lost in bone ; and nearly led to its extinction. It was used recourse has to be had to the old breed in Scotland in the early part of the pres- to restore that substance which is so ent century to improve the breed of essential in a good coach-horse. From agricultural horses in that country, and the Cleveland Bay and the coach-horse with as satisfactory results as seem to are bred a large proportion of what are have attended Mr Lloyd's Gloucestershire known in the trade as London carriage- enterprise. Valuable ride and drive horses : the larger and stronger animals horses have also been bred by crossing a being bred from mares of the former short-legged hackney sire with a Cleve- breed and sired by either thoroughbreds land mare ; and Cleveland mares crossed or coach-horses; whilst the lighter and with a thoroughbred horse have bred lesser horses are bred from mares of the some of the best hunters that ever went latter breed, and sired either by coach- out of Yorkshire. Great care, however, horses of high quality or by thorough- is required in the selection of a stallion. bred horses of a coaching type. The latter should be of an active, wiry Latterly an attempt has been made, character, with good shoulders, and a but without success, to prove that the short strong back, and rather under than Cleveland Bay is not a pure breed. Ab- over 15 hands 3 inches. Especial care solute purity of breeding cannot, and should be taken to select a horse with short does not, exist ; but a breed which has legs, this being a far more important mat- existed for centuries without admixture ter than size, which is rather to be avoided, of foreign blood, transmitting its char- even if the horse is ever so well put to- acteristics in so remarkable a manner as gether. The second cross from a Cleve- the Cleveland Bay has done and con- land mare makes the best hunter as a tinues to do, is fairly entitled to rank — ; 404 BEEEDS OF EAEM LIVE STOCK. amongst the pure breeds of British blood of unknown breeding. The dam horses. of "Shales," as of "Hopeful," another " A noted modern Cleveland Stallion is son of Blaze," was a trotting mare. represented in Plate 8, vol. i. From 1750 to 1780 Barb blood was freely used in Norfolk on trotting mares. THE HACKNEY HORSE. The horse " Shales " is said in an old advertisement to have been " the fastest The Hackney horse, sometimes knovra horse of his day." Through his get, as the Norfolk Trotter, is a most useful " Scot Shales " and " Driver," came all " animal on the farm. It is useful not the famous " Shales " and " Fireaway only for the farmer's trap and for riding, stock of the end of the eighteenth but also for light spring-cart work. The century. Many of the good ones were term Hackney is now understood to in- bred in the Long Sutton district. The clude riding-hor-ses (other than thorough- " Driver " stock first won popularity in breds and hunters and small ponies), no Yorkshire—the " Shales " stock in Nor- matter what may be their height. folk; but there was a regular inter- Mr H. F. Euren, secretary to the change of the two strains from the out- Hackney Horse Society, writes : set. Their descendants. Burgess's " Fire- Historical.-—The name Hackney came away," Wroot's " Pretender," and his son, in with the Normans, but the old Danish Eamsdale's " Performer," Bond's (two) name Nag held its own. Hackney was "Norfolk Phenomenon," Chamberlain's applicable only to a pacing or trotting "Marshland Shales," and the "Norfolk horse, while nag was and is used as a Cob" family, are a few of the horses name for any riding-horse. existing between the years 1788 and Hackneys and Trotters are frequently 1850, whose names occur often in the mentioned in old farm accounts from the full pedigree of the horses which have year 1331 to 1518 (Thorold Eogers's won the Society's champion honours. History of Agriculture and Prices). In Notwithstanding that examination of 1340, by 14 Edward III., s. i, c. 19, one an extended pedigree shows that the of three Acts passed to regulate purvey- modern Hackney is frequently an inbred ance and to make illegal the practice of horse, it is claimed for the breed that it sending the " king's great horses " on to retains its old-time characteristics—good farmers' lands ; but there was reserved action, high courage, and great powers of to the king's Master of the Horse privi- endurance. M. de Thannberg, who for lege of purveyance for "a Hakeney," nearly forty years was connected with which he might have : in the Paston the Government Studs in France, declared Letters, under date 1470 : in Acts of in 1873 that the Norfolk Trotter had Henry VIIL—1535-36, 1540, 1542— transmitted these very qualities to the the last-named providing that cart-horses French horses, and thus established what or sumpter-horses were not to be reckoned is now known as the French coach-horse. as trotting horses : by Blundeville, the The old custom of trotting against time Norfolk parson, who was the first and in matches, which prevailed in Eng- English writer on horses (a.d. 1558) : by land in the early years of this century, Thomas de Grey, The Phoenix of our having been discontinued, the quahties Times (a.d. 1624), who spoke of the trot- which won for the Hackney its old repu- ting horse as the English breed of horse, tation are not now so plainly in evidence the troop-horse of his day. but those who have a knowledge of The Hackneys of the eighteenth and back-breeding have no difficulty in select- nineteenth centuries trace back, almost ing horses which shall transmit the old- without exception, to one horse, named time powers to the progeny. "Shales," foaled about the year 1755. Practice of Breeding. — The prac- His sire was "Blaze." The sire of tice of the breeders of the Hackney, as "Blaze "was "Flying Childers," which shown by records from 1780 to 1820, horse was a mixture of Barb and Arab was that of using the Hackney stallion blood. The dam of Blaze, knovra as on half-bred mares, the produce of " Confederate Filly," had Barb or Turk thoroughbred stallions and trotting blood in equal proportions with English mares. This has continued to be an CATTLE. 405 almost universal practice in Yorkshire. regulations are enforced to guarantee the In Norfolk there have been experiments soundness of the horses which receive made of using thoroughbred stallions on any distinction, whether of prize or com- trotting mares, and the result has not mendation. The proportion of unsound been so satisfactory as is the breeding in horses has been found to be very small. Yorkshire, as regards form, endurance, The show is also doing a very great deal or action. The most experienced breed- towards a return of the Hackney to its ers are agreed that the truest mode of old place as a riding-horse without any breeding Hackney stallions, so as to get lessening of the action for which the a certain result, is to put the neces- Hackney has always been famous. The sary thoroughbred blood into the breed Society, which at the end of its first year through the mare, and better still through had 290 members, ended its eighth year her dam. The examination of hundreds with 1000. of pedigrees received from Yorkshire has shown me that in a very small propor- tion of cases—certainly not more than CATTLE. two per cent—^Yorkshire breeders have followed this plan of using Hackney The British Isles have long been famed stallions — putting thoroughbred blood amongst the nations of the earth for their into the breed through the mares only. wealth in cattle. Nowhere else has the One of these Yorkshire - bred horses, systematic breeding of farm live stock known as " North Star," which was ex- been carried on so persistently and suc- ported by Col. Barlow in i860 to the cessfully as in this country. Our soil Austrian Government, and which I find, and climate, as well as the habits and on examination of the pedigree, had only tastes and skill and enterprise of our two parts in 64 of thoroughbred blood, people, are all peculiarly adapted to the was found so pre-potent that he has industry. In the breeding of cattle in stamped his characteristics on hundreds particular, our farmers have been singu- of horses in the district of Austria in larly successful. For many years the which he was used, so that it is com- improved breeds of British cattle have mon there to hear a horse spoken of as a been largely dravni upon by numerous North Star. The breeding of two of the foreign countries for the amelioration of most successful stallions—Mr W. Flan- native races; while the improvement ders's " Keality " and Mr Henry Moore's effected in the general cattle stock of " " Rufus —each a winner of a champion Great Britain since 1830 has added cup at the Hackney Society's London greatly to the agricultural wealth of the show, confirms me in my previously nation. formed opinion. "Reality's" dam was There are over a dozen breeds of cattle sired by a thoroughbred, but there were in Great Britain usually regarded as dis- three previous generations of the best tinct varieties. In England there are the Hackney blood. His sire had thorough- Shorthorn (also widely diffused through bred blood in the fourth generation only, Ireland and Scotland), Hereford, Norfolk " and then through mares. " Rufus's and Suffolk Red Polled, Devon, Sussex, granddam was sired by a thoroughbred, and Longhorn breeds. In Wales there and her dam was Hackney bred. On are several varieties, such as the Pem- his sire's side the thoroughbred blood broke (or South Wales or Castle Jilartin) came in five generations back, and only breed, the Anglesea (or North Wales) through the dam. breed, the Glamorgan breed, and the Hackney Horse Society.—The Hack- Old Castle Martin White breed. The ney Horse Society was organised in 1883 first two are the principal varieties. and incorporated in 1884, not only to Scotland claims the Polled Aberdeen- provide a stud-book for the record of Angus, the Polled Galloway, the Ayr- the breed, but also to ensure to the pub- shire, and the West Highland breeds. lic that the horse used shall be on both Ireland has its one pure native breed, sides of the best blood, and sound in the Kerry, with a sub-variety in the every respect. The Society holds an an- Dexter. The cattle of the Orkney and nual show in London. The strictest Shetland Islands are distinct in form and — 4o6 BREEDS OF FAEM LIVE STOCK. attributes from tlie races of the main- days of shorthorn fame to speak of them land. The Jersey and Guernsey breeds as " Teeswater Cattle," this habit of are now so thoroughly acclimatised in course arising from the fact that several England and Ireland as to be entitled to of the most famous earlier improvers mention amongst British cattle. of the breed lived in the valley of the A notable feature in stock-breeding Tees. enterprise in recent times has been the We believe the fact may be accepted establishment of herd -books for the as undeniably established that the im- recording of pedigrees. Almost every proved shorthorn is in the main a direct one of the breeds named above has now descendant of the aboriginal cattle of the its own herd-book, and there is no doubt north-east of England. It is stated that that the influence of this movement has some centuries ago a cross was introduced been highly beneficial. The great ma- from some of the large-framed breeds of jority of the cattle of the country are the continent of Europe, notably Holland still of mixed breeding, but the number and Denmark. It is known that in more of animals with recorded pedigrees is recent times—^to wit, early in the nine- now far greater than ever before, and is teenth century—an infusion of alien blood steadily increasing. was taken from other British breeds. These extraneous dashes of blood, how- SHORTHORN CATTLE. ever, have been but as drops in the ocean. In the swelling tide of pure shorthorn The shorthorn has abundantly earned blood they have long since lost their the right to the premier position amongst distinctive force, so that for all prac- British breeds of cattle. It is by far the tical purposes the pure-bred shorthorn of most numerous, as it is the most widely to-day may be taken as the direct de- diffused. More wealth is bound up in scendant of the ancient cattle of the it than in any other variety of the bovine north-east of England. race. In the development of the live- Early Improvements.—The first to stock industry of the British Isles, it has begin the systematic improvement of the played a great part, far exceeding that of shorthorn breed were the brothers Charles any other distinct class of animals. And and Robert Colling, who were probably it has done more than develop wealth busy at this important work at the dawn at home. It has gone in vast numbers of the nineteenth century. We are told to foreign countries, bringing in exchange that in those days the great majority of foreign gold to the British farmer, and shorthorn cattle were large high-stand- creating wealth, and promoting pasto- ing animals with good milking prop- ral prosperity wherever it has appeared. erties, but rough in form and slow in The breed which has done all this—and fattening. The Collings at once directed is as busy at work as ever, widening its themselves to the improvement of the field of operations from day to day cattle where they were most defective, well merits a word of homage from the and there is ample evidence to show live-stock historian. that very early in the nineteenth century Origin and Progress.—The credit of these pioneer breeders had succeeded in giving to the world this fine race of im- establishing herds of cattle which were proved cattle belongs to the north-east of decidedly superior to any others in the England, —in largest measure perhaps to country. From the earliest glimpses we the county of Durham. It is probably get of the Collings cattle, we learn that, right to regard the county of Durham as in comparison with the unimproved "the cradle" of the shorthorns. They cattle of the district, they were wider in have often been spoken of, both at home the rib, more symmetrical in the frame, " and abroad, as the Durham Breed," yet shorter in the leg, slightly smaller in the valuable race of native cattle from size, heavier in flesh, and much more which the improved shorthorn was raised speedy in growth and in the accumula- were the prevailing class of stock kept in tion of flesh and fat. the adjoining counties as far back as re- As to the methods of breeding followed liable history enables us to trace their by the Collings, there has been a good career. It was also common in the early deal of speculation. It is asserted by —" SHORTHORN CATTLE. 407 some writers—^but there is no absolute wonder that this should be the case. proof in support of the assertion—that The importance of the work which was in improving the native cattle the Col- taken up and carried on by them can lings introduced an infusion of blood hardly be overestimated. At the pres- from some of the other smaller breeds ent day there is not a well-bred living of the country. We do not presume to shorthorn in whose pedigree Colling controvert this suggestion. We are, blood does not figure prominently—mar- however, more inclined to the belief that vellous testimony, surely, to the import- the Collings relied upon " selection " in ance of the work done by these two great breeding — that is, upon the mating of men. the animals of the shorthorn breed which Booth and Bates Shorthorns.—The most nearly approached to their ideal of most famous of the Collings' more im- character, and fixing the type by pur- mediate successors were Thomas Bates suing what is designated "in-and-in and Thomas and John Booth, names breeding." This system of "in-and-in which have long occupied prominent " breeding —that is, the mating of animals positions in connection with shorthorn which are closely related to each other cattle. At the Ketton sale in 18 10, is well known to assist greatly in stamp- Thomas Bates purchased the two-year- ing or fixing pecuhar features and char- old heifer, " Old Duchess," for 183 acteristics upon races of stock. The guineas. Thomas Booth bought the Collings, we have reason to believe, soon bull " Albion " for 60 guineas, while at discovered this, and it is clear to us that the Barmpton sale in 181 8, his brother they employed with great skill and discrim- John Booth purchased the yearling bull ination this somewhat uncertain agent, "Pilot" for 270 guineas. With these which, according to the manner in which purchases the shorthorn breed drifted it is directed, is possessed of great power into two great channels, which by de- for good or evil. grees absorbed the main current of the But whatever may have been their race. These two strains of Bates and method of breeding, it is well known Booth, as we have thus seen, had one that the success of the CoUings was both common origin in the stock of the speedy and complete. The fame of their brothers Colling. In the hands of their cattle spread so rapidly, that in the first new owners the strains developed distinc- few years of the nineteenth century they tive shapes and characteristics, which in were obtaining the hitherto unheard-of the purer representatives are stiU main- price of ;^ 100 each for cows and bulls of tained and easily recognised. their improved strains. The Bates cattle, says Mr Robert Ketton and Barmpton Sales.— Bruce, "are higher - standing, better- Charles Colling's historical sale at Ket- milking, and perhaps gayer-looking cat- ton in 18 10 is usually spoken of as the tle than the Booths. They have as a first great public sale of shorthorns. On rule more upright shoulders, flatter fore that historical occasion twenty-nine cows ribs, opener sides, with long hind quar- and heifers realised an average of ters, less fully packed with flesh than j£i40, 4s. 7d., while the average at- the rival strain. As a rule their heads tained for eighteen bulls was ;£i6g, 8s. are clean cut and pretty wide, while the each. The crowning sensation was the bulls have long arched muscular necks purchase of the renowned bull " Cornet and keen tempers. The prevailing col- for the fabulous sum of 1000 guineas. ours in this strain of blood are, generally An equally important event took place speaking, deeper than in the other, being eight years later, when at Robert Col- reds and rich roans. The Booth cattle ling's sale at Barmpton, notwithstand- are wider, deeper, and perhaps less pretty. ing the fact that the time was one Their shoulders are more laid back, their of great depression, the herd of sixty- fore ribs and flanks deeper and better one animals realised an average of filled. They are more a beef than a milk ;^i28, 9s. lod. breed, with well -packed quarters and Lovers of this fine race of cattle de- thick loins. The sires remind one more light to dwell upon the doings of the of a fat Smithfield ox, and they move brothers Colling, and there is little without that courage and dash so pecu- 4o8 BKEEDS OF FARM LIVE STOCK. liar to the 'Duke's' and other liighly continent of Europe, in Australia, New valued strains of the Bates tribes." "• Zealand, and other countries, the short- But while the Booth and Bates are the horn has been extensively introduced, two chief strains of pure-bred shorthorn and has been employed with great suc- cattle, they do not by any means embrace cess in the improvement of native races the whole. Beyond these there are of cattle. The particular mission of the many excellent herds and families of improved shorthorn would seem to be shorthorns which show but little leaning to remove or make up for the deficiencies either to Booth or Bates, and which are, of other breeds. Its remarkable adapt- in their own way, equally meritorious and ability for crossing with and improving useful. Chief amongst these must be other varieties of cattle has imparted to mentioned the " Cruikshank " families, it quite excejjtional value and celebrity. long maintained and bred with great The great bulk of improved shorthorns success by the brothers Cruikshank at have therefore, during the existence of the the farm of Sittyton, in the county of race, been employed as indirect as well as Aberdeen. direct agents in the production of meat Colour.—Roan of varying shades is —in bringing meat out of other races as the prevailing colour of shorthorn cattle. well as raising it upon their own frames.^ Many of them are red of different hues, Milking Properties.^—The milking and a considerable number are white. properties of improved shorthorns vary The last-named colour is decidedly un- greatly. Many breeders of shorthorns popular ; but the objection to it is by no have unfortunately cultivated the fatten- means well founded. Not a few short- ing to the detriment of the milking prop- horns are red and white, the patches of erty, carrying on this one-sided develop- red and white being distinct from each ment much further than was either nec- other. This colour is also objected to, essary or desirable. It is thus by no and breeders strive to avoid it as far as means uncommon to meet with shorthorn possible. cows which are greatly deficient in milk Ch.aracteristies.—Enough has been production. Taking the breed as a said at the outset of this notice to indi- whole, however, it is still fairly satisfac- cate that the attributes of the shorthorns tory in this point, while the majority are of the very highest order. Indeed, both of pure-bred shorthorn cows and of in the production of meat and in general crosses from the breed are entitled to utility the shorthorn is unsurpassed. It rank as heavy milkers. Good shorthorn may be excelled by some other varieties cows give from 700 to 1000 gallons of in special aptitude for peculiar purposes, milk in twelve months, and occasionally or for certain limited districts, but for a much higher yields are obtained. combination of all the more useful proper- Weight and Early Maturity.—The ties of domestic cattle, as well as adap- improved shorthorn has fill through its tability to varying conditions of soil, cli- recorded history been noted for its pre- mate, and treatment, there is no other cocity. It grows rapidly, attains great breed of cattle that can equal the short- weight, and accumulates flesh and fat horn. With remarkable facility the with great rapidity. At the Smithfield shorthorn adapts itself to extremes of Fat Stock Show in December 1887, the soil, climate, and management, and this class of shorthorn steers under two years characteristic, combined as it is with old (averaging 672 days each), gave an another valuable property which the average live-weight of 1396 lb. Short- breed possesses in an unequalled degree— horn steers over two years and under namely, suitability for crossing with and three years of age (averaging 988 days) improving other and inferior races of averaged 1870 lb. ; while shorthorn steers cattle—has spread the improved short- over three years old (averaging 1321 horn far and wide, not only in the British days) gave an average live-weight of Isles, but also in many foreign lands. 2 1 16 lb. each. In North and South America, in the ^ " Shorthorns in Scotland and Ireland," ^ Chambers's Encydopcedia, article on " Cat- Journal Royal Agricultural Society of EnyUmd, " tle by James Macdonald. by James Macdonald. Vol. xix., part I., 1883. —; — HEEEFOED CATTLE. 409 Points of the Shorthorn.—The fol- improved Hereford, which is as widely lowing description of the points of the noted for its picturesqueness and beauty improved shorthorn is from the pen of as for its practical utility. the late Mr Henry Strafford, editor of Origin.—The generally accepted opin- Coates's Herd-Booh : " The head of the ion as to the origin of improved Hereford male animal is short, but at the same cattle is, that they trace directly from the time fine, very broad across the eyes, but aboriginal cattle of the county of Hereford gradually tapering to the nose, the nostril and adjoining districts. The improve- of which is full and prominent—the nose ment was begun far back in the eighteenth itself of a rich flesh-colour, neither too century, by the Tomkins family. There light nor too dark ; eyes bright and placid, is abundance of evidence to show that, as with ears somewhat large and thin. The early as 1766, it was taken up in a syste- head, crowned with a curved and rather matic manner by Benjamin Tomkins, who flat horn, is well set on to a lengthy, continued the work with great energy and broad, muscular neck ; the chest wide, success until his death in the year 18 15. deep, and projecting ; the shoulders fine, For four years after, his herd was main- oblique, and well formed into the chine tained by his daughters, and when it was fore legs short, with the upper arm large dispersed by public auction in 18 19, one and powerful; barrel round, deep, and year after the famous Barmpton sale of well ribbed up towards the loins and shorthorns, twenty-eight breeding animals hips, which should be wide and level; realised an average of jf 149 per head back straight from the withers to the four adult bulls bringing _3^267, 15s. each, setting on of the tail, but still short and two bull-calves ;£i8i, 2s. 6d. each. that is, from hip to the chine—the opinion Other early breeders of skill and enter- of many good judges being that a beast jjrise took up with commendable spirit should have a short back with a long the work which had been so well begun frame. As a consequence of this, the by Tomkins, and to their successful efforts hind quarter must itself be lengthy, but the Hereford farmers of to-day are in- well filled in. The hair is plentiful, soft, debted for a valuable race of rent-paying and mossy, with a hide not too thin, and cattle. in fact something approaching the feeling It is generally considered that infu- of velvet. The female enjoys nearly all sions of foreign blood have contributed to the same characteristics as the above, with some extent to the building up of the the exception of her head being finer, improved Hereford. In the history of longer, and more tapering; her neck this breed,2 it is mentioned that in the thinner, and altogether lighter ; and her seventeenth century cattle had been shoulders more inclined to narrow towards imported into Hereford from France by the chine. Like most well-proportioned Lord Scudamore, and that in later times animals, the shorthorn often looks smaller there have been introductions of stock than he really is." ^ into Hereford from various parts of Eng- A famous Shorthorn Cow of modern land and from Wales. Undoubtedly, times (1890) is represented in Plate 9, however, the dominant ingredient in the vol. i. Plate 10, vol. i., represents a improved Hereford is the aboriginal race Shorthorn Bull of 1850. Plate 11, vol. of the county—the same race of cattle i., represents a Shorthorn Ox of 1850; which, under different conditions of soil, and Plate 12, vol. i., Shorthorn Cows of climate, and management, have given 1840. us such breeds as the Devon and Sussex. HEREFORD CATTLE. Colour.—The colour of the improved Hereford is red with white face, white This handsome breed of cattle has its marks in the top line of the neck, back home in the English county whose name over the crops as well as in the chest it bears. No other variety of stock in and bottom line, all the way backwards. the British Isles displays more distinc- The white face has been well described tively marked characteristics than the as the " tribal badge " of the Hereford, ' " Article Shorthorn Cattle," Morton's Cij- 2 Jiistory of Hereford Cattle, by Macdonald dofcedia of Agriculture. and Sinclau-. Yintou & Co., Limited, London. 4IO BREEDS OF FARM LIVE STOCK. and we are told that this distinctive mark modern breeders have with good results is traceable to the infusion of foreign given careful attention to the removal of blood referred to. this deficiency. . . . Many animals of the breed were at " An important characteristic in Here- one time grey or spotted in the face, and ford cattle is that they carry flesh most even yet there exists a strain of Here- heavily on the parts of the frame from fords known as "Smoky-faced Mont- which the best meat is cut. Their broad gomerys." backs are usually loaded with meat of Characteristics.—The following notes the very finest, quality, and the average as to the characteristics of Hereford Hereford carcass is found to have its fat cattle are taken from the work already and lean mixed in the most admirable '^ " referred to : Hereford cattle are re- manner. Butchers and consumei-s alike markable for the distinctiveness and hold Hereford beef in the highest esteem. uniformity of their outward character- Indeed, the grass-fed Hereford beef en- istics and general attributes. The red joys quite an enviable reputation, and curly hair, and broad kindly - looking brings top figures in the best markets of white face, mark the trail of the Here- the country. . . . ford wherever the breed has roamed. In "Hereford cattle are unsurpassed as former times, as we have seen, the mottle- graziers. Robust in constitution, quiet faced and grey strains were cultivated; in temperament, kindly feeders, and but all these have disappeared, and now large growers, they thrive and fatten the ' white faces ' reign supreme. This admirably on pasture land." distinguishing feature would seem to be Milling Properties.—Dairying has indelibly stamped in the breed. . . . The not formed a prominent feature in the almost unique permanency of the white agriculture of Hereford. The milking face is the strongest possible evidence of properties of its native breed of cattle the purity of the Hereford breed. Heredi- have therefore been neglected. Hereford tary power is the surest sign of purity of cows, as a rule, are deficient as milkers, descent ; and it may be doubted if any the one special object of the breed being characteristic in any of our domesticated the production of high-class beef at an varieties of farm live stock is more firmly early age. fixed than the white face of the Here- Size and Weight.—In stature as well ford. . . . as in height the Hereford corresponds "In conformation, the breed displays very' closely to the shorthorn. At the nearly as much uniformity as in colour. Smithfield Fat Stock Show in London in The most striking features in this are December 1887 the class of Hereford their broad level back, deep wide chest steers under two years old (averaging and brisket, hanging dewlap, light thighs, 634 days) gave an average live-weight of and great wealth of flesh. We have 1390 lb.—6 lb. less than the average of often heard strangers remark upon what the corresponding class of shorthorns. some of them have designated the The average live -weight of Hereford 'wedgy' appearance of Herefords, their steers, over two and under three years of great development in front, broad loins, age (averaging 938 days) was 1742 lb.; and thin thighs. The light hind leg as while the steers over three years (aver- well as the great development in the aging 1 3 10 days) gave an average live- fore parts are heritages of the good old weight of 2041 lb. each. times when Herefords were beasts of Plate 13, vol. i., represents a noted burden, when they tilled the fields, and Hereford Bull. 'carried the harvest.' The broad iDack, wide rib, and wealth of flesh have been DEVON CATTLE. cultivated for the purpose of meat pro- duction; but the old characteristic of This breed has its headquarters in the light thighs, though less apparent than it counties of Devon and Somerset. There has been, is still a noticeable defect in it has held undisputed sway for hundreds many animals. The more successful of of years. It is the direct descendant of the aboriginal cattle of the south-west of ^ History of Hereford Cattle, p. 258. England, and has been bred in purity for — —; " ; DEVON CATTLE. 411 centuries. In some respects, indeed, the same, he prefers a small cow rather than "Eubies of the West," as these cattle a large one for breeding a bull, because are fondly designated by their admirers, it is very rare to see any very large one occupy a position which is almost unique. handsome ; but to breed oxen, a large Few breeds of live stock of which we have cow. To have them sharp and thin from any acquaintance have so long main- the throat to the nose ; in the throat the tained undisputed sway over their native cleanest have small variations from the districts as have the Devons ; and there perfect snake ; though fat there, it should are perhaps equally few that can lay not bag. To be thin under the eyes and claim to as long a career of prominent tapering to the nose, which should be usefulness. The history of the Devon white, but the original breed was yellow. breed of cattle does not cover a wide Between the eyes to be rather wide ; eyes extent of country, yet it stretches far themselves to be very prominent, like back in years, and is, locally, full of in- those of a blood-horse, and no change of terest and edification, bound up as it is colour round them. The horns to be in the agricultural development of the white, with yellow tips ; thin at root and counties of Devon and Somerset. long, spreading at the points. The Early Breeders.—^Arthur Young had breast or bosom should project as much evidently been fascinated by the Devon as possible before the shoulder and legs cattle, for he put himself to no little and the wider between the fore legs the trouble to obtain information regarding better. To have the line of the neck them for incorporation in his report, from the horns to the withers straight dated 1776. He mentions Mr Quartly with that of the backbone. The belly of Holland as the most celebrated of to be light and rather tucked up ; if fat the breeders at that time in North before the udder, it is a sign of a good Devon, and he gives details of an in- milker. terview which he had at MoUand with The Quartly Herd. — Any one who Mr Quartly (then spelt "Quarterly") knows the Devons of to-day would readily and his brother, "the clergyman who recognise in the ideal cattle thus por- interests himself much in live stock." trayed the true progenitor of the im- Young inspected their herd, and they l^roved breed. Intelligent breeders with had the goodness "to satisfy the in- so clear an ideal, so well defined a model, quiries" he troubled them with. He and the relation of all important points thus describes the aims and objects of so well reasoned out, could not fail to these noted early breeders : leave an almost indelible stamp upon "The points they have aimed at in the race on which they operated. No breeding have chiefly been to gain as wonder that the fame of the Quartly great a width as possible between the Devons still lives, for the efforts of Mr hips ; to have the hip-bones round and Quartly must have done much to mould not pointed; that the space from the the breed into the strongly set type catch to the hips should be as long as which it now displays. Young tells us possible ; the catch full, but not square ; that the points which he describes so that the tail should fall plumb, without fuUy are the points which these gentle- a projection of catch and rump; to have men considered desirable to breed for in the tail not set on high—not to rise Devon cattle, which "they consider as but be snug, and the line to be straight the best in England ; " and he adds, " Of with the backbone—no pillow just below their fattening qualities they observed the cross-line from pin to pin; to be that the Somerset graziers are the judges, thick through the heart under the chine who are known to prefer them. For that the shoulder-point be not seen—no working none can exceed them. As projection of bone, but to bevel off to the milkers they are represented as possess- neck, all elbowing out being very bad. ing much merit. They had two cows All the bones to be as small as possible that gave each 17 pints at a meal, and the rib-bones round, not flat ; the leg as would make in general 10^ lb. of butter small as possible under the knee ; not an per week in the flow of the season." The atom of the side to have any flatness. systematic improvement of Devon cattle In respect to size, if other points be the as a breed began with this Mr Quartly. — 412 BKEEDS OF FAEM LIVE STOCK. He stated to Young that his father had round, with a thick even padding of the begun breeding Devons about twenty very choicest of meat. " Plump as a years earlier—twenty years prior to 1776 Devon" is a frequent expression, and —and that he thought the breed there or there is no other breed of cattle, excep- elsewhere was no better then, or at any ting, perhaps, the Dexter variety of rate " two years ago," than it was when Kerry cattle—^when these are really well his father commenced, so Kttle progress fed—^which represents so fuUy the idea had there been made by any one in im- of plumpness as does the well-fattened proving the breed. About this time, " Eubies of the West." It is wonderful however, the demand for Devon cattle to see the great weight of carcass which began to increase, giving a stimulus to these little low-set cattle sometimes carry the good work so systematically taken in —who that have been in the habit of hand by Mr Quartly and a few other men attending fat stock shows have not been of "light and leading." struck with this ? And while the legs Down to this day the Quartly strains are short and fine, the expression of the are held in high esteem by all the face is bright and gentle, the clear promi- leading breeders. The value of the nent eye being encircled by an orange- work done by that family is well in- coloured ring. The head is comparatively dicated by that experienced and suc- small, with a broad indented forehead, cessful breeder, Mr W. Perry, when he tapering rapidly towards the nostrils, says, " When I use a bull of any other which are fine and clean. The horns of blood [than Quartly], I find instead of the female are long and spreading, with advancing one step forward I go two a graceful upward turn. The horns of steps backward." the buU are much thicker set, and often Colour and Characteristics.—Few more highly curved, than those of the cow, breeds of live stock display more striking and in some instances they stand out uniformity of colour and general charac- nearly square, with only a slight upward teristics than Devon cattle. The South inclination. Devons^those bred in the rich vaUey of Beef Produotioii.—As has been indi- Taunton Dene, are larger in the frame cated, the Devon cattle were in former and higher on the leg than the more times much esteemed for working proper- plump North Devon, which is the popular ties. In this respect they had scarcely type. Ked is the invariable colour, vary- an equal, but now cattle are worked so ing from a dark to a shade almost as seldom that this quality is hardly worthy light as chestnut. The nose, which once of consideration. As beef producers, was yellow, is now creamy white, and in however, Devon cattle enjoy quite a first- summer the skin is beautifully mottled class reputation. In certain circum- by dark spots. Some of the earlier stances, indeed, they could hardly be ex- breeders were very particular as to celled for this purpose. For the conver- colour. Lord Somerville, who gave sion of the hilly pastures of their native much information to Arthur Young re- districts, no other variety of cattle has garding the breed, states that he con- been found to equal them. It is, in fact, sidered much depended upon the colour. broadly asserted that from the consump- Those with curled hair were deemed tion of the herbage of any given number excellent provers, and he also held in of acres, Devons would produce in the much esteem those with a very glossy aggregate as much beef as any other mahogany skin, paler or lighter, " with breed, though a greater number would be curls like ripples of wind on a smooth required to consume it; while at the mill-pond." same time there would be a greater Plumpness.—The North or tyjiical weight of the most valuable beef, with " Devon is emphatically a big little ani- less of the coarse joints and oflfal. It is mal"—a large body upon short fine limbs well known that Devon beef, along with —small in comparison with the short- " prime Scotch " beef, brings the highest horn or Hereford, but weighing more price in the London market ; and another than either for its height. Its symmetry valuable property in the Devon is that, is admirable, and when mature in growth being small and active, it can forage well and condition its body is wide, deep, and —walk over much ground for its food — SUSSEX CATTLE. 413 so that it is peculiarly adapted for poor cattle as they were in the last century, pastures. The Devons have not migrated Mr Alfred Heasman, editor of the Sus- in any large numbers from their native sex Herd- Book, and author of an ac- districts, but in these they have never count of Sussex cattle in Coleman's been successfully assailed. Cattle, Sheep, and Pigs of Great Milking Properties.—Speaking gen- Britain, mentions the custom of the erally, it could not be said that the dairy farmers of West Sussex- attending the properties of Devon cattle are of a high fairs at Lewes and Battle in order to buy order. The quality of the milk is of the up the aged working oxen, which weighed very highest, but on an average the yield when fat a year later from 180 to 200 is not large, although many instances of stone. This was certainly a grand breed heavy yields are on record. Vancouver, on which to found a modern meat-pro- writing in 1808, mentions a cow which, ducing tjrpe. Mr EUman of Glynde, the although only three weeks from her time great improver of Sussex sheep, found of calving, yielded in seven successive the Sussex ox a long-legged, strong- days I'j}^ lb. of butter, several meals of boned, coarse, but useful beast of bur- the milk during these days averaging den; and after breeding and exhibiting 14 pints. In one day—and she was clean the native cattle vnth. great success for milked out the previous evening—Mr J. many years, and encouraging others to G. Davis's "Cherry" (5177) gave 33 pints do so, he left them much improved. of milk, from which 2 lb. 5 oz. of butter Still they were an old-fashioned sort. were made. A cow belonging to Mrs Their colour was either light or dark Stone, living at Catford, on Brendon red. The tjrpe was greatly improved Hill, often gave 2}^ lb. of butter per during the Ellman period, and in spite day, and it is recorded that this cow of the decay of the breed which we read milked till nearly twenty years old, was of in the prize report on Sussex farming then fattened slowly on grass alone, and in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural slaughtered, when her dressed carcass Society of England, 1850, several farm- weighed 800 lb. ers in the county, predecessors in some Weights.—The weights which Devon cases of the breeders and prize-winners cattle attain when fattened are small of the present day, still retained good compared with those credited to our herds. larger breeds, but, as already indicated, Coming down to more recent times, they are great for the apparent size of we find the breed taking high honours the cattle, while the percentage of dead at the Smithfield Club shows. The meat to live-weight is exceptionally high, first volume of the Sussex Herd-Booh and the amount of cheap meat relatively was published in 1879, but unfortun- small. Occasional animals of the breed ately it contains no introductory chap- have reached as much as 19 cwt. ter showing the exact steps which have live-weight at four years old, but the been taken in forming the present im- average is much below that. At the proved race. It is now so well under- Smithfield Fat Stock Show at London in stood that in the case of most improved December 1887, the class of two years old breeds of cattle and sheep judicious cross- Devon steers (averaging 681 days) gave ing has preceded selection, that Sussex an average live-weight of 1235 lb.; steers breeders would most probably be willing over two and under three years old to admit the depth of their repeated dips (averaging 996 days) 1489 lb. ; and steers into the Devon blood. The Eoyal Society over three years (averaging 1320 days) first gave separate prizes for Sussex cat- 1734 lb. each. tle at Leeds in 1861. Plate 14, vol. ii., represents a noted At the Paris exhibition of 1859 the modern Devon Bull. Sussex and Devon breeds were conjoined in competition, though it was agreed that SUSSEX CATTLE. they diflfered sufficiently to make such mixing undesirable. They ran neck and Mr Henry Evershed contributes the neck, however, the Devons winning in following notes on this breed : the class for bulls under two years old, Speaking of the old breed of Sussex and the Sussex in the old bull class. At 414 BEEEDS OF FAEM LIVE STOCK. Kilburn, in the same year, the persever- established a class of animals of great uni- ing exhibitors of this hardy, beef-making formity of character, which had lost the breed were highly complimented on unlevel outline that once distinguished their position, since their cattle, as stated them, and which retained immense length, by the reporters in the Journal of the with a carcass good enough for the most Royal Agricultural Society of England, fastidious West End butcher. The cows "formed one of the main features of are not behind the bulls in massive a generally splendid exhibition of the frames of well-balanced meat, surpassing bovine race." It was admitted by the in this respect all other breeds. It could reporters that the Sussex steers would, not be expected that such a conformation at two years of age, be as heavy as the of the females would be accompanied Devons at two years and six months, by good milking qualities, and as dairy though the comparative weight of the stock it must be admitted that the Sussex animals by no means decides the ques- breed is defective. tion of their comparative profit. Pass- As the showyard representatives of the ing on to the year 1881, when Sussex breed have for some years past been very cattle had already risen high in public numerous compared Vfith the total num- favour, the reporter of the live stock ber of Sussex cattle, they must have at Derby, in the Journal of the Royal stamped their character on the stock at Agricultural Society of England, assists large in a very marked degree, and for us in carrying on their history. " No this reason we have brought forward breed," he wrote, " has been so im- what may be styled official evidence of proved as the Sussex during the past the " vast progress " of the prize-winners thirty years. . . . Their form has at the Eoyal exhibitions and the Smith- been levelled up to fair and comely field Club shows. So able and impar- proportions, and their touch mellowed tial a reporter as Mr WilUani Macdonald, by happy selection ; and it is acknow- late editor of the North British Agri- ledged that in respect of early matur- culturist, said of them, after the York ity, as evidenced at the shows of the show of 1883, that with something like Smithfield Club, they are fast ap- the scale and outline of the shorthorn, they proaching to the standard of short- approached the Devon in uniformity and horns. Kentish and Sussex butchers quality of flesh. They are, said this prefer well - bred Sussex bullocks to authority, "grand beef-producing cattle, any others." and deserve a wider hold than they yet In the report of the judges after the possess of this meat-raising country." In Eeading show in the follpwing year, we regard to early maturity, Mr Macdonald find an acknowledgment of the merits of remarks of a victorious yearling heifer, a breed of cattle which had now become " Few animals of any breed, at the age, the observed of all observers, although a would scale with her, and vrithal she is few years previously breeders of Here- symmetrical." fords, shorthorns, and Devons had passed The least important characteristic of them by with a shrug of the shoulder. a breed of cattle probably is colour, but As the origin of a breed is always a we must nevertheless state that instead matter of interest and importance, we of the lighter or darker red, which are may mention that the experts just re- now fashionable with Devon breeders, ferred to spoke of them as big Devon- an intermediate or cherry colour is pre- like beasts ; but they described them as ferred by the fanciers of the Sussex having more size and a deeper colour, as cattle, indicating, they think, good flesh, being higher on the leg, and possessing good quality, and aptitude for fattening. less finish, less elegance, but a more It happens that the writer has recently robust appearance; adding to this de- inspected some of the best herds of scription, " they give one quite the idea Devon and Sussex cattle, and it seems of being of Devonshire extraction." The to him that the remarks of Captain same experts assigned to those enterpris- Davy, late editor of the Devon Herd- ing tenant-farmers, to whose successful Book, on the superior beauty of Ms enthusiasm the improvement of the breed favourite breed, though made as long was solely due, the full credit of having ago as 1863, are still applicable. The : SUSSEX CATTLE. 41S Sussex cattle are now, as they were then, are allowed to drop their calves all the less pleasing in appearance, coarser in year round. bone, with comparatively upright shoul- Among their other good qualities, the ders and less perfect form. The remarks uniform character of the breed is strong- of Captain Davy being quite dispassion- ly transmitted to the progeny of Sussex " ate, may be quoted as follows : It is bulls, when they are crossed with other not difficult to observe that the Devon- cattle. It is no slight merit that they shire and Sussex races are of the same can clear up the roughest pasturage, extraction; indeed so nearly do they bear hardships, and walk any distance resemble each other in colour and length without suffering. of horn that, if a stranger to the breeds Before concluding this brief account of were shown two animals, one a Devon, a breed of cattle which is even now far the other a Sussex, I doubt if he would too little known, it will be well to de- observe any material difference between scribe, as a typical animal, a bull bred them, except that the Sussex beast might by Messrs Stanford, and acknowledged appear rather the larger, or, as the to be the best Sussex bull ever shown. Swiss would say, the taller breed, from This is " Goldsmith," thus described in the greater length of the leg; but the the report of the live-stock York show, more experienced observer would dis- 1883 {Journal of Royal Agricultural " cover in him a larger and less finely Society of England) : With a brisket chiselled head, coarser eyelids, combined well down to the ground, this ponderous with a less pleasing expression of the bull is no more noteworthy in respect of eye, and a crescent-shaped upward horn, size, width, and length, than for levelness instead of the deer-like head and grace- and accumulation of flesh. He is aston- fully curved yellow-coloured horn of the ishingly coated, and retains his bloom Devon." wonderfully." The present owner of The hardiness of the Sussex breed is " Goldsmith " is Mr W. S. Forster of Gore acknowledged, but in this respect it is Court, Maidstone, in whose boxes the not perhaps superior to the Devons, which writer has seen " Goldsmith," still (1891) in their own county, in a humid climate, blooming in his twelfth year, with his are frequently wintered out of doors grandson " Mikado," which has been little from an early age, running at will in the if at all less successful in the showyard more sheltered of the pastures, with open than himself. sheds for their only lair. The following Mr Forster is now one of the most merits of the breed, set forth by an ex- distinguished breeders of Sussex cattle, cellent authority, cannot be disputed standing on a level in the great showyard " cross struggles The Sussex well with any breed ; with the Stanfords and Agates, by using the male, animal substance and and others among the older exhibitors. firmness of flesh are imported, and the He owns a herd of ninety-two, and there colour of the ofispring is generally red. can hardly be a more interesting pastoral They are of themselves a hardy breed, scene than the herd in the grass fields and have been found to surpass all others round his house on a fine day in summer, in the poorest pastures of their native when the glossy rich coats of the animals county." He adds, "The cows are not shine in the sun. Mr Forster has found good milkers; those with the heaviest that in pastures of moderate quality Sus- flesh are the worst, but produce sufficient sex cattle do better than any other kind. to rear their calf." Then follows a good They are very large in frame, hardy and " hint in regard to management : The robust in constitution, and, as a rule, very most successful way of breeding is to gentle and tractable. His heifers are sent calve them down in October and Novem- to the bull at two years old, and the pro- ber, let them have their own calf through geny run with their mothers in the pas- the winter, which can be weaned in the tures till they are six or seven months spring and another calf put to the cow. old. The hardihood of the breed is If managed in this way, each cow will maintained by the treatment of those rear two calves, and the number of animals which are not in training for the " barreners be greatly diminished ; and shows, the cows (when their calves are barreners are sure to follow when cows weaned), as well as the two-year-old 4i6 BEEEDS OF FARM LIVE STOCK. heifers in calf, running out alike in sum- fattened to above 50 stone (14 lb.); mer and winter, day and night, having, the milk-veins remarkably large; cows however, a yard and sheds where they upon good land give a great quantity of can find shelter at will. The cows, with rich milk." calves by their side, also run out summer From these useful native cattle the and winter, unless the weather is very improved Red Polls have been built up, severe, but the calves are taken in at entirely, it may be said, by selection in night in winter. The yearling steers and breeding and by judicious treatment. heifers are wintered in yards, and fed on Characteristics.—The improved Red straw and roots and a little cake, so as Polls are considerably larger than their to bring them on steadily. progenitors were at the beginning of the It should be added that the butchers nineteenth century. They are still uni- of Kent and Sussex prefer the Sussex formly red in colour, but without the bullocks to any others ; and this is not mottled face spoken of by Marshall. a mere prejudice, for amongst a large They are good beef producers, and, as number of prize beasts of the Smithfield has already been indicated, are possessed show of 1888, a Sussex bullock came out of excellent dairy properties. Indeed, it best in the proportion of dressed carcass is with good reason contended that there to live-weight. This bullock was a steer is no other variety of cattle in the British a few days less than three years old. Its Isles which in so high a degree combines dressed carcass weighed 1422 lb., and fattening and dairy properties. the percentage of dressed carcass to gross No doubt. Shorthorn cows will be live-weight was 71.67. found to exceed Red Polled cows in the An improved Sussex Cow is repre- yield of milk ; but, taken as a whole, the sented in Plate 16, vol. ii. latter are superior to the rank and file of Shorthorn cows. The Eed Polls, NOEFOLK AND SUFFOLK RED POLLED moreover, are hardy docile cattle, mature CATTLE. at a moderately early age, and are on the whole an eminently thrifty and profitable Amongst the native cattle of England class of cattle. the Norfolk and Suffolk Red Polled Yield of Milk.—Mr Thomas Fulcher, breed stands highest for dairying pur- one of the most successful breeders of poses. The Eed Polls are handsome Red PoUs, states " that many good cows symmetrical animals of medium size. yield from 45 to 50 lb. of milk: per day Origin. — They bear a close resem- for five months after calving, and they blance to the polled cattle of Scotland, and have not that tendency to go dry which from the fact that in former times Scotch belongs to the Alderney, Ayrshire, and cattle were in large numbers transported the Shorthorn. It not unfrequently for fattening in Norfolk, it is assumed happens that a cow will continue to give that this likeness in form arises in some milk from one calving to another." The part from kinship in blood. Be this as Red Polled cattle have been exported in it may, however, the Red Polled breed considerable numbers to foreign countries. can be traced as a distinct and well-de- A modern Red Polled Bull is repre- fined variety far back into the eighteenth sented in Plate 15, vol. ii. century. In his Review of Norfolk, pub- lished in 1782, Marshall states that the LONG-HORNED CATTLE. native cattle of the county were " a small hardy thriving race, fattening as freely This ancient and characteristic breed at 3 years old as cattle in general do at of cattle would seem to be approach- 4 or 5. They are small-boned, short- ing extinction. It was the first breed legged, round-barrelled, well-loined, the upon which Bakewell, the great pioneer favourite colour a blood-red, with a white breeder of farm live stock, began his and mottled face." experiments in the improving of cattle. Writing twelve years later, Arthur These experiments were begun as early Young says, the Suffolk breed of cattle as 1755, and from that year dates the "is universally polled—that is, without breeding of farm live stock upon scien- horns; the size small, few rise when tific principles. — — POLLED ABEKDEEN-ANGUS CATTLE. 417 Tlie Long-horned cattle at one time British Isles, but also in many foreign existed in large numbers throughout lands. The breed is as much thought England, chietiy in the Midland counties. of abroad as in its native regions in the They were also introduced into Ireland, north-east of Scotland. It is gradually but long ago they have been supplanted extending into England and Ireland, and at one point after another by the Short- has been exported in large numbers to horns or some other variety, and now the foreign countries, chiefly to the United last few remnants of the breed are to be States and Canada. found in the Midlands of England. Origin. — It is established beyond The Long-horns are big, long, rather doubt that the improved Aberdeen-Angus ungainly cattle, with long drooping horns, cattle are the direct descendants of the which are often so shaped as to make it ancient polled cattle of " Angus " and difficult for the animals to graze short " Buchan," two varieties 6f cattle of the pasture. The cows are fair milkers, and same type known in the former district the bullocks attain great weight. In the as "Doddies," and in the latter as general properties of rent-paying stock, "Humlies." The history of this breed however, they are surpassed by most has been traced fully in a volume pub- other improved breeds ; and although we lished in 1882 ; and those who are inter- look upon them with a kindly historic ested either in the descent of this par- interest, it must now be reluctantly ad- ticular breed, or of polled cattle gene- mitted that there is little reason for their rally, may be referred to that work."- continued existence. Early Improvement. — It is stated in that volume that there is good reason POLLED ABERDEEN-ANGUS CATTLE. to believe that both in Aberdeen and in Angus the systematic efforts to improve Amongst the polled varieties of cattle, the breed had begun some time before the Aberdeen-Angus breed is by common the advent of the present century. In consent allowed the first position. No Angus, the first improver was the late race of British farm live stock has made Mr Hugh Watson, farmer, Keillor, Meigle. more progress since the middle of the In Aberdeenshire, the work which was nineteenth century than this famous race so well begun by Mr Watson was taken of beef-producing cattle. At the great up heartily and methodically, and with International Exhibition at Paris in 1878, great advantage to the interests of the the late Mr William M'Combie of Tilly- breed, by the late Mr Wm. M'Combie of four carried off the champion prize for Tillyfour, who has been justly described the best group of meat-producing cattle. as the " great deliverer " of the polled His victorious group consisted of five race—a distinction which he earned by black polls, all of his own breeding ; and the fact that when the fast-spreading when it is remembered that no fewer popularity of the Shorthorn threatened than sixty different varieties of cattle the extermination of local breeds, j\Ir including the best of the English breeds M'Combie came to the rescue of his —were represented in that memorable favoured race of Aberdeen polls, holding contest, it will be understood that the to them against all comers, and as we triumph gained by Mr M'Combie and have already seen, carrying them through his favourite polls was one of no ordi- to world-wide renown. nary importance. That great victory has Characteristics.—Prom the work on been followed up by repeated successes at the history of the breed already referred the annual fat stock shows at Birming- to we take the following extracts as to ham and London—representatives of the the attributes of the improved piolled breed having won the ;^ioo Champion Aberdeen-Angus cattle : Plate at the London Christmas Fat Stock " In general form a model polled shows in 1881, 1885, and 1887. These animal differs considerably from a model great achievements, backed up as they shorthorn. Both should be lengthy. have been by the undeniably high char- acter of the Northern polls as beef-pro- ^ History of PoRed Aberdeen or Angus Cattle. ducing animals, have won for the breed By James Macdonald and James Sinclair. W. high esteem, not only throughout the Blackwood & Sons. —; 4i8 BEEEDS OF FAEM LIVE STOCK. deep, wide, even, proportionate, and should lie well backwards, fitting neatly cylindrical. The polled animal, how- into the body, and not lying awkwardly ever, should be more truly cylindrical in outside it : they should show no undue the body than the shorthorn. Its points prominence on the shoulder-top, on the should be more quickly rounded off ; or, points, or at the elbow. An upright in other words, the frame of the polled shoulder in cattle is generally accom- animal is not so fully drawn out to the panied by a light waist—an important, square as that of the shorthorn. Critics and in all breeds a much too common, have pointed out in some of the best defect. The chest should be wide and polled animals now or recently living, a deep, so as to give plenty of room for tendency to approach too nearly to the lung-development. The bosom should square type of the shorthorn. In a beef- stand well forward between the fore- producing animal, a broad square frame legs, and underneath should be well can hardly be said to be a blemish ; for covered with flesh and fat. The crops if it is thoroughly well covered all over, should be full and level, with no falling it win carry more beef than a rounder off behind them; the ribs well sprung, frame. A compact well-rounded frame, springing out barrel - like, and neatly however, has always been a leading char- joined to the crops and loins ; the back acteristic of the polled breed; and the level and broad; the loins broad and main reason why a square shorthorn- strong; the hook-bones not too wide looking frame is objected to in a polled narrower than in an average shorthorn animal is, that such a form is foreign to the quarters long, even, and rounded, the breed, and therefore apt to arouse with no hollow from the hooks to the suspicions of impurity. The admirers of tail ; the tail should come neatly out of the breed claim for it valuable natural the body, not too far up the back, and properties not found to an equal extent not higher at the root than the line of in any other breed ; and they fear that the back. A high tail-head was to some should the breed lose its characteristi- extent characteristic of the ancient polled cally natural appearance, it may also lose breed, but it is one of the defects that its superiority— in those valuable pro- are being gradually removed by the more perties ' the genuine article should scientific systems of breeding now pur- always bear its trade-mark.' Careful sued. improvers of the breed are specially par- " Some good polled cattle, too, have ticular as to the hind quarters. While been found to show a development of they aim at developing long, level, thick, soft worthless flesh and fat on the rounds deep quarters, they also strive to retain behind ; but that defect, which is dis- the rounded appearance which was origi- liked very much, is also almost obliter- nally one of the dominant characteristics ated. The tail should hang straight of the breed. down, close to the body all the way till " The head of the polled male should it comes near to the level of the flank. not be large, but should be handsome On both sides of the tail the quarters and neatly set on. The muzzle should should turn away in a rounded manner, be fine ; the nostrils wide ; the distance swelling out downwards, and ultimately from th« nostrils to the eyes of only passing into thick deep thighs. The moderate length; the eyes mild, large, twist should be full, and the hind legs and expressive ; the poll high ; the ears set well apart, and not detached from of fair size, lively, and well covered with the body until the level of the flank is hair ; the throat clean, vsdth no develop- reached. The flank should be fuU and ment of skin and flesh beneath the jaws, soft, so that a good handful may be got which should not be heavy; the neck out of it. The bottom line should be as pretty long, clean, and rising from the even as the top and side lines ; and the head to the shoulder-top, and surmounted bones of the legs fine, flat, and clean, by a moderate ' crest,' which contributes with plenty of muscle and flesh above to masculine appearance — a desirable the knees on the fore legs. The body point in a bull. The neck should pass should stand neatly and gracefully on neatly and evenly into the body, with the legs; and when the animal is station- full neck -vein. The shoulder - kades ary, the fore legs should be perfectly ;; POLLED ABERDEEN-ANGUS CATTLE. 419 straight, and tlie hind legs very slightly and Hereford, have been developed to so bent forwards below the hock. All over high a degree, it could not be expected the frame there should be a rich and that with anything like unanimity any even coating of flesh. Even the hook- one breed would be accorded the premier bones, and other prominent parts, should position. Be that as it may, we think be well covered; and above all, there the polled Aberdeen or Angus breed may should be no patchiness — no hollows, safely be said to be inferior to none as and no rolls of hard flesh, with spaces of all-round beef cattle, and superior to all soft useless fat between them, such as others in some respects. The brilliant are always found in a patchy animal. and unequalled position it has latterly Except in rare cases, the skin is fairly taken, alike in the show-yard and market- thick, but soft and pUable : it ought to place, sufBciently establishes its claim to be so free over the ribs as that one could that description. Its show-yard achieve- fill one's hand of it. The hair is, as a ments will be fully noticed afterwards. rule, not long, but fairly thick and soft Here it may be noted, that at the Paris and in the best animals shows two Exhibition in 1878 it carried off every growths, or rather two lengths — one single honour for which it was entitled short and thick, and the other longer to compete, including the ;£ioo piize and thinner. When walking, a good for the best group of beef-producing animal of the breed presents a very com- cattle in the Exhibition ; and that in pact, graceful, and symmetrical appear- British show-yards, both fat stock and ance. Indeed it is fairly enough claimed breeding, it has attained to a leading for the breed that in these and in some position. In a strictly butcher's point other respects it has hardly any equals, of view, it has very seldom to yield to and no superiors. The above description any other race of cattle. refers more correctly to bulls than to " The superiority over most other cows. The latter, of course, differ con- breeds, for the butcher's purpose, lies siderably in character. The head is mainly in the excellent quality of beef, much finer, the neck thinner and cleaner, and in the high percentage of dead-meat with no crest ; the shoulder-top sharper to live-weight. As a rule, the beef of the bone altogether finer; the skin not the northern polls is very well mixed, quite so thick; the udder large, and and contains a greater proportion of com- milk-vessels large and well defined. pact, finely grained flesh, and less soft, " In appearance, as well as in other coarse fat, than most other kinds of beef. characteristics, the polled Aberdeen or Inside, the carcass is usually well lined Angus breed differs substantially from with fat of the finest quality ; while in the polled GaUoway race. The former the density and quality of the carcass has lived under a dry cold climate, and itseK, the breed may fairly enough claim has been fed in the house during a large the premier position among all our lead- part of the year. The latter has its ing breeds of cattle. Some place the home in a moist climate, and has spent small Devon breed alongside, if not even much more of its time in the open fields. before it, in this respect ; but with that The differences between the two are just exception, we do not think that any such as might be expected from their other breed in the British Isles will on different conditions of life. The Gallo- an average yield so high a percentage of way, as already noted, has a thicker skin dead-meat to live-weight. In butcher's ' ' ' and stronger coat of hair, and has alto- phraseology, it dies ' well and cuts up gether a slightly more shaggy appearance admirably. In all the leading fat-stock than the northern polled cattle, and does markets in the country the breed is held not mature quite so quickly. in high estimation, and, as a rule, com- " It is claimed that the northern poll mands the very highest prices—in fact, surpass all other races of cattle in the generally a higher price in comparison to production of beef. On that point there its size and live-weight than any of the is, of course, considerable difference of other leading breeds. This is especially opinion ; for at the present day, when the case at the great Smithfield Christ- the beef-producing properties of our other mas Market in London, where the plump leading breeds, notably the shorthorn compact polls from the north never fail 420 BKEEDS or FAEM LIVE STOCK. to find a ready sale at the Hghest history been infused into the breed from quotations." any outside quarter whatever, must no In tlie direction of early maturity this doubt be traced one of its most marked breed has in recent years made marked and valuable characteristics—viz., the progress. At several of the large recent extraordinary impressiveness of the Fat Stock shows it has surpassed all breed." other breeds in this respect. At the Characteristics of the Galloway.— London Christmas Fat Stock show in Galloways are black and hornless like December 1887 the class of polled Aber- the polled Aberdeen Angus cattle. From deen steers two years old (averaging the latter they differ substantially, how- 667 days in age) gave an average live- ever, not merely in outward features, but weight of 1475 lb., while steers over also in their inherent characteristics. two years and under three years (averag- The two breeds are similar in size ; the ing 984 days) gave an average live-weight Galloway is the more shaggy and muscu- of 1874 lb. lar in appearance, has a thicker hide and Colour.—Black is the all-prevailing a ranker coat of hair, and is perhaps on colour of the Aberdeen - Angus cattle. the whole the hardier of the two. Aber- Formerly red was by no means uncom- deen-Angus cattle, however, have a mon. Occasionally a red caH is still decided advantage in regard to early dropped, but it is an unwelcome visitor, maturity, and to their adaptability for and is seldom allowed to "stay." house-feeding. Plate 17, vol. ii., represents a noted For grazing the Galloways are especi- Polled Aberdeen-Angus Bull. ally renowned, and for this purpose they have long been eagerly sought after both GALLOWAY CATTLE. in England and Scotland, while in later years they have gained considerable This hardy and picturesque breed of popularity in the ranches of the Western black polled cattle takes its name from States of America. the south-west of Scotland. There it is Milking Properties.—Galloway cows, believed it has existed for centuries, com- as a rule, are below the average in the ing down to us with a long line of pure production of milk. descent. The dairy properties of the breed have Origin.—The origin of the Galloway never been systematically cultivated, and cattle is lost in the mists of antiquity. many of the cows give a very small Yet enough is known to'justify its claim quantity of milk. As a rule, however, to rank as one of the oldest and most the milk is exceptionally rich in quality. distinguished of the British breeds of Plate 18, vol. ii., represents an im- live stock. They are referred to by proved Galloway Bull. several writers as having exhibited great excellence as grazing cattle about the AYESHIRE CATTLE. beginning of the nineteenth century. As to the more recent progress of the Of all the native British breeds of breed, the Eev. John Gillespie, writing cattle, the Ayrshire is the most valuable, in 1886, says: "The improvement made judged exclusively from the dairy far- in the breed during the last sixty years mer's point of view. The production of has been very great. This is an era milk is the one special function of the within the memory of living men, and Ayrshire, and this it fulfils in so admi- there has never been the slightest shadow rable a manner as to have earned the of a doubt cast upon the fact that it has highest estimation of dairy farmers. Al- been brought about by the identical though it has its headquarters in the means employed last century—viz., by county whose name it bears, the breed systematic and skilful mating of the is now vridely diffused throughout the best specimens of both sexes, and also by south - west of Scotland, while it has attention to diet and general manage- spread into England and Ireland, as well ment. To the early improvement of the as into many foreign countries. Galloways, and to the further fact that Origin. — There is much uncertainty no blood has at any period of their as to the origin of the Ayrshire breed. WEST HIGHLAND CATTLE. 421 The most generally accepted idea is that spine at the shoulders, straight back, its progenitors were of Dutch extraction. wide hook -bones placed the same dis- It has been located in the south-west of tance from outline of tail as from the Scotland for a very long period of time, fore rib ; the ribs well sprung and gradu- and has been there bred in its purity ally deepening backwards, hind quarters with the greatest success. There is long, broad, and straight ; soft elastic abundance of evidence to show that it skin, with the whole body set on short had established its name as a distin- legs, and exhibiting throughout fineness guished dairy breed of cattle in the of bone. The teats should be well set, south-west of Scotland before the close of moderate length and thickness, and of the eighteenth century. the milk-vessel not fleshy, but large and Ch.araoteriBtios.—The prevailing col- capacious, well up to the escutcheon be- ours of the Ayrshire are brown and hind, level with the belly, and the milk- white, each colour being distinctly de- veins on the abdomen showing largeness fined. Some, however, are almost entire- and superior development. The animal ly white, while others are almost wholly should be a free, jaunty mover, exhibit- brown. Ayrshires are wide, low -set ing style and grace in her actions." cattle, with long horns curving upwards. A noted modern Ayrshire Cow is illus- Their beef-producing properties are not trated in Plate 19, vol. ii. of a high order, and if it were improved in this respect without materially deteri- WEST HIGHLAND CATTLE. orating its milking properties, the pop- ularity of the Ayrshire throughout the This singularly handsome breed, often country would be vastly increased. spoken of as the " Kyloe," has its head- Writing of Ayrshire cows, Professor quarters on the high - lying farms of the " Primrose M'Connell says : They will counties of Argyll, Perth, and Inverness. cost ;^i5 per head to lay in; will cost Amongst all the many varieties of British ^iS P^r annum to feed ; will yield about cattle there is none more handsome than ;;^20 of produce, which will be over 600 the typical West Highlander. It is quite gallons of milk per annum, shovring 3.5 as handsome in form as the improved to 4 per cent of fats, 12 to 15 per cent of Shorthorn, is almost as large in size, and cream, I2j4 per cent of solids, and 200 with its rank, shaggy coat of hair, long, lb. of butter per annum ; and she will spreading, gracefully turned horns, hardy sell when fat at ^12 to ;^iS. Her muscular appearance and defiant gait, hardiness will enable her to live and to throws all other varieties of cattle into thrive in exposed situations and on scanty the shade in picturesqueness and beauty. fare ; while when taken south, if she gets Origin.—The prevailing idea as to the plenty of good water to drink, and is not origin of West Highland cattle is that pampered with too much good food, she they are descended, and that in a direct will do better, and will repay the outlay unadulterated line, from the ancient and trouble." ^ native cattle of the districts still regarded Mr William Bartlemore gives the fol- as the home of the breed. It is gene- lowing description of a typical Ayrshire rally considered that the Wild White cow : "The Ayrshire cow of the present Cattle of Chillingham, the Wild Cattle day is a fully medium-sized beast, with in Hamilton Park, the useful little Kerry wide upstanding clear horns and body of Ireland, and the West Highland cattle somewhat wedge-shaped. What breeders of Scotland, are the purest representa- have universally aimed at in order to en- tives of the ancient cattle of the British sure the highest milking qualities was to Isles. produce an animal with a body light be- Characteristics. — The West High- fore, and heavy behind, with capacious land breed exhibits considerable variety udder. The leading characteristics of a in size, form and colour. The strains desired specimen are a nice clean short which are reared in the South-Western head, full lively eyes, clean long neck, Highlands are much larger than those broad but clean chest, well-developed which have their home in the higher and bleaker mountain-ranges of the northern ' Live Stock General Altnanac, 1886, p. 112. counties. The former are also the more —; ; 422 BKEEDS OF FAEM LIVE STOCK. handsome, and in all respects the more Origin.—It is generally acknowledged profitable class of cattle. The prevail- that nowhere in the British Isles is there ing colour is dun or yellow, of various a purer representation of the smaller shades, but many of the animals are black varieties of the aboriginal cattle of Nor- or brindled, and a few are dark red. thern Europe than is provided in the The West Highlanders are slow in Kerry cattle of Ireland. They are the growth, and equally slow in taking on smallest of the many varieties of British flesh and fat. When fully matured for cattle, and none possess more distinctive the butcher, however, they sell readily, features or more certain marks of purity and bring a high price per cwt. Their of descent. Their individuality is indeed beef is well mixed, choicely flavoured, very striking, and although small in size and is in high repute amongst the best and slow in maturing, they are most class of butchers. Like all other breeds, useful cattle in their own proper sphere. they have in recent years made some The breed has its headquarters in the progress in the matter of early maturity. bleak steep hills of county Kerry, where As a rule, however, they are not fully it has had to subsist upon scanty fare, matured until four years old. exposed to wind and rain, with little The West Highland is the hardiest artificial shelter or attention of any kind. breed of cattle known to exist. They This untoward treatment has of course live and thrive on exposed heather and told its inevitable tale. It has cramped hilly ranges on which no other variety the stature of the cattle, and made them of cattle could maintain an existence. slow in maturing; but it has also en- For Highland districts, therefore, the dowed them with a sound constitution breed possesses a special value, while and exceptional hardiness, as well as the they are also in request for stocking rare and useful faculty of existing and gentlemen's parks, where, as might be feeling happy on small fare. Proverbially, expected, their picturesque appearance Irishmen make the best of emigrants. is highly appreciated. A similar property can be claimed for In his work on domestic animals. Low the Irish national breed of cattle ; for the gives the following description of a typi- little Kerry "adapts itself readily and " cal West Highlander : The neck should agreeably to change of scene, and seems be strong and muscular, the forehead as much at ease in the wooded parks of rather broad, and the nose from the eyes England as on the rocky heights of its to the muscle somewhat short ; a dewlap Irish home." By degrees Kerry cattle should exist as a character of the breed are making their way into England, the eyes should be prominent and clear, where they are found specially useful on the horns should be of a good length poor land and in small family dairies. without approaching to coarseness, spread- Tlie Typical Kerry. — In outward ing and tipped with black. . . . Their form Kerry cattle are somewhat similar limbs are short, though muscular ; their to the cattle of Brittany, fully as high, chests wide and deep, their ribs well but rather more slender and deer-like. arched, and their backs as straight as in The Kerry is active and graceful, long any other breed. The neck, indeed, and and light in the limb, head small and dewlap, seem somewhat coarse in the fine, throat and neck slight and clean, bull; but these are characteristics indi- eyes prominent and keen, horns turned cative of their mountain state, and almost upwards, and white vidth black tip; all their other points are what breeders shoulders ' thin and sloping, and sharp would term good." on the top; chest fairly wide, back Plate 20, vol. ii., represents a modern straight, but rather narrow; ribs West Highland Cow and Calf. fairly well sprung, barrel not deep, hooks wide, quarters long but often KERRY CATTLE. uneven ; tail - head sometimes rather high, tail slight and long, thighs thin As has been already indicated, Ireland udder large in size and weU. shaped, being claims only one pure breed of cattle full behind and carried well forward; namely, that which takes its designation milk-veins full and well defined, skin from the rugged mountains of Kerry. moderately thick and mellow, colour — , ;: KERKY CATTLE. 423 usually black, but some have white spots whether we have any breed of cattle in underneath, and now and again a red this country which will beat the Kerry Kerry is seen. The bull is thick, straight, in the return in milk and butter from fine in the skin, with good masculine a given quantity of food. Youatt gave head and neck. Many of the animals the Kerry cow a high character, and yet have curiously "cocked" horns, first he was well justified in what he said projecting forwards and then taking a " Truly the poor man's cow, living every- peculiar turn backwards—caused, says where, hardy, yielding for her size abun- an Irish wag, by the strong winds the dance of milk of a good quality, and cattle have to face in mounting the fattening rapidly when required." Kerry hills ! An increasing demand for exporta- The Dexter.—^The animal just de- tion and neglect of the breed at home scribed is the typical Kerry. The " Dex- seemed to endanger its existence. Just ter," a distinct branch of the same breed, in time, however, a movement has taken is an animal of a very different type shape for the cultivation and improve- much shorter in the leg, thick and plump ment of the breed. A herd-book has in the body ; indeed, in all respects, ex- been established, and the interests of the cepting that of size, an admirable sample breed are at last being well looked after. of a beef-producing animal. If less ele- Mr Robertson's Herd.—For many gant and "milky" looking than the years Mr James Robertson, La Mancha, typical Kerry, the Dexter is decidedly Malahide, Co. Dublin, was the most suc- more sjonmetrical ; and if increased in cessful exhibitor of both Kerries and size, as by selection in breeding and Dexters, and his valuable herd has sup- liberal treatment it might soon be, it plied breeding stock to many admirers of would be found to be a very profitable the breed in England as well as in foreign class of stock, very hardy and docile, countries. easily fattened, and producing beef of the An average Kerry cow under favour- very choicest quality. able conditions will yield from 12 to 13 The origin of the Dexter variety, so quarts of milk daily, and very little over distinct from the parent stem, is some- 10 quarts of milk will give one pound of what uncertain. The prevailing im- butter. Mr Robertson's famous prize pression is that it resulted from a cross cow " Rosemary," afterwards the property introduced upon the Kerry, bred by a of Mr Martin J. Sutton, of Kidmore gentleman of the name of Dexter between Grange, Reading, was one of the most 1830 and 1840; but there is no actual handsome Dexters we have ever seen. record of this, and no information vouch- Her height at the shoulder was only 3 feet safed as to what breed had been resorted 4 inches, and yet behind the shoulders to for the cross. Others believe and she girthed 5 feet 7 inches, her length contend that Mr Dexter established his from the shoulder-top to the tail-head favourite variety entirely by selection in being 3 feet 9 inches ; and what is more breeding. Be this as it may, it is certain remarkable still, her udder when in full that he succeeded in stamping the milk girthed no less than 34 inches. Dexter type very firmly upon the cattle, Ijive--weiglits. —Mr Pierce Mahony, for there is now as much fixity of type of Kilmorna, has made efforts to increase and character in the Dexter variety as in the size of the Kerry cattle, and the the true Kerry itself. following figures giving the live-weights Ch.araeteristies.—Irish farmers have of a few of his animals will show that he paid little attention to the Kerry breed, has made some progress : Bull, 2 years and thus have neglected their own in- 8 months and 2 weeks old, 8 cwt. i qr. terests. The breed certainly possess bull, 15 months old, 5 cwt. 2 qrs. 7 lb. characteristics which, with careful culti- bull, 12 months old, 4 cwt. 1 qr. 15 lb.; vation, would earn for them an excellent bull, &]/2 months old, 4 cwt. 2 qrs. ; cow, reputation as rent-pajdng stock. They aged 4 years, 6 cwt. 2 qrs. 7 lb. ; heifer, are specially adapted for high cold situ- 2 years and 2 months old, 6 cwt. 21 lb. ations where food is not too plentiful. heifer, 14 months old, 4 cwt. Kerry As dairy cattle they have gained a good cattle fatten readily on moderately good name. Indeed it may be doubted treatment, and they are well liked by 424 BREEDS OF FARM LIVE STOCK. butchers, who can readily dispose of in 1887 the class of Welsh steers gave their handy little cuts of sweet whole- an average live-weight of 2111 lb., their some meat. average age having been 1286 days. A Pamily Cow.—The Kerry or Dex- ter cow is admirably adapted for the SHETLAND CATTLE. villa dairy—for those who have only a smaU. plot of grass, and yet would wish The native cattle of the Shetland and to indulge in the unspeakable delights Orkney Islands are quite distinct in of a cow of their own. The hardy and character from the races in the mainland. docile Kerry will thrive well in the house They show a considerable resemblance to or on the lawn, and will give a bountiful the Kerry cattle of Ireland, and, like return of delicious cream and butter. these hardy animals, are well adapted to In England Kerries are making their their surroundings. way in the family dairy. There are They are small in size, and, as a rule, now several large herds of Kerries and not of a high character. The true Shet- Dexters in England, one of the largest land cow, however, is a handsome animal, and most select being that which Mr with fine brown mellow skin and silky Martin John Sutton has established at hair. On the poor scanty feeding which Kidmore Grange, Reading. Mr Sutton she generally obtains she gives a wonder- drew principally from the La Mancha fully rich yield of milk. herd, and his stock have thriven so well with him that it is doubtful if even in JERSEY AND GUERNSEY CATTLE. Ireland itself there is a herd of higher average merit. Mr Sutton's fancy leans The valuable breeds of the islands of to the Dexter, and he has bred some . Jersey and Guernsey have been imported excellent rejjresentatives of this variety. into England and Ireland in large num- Plate 21, vol. ii., represents improved bers during recent years. Wbere the Kerry and Dexter-Kerry Cows. chief object is the production of milk of a rich quality, these cattle are highly WELSH CATTLE. esteemed, and they are steadily growing in favour in the British Isles. In the principality of Wales several Origin.—There is hardly any doubt varieties of cattle have existed from time that, although the Jersey and Guernsey immemorial, all of them derived from breeds are now so different in appearance, the aboriginal cattle of the country. At they were descended from one common least four varieties are generally spoken origin. Be that as it may, it is known of—namely, the Pembroke, Glamorgan, that they have been bred in absolute Anglesea, and the Merioneth cattle. purity in their respective islands for up- The first -named has generally been wards of one hundred years. In each regarded as the best. Although these breed the type is fixed with remarkable varieties present considerable diversity , firmness, showing that the family current of type and character, there is all through has all the strength of concentrated them a noticeable family likeness, sup- breeding for a long period of time. porting the belief in their common Ch.araeteristics.— The Jersey and origin. Guernsey breeds are both essentially dairy Characteristics.—The Welsh cattle cattle. They give an abundant yield of are generally black in colour, with long rich, highly coloured milk. The Jersey horns, hardy in constitution, slow in is the smaller of the two, and is a delicate, maturing, but able to subsist and thrive attractive-looking animal, of a graceful upon scanty fare. Many of the cows are deer-like form. It is of little value for excellent milkers. In recent years the the production of beef, but its milking best of the varieties have been greatly properties are of a remarkably high order. improved, especially in their fattening When in full milking, whole herds of p)roperties. Jersey cows give an average oi g}^ lb. The larger strains attain great weight of butter each cow per week, an excep- when from three to four years old. At tional cow occasionally giving as much the London Christmas Fat Stock Show as 16 lb. of butter in one week. Good SHEEP—LEICESTERS. 425 Jersey cows yield from 500 to 700 gallons Eomney Marsh sheep are useful animals of milk and from 300 to 350 lb. of butter of the long-woolled variety. In the moun- in twelve months. tain districts of West Somerset and North The Guernsey is larger in size than the Devon the Exmoor breed is highly Jersey, is a trifle hardier, and on the esteemed. whole more generally useful. Guernsey The Lonk breed of sheep, somewhat cows occasionally give over 800 gallons resembling the Scotch Blackfaced sheep, of milk in twelve months. A noted cow, are kept in several parts of Lancashire, when 6 years old, gave 2 2j^ lb. of Yorkshire, and Derby, chiefly on the butter in seven days, her daily yield of higher and poorer pastures. The Eye- milk at that time being 19 quarts. land breed is one of the oldest in Eng- These records, high as they are, however, land, but it has been to a large extent have been exceeded in several instances, supplanted by the improved Downs, and both in this country and in America. it is now in the hands of a very small A celebrated modern Jersey Cow is number of flock-owners, the great ma- represented in Plate 22, vol. ii. jority of these being in their native Plate 23, vol. ii., represents a noted county of Hereford. In Cumberland modern Guernsey Cow. and other parts of the north of England the Herdwick breed is much thought of, and is cultivated with great success, hav- SHEEP. ing been considerably improved in recent years. The British Isles are possessed of great The Wensleydale sheep are a very wealth and of exceptional advantages in useful class of animals. They are some- their large and diversified stock of sheep. times known as Yorkshire-Leicesters, are Small as they are in area, the British large in size, high standing, somewhat Isles present great variety both in soil similar in appearance to Leicesters, and and climate. It is therefore natural are much esteemed for crossing with and desirable that there should be many other breeds, notably with Scotch Black- different races of live stock, with varying faced ewes. aptitudes and characteristics. It has been In Wales the Welsh mountain and already seen that in regard to cattle, Radnor varieties are extensively raised, British farmers are in this respect well and much valued for their hardiness and provided. If anything they are even for the choice flavour and quality of their better supplied in respect of sheep. mutton. There are throughout the British Isles In Scotland there are only three jjure even a larger number of races of sheep breeds of sheep specially associated with than of cattle, all possessing distinguish- that country—namely, the Border-Lei- ing features which adapt them in a spe- cester, Cheviot, and Blackfaced breeds. cial sense to their particular surroundings. In Ireland the only breed of sheep The existence of these many local varieties which has attained to the distinction of of sheep is an undoubted advantage to being classed as a breed is the Roscom- the country, for by these our live stock mon variety. They are large and un- industry has no doubt been more success- gainly, yet on the whole very useful fully developed than it could have been sheep. by a much smaller number of breeds, LEICESTERS. however meritorious. In England and Wales alone there are This is the breed upon which Bake- some fifteen or sixteen varieties of sheep, well first tried his cunning hand. It is all less or more distinct, and each with well entitled to rank as the pioneer of its own special habitat. The chief of all our improved breeds of sheep, for it these are the Leicester, Cotswold, Lin- is acknowledged that Leicester blood has coln, Southdown, Shropshire, Hamp- played an important part in the improve- shire, Oxford, and Suffolk breeds. Two ment of several other varieties, mainly, important breeds in the south-west of of course, those known as long and inter- England are the Devon Long-wooUed mediate woolled sheep. and the Dorset horned breeds. The Characteristics. — The typical Lei- ; ; 426 BEEEDS OF FARM LIVE STOCK. cester is a thick, plump, rather short have contributed to the result. In Bake- sheep ; fine in the bone, broad back, well's time, Leicesters were tried on the usually very wide at the heart, clean, Cotswold Hills, but the climate was too firmly set head, which is free from col- severe for them, and they were soon oured wool and hair ; mutton of medium abandoned. But in all probability the quality, with a tendency to excess of fat visit of the Leicester may have tended fleece averaging from 7 to 8 lb., and car- to accelerate the improvement of the cass exceeding 80 lb. native breed. Anyhow, alike in form, The Leicester is exceptionally well maturity, and weight, the Cotswold covered with flesh along the back, while sheep of to-day are vastly superior to the fore parts are deep and full, the neck those of former times. being short, muscular, and well. set into The patronage of the Eoyal Agricul- wide sloping shoulders, which do not tural Society stimulated the improvement rise above the level of the back. For- as well as the demand for Cotswolds merly, bare heads were preferred ; but and although the breed is not, as a rule, latterly, and with good reason, heads exhibited in large numbers at the Royal which are protected from the fly by a Show, and does not cover a very exten- covering on the top of close, short, white sive area of land, yet through its antiquity wool, are preferred. and intrinsic merit it is entitled to a pro- Value for Crossing. — Upon rich minent place among the leading varieties abundant pastures, this breed does well of sheep in England. in its pure condition ; but its main value, Characteristics.—The Cotswold dis- perhaps, lies in its splendid properties plays a majestic appearance, with a huge, for crossing with other races. It has long, broad, regularly formed body, set been said that there is not a county in evenly on long, clean legs ; head large, the British Isles, and probably few civ- clean, and handsome; features usually ilised countries in the world, where the white, but sometimes grey or spotted, Leicester or traces of its blood cannot be well woolled on the crown, with long found. It hastens maturity and amel- curling locks hanging down the face. iorates the fattening properties of all The neck is long and thick, the top line varieties with which it is crossed. The from shoulder to tail-head is long, broad, Leicester is quiet, docile, moderately and level, with great covering of flesh hardy, not very prolific, the wool being and fat ; ribs well sprung ; under line fine and fairly long. often slightly irregular and deficient Plate 24, vol. ii., represents an im- the wool long, open, and curly, coarser proved (1890) Leicester Eam. in the staple than the Leicester, but heavier per fleece. Hoggets often reach COTSWOLDS. or exceed 14 lb., and whole flocks, young and old, exceed an average of 7 lb. of The Cotswolds are the largest and wool per head. There is frequently rather highest standing of the long-wooUed an excess of fat along the back; but upon breeds. Like the Leicesters, their anti- the carcass, in one place or another, there quity is well established. They have is a large percentage of lean meat of their home in the Cotswold Hills of fairly good quality. Gloucestershire, which they are known Cotswolds fatten rapidly with good to have inhabited in the days of Queen treatment, and weigh, when about twelve Elizabeth, when they were described as months old, from 22 lb. to 25 lb. per strong in the bone and long in the wool. quarter. Older sheep attain great Origin and Improvement.—In re- weights ; sometimes as much as 70 lb. cent times the Cotswolds have been per quarter, dead-weight. vastly improved in form and in feeding Plate 25, vol. ii., represents an im- properties. No doubt this advance in j)roved Cotswold Ram. character has been brought about mainly, if not wholly, by selection in breeding LINCOLNS. and better management. It is regarded as more than probable, however, that a The improved Lincoln breed is a suc- slight infusion of Leicester blood may cessful blend of the Leicester and the SOUTHDOWNS—SHEOPSHIRES. 427 native sheep of the county. As wool- short wool, while a little soft wool on the producers they stand pre-eminent in cheeks is esteemed. The head backwards this country. Prior to about 1850 they should be closely woolled, the neck thick were flat-sided, ungainly, slow-feeding and muscular, passing neatly into a wide sheep. Now, thanks to a judicious ad- cylindrical body, set on the shortest and mixture of Leicester blood, and to careful finest of legs. They are as broad and as breeding and management, they are well covered with fiesh and fat below as vastly improved in form as well as in above, almost as wide behind as in front, fattening properties; while their wool and the Southdown leg of mutton is the production has in no way deteriorated. thickest of any, and of course is also In the fairly rich pastures of their comparatively short. native districts no other breed can equal The wool is close, fine, and short, them as rent-paying sheep, and in recent weighing close on 4 lb. Southdowns years there has been a growing demand mature more slowly than the long-woolled for Lincoln sheep, not only in other parts sheep, but have improved in this respect of England, but also in foreign countries. in recent years. The carcass of well-kept They are hardy and wonderfully prolific, sheep from twelve to fourteen months old about 30 per cent of the ewes producing should weigh from 18 lb. to 20 lb. per twins, triplets being frequent, and now quarter. The amount of ofial is less than and again four lambs are dropped at one in any other breed, and they often yield birth. The body of the Lincoln is smaller 65 per cent of dead-weight to live-weight.^ but more symmetrical than that of the A modern Southdown Earn is repre- Cotswold, the back broad and firmly sented in Plate 26, vol. ii. fleshed, the ribs well sprung, the shoulder deep and wide, neck thick, head pretty SHROPSHIRES. strong, with good legs of lean mutton. It matures at an early age, and the fleece, The Shropshire breed of sheep has which is long and lustrous in the staple, surpassed all others in the march of pro- often exceeds 20 lb. —indeed as much as gress. It is fast spreading throughout 26^^ lb. of wool has been clipped from a the three kingdoms, and, excepting in fourteen-month sheep. high-exposed localities, is found to be an An improved Lincoln Ram is repre- excellent rent-paying race. The Shrop- sented in Plate 30, vol. iii. shire has been built up from the native sheep of the district from which it takes SOUTHDOWNS. its name, a dash of Southdown blood having been employed by its earlier im- This breed justly holds the premier provers. For many years, however, it position amongst the short and inter- has been maintained in its purity, and mediate woolled varieties. Indeed, like the characteristics of the breed are clearly the Leicester amongst the long-woolled defined and well established. It may sheep, the Southdown has been the pio- perhaps be best described as a magnified neer of the vast improvement which has Southdown, bigger all over, but par- taken place in these useful races, most taking largely of the same features and of which have been benefited by a lesser properties. It is from 4 to 5 lb. heavier or greater infusion of Southdown blood. per quarter, matures earlier, fleece nearly Characteristics.—The Southdown is twice as heavy but not so fine, and is a small-sized, low-set sheep, bigger than little inferior in quality of meat. The it looks, meat from head to heels, the face is darker, usually blackish brown, perfection of S3rmmetry, fine in the bone, the head longer and thicker, and closely active, fairly precocious, and in quality covered with wool on the top. of meat surpassing all other English varieties. In the times of Arthur Young ^ In some notes on improvement in sheep, and Youatt, speckled faces were the order in Divisional vol. ii. p. 362, reference is of the day. Now we will have none of made to the remarkable Southdown ram " Royal Newcastle. " This fine sheep was bred these. Any departure from a uniform and exhibited by Mr Edwin Ellis, Summers- tint, varying from brown to fawn, is dis- bury, Shalford, Surrey, and not by Mr J. J. liked. The forehead is covered with fine Colman, as there indicated. 428 BREEDS OF FAEM LIVE STOCK. Sliropshire rams are now extensively give a good fleece, weighing on an average used for crossing purposes, the results from 6 lb. to 7 lb., shearling rams often being MgMy satisfactory. yielding as much as 20 lb. of wool. They An improved Shropshire Earn is repre- mature early, giving mutton of excellent sented in Plate 27, vol. ii. quality, weighing 20 lb. per quarter when twelve to fourteen months old. HAMPSHIRE DOWNS. The face is dark in colour ; the body thick and well proportioned, with a broad, Originating in a cross between the Old thickly padded back. The proportion of Wiltshire horned sheep and the Old lean mutton is comparatively large. Berkshire Knot with Southdowns, the An improved Oxford Down Ram is Hampshire Downs are now well estab- represented in Plate 28, vol. iii. lished as a valuable breed of sheep. The foundation was laid early in the present SUFFOLK SHEEP. century, but it is only in recent years that the Hampshire Downs have attained This is a variety of the Downs which the great excellence which now dis- has been vastly improved since 1870. It tinguishes them. is a hardy, active, profitable sheep, A trifle heavier than the Shropshire, maturing early, excelling in the produc- the improved Hampshire Downs are tion of lean meat. scarcely so symmetrical, being higher on In outward form the Suffolk sheep is the leg, and lighter in the underline, but not unlike the Hampshire, but more exceptionally good along the back, which compact, and finer in the head. Its im- is usually covered with lean meat in a provement is being promoted with com- manner not equalled by any other breed mendable energy by its leading breeders, in the kingdom. They are big in the who have formed themselves into a society bone, head large, and a trifle coarse- for the purpose. looking, with strong Roman nose. Plate 31, vol. iii. represents an im- They have lately been much improved proved Suffolk Ram. both in form and in fattening properties, and they now attain great weights at an DEVON LONG-WOOLS. early age. Indeed, the precocity of Hampshire lambs has become quite re- This breed, which is a very favourite markable. The fleece is not heavy, from one in the Vale districts of North and some 4 to S lb., but is of fine quality. East Devon, West Somerset, and An improved Hampshire Down "Wether parts of Cornwall, is a cross between the is represented in Plate 29, vol. iii. old Bampton variety and the Leicester. The Bampton was one of the native OXFORD DOWNS. breeds of Devon, and was a middle- wooUed sheep, but its alliance with the The Oxford Down is a successful blend Leicester gave length of staple and larger of the Hampshire and Cotswold breeds. quantity to the fleeces, so that the It was founded before 1830, and is now variety has ever since been classified as as firmly established in its own distinctive distinctly long-wooUed. The history of features as either of the parent varieties. the ancient Bampton stock is lost in It has grown rapidly in public favour, obscurity. and is much esteemed both for rearing in Prom about 1820 to 1830 these sheep purity and for crossing purposes. It is still bore the name of Bamptons, although spreading throughout England, and is some were beginning to call them Devon- making its way into Scotland, where Notts. The late Mr Andrew Hosegood Oxford Down rams are being very suc- recollected them at this period as having cessfully crossed with the mixed bred grey faces, and has left it on record that ewes of that country. "they were very hardy, and excellent In an admirable manner the Oxford for weight of mutton and wool." As Downs combine the meat-producing pro- regards weight of carcass, Mr Hosegood perties of the Hampshire with the wool- considered that it surpassed that of their yielding qualities of the Cotswold. They descendants after more Leicester blood — DOESET HOKNED SHEEP—BORDER LEICESTEES. 429 had been infused, although, earlier ma- gives place to greensand, oolite, and turity and greater aptitude to fatten were lias, and the pastures are less elevated derived thereby, Wilson, writing on the and more productive, they have never various breeds of sheep in the Journal of been displaced, nor indeed are likely to the Royal Agricultural Society for 1855, be. In fact, since their great improve- " says of the Bampton variety : Like most ment in grazing character, they have been of the old indigenous breeds of the preferred to either Southdowns or Hamp- county, it has gradually been displaced shires on many farms in the neighbour- by the improved breeds, and now it is hood of Dorchester and Puddletown very diiScult to find the pure Bampton having water meadows, and consequently unmixed with other blood, few only now have reconquered some of the territory remaining in Devon and West Somerset." won from them previously. Eastward, There was an endeavour some years throughout the Isle of Purbeck, probably since to get the breed christened the there are at the present day more Dorset Devon-Leicester, but Devon Long-wool is Horned flocks than existed half a century the appellation now generally applied, ago. and much more uniformity of type is Pew breeds at the present day are pos- observable in sheep belonging thereto sessed of greater uniformity of t5rpe than now brought to the showyards than was the Horned race of Dorset and Somerset. the case prior to 1870. The breed deserves to bear the name of one county as much as that of the DOESET HOENED SHEEP. other, and in fact the sheep are often called Somerset Horns. At any rate, the The old type of this breed was native breeders of Somerset have brought it into to the Dorset hill district, and probably showyards more than those of the other the little Portlander was a branch of it. county. Mr Thomas Danger was for While the latter is getting very scarce, many years the principal exhibitor, but the former of legitimate ancient type is during the past two decades it has been now entirely extinct, the modern Dorset Mr Herbert Farthing. The flocks of both Horn being the progeny of a cross with are associated with the district between the Somerset Horn, which had a longer Taunton and Bridgewater. bodyand larger size. Even when Claridge wrote his Survey of Dorset to the Board BORDEE LEICESTEES. of Agriculture in 1793 this change had been wellnigh accomplished,— for he re- Mr John Thomson contributes the fol- marked therein, " The original breed of lowing sketch of this valuable breed : Dorset sheep is very scarce to be met Historical.—The Border Leicester has with, as most of the farmers have crossed been known under that name for only a their flocks with either Hants, Wilts, or comparatively short time — only since Somerset sheep, which certainly improved about i860. Before this, although its them in size." distinct characteristics had been glar- The Dorset hill country was the battle- ingly apj)arent, it was classed along field between the old Horned variety and with the English sheep descended from the Southdowns in the last century. the same source, and termed the Leices- The latter always cropped the fine herb- ter, or the Improved Leicester. The age of the chalk hills better than their Border and the English Leicesters were competitors, but the contest chiefly bore so widely different in their form and on the wool question. The fleece of the wool, that it became impossible they Southdown, although light, was of ex- could compete satisfactorily in the same ceeding value, for the chief dependance classes ; as the judges in the showyards, of our cloth manufacturers for short wools however carefully chosen, could not be was either on that variety or on flocks of otherwise than biassed. When the ma- the Eyeland breed until the Australian jority happened to be breeders of the colonies became stocked with large merino English variety, the premiums went very flocks. Ultimately they were driven ofi" naturally, though none the less con- the highest ranges of the chalk hills; sistently and surely, to the type they but in Western Dorset, where the chalk favoured, and vice verm. If the judges 430 BEEEDS OF FAKM LIVE STOCK. were solely on one side, then a grave tups. So general was the breeze of im- injustice followed. The position became provement in sheep stock about that the more acute as in the course of time time that it was computed no less than the differences apparent in the two ^100,000 were annually spent by Mid- varieties widened ; and at length it was land agriculturists in procuring sires. found necessary to have distinct classes Large although this sum is, it is not for the variety under notice, which has altogether improbable, considering that since been known as the Border Leicester. in 1789 Bakewell received from _;^iooo So recentlyas 1868, all Leicesters, whether downwards for the season's use of a single from the Midlands of England or the ram. Border counties, were forced to compete Such being the condition of sheep- in the same classes at the shows of the breeding in the Midlands, it need not be Eoyal Agricultural Society; but next marvelled at that agriculturists in far off year, at the Manchester meeting, they shires, even in these days of slow, tedious, were divided as in Scotland. and imperfect communication, should Both varieties had their origin at have desired to share in the results which Dishley, near Loughborough, where Mr others had accomplished. Robert Bakewell began to improve the When Bakewell commenced his im- sheep he found around him in or about provements, two brothers, George and 1755. The precise method adopted by Matthew Culley, were farming at Denton, Bakewell is unknown, as a certainty. It not very far from Darlington. In 1762 is believed by some that he crossed the and 1763, the brothers visited and be- sheep of his shire of Leicester—" said to came intimate with Bakewell, and from have been large coarse animals, with an Dishley they brought rams with which abundance of fleece and a fair disposi- they crossed the native Teeswater sheep, " tion to fatten —with other long-wooUed which then stood in high favour as a breeds, probably possessing smaller long-wooUed breed. Proceeding in this frames and more symmetrical propor- manner, they were not long in forming a tions. Another and highly probable flock of their own, which was transferred theory is, that without going beyond to North Northumberland in 1767—the the sheep at his hand, he boldly adopted Hegira of the Culleys—^when they took this material, and by breeding from the farm of Fenton, near Wooler, and selected animals of close afiinities, and subsequently Crookham Eastfield, on continuing this system as far as was Tillside, —Wark, on Tweedside,—as well advisable, he managed to establish a as other farms in the district, until the distinct breed, whose main character- brothers paid an aggregate rental of istics were large yet symmetrical frames, ;£6ooo a-year. After having bred in carrying heavy flesh upon fine bone, North Northumberland for nearly forty decided aptitude to fatten upon a mod- years, the Culleys retired in 1806, when erate quantity of food ; and capable of their sheep were sold out. being brought early to maturity, while Mr Kobert Thomson, who, like one of bearing a fleece of large weight and the Culleys, had been a pupil with Bake- superior quality. well, also took a leading part in the in- To the writer it is evident that the troduction of the breed. He farmed at materials, whatever they may have been, Lilburn, and jafterwards at Chillingham which Bakewell used, must have been Barns ; and his flock, long known as one very plastic, since his improvements were of the very best on the Borders, was bred quick in displajdng themselves. So early directly from Bakewell's. It was at Lil- as 1760, he commenced letting his rams burn that the first sale by auction of for a guinea for the season's use. The Bakewell sheep took place in the north. reputation of the Dishley flock increased At Chillingham Barns, Mr Thomson held by " leaps and bounds," rising to such a annual lettings, and there, in May 1814, pitch that twenty years after he com- his entire flock was dispersed. menced to let rams, Bakewell received A part of Mr E. Thomson's flock no less than _;^3ooo in hire fees in a passed into the possession of Mr James single season. In 1789, it is stated that Thomson, Bogend, Duns, who had also he netted _;£'6ooo by the letting of his formerly obtained rams from the Culleys : BOEDER LEICESTERS. 431 and from Cliillingliam Barns ; and it may in 1802, and for about thirty years to be stated tliat this flock is still in exist- this date (1890) it has been entirely a ence, being now in tlie hands of Mr James self-supporting flock, not a single animal, Thomson, Mungo's Walls, a grandson of male or female, being introduced from the tenant of Bogend. Having been any other flock during all this time. It bred by the Thomsons for upwards of a has consequently long been and still is a century, the Mungo's Walls flock forms matter for surprise and comment that the most perfect connection between the the sheep have all through combined re- time of Bakewell and the present day in markable constitutions, and large and the history of the breed. It seems there robust frames with unusual fertility ; at were in Bakewell's flock two types of the same time being living evidences of sheep, known as "blue-caps" and "red- the purest breeding, as shown in their legs," the latter being much the hardier blood-like heads, elegant forms, and of the two ; and from what the writer stately and graceful movements. There has been able to learn, Mr Thomson's can be no question that that at Mertoun sheep were of this hardier sort. is emphatically a self-supporting and Earns from the flocks of the Culleys self-supported flock. and Mr Thomson must have been very Rams from the Mertoun flock have for early and very generally used in the dis- many years been keenly sought after by trict around them as well as north of the other breeders, and in 1890 Lord Pol- Tweed, since flocks had multiplied to a warth's 30 shearling rams sold at Kelso wonderful extent at the time of the dis- brought within a few pence of ;£S4- P^r persion of the Culley sheep. Whether head, one ram realising ^iSS- these other breeders obtained ewes of the Characteristics.—As already stated, improved breed or " bred in " from the there were two families in Bakewell's ordinary country stock with Dishley rams flock, the "blue-caps" and "red-legs." it were now difficult to determine satis- Formerly " blue-caps " were pretty com- factorily. Yet this question affects the mon on the Border, but for a long period purity of the breed in later times to a the "red-legs," owing to their greater grave extent, and certainly gives weight hardiness, have held possession. Their to the prevalent impression that there is representatives of the present day are much Cheviot blood in the Border Lei- admirably described by Mr John Usher, cester. It is next to an impossibility in The Border Breeds of Sheep, thus that all of the Tweedside, Glendale, and "The head of fair size, with profile " Barmshire " breeders could have ob- slightly aquiline, tapering to the muzzle, tained their stock ewes and gimmers but with strength of jaw, and wide from Thomson and the Culleys so quickly nostril ; the eyes full and bright, showing and to the extent necessary to account both docility and courage ; the ears of for the size and number of the flocks in fair size and well set ; the neck thick at 1806. Besides, these pioneers were chary the base, with good neck vein, and in parting with females. tapering gracefully to where it joins the The subject is a difficult one to treat head, which should stand well up ; the of satisfactorily, and is referred to here chest broad, deep, and well forward, only in a suggestive way. One thing is descending from the neck in a perpen- " most evident : that flocks of improved dicular Kne ; the shoulders broad and Leicesters," whether pure — relative open, but showing no coarse points ; from though the term may be—or not, sprang where the neck and shoulders join to the up like the proverbial mushrooms in rump, should describe a straight line, North Northumberland, from which they the latter being fully developed ; in both quickly spread into Berwickshire and arms and thighs the flesh well let down Eoxburghshire. to the knees and hocks ; the ribs well The Mertoun Flock.—As was aptly sprung from the backbone in a fine stated of a famous herd of shorthorns, circular arch, and more distinguished by the history of the Mertoun flock is vir- width than depth, showing a tendency to tually the history of a breed. It was carry the mutton high, and with belly founded by Mr Hugh Scott of Harden, straight, significant of small offal ; the grandfather of the present Lord Polwarth, legs straight with a fair amount of bone, " 432 BEEEDS OF FAKM LIVE STOCK. clean and fine, free from any tuftiness of sheep has a bluish grey or white face, wool, and of a uniform whiteness witli often corded, and usually carries a tuft the face and ears. They ought to be of wool on the head (which keeps off the well clad all over, the belly not excepted, flies), while it is also wooUed on the with wool of a medium texture, with an shanks. The skin is pink all over, while open pirl, as it is called, towards the the wool is thick and curly. It is not end. In handling, the bones should be such a large-framed sheep as the Border all covered, and particularly along the Leicester, and is considerably shorter in back and quarters (which should be both neck and legs ; but it is much more lengthy) there should be a uniform compact, wider through the heart, and covering of flesh, not pulpy, but firm heavier in front in proportion to its size. and muscular. The wool, especially on It is also a much deeper sheep ; at the the ribs, should fill the hand well." same time it is " baggy " below, and has That Mr Usher's description is just as not that appearance of lightness of offal a whole, will readily be conceded. How- which is the great feature of the Border ever, the present writer may be per- sheep. The bone, too, is finer, and from mitted to add to it a few observations, what the writer can remember of a repre- not altogether unnecessary. He is quite sentative flock he saw a few months ago, well aware that many of the best sheep the amount of mutton carried, size con- in most flocks are occasionally flesh- sidered, is greater than that of the Border coloured in the muzzle, but it is regarded sheep. They seemed to one who aU his as an evidence of hardiness to have it life has been partial to Border Leicesters perfectly black ; therefore in any general to lack style altogether, and the clipped description this point ought to be urged. sheep reminded forcibly of well-filled The ears should be of moderate length, wine-skins in engravings of oriental and boldly set, but thickness, even at subjects; but they fulfilled Bakewell's the base, in shearling rams as well as in toast—" Small in size and great in value" ewes should be a disqualification. Again, —-or, as their breeder characteristically " the ear should neither be too much flesh- put it : What do I care about your coloured, nor blue nor purple. A darkish fancy heads, lugs, and style 1 Look at —not a brownish—skin, covered with the loads of mutton : that pays the fine white hair, is most to be preferred, rent ! although black spots are not at all ob- Except as ram-breeding flocks. Border jectionable. Then the face should be Leicesters are not now kept to the same covered vsdth short white hair; and on extent as they formerly were ; the mutton no account should there be any blueness. being too coarse in its texture, and the Corded or scored faces are specially to be fat too much of the consistence of tallow avoided in females and shearling rams. to be put to a profitable use, or please These are considerations of primary im- the palate. These are drawbacks to the jDortance. The legs, from where the wool general utility of a breed which has few ceases to grow, should be covered with rivals in reaching early maturity, and in short white hair; the "cluits" should producing the greatest weight of mutton be black, and the pasterns as upright as and wool in a given time. Its outstand- possible. ing merit lies in its pre-eminent suita- The "blue -caps" of by -past times bility for crossing vsdth other breeds, such have been described by the late Mr John as the Cheviot, Blackfaced, &c. The Grey, Dilston, as having "blue faces, cross with the former is the most popular, generally bare on the scalp, and red when the produce of the Border Leicester ram lambed ; and when mature, easily broken and the Cheviot ewe being termed a half- by flies ; on which account they were not bred. On most turnip and barley farms favourites with the shepherds. They a stock of half-bred ewes are kept, which were good feeders, but light of wool." being again crossed with the Border It is evident what are now termed Eng- Leicester ram, produce three-parts-bred lish Leicesters are the representatives lambs. These quickly develop, and being of this Bakewell family, although time fed at high pressure, are generally in the has both modified and accentuated their butcher-market before they are a year old. former characteristics. The English A modern Border Leicester Ram is BLACKFACED SHEEP—CHEVIOTS. 433 represented in Plate 33, vol. ill. A CHEVIOTS. tyipical Border Leicester Ewe is illus- trated in Plate 32, vol. iii. Origin. — Northumberland was the actual birthplace of the Cheviot, and is BLACKFACED SHEEP. still largely inhabited by it. It was early introduced into the Border counties Origin.—The origin of this ancient of Scotland, and these may now be re- breed is obscured in antiquity. It is garded as the principal stronghold of the conjectured that it is not indigenous to breed. A greater area of suitable climate, Britain ; that it is of foreign origin, and altitude, grass and turnip-growing, and, was imported by one of the Scottish it may be, greater energy on the part of kings for the use of the royal house- farmers, have given to Scotland un- hold. We are inclined to believe, how- questionable superiority in the breeding ever, that it originated amongst the of Cheviots. mountains in the north of England and Cliaracteristios.—The breed is natu- in Scotland. Be this as it may, the rally very hardy, and can subsist at an form and general independent bearing elevation suitable to only one other breed of the sheep point it out as the native —the Blackface. The face and legs of of high and stormy regions. the Cheviot are covered by short, wiry, Dififerenoes in Type.—The influ- pure white hair, which extends over the ence of soU and climate on the quality of ear, and well back behind the head. In both wool and mutton is considerable, so some instances the ram is horned ; in marked, indeed, as to cause a variance, others he is hornless. His nose is highly not only in the type of sheep reared, but arched, nostrils black, and eyes dark, full, also in the system of management pur- and bright. The wool is moderately .sued. In the West of Scotland, for long and very close set—straight, and example, the prevailing type diflfers from free from kemp—covering equally and that in the central counties. It partakes well all parts of the body, including legs more of a parallelogram, so to speak, than down to the knees and hocks. The clip the Mid-Lothian sheep; has longer sides, of wool, which is generally shorn early and is altogether a bigger and rougher in July, runs from 3 to 4)4 lb. per head. sheep. The sheep of the higher altitudes In its wealth of mutton, the Cheviot and of the far North, too, have certain outweighs the Blackface. Wethers from peculiarities. They are lighter in type the hills, three years old, killed and than the Lothian sheep, extremely hardy, dressed, scale from 70 to 80 lb. ; while and less disposed to fatten. These latter others a year younger, if fed on turnips, points are indispensable in the real usually attain about the same weight. mountain sheep. Cast ewes are purchased by Lowland Famous Flocks. — Amongst the farmers for crossing purposes. They pioneer improvers of the blackfaced are mated with Lincoln, Border Lei- breed, the more noted are Mr Howatson cester, or Wensleydale rams, the result of Glenbuck, Messrs Archibald, Over- of which is a half-bred stock now ex- shiels, andMrFoyer,Knowhead, Campsie. tensively fed on the lower arable farms The celebrated Glenbuck stock is perhaps in Scotland. the oldest in the country. It has pos- Improvement of the Breed. — To sessed a well-earned reputation for look back upon ancient sketches of the upwards of a century. It has been Cheviot sheep which we find occasionally distinguished for superiority of blood in historical books, afibrds one acquainted and excellence of type. The celebrated with the existing class of stock a pretty Overshiels flock is also a reliable and good idea of the great strides that have much-prized source of pure blood. been made in the improvement of breed. Blackfaced sheep are unequalled for Without some such data, indeed, it would hardiness, and as rent-paying stock for be almost impossible to suppose so much the great part of Scotland they are su- really good work had been done. In perior to all other breeds. the counties of Northumberland, Berwick, A famous Blackfaced Eam is repre- Eoxburgh, Selkirk, Haddington, Dum- sented in Plate 34, vol. iii. fries, and Sutherland, attention has been VOL. HI. 2 E 434 BREEDS OF FAEM LIVE STOCK. effectually directed to the amelioration of the breed. The best flocks are to be met with in the neighbourhood of the Borders, where the smaller but thicker and more compactly built Cheviot reigns supreme. Foremost among its promoters have been the Robsons of Northumberland, the Elliots of Roxburgh and Selkirk, and Mr Brydon of Kennelhead. The stock shown by the Bobson brothers at the leading agricultural shows in recent years have been exceedingly creditable. The Hyndhope stock, so long associated with the name of Elliot, is about the oldest in Scotland, and contains the finest strains of blood. They are of the small-sized close-wooUed sort, which for hill pasture is considered superior to the heavier sheep with opener skins reared in Dum- friesshire. An improved Cheviot Ram is illus- trated in Plate 35, vol. iii. ROSCOMMON" SHEEP. The Roscommon is, as already indi- cated, the only variety of sheep in Ire- land digniiied by the title of breed. It is a native race, improved by selection and by the infusion of Leicester blood. Large in size and often somewhat un- gainly in form, the Roscommon sheep are extensively reared in Connaught, where they hold a good name as rent- paying stock. The fleece is long, heavy, and of good quality. WEIGHTS OF SHEEP. It may be interesting to give here the following figures showing the live-weights of wethers and lambs of the leading Eng- lish breeds of sheep exhibited at the Smithfield Fat Stock Show in December 1886, the heaviest pens being selected in each case, and the weights being the average for the three animals in each pen : — Lambs over ; BEKKSHIKES—LARGE WHITE BREED. 435 slightly longer than Small Whites ; other six months old those long, deep-sided, points similar. lean-fleshed carcasses of 160 lb. weight, Large Whites. occasionally —Colour, white, which the present tastes of the public with blue spots on the skin, but without black the bacon-curer demand. hair. Head rather long, wide between the and ears, which should be inclined forward. Size, if accompanied by quality, of great importance. LARGE WHITE BREED. Middle Whites. — Colour as above. Head shortened and ears pricked. Body generally These qualities are most commonly more compact, on shorter legs. Hair abun- associated with pigs of the Large dant and silky. found Simdl Whites. —Colour, white without blue White breed, or, as the best of them are spots. Head short, jowls heavy, ears pricked. now being called in Canada and in several Body short, thick, wide, and close to the foreign countries, Improved Yorkshires. ground. Tail fine. Hair abundant, silky and The colour of these should be white, but long, not curly. Skin thin and free from scurf. on some of the best of the successful Tamworths. —Colour—red with dark spots show pigs of some ten or fifteen years on the skin ; other points as near as possible since blue spots on the skin were by no approaching the general standard. means infrequent. This did not neces- sarily prove that a cross of the Berk- BERKSHIEES. shire or of some other breed had been introduced, for the purest bred of the Berkshires have undergone consider- Large White pigs were not free from the able changes in recent years both in discoloration in the skin. But it is an their formation and in their colour. open secret that some exhibitors were Within the last forty years many of believed to have a liking for the more the best pigs of the breed were black, compact Berkshire or the Middle White with white or sandy spots, long and —a longing to get the broad backs, short deep in the body, which was well heads, and heavy jowl which unfortu- covered with rather strong hair ; the nately for pig-breeders were at that time, head was long, the jowls light, and the and even sometimes now are, in great ears pricked. favour with a certain set of judges, who The Berkshire breed appears to have place a higher value on symmetry than been the first to be taken in hand by on utility. wealthy men and connoisseurs to be im- These blue spots are far less frequent proved, and from this process has evolved now than formerly, and will eventually the present type, which may be de- be bred out. scribed as a black pig, barring a white The head of the Large White pig should star or shine on the forehead, white feet be of fair length, the lower jaw nearly as far as the ankles, and having a white straight, the jowls, neck, and shoulders tip to the tail ; the head comparatively light, the forehead broad, the ears pro- short, the jowls and shoulders heavy, the portionately large and inclined forward, ribs well sprung, carcass deep, loin wide, not so heavy as to deserve to be termed and the hind quarters well developed, just lop ears, which cover the eyes and render the form of a pig to supply prime joints the pig to all intents and purposes blind of small pork, such as bring the highest the legs should be straight and placed prices in the London market, where the well outside the body, the bone not being pigs are termed London porkets, and coarse and round, the ribs deep and well should weigh not more than 70 to 80 lb. sprung, loin fairly wide and not slack, It is also admirably suited for exhibi- quarters long and square, and hams wide tion at our fat stock shows, as a Berk- and deep. Soft hair, and plenty of it, shire will stand almost any amount of indicates early maturity and lean meat, forcing and cramming without losing its the two great essentials. form. Having these valuable and much- MIDDLE WHITE BREED. sought-after qualities, it can scarcely be expected that a Berkshire is so well Middle White pigs should possess all suited for the present demand for pigs the good points of the Large White, but which mature early, and yet furnish at altogether on a smaller scale, with heads ; 436 BREEDS OF FARM LIVE STOCK. shorter, ears more erect, hair finer and OTHER BREEDS. in greater quantity, bone finer and legs shorter. There are various other local breeds, such as the newly named Oxfordshire SMALL WHITE BREED. pigs, which have for fiity years been bred in Northamptonshire, Leicestershire, Some go so far as to say that the Buckinghamshire, and Oxfordshire. They Middle White pig should be an en- are evidently a cross of the White, the larged Small White. From this we are Black, and the Sandy or Tamworth inclined to differ, as the latter does not breeds, and they are very prolific and at the present time appear to satisfy the make capital scavengers, and furnish good requirements of the farmer or the bacon- carcasses of meat, but they require more development. curer : the body is too small and too short, time for and the proportion of lean to fat too Typical pigs of the Large White and small. A well-bred Small White is a Berkshire breeds are represented in Plate vol. iii. ; of and handsome pig : its short snout, profusion 36, the Middle White of silky hair, fineness of bone, high Tamworth breeds in Plate 37, vol. iii. quality, and docility of disposition are and of the Small Black and Small White iii. to be admired ; but the current demand varieties in Plate 38, vol. is for something more useful even if less ornamental. SHEEP DOGS. SMALL BLACK BREED. The collie dog is well entitled to men- tion amongst the live stock of the farm. The Small Black is very much after It is a faithful and worthy servant, abso- the same style as the Small White, lutely essential upon sheep farms. except that the colour is a whole black, The natural temper of the shepherd the hair less profuse, and perhaps the may be learned from the way in which carcass somewhat longer. It is neverthe- he works his dog among sheep. When less much liked in some of the Eastern you observe an aged dog making a great and South-Western counties. In parts noise, bustling about in an impatient of the counties of Cambs, Essex, and manner, running fiercely at a sheep and Suflblk, it used to be a very common turning it quickly, biting at its ears and practice to run these black pigs on the legs, you may conclude, without hesita- clovers during the summer, and it was tion, that the shepherd who owns it is. a claimed by the followers of this system man of hasty temper. Most young dogs that the sun afiected the skin of the exhibit these characteristics naturally, black less than that of the white pig. and they generally overdo their work; and if you observe a shepherd allowing a TAMWORTH PIGS. young dog to take its own way, you may conclude that he also is a man of hasty The Tamworth is a red pig, with occa^ temper or careless of his flock. If you sional black spots, and is one of the observe another shepherd allowing his oldest varieties in the country. By dog, whether old or young, to take a judicious mating and infusion of alien range round the fences of a field, driving blood the Tamworth has been improved, the sheep as if to gather them, you may the nose has been considerably shortened, be sure he is a lazy fellow, more ready and the body lengthened and made to make his dog bring the sheep to him deeper, the legs are shorter and the than he to walk his rounds to see them. ears longer, whilst the colour of the Great harm may accrue to sheep by hair and skin is lighter, and quality working dogs in these ways. Whenever finer. Considerable numbers were ex- sheep hear a dog bark that is accustomed ported to the bacon-curers in Denmark, to hound them every day, they will in- Germany, and Sweden ; but the im- stantly start from their grazing, gather provement to the native pigs was not together, and run to the farthest fence, marked, so that the foreign demand has and a good while vidll elapse ere they fallen away. will settle again. And even when sheep ; SHEEP DOGS. 437 are gathered, a dog of high travel, and In short, a thoroughly good shepherd allowed to run out, will drive them hither only lets his dog work when its ser- and thither, without an apparent object. vices are actually required, he bestow- This is a trick practised by lazy herds ing his own labours ungrudgingly, and every morning when they first see their only demanding assistance from his dog flock, and every evening before they take when he cannot do it so well by him- up their lair for the night, in order to self ; and at no time will he allow count them with what he deems the least his dog to go beyond the reach of his trouble to himself. When a dog is al- immediate control. Dogs, thus gently lowed to run far out, it gets beyond the and cautiously trained, become very sa^ control of the shepherd ; and such a style gacious, and wiU diligently visit every of working among wether sheep puts part of a field where sheep are most apt them past their feeding for a time : with to stray, and where danger is most to be ewes it is very apt to cause abortion apprehended—such as a weak part of a and with lambs, after they are weaned, fence, water-runs, deep ditches, or deep it is apt to overheat them, induce pal- furrows into which sheep may possibly pitation—and a considerable time will fall and lie await or awkward—on the elapse before they recover their natural broad of their back, unable to get up— breathing. Whenever a sorting takes and which they will assist to raise up by place among sheep, with such a dog they seizing the wool at one side and pulling will be moved about far more than the sheep over upon its feet. Experienced necessary; and intimidated sheep, when dogs will not meddle with ewes having worn into a comer, are far more liable to lambs at foot, nor with tups, being well break off than those treated in a gentle aware of their disposition to offer resist- manner. When you ordinarily hear at a ance. They also know full well when distance a great noise from the dog among foxes are on the move, and give evident the sheep, you may depend upon it the symptoms of uneasiness on their approach shepherd is not the man that is fit for to the lambing-ground. They also hear your service. footsteps of strange persons and animals A judicious herd works his dog in quite at a considerable distance at night, and a different manner. He never disturbs announce their approach by unequivocal the sheep when he4 takes his rounds signs of uneasiness by whinging and rest- amongst them at morning, noon, and lessness, aware that noisy sounds would night—^his dog following at his heel as alarm the sheep. A shepherd's dog is if he. had nothing to do, but ready to incorruptible, cannot be bribed with a fulfil its duty should any untoward cir- bite of food, and will not permit even a cumstance arise, such as breaking out of known friend to touch it or its charge one field into another. When he gathers when intrusted with an act of duty. sheep for sorting, or catching a particular Varieties of Collies.—There are, we one, the gathering is made in a corner, to believe, at least two varieties of the gain which he will give the sheep plenty sheep-collie, — one smooth, short-haired, of time, making the dog wear to the right black on the back, white on the belly, and left, to direct the sheep quietly to breast, feet, and tip of tail, with tan- the spot ; and after they are gathered, he coloured spots on the face and legs ; the makes the dog watch, and, with an occa- other larger and longer-bodied, having sional movement, prevent any sheep long rough hair of different colours, breaking away. When a sheep does patched or intermixed, and long flowing break away, and must be turned, he does tail. Fig. 774 is a portrait of the rough- not allow the dog to bite it, or even to haired class on the watch. In their re- bark, but to give a bound against its spective characters we conceive them to head, and thus turn it. In turning a be very like the pointer and the setter. blackfaced wether in this way, the dog The small smooth kind, like the pointer, runs the risk of receiving injury from its is very sagacious, slow, easily trained, and horn, to avoid which it seizes the coarse admirably suited to work in an enclosed wool of the buttock, and hangs on by it low country among Leicester sheep ; the like a drag, until the sheep turns round, other, like the setter, is more swift, bold, when it lets go. ill to break, requiring coercion, and fitter — 438 BREEDS OF FARM LIVE STOCK. for work on the Mils among Blackfaced truth be said of the sagacity and faith- sheep. Our liking is to the smooth-haired, fulness of the collie. Suffice it to give and we like to hear both,kinds named a few sentences, which we know to con- collie. The white tip on the point of the tain correct information. "If he be tail is a sure mark of true breeding. but with his master," observes Youatt, Training Collies. —Most shepherds " he lies content, indifferent to any sur- profess to train young collies, wherein rounding object, seemingly half asleep many display much ignorance of the and half awake, rarely mingling vidth nature of the breed, and of the apti- his kind, rarely courting, and generally tude of the particular individual for its shrinking from the notice of a stranger. peculiar work ; and hence many dogs are But the moment duty calls, his sleepy unfit for useful service. Every collie- listless eye becomes brightened, he eagerly pup has a natural instinct for work gazes on his master, inquires and com- amongst sheep; nevertheless, they should prehends all he is to do, and, springing be trained with an old dog. Their ar- up, gives himself to the discharge of his duty with a sagacity and fidelity and devotion too rarely equalled even by man himself." " If we consider," says Buffon, "that this animal, notwithstanding his ugliness and melancholy look, is superior in instinct to all others; that he has a decided character, in which education has comparatively little share ; that he is the only animal born perfectly trained for the service of others; that, guided by natural powers alone, he applies himself to the care of our flocks—a duty which •he executes vrith singular assiduity, vigilance, and fidelity ; that he conducts them with an admirable intelligence, which is a part and portion of himself; that his sagacity astonishes at the same time that it gives repose to his master, Fig. 774. Shepherd^s dog or collie. while it requires great time and trouble to instruct other dogs for the purposes to dent temperament requires subduing, and which they are destined ; if we reflect on there is no more effectual way of doing these facts, we shall be confirmed in the this than keeping it in company with an opinion that the shepherd's dog is the experienced dog. A long string attached true dog of nature, the stock and model to the pup's neck, in the hands of the of his species." shepherd, is necessary to make it become The ugliness ascribed to the appear- acquainted with the language of the ance of the shepherd's dog by Buffon various evolutions connected with work. is only applicable to the shepherd's dog With this contrivance it may learn to —we cannot call it a collie—in Conti- ^^ hold away out hy," "come in," "come nental countries, for a more handsome in behind" "lie down," "he quiet," and beautiful dog than our collie cannot' "harh," "get over the dyhe" "wear," be seen anywhere. "The shepherd's "heel," "]ce.p." It will learn all these dog," remarks Graguier, "the least re- terms, and others, in a short time. It is moved from the natural tjrpe of the dog, said the bitch is more acute in learning lives and maintains its proper charac- than the dog, though the dog will bear teristics while other races often degene- the greater fatigue. Of the two, I believe rate. Everywhere it preserves its proper the quietly disposed shepherd prefers the distinguishing type. It is the servant bitch, and is chary of working her when of man, while other breeds vary with a in pup. thousand circumstances. It has one ap- Sagacity of the Collie.—A volume propriate mission, and that it discharges would not contain what might with in the most admirable way ; there is AILMENTS OF FAEM LIVE STOCK. 439 evidently a kind and wise design in this.'' Neither hunger, fatigue, nor the worst The Ettrick Shepherd truly says that " a of treatment will drive him from his single shepherd and his dog will accom- side, and he will follow him through plish more, in gathering a flock of sheep every hardship without murmur or re- from a Highland farm, than seventy pining." 1 shepherds could do without dogs ; in fact, In the course of some conversation re- that, without this docile animal, the lating to dogs. Governor Anderson of pastoral life would be a blank. It would Ohio related a Texan practice in training require more hands to manage a flock of dogs with sheep. A pup is taken from sheep, gather them from the hills, force its mother before its eyes are opened, and them into houses and folds, and drive put with a ewe to suckle. After a few them to markets, than the profits of the times the ewe becomes reconciled to the whole flock would be capable of maintain- pup, which follows her like a lamb, grows ing. Well may the shepherd feel an up among and remains with the flock; interest in his dog : he it is indeed that and no wolf, man, or strange dog can earns the family bread, of which he is come near the sheep ; and the dog will himself, with the smallest morsel, always bring the flock to the fold regularly at grateful and always ready to exert his half-past 7 o'clock p.m. if you habitually utmost abilities in his master's interests. feed him at that time. AILMENTS OF FARM LITE STOCK. It is not presumed that the farmer arrives. The information necessary for should become so familiar with veterinary these purposes will be found, carefully science as to be able to dispense with classified, in the following treatise, com- the occasional services of the professional piled by G. H. C. Wright, LL.B.; Veterinary Surgeon. The farmer, how- edited by F. Tonar, M.K.C.V.S.—third ever, should unquestionably know enough edition, revised and extended by a of the ailments which afflict his live stock Fellow of the Eoyal College of Veter- to enable him to recognise the symptoms inary Surgeons, who is one of the most of each when he sees them, and also to experienced and trusted members of successfully treat those of the more the veterinary profession. For the simple kind, as well as to decide when use here of this treatise we are in- the veterinary surgeon should be sent debted to the proprietor of the 'Farm- for, and what had best be done until he ing World.' 440 AILMENTS OF FAEM LIVE STOCK. Bloody flux. See Dysen- AILMENTS OF FAKM LIVE STOCK. 441 Inflammation of tlie 'bladder ". : 442 AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK. See Lockjaw Warbles (cattle) . . Sprain of the stifle-joint . 46s Tetanus. 484 Staggers. See Apoplexy (horse) .... 443 Warts on the eyelids . . 447 Tetanus. See Lockjaw teats (horse) , 442 .... 481 Water, black. (sheep) 48s (cattle) . . . .470 See Red water (grass) 445 (sheep) . . .485 .... 479 mad (horse) 442 The whites . . . 482 on the brain . . 486 stomach 44S Thick wind . . . 455 Weak back. See Rickets . 490 Staling of Wood 459 Thickening of the haw . 447 Weakness of the foot . 468 Stifle-joint, sprain of the 465 Thoroughpin . . . 465 Whistling and wheezing . 455 dislocation of the 46s Throat, sore (horse) . . 450 White skit . . .485 Stomach, inflammation of ^cattlej . . .473 Whites .... 482 (swine) . . . Wind, broken . . . (horse) . 457 492 450 (sheep) 488 Thrush . . . .468 thick. . . .455 fourth (cattle) . 477 in the mouth . . 470 Wind-galls . . . 465 445 referred to in canker 466 Withers, fistulous . . 455 Stone in the hladder (horse' 459 Toe, seedy . , . 468 Womb, inflammation of the (sheep) 487 Tongue bladders . . 449 (mare) .... 458 Straining. See Parturition wounds of . . . 449 (cow) .... 481 fever paralysis of . . 449 dropsy of the . . 482 Strangles . 448 amputation of . . 449 Worms (horse) . . . 459 bastard 448 cancer of the . , 471 intestinal (swine) . 493 " Stricture of the gullet 455 Trembles or louping-ill 485 Wounds (horse) . . 463 String-halt 465 Trichinosis . . . 493 (cattle) . . . 484 . • . . . Sturdy . . . 485 Tumours on the udder . 489 contused 463 Suppression of urine . 483 in the brain . . 442 punctured. . . 463 Surfeit (horse) . 470 of the eyelids . . 446 lacerated . . . 463 — (swine) 492 (horses) . . . 462 incised . . . 463 Suspensory ligament, rup' Turn -sick .... 485 of the coronet . . 467 ture of . 462 Twist of the bowels . . 457 in the eye . . . 447 Swelled legs 465 mouth . . 449 Udder, hard . . .481 Swine-fever sole . . . 467 492 Udder, inflammation of tongue . . . 449 me.the. Seeoee Gargetuargi (cattle) 481 Teats, sore 483 (sheep) 489 • warts on . 4B1 Yellows. See Jaiindice tumours on the . 489 Teeth, diseases of 449 (horse) .... 458 Urine, suppression of 483 (cattle) . . . Teething cough . 449 479 Temperature 499 Vermin 490 Yew-poisoning . . . 478 on the back of the head. Give a physic HOESES. ball (No. 17). Remove dung from lower intestines with the hand. Administer a DISEASES AFFECTING THE HEAD, warm glyster (No. 13) two or three times EYES, MOUTH, AND NERVOUS SYSTEM. arday, and if it can be done without disturbing the animal too much, give the following every four hours : Bromide of I. —THE HEAD AND NERVOUS SYSTEM. potassium, 4 drs. ; brandy, 6 oz. ; water, 8 Apoplexy or Staggers. oz. But perfect quietness is the best medicine. Nothing more can be done results This almost hopeless disease this almost invariably fatal disease must effusion of blood producing from an be left to take its course. pressure on the brain. Symptoms.—Head carried low. The Tumours on or in ike Brain horse staggers till he falls. Eyes fixed can seldom, if ever, be recognised and and pupils dilated. Muzzle cold. Hear- localised during life, and their treatment ing and sight affected. Teeth clenched. is practically hopeless. When convulsions come on, the horse soon dies. Brain-fever or Mad Staggers, or Cause.—Apparently the breaking of a Inflammation of the Brain. small blood-vessel on or near the brain, occasioned by the derangement of the Sym-ptoms.—Sleepy and daft condi- system from overfeeding, or by violence. tion. Nostrils distended. Flanks heav- Prevention.—There is practically no ing. Eye wild. When delirium comes means of prevention beyond the ordinary on, the horse becomes violent and danger- proper management of the animal. ous ; his struggles will continue till he is Treatm.eiit.—Apply ice, or cold water exhausted, and the stupor returns. in a douche or stream along the spine and This disease is sometimes thought to ; HORSES. 443 be colic ; the difference is, however, very Fracture of the Skull. apparent. In colic, the horse is conscious, and only plunges and rolls from pain, The bones of the skull are so thick often turning his head round to his that a fracture can only arise from a fall flanks ; in mad staggers the struggles when a horse rears, or else from brutal are more violent, and consciousness is violence. This is a common occurrence lost. with pit ponies, and is caused by their Cause.—Fulness of blood to the head knocking their heads against the roof through being over-heated in hot weather. timbers. In most pits they wear a Treatment.—This disease is so often leather skull-cap to prevent this. It is fatal, and so little can be done to check generally fatal. it by medicine, that bleeding seems the Treatment. — The parts should be only course to pursue. elevated and fastened with adhesive Put the horse in a cool stable. Open plasters, to prevent their moving. To the jugular vein of the neck, and bleed reduce any inflammation, give purgative till he is weak. (No. 18) and a spare diet. Give purgative—croton-nut, }^ dr., or Fracture the Nose croton-oil, 20 drops, in warm gruel, and of repeat in 10 gr. or croton-oil lo-drop is caused by a fall or a blow with a doses every eight hours till the bowels stick across the bones of the nose. are open. Treatment.—Place the finger up the Bathe head with iced or cold water. nose, and gently push the bones back Inject warm soap - and - water. After into their place, and retain them there Ijurgative has been administered, give by an adhesive plaster. every few hours, in gruel, a draught con- Fracture of the Jaw. taining chloral hydrate, 4 drs. ; bromide of potassium, 4 drs. ; Fleming's tincture Generally caused by a kick, fall, or of aconite, 5 drops ; spirit of chloroform, accidental violence. I oz. Treatment.—If the animal is of any When recovering, feed moderately for value, get the jaw set by a veterinary a few days on bran-mashes and a little surgeon, who will place it in a cradle hay. made for that purpose. Epilepsy or Fits. Lockjaw or Tetanus. A disease on the brain not very com- A disease affecting the nervous system, mon among horses. and one of the most fatal which attacks Syraptoms.—Attack is sudden. Horse the horse. stares round, trembles, and falls to the Symptoms.—A difficulty in chewing ground. Convulsions more or less severe its food and some stiffness about the jaws follow. is often the first symptom observable. When consciousness returns, the horse Water is gulped down, the jaw becomes will feed as if nothing had happened. rigid, and saEva runs from the mouth. Cause. A derangement of the brain Afterwards the muscles of the head, — ; but very little is known about it, and neck, and shoulders become fixed, till there are no known means of prevention the whole muscular system of the body or cure. seems cramped. After some days, if the A horse subject to these fits is danger- disease is not checked, the horse will die ous for either riding or driving. in agony from sheer exhaustion. Treatment.—Give a purgative (No. Cause.—It is now believed by many to 1 7), and if the horse is restless or excit- be contagious ; but the apparent cause is able give a draught composed of chloral generally some wound, kick, or blow. hydrate, 4 drs. ; tincture of belladonna, Docking has been known to cause it. 1 oz. ; water, 8 oz., morning and evening In some cases the only apparent cause but little can be done to guard against a has been the existence of bot-worms in return of this disease. the stomach. Exposure to cold and general neglect have also brought it on. Fits, see Epilepsy, supra. Prevention.—There is no particular 444 AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK. means of prevention beyond the proper Madness or RaMes. care of the animal ; but if the beginning of this disease is suspected, give at once This is the most fearful disease which linseed-oil, i pint ; aloes, 2 drs. ; Flem- affects the nervous system. ing's tincture of aconite, 8 drops. Symptoms.— Horse suddenly stops, Treatment.—In this disease there is paws the ground, trembles, staggers, and considerable difficulty in giving remedies, falls ; he will rise and once more fall. owing to the contraction of the muscles Saliva flows from his mouth. of the jaws and the general stiffness. If After a short time he springs up in a the cause of the disease is some wound, violent manner, kicking and biting any- it had better be poulticed, and dressed thing near. Fit will succeed fit till he with carbolic oil or carbolic acid in 20 dies. But the symptoms do not always parts of water. Open the bowels by come on suddenly, and for a day, or giving y^ dr. of powdered croton (or even more, the attendant may wonder 20 drops croton-oil) in warm water, re- what is the matter with his horse that peating the powdered croton in doses of he is so extremely sensitive to noises, 10 grs. (or croton-oil 10 drops) every movements, and even to changes of eight hours till purging commences. light. If costiveness still continues, administer The animal rarely lingers more than a glyster of olive-oil, 8 oz. ; opium, ^ three days. oz. ; warm gruel, 2 quarts. Cause.—The bite of a mad animal, or Put the horse in a cool rather dark inoculation with the virus by some stable where there is plenty of air, keep other means. him very quiet, and let no one but the Prevention.—Among veterinary sur- attendant have anything to do with him. geons, there is practically no means of Mix an ounce each of extract of bella- preventing an attack of madness, if the donna and bromide of potassium together, germs or microbes of the disease are and place a piece of it about the size of once implanted in the blood. A bite a bean between the molar teeth every from a mad dog should be immediately five hours by the aid of the forefinger. cauterised vdth the hot iron, and if four Put a pail of gruel or sloppy mash in months pass without illness the horse the manger, so that the animal can, if may be considered safe. inclined, partake of it. Treatment. — M. Pasteur, of Paris, Never try to force food down the claims to have discovered a remedy for, animal's throat : it only aggravates the and preventive against, madness, which disease. he has applied with more or less success A veterinary surgeon, if called in, in the cases of human beings^ But in would probably inject hypodermically, lower animals, when the dangerous na- every four hours, atropine or morphia. ture of the disease is recognised, the Tetanus does not extend to the in- sooner the animal is put out of its mis- ternal organs ; the horse will suffer from ery and beyond the risk of harming its hunger. When the horse is recovering, attendants the better. he should be fed moderately with nour- ishing food (bran-mashes,, linseed, and Megrims. oatmeal in preference), and he will be This disease is said to be caused by all the better for a turn or walk out of an undue pressure of blood in the head. doors if the weather is suitable. Symptoms.—The horse will suddenly If you wish to save your horse, avoid stop, shake his head, and proceed on his bleeding, so often recommended for this journey, at considerable speed. Some- disease. To weaken the vital power at times he will turn round twice, or, more the moment when nature requires the often, perspiring profusely, fall down, greatest vitality and strength appears to and either struggle on the ground, or be suicidal. I am not an advocate for lie quietly. The attack may last five bleeding in any disease, except brain- minutes, and when it is over, the horse fever, and I think in a few years the will resume work as though nothing had practice will altogether die out, as it has happened; he will, however, be con- done in the medical profession. siderably weakened. A horse subject HOKSES. 445 to these attacks is particularly danger- Symptoms.—The first S3Tnptom may ous to ride or drive ; and after one at- be dull, colicky pains, sleepy look, pulse tack will always be liable to others in very slow, profuse perspiration. In many the future. Sometimes horses will die cases blindness. Bests his head against instantly when seized with an attack. the manger or wall, and sometimes moves Cause. — Violent exertion in hot his legs in a peculiar manner. Stagger- weather; too small a collar or tight ing gait till the horse falls down and bearing-rein ; a high system of feeding. dies in a state of stupor. Prevention.—A proper-fitting collar Cause.—Unsuitable or over feeding. and not too violent exercise ; a judicious Food in an overloaded stomach will system of feeding, and an occasional dose swell and distend it, producing an op- of purgative medicine, such as No. 20. pression on the brain which causes Treatment.—Bleeding is of little use, staggers. though recommended by many authori- Prevention. — Proper, regular, and ties. Let the animal stand a few min- systematic feeding vnth food of good utes, dash cold water on his head, push quality will ensure immunity from this the collar forward, and proceed home as disease. quietly as possible. Then give a phy- Treatment.—Give a purgative medi- sic ball (No. 17), and every six hours in cine, such as I pint linseed-oil and i oz. water bromide potassium, J^ oz., for two of tincture of ginger. An hour after or three days; afterwards give tonic the dose of oil give in gruel draught (No. 21). Mashes and green meat (No. 9), and repeat the dose of oil if should be given in preference to dry action of the bowels is not obtained. food, and a run out to grass for two Glysters of warm soap-and-water should months. also be given every four hours. Falsi/ (^Paralysis). Grass Staggers. A deficiency in nervous power, which A disease of the nervous system aris- affects usually the hind quarters. ing from the stomach. Symptoms.—Stiffness in their action, Symptoms.—They come on slowly, difficulty in turning, disinclination to lie the horse is dull and listless at first, but down from the difficulty in rising again, gradually passes into a somnolent con- and sometimes a total inability to rise. dition. In time the animal gets weak, Cause.—Pressure on the spinal cord reels, or staggers about, and if sharply from effusion of blood or serum, or from turned, will most likely fall down. It tumours within the spinal canal. Falls, seldom lies down when suffering from injury to the spine from blows or from this disease. turning in too narrow a stable, old age, Cause.—It is mostly seen during the and heavy loads. months of July and August, but varies Prevention.—Humane treatment and according to the season. It arises from ordinary care. eating rye-grass at a certain stage of its Treatment.—Give mild doses of pur- growth, as if eaten in this state it gative medicine, such as linseed-oil, i causes the disease. In hot and dry pint ; which will not only open the seasons it is most frequent. bowels, but also support the system. Treatment.—^Eemove the animal into Eub stimulating embrocation, as mustard a loose-box, give ball (17) and draught liniment (No 15), on the part affected, (9), and repeat the draught every four and in cases of doubt, especially along hours. Do not give any more rye-grass, the spine. Give morning and evening but steamed oats, bran-mashes, and a little nux vomica tincture, 2 drs. ; spirit of hay. Fresh, succulent, natural grasses ammonia, i oz., in 10 oz. of water. may be given in very small quantities. Babies, see Madness (p. 444). II. —THE EYE. StonMch Staggers. Cataract Oppression on the brain resulting is an opacity of the crystalline lens, and from a deranged and distended stomach. often follows an attack of ophthalmia. 446 AILMENTS OF FAKM LIVE STOCK. Symptoms.—A whitish speck in the Itching or Tumour the Eyelids. eye, which varies in different eyes in of shape, position, and size. They some- Treatment.—Eub the eyelids vidth times become large enough to cause mercurial ointment and lard in equal blindness. parts, and give sulphur, ^ oz., and nitre, Cause.—From a blow, after an attack I dr., in the food once a-day tiU the of ophthalmia, or inflammation of the animal is cured. eye. Removal the Eyeball. Treatment. — In the lower animals of very little can be done for it. It is necessary sometimes, when the eye has been severely damaged, or has Glass Eye. a cancerous growth in it, to remove it. Paralysis or loss of special sensation This can be done only by a veterinary in the optic nerve. surgeon, who wiU not only remove the Sym.ptoms. — The eye looks larger, eye, but, if you wish, place a glass one pupil dilated, animal stares—in fact, the in its place. In using glass eyes always eye is blind and motionless, and looks take them out at night, for if kept in more like a glass eye than a natural very long they become painful. one. Ophthalmia. Cause.—It is seen as a temporary condition in some cases of poisoning, but Violent inflammation of the eyelids, when permanent it is the result of either extending to the cornea and internal partial or total loss of function in the structures of the eye. optic nerve. Symptoms. — Light pains the eye, Treatment is of no use unless it is which is kept shut ; a profuse flow of the effect of a poison, then give ball tears. Pupil is contracted, and iris (17), a pint of linseed-oil, and every two changes colour. The opacity usually hours give in pint of cold water 4 oz. of extends from the circumference towards brandy and 2 oz. of spirits of ammonia the centre, and the inflammation dimin- aromat. ishes one day to increase twofold the next, till in a few weeks, if not checked, Inflammation of the Eye, or Simple the eye becomes opaque and blindness Ophthalmia. comes on. After an apparent cure Symptoms.—Eyelids swollen, water- the disease will sometimes come on ing, and nearly closed. Eye bloodshot, again, either in the same eye or in the and inside of the eyelids very red. other which had not previously been Cornea cloudy. Health not affected. affected. Cause. — Foreign matter, such as a Cause.—^A foul-smelling, ill-ventilated hay -seed or chaff in the eye; a blow stable, reeking with ammonia and decom- with a whip; or, more generally, cold. posing manure, is a frequent cause of It is sometimes produced in a young this disease. Confinement in a dark horse by over-exercise. stable and a sudden transition into the Treatment.—First remove any foreign glaring sunshine often accounts for it. substance. Give mild purgative (No. The tendency to inherit this disease from 20), and a mash diet ; bathe the eye with sires with defective sight is too well poppy-heads and warm water every two known from sad experience to need any hours, and if that is not handy, with comment. The management of horses weak brandy-and-water ; if no improve- being now better understood, this disease ment, bathe with a solution composed is becoming rarer every day. of liquor opium, sedativus i oz., in i pint Prevention. —A well drained and of cold water. A useful lotion for in- lighted stable and cleanliness are the flammation of the eye is, sulphate atro- best j)reventives. pine, 4 grs., in I oz. of water. Keep Treatment. — Foment the eye with the animal in a dark box until better. warm water, and bathe with a lotion The inflammation should be cured in a composed of sulphate of atropine, 4 grs., few days ; if not, treat as for Ophthalmia; in I oz. of water. Feed on spare diet; infra. put the horse in a cool, airy, but dark HOESES. 447 stable, where there is perfect cleanliness. III. —MOUTH, NOSE, TEETH, TONGUE, Give purgative (No. i8 or 19). The use PALATE. of the lancet may in extreme cases be Glanders, useful ; the inside of the eyelid should be exposed, and the lancet drawn lightly or enlargement and ulceration of the along for the purpose of relieving the glands in the lower jaw. parts affected by pressure of blood. Symptoms.—Small discharge of glu- Cloudiness of the eye, or complete opac- tinous matter from the nose, generally ity, is a frequent consequence of this from one nostril, and that the left, but disease, which may be treated by bath- no cough. Swelling of the glands be- ing with solution of corrosive sublimate, neath the lower jaw, which afterwards I gr., in 2 oz. of water. subsides, leaving the glands more fixed to the side of the jaw. Mucous mem- Thichening the of Haw. brane of the nose becomes purple instead The haw of the eye is situated in the of red, owing to inflammation. Lastly, inner corner of the eye filling the lid. pus-discharging ulcers appear in the nos- A horse can bring it forward over the trils, accompanied by cough, failing ap- eye, and with it wipe away any foreign petite, weakness, and staring coat ; these matter that may have got into it. This ulcers increase in number till they finally haw sometimes enlarges and protrudes, extend to the lungs, when death is cer- so that it cannot retract. tain. This disease may at first be con- Treatment.—Give purgative (No. 19), founded with Strangles (see p. 448) : the and bathe the eye with poppy-heads and difference, however, between the two warm water. Should the ulceration con- diseases is well marked. In strangles tinue, bathe with white vitriol, J^ dr.; the membrane of the nose is red, the water, 6 oz. ; or paint with a weak solu- discharge from the nose profuse ; there tion of silver nitrate. If further treat- is cough and sore throat, besides a swell- ment is necessary, it must be left to a ing of the glands on both sides of the veterinary surgeon. throat. The opinion of a veterinary surgeon should always be obtained should Warts on tlie Eyelids. glanders be suspected. Treatment.—Cut off with a pair of Cause.—Unhealthy stable, want of scissors and touch vsdth lunar caustic, fresh air, improper management, and taking care not to touch the eye, and not contagion, are the most frequent causes to put on more than is necessary. Rub- of this disease. bing the roots with blue vitriol will Prevention.—Do not run any possible sometimes effect a cure. Take care also risk of contagion. See that there is good that any bleeding, when cutting, does ventilation and cleanliness in the stable, not touch any other part, as blood from combined with judicious and proper a wart may spread the disease. management of the animal. Treatment.—Completely isolate from Wounds in the Eye or Eyelids. other horses. When once glanders is Generally caused by brutality or care- declared by the veterinary surgeon, the lessness. sooner the horse is destroyed the bet- Treatment.—Very little can be done ter; there is no recognised and practi- except to reduce the inflammation by cable cure, and the danger of its being purgative medicine (No. 20), and bathe spread by contagion is so great as with warm water, and apply a lotion to make it safer to destroy the animal composed of atropine, 4 grs., in i oz. of at once. Notice must be immediately water. This lotion is best applied by given to the police, as it is included the aid of a feather, which, when soaked under the Contagious Diseases (Animals) in the lotion, should be drawn gently Acts. across the eye. When the eyelids are torn, never cut any of the skin off, but Lampas. retain it in its proper position by the aid A fulness of the lower bars of the of silver wire. In these cases the horse palate. should be kept in a dark box. Cause. — It generally occurs with ; ; 448 AILMENTS OP FARM LIVE STOCK. young horses, and is a natural result tincture of perchloride of iron, i oz. from the congestion caused by the shed- spirits of sweet nitre, 2 oz. ding of their milk-teeth and the growth Strangles. of the permanent ones. Treatment.—Cut the bars lightly with A disease more common among horses a penknife several times across, avoiding under four years old than among older the artery. Never burn them. Give ones. bicarbonate of potash, 6 drs., morning Symptoms. — A cold, cough, sore and evening in drinking-water, and warm throat, and profuse discharge of yellow bran -mashes. Use lotion (No. i6) for mucus from the nostrils, swelling under washing the sore places. the throat, which increases and renders swallowing painful. The tumour is Nasal Gleet. situated in the centre of the throat A profuse and unnatural discharge of under the jaw, and feels like one solid mucus from one or both nostrils. mass. Owing to its solidity this disease Symptoms.—The nasal discharge con- can readily be distinguished from Glan- tinues after every other sign of cold has ders (see p. 447) when the tumour is com- left. Mucus in large quantities, mingled posed of separate parts, which can be with matter, constantly flows or is blown easily identified. The centre of the from the nose, till the horse becomes tumour is soft, and when it bursts it much weakened. Every care should be discharges an immense quantity of pus, taken to make certain that it is not a quickly healing after the discharge. case of glanders. When the cough subsides, the horse Treatment. — Should cough remain, begins to recover from the extreme treat as for Cough (p. 450). If the dis- weakness attending this disease. charge is foetid, give daily a dose contain- Cause.—Probably cold or climatic ing sulphate copper, i dr. ginger, 2 drs. changes. I have strong reasons for ; be- gentian, 2 drs. If the discharge is not lieving that this disease is contagious, offensive, but only an excessive discharge though this opinion is doubted by many of the fluid which moistens the nose, give authorities. daily, sulphate copper, i dr., made into Prevention.—None. a ball with flour and treacle. Horses Treatment.—Blister the tumour with affected by this complaint should always ordinary blister (No. i or 2) to hasten its have a lump of rock-salt in their racks, progress and prevent the inflammation and a little salt mixed with the most spreading. When the tumour is soft on nourishing food possible. Tonic (No. 21) the top, lance it and suffer the pus to may be useful in treating this disease. drain out without any pressure. After Nasal gleet of long standing is mostly the discharge, keep the place clean by due to a diseased tooth or bone in the bathing it well with warm water; rub head, which must be removed to effect a with vaseline, which wiU soften the cure. wound and promote its healing. Give twice daily, in a pint of gruel. No. and Polypus. 9, keep the bowels open with carrots and An excrescence growing in the nostril bran-mashes. Feed on bran-mashes and which impedes the breathing. It must green food, and keep the animal in a cool be removed by a veterinary surgeon, and and comfortable stable. When recovery no treatment by an unprofessional man is established, give morning and night can be of any use. tonic (No. 21), and keep the horse well. The discharge from the nose will continue Bleeding from Nose. some time, but will gradually cease. If The result of irritation of the nose, this disease is neglected, death will prob- glanders, bursting of a blood-vessel in ably follow. the head or lungs, and sometimes a blow on the head. Bastard Strangles. Treatment.—Keep animal quiet, head A low form of strangles, in which ab- elevated, and pour cold water over it. scesses appear on different parts of the Give every two hours, in a pint of gruel. body. The treatment should be the HORSES. 449 same as for ordinary strangles. In this and blister throat with mustard lini- disease there is much more danger of ment (No. 15), and give every night blood-poisoning. and morning, in a pint of gruel, draught (No. 16). Teeth [Diseases of). Wounds .Tongue. The irregular growth and rough edges of of the teeth frequently produce wounds Treat as for wounds of the mouth. in the mouth. A horse out of condition Tongue Bladders. should be examined, and if his teeth are irregular or have rough edges, they Sometimes occur underneath the should be rasped down with a file that tongue. is made for the purpose. Sometimes it Cause. — Produced by a slight de- is necessary to cut o£f part of a tooth rangement of the system. which projects far above the level of the Treatment.—Give a physic ball (Nos. others. 17 or 18), which will reduce any fever. The bladders may be readily removed by Extracting Teeth. oijening with a lancet. To extract the corner teeth of a three Paralysis or four year-old horse, so as to try and of the Tongue. alter his age, is cruel, and any one with Palsy of the tongue. experience of horses can easily see on Symptoms.—The tongue hangs in a looking into the animal's mouth if such loose manner from the mouth, and be- a thing has been done. comes swollen and inflamed. Wolf- teeth.—These little teeth are Cause.—A severe injury to tongue, or situated in front of the molars, and are by dragging on the tongue when giving believed by some to interfere with the a ball. animal's feeding. They can be easily Treatment.—Suspend the tongue in extracted the aid of pair of forceps, loose tied to head-stall give by a a bag the ; or else punched out. But unless it is purgative (No. 19) and a drachm of nux distinctly evident that they are causing vomica night and morning in a half-pint trouble, they should be left alone. of water. Molar Teeth.—They sometimes be- Amputation Tongue. come diseased. The animal quids his of food, and frequently when feeding This is sometimes done by veterinary pauses for a few seconds. The breath surgeons when the tongue has been ex- is very offensive. Their treatment tensively lacerated. A horse that has should certainly be left to the veterin- lost part of his tongue must be fed from ary surgeon. a deep manger, and in drinking these animals force their heads deeply into a Wounds in the Mouth. pail of water. From a cruel bit, &c. Paralysis of the Lower Lip. Treatment.—Wash it with a solution of alum, I oz., dissolved in twenty-eight A pendulous condition of the lower lip. times its weight of' water ; or use lotion Symptoms.—The animal's health is (No. 1 6). not interfered with, and he feeds fairly well, but lets a little food drop, his lip Teething Cough. hangs down, and a ' little saliva flows A persistent and violent cough. from it. Symptoms. — Usually seen between Cause.—Paralysis of the nerve of the the age of three and four. Food re- lip, which is usually brought about by the fused, head poked out, gums red and curb -chain being too tight, or a badly swollen, frequent coughing, and some- fitted bridle. times a tooth is found in the manger. Treatment.—Give a physic ball, con- Cause.—Teething, which causes irri- taining 5 drs. of aloes, and rub into tation of throat. the lip and sides of the face a little of Treatment.—Extract any temporary embrocation (No. 12). Feed on sloppy teeth showing signs of getting loose, mashes. VOL. III. 2 p 4SO AILMENTS OF FAEM LIVE STOCK. DISEASES AFFECTING THE THROAT, Cliohing. CHEST, RESPIRATORY ORGANS, Substances which have lodged in the AND BLOOD. gullet can generally be forced down by the use of a flexible tube, similar to that Bronchitis, used for cattle ; if not, an operation by a or inflammation of the broncMal tubes. veterinary surgeon will be necessary. Symptoms. — CougMng, wlieezing, hard breathing, and weakness. The Sore Throat. horse may die in a severe attack from A common complaint, and associated suffocation. with such diseases as strangles, influenza, Cause.—In cases of neglected cold or and scarlet fever, &c. catarrh, bronchitis often follows. Ex- Symptoms. — Animal has a nasty posure to cold or wet. cough, quids his food, and pokes out Treatm.ent.—Give plenty of fresh air, his nose. but keep warm. Apply embrocation Treatment.—Blister the throat with (No. 12) to the chest; give nitre, 3 drs., embrocation (No. 12), feed on sloppy and Fleming's tincture of aconite, 10 food, and give in gruel twice a-day (No. drops, three times a -day, and increase 10). Be careful in drenching that you the dose if necessary. Feed on bran- do not choke the animal, for you are mashes containing linseed - meal. For very liable to do so when it is suffering drinking-water, give weak infusion of from a sore throat. linseed. In acute cases, give in gruel draught No. 10 three times a-day. Rheuinatie Fever. A specific fever due to a constitutional Broken Wind. condition of the system. Syinptom.s. —In this disease the ex- Symptom.s.—^Animal restless, breath- piration of the breath takes two efforts, ing hurried, slight cough, shows signs of and the inspiration only one ; the breath- pain, goes stiff, and joints swell. ing, therefore, is not regular, as in thick Cause. — Hereditary tendency, bad wind. stables, and insufficient food. Cause. —It is the rupture of air-cells, Treatm-ent. — Give physic ball (No. and is generally attended by a dry cough. 20), put an ounce of nitre frequently in Gross feeding, previous inflammation, drinking-water, and give twice a-day the and violent exercise after heavy feeding. following ball : iodide of potassium, i Treatm^ent.—There is no cure. Keep dr. powdered colchicum, 20 grs. ; liquor- ; for slow work, and feed on soft nourish- ice-powder, 2 drs., made up with linseed- ing food which occupies a small space. meal and treacle. Kub the swoUen joints every night with embrocation (No. 12). Crih-hiting Chronic Cough. is more of a habit than a disease. Syinptom.s. —The animal seizes the A most annoying disease to the rider. manger or any fixed object, and makes a This cough frequently follows an attack gulping noise as if trying to swallow air. of inflammation of the lungs. Cause. — Indigestion or habit ; one Syinptom.s.—If the horse coughs after horse will learn it from another. drinking, the cough will arise from the Treatm.ent.—It takes a lot of curing. vidndpipe. It does not affect the general Anchovy paste on the manger will some- health. times effect a cure. Any saddler will Cause. — Previous inflammation, ne- make a strap to go round the horse's glected cold, and sometimes worms. neck to prevent crib-biting. An inven- Treatment.—If the coat is staring, tion has been recently brought out to the cause of the cough will generally be cure it by the aid of electricity. The worms, in which case give turpentine, battery is placed in such a way, that y^, oz., daily, in 4 oz. of linseed-oil; or whenever the animal seizes and squeezes santonine, 20 grs., and aloes, 3 drs., made the top part of the manger, he at once into a ball with linseed-meal and treacle, receives a severe shock. in the morning on an empty stomach. ; HOESES. 451 i and repeat after two days ; or give a-day containing spirit nitrous ether, draught (No. 11). If the cough pro- oz., liquor ammonia acetatis, 3 oz., in a ceeds from the throat, feed on green pint of water, and rub the throat with meat and mashes, and give ball (No. 8). embrocation (No. 12). Half fill a nose- Apply blister (No. 2) to the throat if bag with hay, and pour boiling water other remedies fail. .Water, in vk'hich a upon it, and keep the horse's head in it little linseed or treacle has been boiled, till it ceases to steam, but be careful not is useful instead of plain water, for to burn the horse's nose. In cases of drinking purposes. extreme depression, as in pink eye, give every three hours spirit nitrous ether, t Common Cold. oz. ; whiskey, 4 oz. ; water, 6 oz. Char- Symptoms. — Slight discharge from coal-powders night and morning are the nose, and weeping of the eyes ; fever useful for improving the blood. When and cough. recovering, give tonic (No. 21) in a pint Cause.—Changes of temperature and of beer twice a-day. Great care should chills. be taken to prevent these attacks pro- Treatment. — Clothe warmly, and ducing roaring and other diseases. place in a cool stable. Feed on warm Bibs. bran -mashes with a little linseed -meal Broken in them, and give in gruel night and The ribs of horses are frequently morning till fever is reduced — acetate broken through accidents and kicks. oz. —-If only of ammonium, 3 ; potassium bicar- Treatment. the ribs are bonate, J^ oz. ; chloroform, yi oz. ; and broken and not the skin, put a good apply liniment (No. 14) to the throat, or pitch-plaster over that side of the chest embrocation (No. 12). but if the skin is broken and there is a hole in the chest, it is beyond the power Distemper, Catarrhal Fever, of any one but a veterinary surgeon to or Influenza. effect a cure. Most prevalent in spring and autumn, the Chest. especially when the weather is cold and Dropsy of wet. The result usually of pleurisy. Symptoms.—At first dulness, loss of Symptoms can be detected only by appetite, and there may be shivering, placing the ear against the chest. cough, weakness, inflamed eyes, nose a Treatment.—Tap the chest and let pale red, watery discharge from nostrils. the fluid out. Later the discharge from the nostrils There is a disease amongst colts run- becomes thick, but seldom ofiensive, ning on low marshy land of a dropsical glands of throat and under jaw swell, nature, but in this disease the swelling which make swallowing difficult. Gen- is seen on the outside of the chest and erally there is intense weakness. along the abdomen. There is a violent form of influenza Treatment.—Take colt in from the which has lately come into notice called grass, give good food, and every night " pink eye." It is attended vsdth ex- and morning, in a pint of gruel, give treme weakness, depression, and loss of tonic (No. 21). appetite, and has been the cause of seri- Farcy. ous loss in many parts of the country. Cause.—Contagion, influences of cli- A glanderous ulceration which first af- mate producing cold, amounting almost fects the superficial l3rmphatics or glands. to an epidemic. Symptoms.—Small tumours or cords Treatment.—Kemove into a cool box, which follow the track of the lymphatic clothe warmly, feed on warm bran-mashes vessels ; they increase in number and at (the steam from which is very beneficial) length ulcerate. Foetid discharge from and green food, a little hay, or a carrot nostrils. Swelling round muzzle and of or two, and give in weak infusion of lin- the limbs, which sometimes increase to seed I oz. nitre, instead of pure water an enormous size; at other times the for drinking. Sponge the nostrils with heels crack and mangy eruptions cover vinegar and water. Give draught twice the body. There are various forms of ; ; 452 AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK. this disease, and the aid of a veterinary Cause.—The chief cause is contagion, surgeon should always be obtained. It through the animal receiving into its is included in the Contagious Diseases system the germ which causes the dis- (Animals) Acts along with glanders, and ease — the Bacillus anthracis. This it notice must be at once given to the is most likely to do in its food or water, police. or it may be into a scratch or wound. Cause.—Bad ventilation and sanitary The Bacillus anihracis is a rose -like arrangements ; neglect of proper exercise vegetable organism which grows and mul- and cleanliness ; contagion. tiplies in the blood with great rapidity. Prevention. — None beyond proper The disease is mostly seen in low-lying management. lands and near stagnant pools. Dogs, Treatment. — Remove into a clean, birds, vermin, and flies are propagators cool, well - ventilated box, and isolate of it through feeding on diseased car- from other horses. Give opening medi- casses. corrosive gentian cine, sublimate, 8 grs. ; Prevention.—Drain the land, run off drs., ; 2 drs ; ginger, 2 every night in- any stagnant pools. Bury the diseased crease the dose of sublimate gradually till carcasses 8 to 10 feet deep, and throw I scruple is given. Should the mouth be- oil of vitriol and quicklime over them. come sore, give daily sulphate of copper, Be careful you do not infect yourself I dr., and powdered aniseed, i oz. If the through handling these carcasses, and do horse is too violently purged, give a ball not allow any more animals to graze on containing opium, i dr., mixed with the land that has caused the disease meal and treacle. Cauterise the ulcer- until it has had a good dressing of lime. ated buds with red iodide of mercury Treatment is very unsatisfactory, al- ointment (No. 4). If the cauterised though the disease is not necessarily places do not look firm, bathe with lotion fatal. Give purgative (No. 17) and containing corrosive sublimate, i dr. carbolic acid in half-drachm doses, in a rectified spirits of wine, 4 oz. When pint of water, every five or six hours the buds become healthy, apply friars' or alternate it with salicylic acid in half- balsam to heal them. The horse should ounce doses in gruel. Give also stimu- be fed on green meat and carrots, and, lants occasionally ; in this case turpentine should the season permit, a run out of in ounce-and-half doses is perhaps the doors for a few hours in the middle of best, given in thin gruel ; and administer the day will be beneficial. Rock-salt salines, as nitrate of potash in half-ounce should always be placed in the rack. If doses, and chlorate of potash in 2-drachm limbs are greatly swollen, foment fre- doses, — the purpose being to get the quently with hot water. system rapidly saturated with substances inimical to the life of the bacterium. Anthrax, or Splenic Fever The greatest care should be exercised is a blood disease of a virulent type. in treating and attending to the animal, Symptoms. — The animal suddenly as the attendants have sometimes become becomes iU, perhaps during work ; violent fatally affected by receiving the contagion trembling, excessive perspiration, hurried from the animal under their care. breathing; the animal reels, loses the power of his legs, and, after a few con- Simple Fever. vulsions, becomes unconscious and dies. Symptoms.—Staring coat, cold legs In some cases the symptoms are not so and feet, dulness, alternate shivering and pronounced at first, the animal only hot fits, constipation. There is no cough sweating, going stiff, trembling, and or turning round to the flanks. extremely dull ; and if it lives over the Cause.—Sudden change from heat to first twelve hours, there is generally ex- cold, often produced by the improper tensive swelling of the throat, often ventilation of a stable; checked perspi- spreading down the under part of the ration. neck toward the chest, and a sticky Treatment.—Place in a cool stable straw-coloured fluid trickling from the where there is good air without draught, nostrils. But it gradually gets worse, and give soft food while the fever is at and in a few days will probably die. its height, and then a more generous HORSES. 453 diet. Give mild opening medicine, such severe illnesses. The legs, nose, and lips as linseed-oil, ^ pint. On no account swell, pink sjjots are seen inside nose and give active purgatives. Glysters of warm eyelids ; animal refuses food, and looks a soap - and - water will aid the action of pitiful object. the bowels, and give every four hours a Cause.—Sequel to other diseases, or draught containing solution acetate of from bad stable drainage. ammonium, 3 oz. ; Fleming's tincture of Prevention. — See that your stable aconite, 5 drops ; spirit nitrous ether, drainage and food are good. ij4 oz., in pint of water. The disease is Treatment.—Is best left to a veterin- not dangerous, unless complications ensue. ary surgeon. Bleeding Inflammation of the Lungs, or Pneumonia. is gradually becoming a thing of the past, but it is sometimes beneficial, especially Symptoms.—Fever and quickening where there is great blood-pressure, such pulse, cold ears and legs, breathing thick, as brain-fever, mad staggers, and acute nostrils dilated, restlessness, unwilling- founder. ness to lie down, and staring coat. Some- Hovsr to Bleed an Animal.—Put a times the attack comes on suddenly and driving bridle on the horse, bring his sometimes gradually. Death has been head round to the light, turn it to the known to ensue in twelve hours. left side, raise the jugvilar vein on the Cause.—Cold, over-driving when out right side by pressing on it with- the of condition. fingers, hold the fleam in the left hand Treatment.—Eemove to a cool airy parallel with the vein, and give it a smart loose-box, and clothe warmly; rub the blow with the blood - stick ; keep the legs well, using white oil liniment (No. bucket pressed against the neck below 14) ; feed on green meat and bran-mashes the wound, and if the blood does not only; apply embrocation (No. 12) to flow freely, insert the fingers into the each side of the chest; give every four mouth to keep the jaw moving. Take hours a draught containing acetate of from I to 3 quarts of blood, afterwards ammonium, 3 oz. ; bicarbonate potash, place a pin through the lips of the y2 oz. ; Fleming's tincture of aconite, 3 wound, and wind tow around it. Do drops; water, 8 oz., till the fever is not use too large a fleam. subdued. When recovering, give tonic (No. 21), and two months' run at grass Inflammation the Jugular Vein of if the season permit. after Bleeding. This is a very dangerous disease, and The wound caused by bleeding is gen- the aid of a veterinary surgeon should be erally held together by a pin and piece obtained. of twisted tow ; it wiU. usually heal in a While sufiering from fever the diet couple of days. If the fleam has been should be sparing, and entirely composed carelessly used, or has been dirty, the of green meat, carrots, and cold bran- wound is apt to become inflamed, swell, mashes. The open air is preferable to a and discharge matter. Abscesses will close warm stable : it is of the first im- then form, and if not checked will prove portance that the horse should have cool dangerous. fresh air to breathe. If this disease is Treatment.—Inject a weak solution neglected, the after-consequences, even of nitrate of silver into the abscesses; should the horse recover, will be most wash the wound at once with a solution serious, and his constitution will be of carbolic acid, containing about 20 ruined. parts of water, and if this does not pre- Scarlet Fever. vent the abscesses forming, further treat- ment must be left to the veterinary A feverish disease of the horse, char- surgeon. acterised by pink spots in the nose and mouth, and usually associated with a Purpura-hcemorrhagica. Purpura, or sore throat. A blood disease of a very low type. Symptoms.—The animal dull and ofi" Symptoms.—Is seen frequently after its feed, eyes swollen, pink spots inside ; 454 AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK. the nose and eyelids ; there is sometimes neck and .head from striking the manger, a sore throat. or given by a savage attendant. Treatment.-—Place the animal into a Treatment. — Apply cooling lotion, comfortable loose-box, give thrice arday, such as goulard water, to the swelling, in gruel, draught (No. 9), and when and keep the bowels open with purgative recovering, give tonic (No. 21) in a pint (No. 18). If the tumour increases, apply of ale twice a-day. common blister (No. 3) to hasten its dis- charge, and when it is soft in the middle Pleurisy. it should have a seton drawn through A disease affecting the membrane cov- the tumour from the top, through the ering the lungs and lining the chest. bottom, out at the side below the tumour: Symptoms.—^Very similar to those of this will completely drain the abscess. inflammation of the lungs, except that the Then foment and clean with warm water pulse is hard and small, the breathing till cured. The aid of a veterinary shorter and painful, and performed mostly surgeon should be obtained to ensure by the abdominal muscles, showing a line the successful treatment of the tumour. at each expiration from the lower border of the ribs to the flank. Roaring. Cause.—Chills. A disagreeable noise made by some Treatment—Eemove into a cool airy animals during respiration, especially if stable, and feed on cold bran-mashes and forced to exert themselves. green food. Rub the chest and sides Symptoms.-—A roaring sound when with embrocation (No. 12), and give sharp exercise is taken, caused by the twice a - day oil of turpentine, i oz. difiiculty of the air passing through the iodide of potassium, 2 drs. ; linseed-oil, contracted opening of the larynx. 4 oz. ; lime - water, 6 oz. Call in a Cause.—^Frequently results from an veterinary surgeon, who may resort to attack of strangles. Tight reining tends the use of the trocar to puncture the to produce it. chest. Complete rest at grass, if possible, Treatment—There is no cure in the and tonic (No. 21) should follow when case of a confirmed roarer. In early the animal is recovering. stages rub blister (No. i) on the throat, and give a ball morning and night, com- Heart Disease. posed of riux vomica, y^ dr. ; arseniate disease causing interference with of iron, grs. quinetum, i dr. Nothing A 3 ; blood circulation. further can be done. Symptoms.—There is really but one Saddle Galls. true symptom, and that is the irregularity of the pulse, but often associated with Cause.—A badly fitting saddle. this there is weakness, cough, hurried Treatment. —Apply lotion (No. 7), breathing, and sometimes the animal alter the saddle, and do not work until staggers as if in want of breath. cured. Cause. — Rheumatic usually in its Sore Shoulders, origin. Treatment.-—None. The shoulders of horses sometimes There are several other inflammatory become very sore and painful, and when diseases of the heart, but it would only in this condition, if neglected, large be wasting time to enumerate them here, wounds and abscesses soon follow. for they are of a complicated nature and Cause. — Badly fitting collar, heavy very rare. loads, using one trace longer than the other, and working horses too young. Poll Evil. Treatment. — Bathe the shoulders A painful swelling on the upper part night and morning for an hour with of the neck behind the ears, generally warm water, then apply lotion (No. 16) to terminating in an open sore. the parts where the skin is broken. Do Symptoms.^—Inflammation and swell- not work the animals until they are pro- ing of the ligaments over the atlas bone. perly healed, for you can be summoned Cause.—Tight reining, blows on the for working a horse with sore shoulders. HORSES. 45 5 into a deep ulcer, which extends down Sitfasts. to the bone. These are small hard tumours which Cause.—Pressure on the withers from form in the substance of the skin where an ill-fitting saddle or collar. the harness comes in contact with it. Treatment.—Give the horse complete Cause. — Pressure of the saddle. rest till cured; do not work him till Small pimples or pustules from an un- then under any pretence. Upon the healthy condition of the skin. first appearance of the swelling, foment, Treatment. ^—Give rest, foment, and and apply lotion (No. 7). If the tumour apply cooling lotion. Should they sup- appears, apply blister (No. i or 3). The purate, wash with tincture of myrh, i veterinary surgeon should be called in, oz. carbolic oz. 2 ; acid, j4 ; glycerine, if this does not stop the inflammation. oz. ; and water, 10 oz. If they make no Keep the bowels open by feeding on progress towards healing, apply a little green meat and bran-mashes. blister (No. i) to the ulcers, and dress the wounds with friars' balsam. But DISEASES AFFECTING THE STOMACH, it is often advisable, and brings about a LIVER, BOWELS, KIDNEYS, AND far more speedy recovery, to have the OTHER INTERNAL ORGANS, AND hard core in the centre carefully removed PARTURITION. with the knife. Alter the saddle and £ots. make it fit The larvae of the gad-fly. Most com- Stricture of Gullet. mon in spring and early summer. The Symptoms. — A contraction of the eggs of the gad-fly are deposited among gullet which prevents the passage of food. the hair, and are introduced into the Can be cured only by a veterinary stomach through the horse licking him- surgeon. self. They attach themselves to the lining of the stomach during the winter, Thick Whid. injuring and weakening it, till finally Symptom.s.—Difficulty of breathing they are seen escaping in the spring out when driven. Short hurried respira- of the anus, causing great itching. tions. This complaint is most usual in Treatment.—No medicine will totally horses with contracted chests, often re- destroy these bots. The use of salt sulting from an attack of inflammation among the food may serve to mitigate of the lungs. the evil, and a draught containing oil of Treatment.—This annoying disease turpentine, i oz., Hnseed-oil, 10 oz., may can be mitigated only by careful man- remove many of them, but very little agement, avoiding sharp exercise after can be done, and nature must be left to feeding, and by never giving a very full take its course. meal. The food should be of a very Colic or Gripes. nutritious nature in a small bulk. A thick-winded horse may be able to go a 1. Flattilent Colic. good pace without inconvenience, if he is Ssnnptoms.—Stomach and intestines not hurried when he first leaves the stable. distended with gas ; pain and depression. Cause. Overloading of the stomach Whistling and Wheezing — with green meat ; cold and over-exertion. are forms of broken wind, which can be Treatment.—Give a purgative (No. mitigated only using the animal for by 17), and glyster (No. 13), and every two slow work. A drink made of linseed- hours give a draught containing opium pint, boiled in six pints of meal, one tincture, i oz. ; spirit of ammonia, i oz. ; water, little treacle, do good, with a may carbolic acid, 15 drops; chloroform, i but there is no cure. oz., in 12 oz. of water. WitJiers (Fistulous). "2. Spasmodic Colic. Symptoms. — This troublesome dis- Symptoms.—Acute pain, rolling on ease first appears as a swelling on the the ground, suddenness of attack, ex- withers, develops into a tumour, then cited countenance, and the intermittent ;; ; 456 AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK. nature of the pain. This last character- Symptoms.—It first starts with diar- istic distinguishes the disease from in- rhcea, which passes into dysentery ; the flammation of the bowels. animal becomes restless, occasionally lies Cause. — Chills from drinking cold down ; in the course of a few hours it water when hot, or otherwise. trembles ; clots of blood are passed with Treatment.—If taken in time, this the dung, which has a bad smell if not disease can usually be cured by giving soon checked ; a cold sweat breaks out, linseed-oil, i pint ; and every two hours, the legs become cold, the eye glassy, and in a pint of gruel, a draught containing death closes the scene. oil of turpentine, i oz. ; tincture of Cause. —Too large a dose of physic, opium, I oz. ; chloroform, i oz. Walk worms and improper feeding, associated the horse about after giving the dose. with a bad sanitary condition of the If the attack continues, apply hot fo- stable. mentations to the belly till the aid of Treatment.—Put animal in a warm the veterinary obtained. box, if surgeon can be cold ; put a rug and bandages on. Give every six hours until the purging Diarrlwea. ceases the following drench in half a Frequent passing of fluid dung. pint of gruel r Chlorodyne, oz. pow- ^ ; Symptoms. — Animal dull, refuses dered opium, I dr. prepared chalk, ; J^ food, slight colicky pains, and frequent oz. ; tincture of cardamoms, i oz. ; old dunging, which, if not checked, will ter- port wine, y^ pint. minate in inflammation of the mucous Diabetes. membrane of the bowels. Cause.—Bad feeding, or feeding on Symptoms.—Unnatural discharge of raw potatoes, too succulent green food, urine, weakness, and unthrifty appear- cold and irritation of the bowels, from ance. worms or innutritious food. Cause.—Irritation of the kidneys by Treatm.ent.—Place animal in a warm a too frequent use of diuretics or bad box, if cold, put a rug on, keep short of food. water, and give in half-jjiht of gruel Treatment.—Feed on green food and twice arday the following : Tincture of mashes, and give morning and night in catechu, i oz. powdered chalk, oz. gruel a draught containing dilute hydro- ; J4 i oz. ; i tincture of cardamoms, opium chloric acid, 2 drs. ; quinetum, dr. powder, ij^ dr. To be continued until tincture of opium, ^ oz. The part of the diarrhoea ceases. the loins over the bladder should be cov- ered with a hot cloth. Attend to the Constipation. quality of the food, and in severe cases Generally arising from the nature of call in a veterinary surgeon. the food or torpidity of the liver or in- the Bowels. testines. Infiammation of Prevention.—All dust from chop or Very fatal, often resulting in death in chaff should be sifted out of horse's food, a few hours. and too much mealy or dry food should Symptoms.—At first imeasiness and not be given without access to water. dulness; fever, and in some cases shiv- Treatment. —^Give purgative medi- ering fits ; nose red and mouth hot cine—linseed-oil, i pint, and plenty of breathing and pulse quick ; ears and legs watery food, gruel, &c., and warm glys- cold ; and the passing of small quan- ters of soap-and-water, repeating the tities of dung at short intervals. The dose of oil when required. For chronic horse will show great pain by kicking constipation give daily a ball composed at his belly and whisking his tail. of aloes, I dr. ; nux vomica, yi, dr. Cause. —A chill when overheated, carbonate i dr. when ammonium, ; ginger, i often from drinking cold water dr. i dr. ; gentian, hot, over-exertion, a too full meal when the animal is tired and worn out. Dysentery. Prevention.—These inflammatory dis- A continual passing of semi -solid eases of the internal organs are very dung, tinged with blood. common among draught-horses. There ;; HORSES. 457 is no more pernicious habit than that of Treatment. — Nothing can do any working horses during hot weather, with- good except opium, which will ease pain out allowing them for hours together to until death. have any drinking-water till they get into Inflammation the Bladder. a probably cold stable, where they are of allowed to drink their fill and stand for See Inflammation of the Kidneys for an hour during the dinner-hour till they symptoms and treatment, infra. are chilled inside and out. It seems Cause. —Irritant matter in urine, or extraordinary that so many horses stand stone in the bladder. this treatment. AUow farm-horses fre- the the quent moderate drinks of water while at Inflammation of Nech of Bladder. their work, when that work is heating or the weather hot. The exercise after Symptoms. ^—Distended bladder and drinking will prevent any chiUs, and on partial to total suppression of urine. their return to the stable they will eat Cause.—Overstraining or cold. their corn without requii'ing water to an Treatment.—Give purgative (No. 17), injurious extent. and three times daily in gruel a draught Treatment. — Place in a cool stable containing Fleming's tincture of aconite, and clothe warmly; give warm glysters 5 drops ; tincture of opium, i ^ ciz. ; bi- of thin gruel and Epsom salts, yi, lb. carbonate of potash, J^ oz. Apply hot Foment the belly with hot water and fomentations to the loins, and call in a rub it with embrocation (No 12), and veterinary surgeon, who wU, if necessary, every three hours give in gruel tinctm-e draw oflf the urine with a catheter. of ginger, i oz. ; tincture of opium, i oz. Parturition. chloroform, 4 drs. Rub and bandage the legs. Give plenty of warm linseed- The act on the part of a mare to bring gruel. If costiveness continue, give forth her young. The period of preg- with great caution in gruel small doses nancy in the mare is usually eleven of aloes, 2 drs. dissolved, and J^ pint months, though it sometimes varies be- linseed-oil, and send for a veterinary tween ten and twelve months. This surgeon. animal seldom brings forth more than one at a time, nevertheless twins some- Stomach. Inflammation of times do occur, but they rarely Hve long A disease of rare occurence. after birth. Symptoms.—Animal shows signs of Signs of Foaling.—The mare is dull, pain, breathes hard, sweats about the abdomen sprung, back bent, vulva swollen, shoulders, thirst, flow of saliva, great and a little mucus discharged. The prostration, legs and ears become cold, udder becomes enlarged, wax appears the animal staggers, and soon dies. at the ends of teats. As the time draws Cause.—Foreign body in stomach, or near the mare becomes restless, paws, from a vegetable or mineral poison. keeps on lying down, an anxious ex- Treatm.ent.—Give linseed-oU, i pint pression in the eyes, and frequent pas- tincture of opium, 2 oz., and give after sing of dung and urine. The water-bag every two hours two eggs beaten up in a soon makes its appearance, which ulti- pint of Hnseed-gruel, and add to it an mately bursts, after which the young foal ounce of tincture of nux vomica, and one appears. of tincture of belladonna. Treatment. — The mare should be placed in a nice clean loose -box with Tivist the Bowels. of plenty of straw, and do not disturb her A twist in a portion of the bowels, by keeping open the door and looking in which causes strangulation, mortification, frequently. and death. Symptoms.—Excruciating pain, the Inflammation of the Kidneys. animal is up and down, blowing heavy S3rmptoms.—Fever and peculiar posi- and sweating, nothing seems to give ease, tion, standing with legs wide apart ; hot and death comes as a happy release. loins, and tenderness in that part ; sup- Cause.—Mostly roUing when in pain. pressed urine, which is dark in colour ; 458 AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK. and tinged with blood; straining to Treatment.—Should the attack be avoid urine. Put the hand up the severe, call in a veterinary surgeon. Give rectum, and the bladder under the for a purgative—sulphate of magnesia, rectum will be emiJty without undue 5 oz. ; virgin scammony, 30 grs. ; and heat. In cases of inflammation of the feed on bran-mashes with a light diet. A neck of the bladder, it will feel hard and useful draught, to be given three times full. In cases of inflammation of the a-day in gruel, is composed of chloride bladder, it will feel empty, but there will ammonium, 2 drs. ; bicarbonate potassium, be great heat. yz oz. ; Fleming's tincture of aconite, 5 Cause.—Unwholesome food, particu- drops; chloroform, yi oz. larly musty oats, or a violent overstrain- Jaundice or Yellows. ing or cold. Treatment.—Remove into a comforts Symptoms.—A yellow tinge in the able box, clothe warmly, give plenty of eyes, skin, and mouth ; urine quite water, feed on linseed and bran mashes, yellow; loss of appetite, and constipar foment the loins with hot water. Apply tion. embrocation (No. 12) to the loins over Cause.—Obstruction of the flow of the kidneys, but leave the turpentine bile from the liver, disease of the liver out of the embrocation, and give purga- or congestion arising from cold or other tive (No. 17); give also warm glysters cause. of soap-and-water. When the purgative Treatment.—Feed on mashes, thin has acted give white hellebore, 5 grs. warm gruel, and green food ; clothe well dr., ball, if is tartar emetic, i mixed into a weather cold ; give every morning three times a-day till cured. If pos- calomel, J^ dr. If inflammation sets in, sible, find out and remove the cause of give every morning in gruel a draught the disease, if it arises from improper containing solution acetate ammonium, food. 4 oz. ; Fleming's tincture of aconite, 5 drops ; spirit of nitrous ether, i J^ oz. Inflammation the Womb. of When recovering give tonic (No. 21). An inflammatory disease of the womb shortly after foaling. Peritonitis. Symptoms. — Animal becomes dull Inflammation of the lining membrane and stiff, appetite lost, secretion of milk of the abdomen. diminished, breathing hurried ; the ani- Symptoms.—Small hard pulse, colicky mal grinds its teeth, suffers from colicky pains, dulness, constipation, and tender- pains, frequently lies down, stamps, kicks ness on pressure over the abdomen, its belly, the vulva is swollen and a dis- which feels hard and rounded. charge comes from it, which, is at first Cause.—It may arise from cold and yellow, but afterwards becomes a choco- neglect, but generally from worms or late colour. wounds, as after castration. Cause.—Exposure to cold, retention of Treatment.—Hot fomentations per- the after-birth, and injuries received dur- sistently applied; give opium or laud- ing foaling. anum, with small doses of spirits of Treatment. — Put hot cloths across ammonia every four or five hours, gruel the loins, and give every three hours the and Knseed-tea to drink, and soft sloppy following draught in a pint of linseed- food. gruel : tincture of belladona, i oz. Poisons. spirits, ether (nitrous), 2 oz. ; and soda sulphite, J^ oz. The only vegetable poison that need be mentioned is yew. The eating of Inflammation of the Liver. this tree accounts for the death of many An uncommon disease. horses every year. If the poison is SymptomiB.—Dull pain, but no great suspected, give at once linseed-oil, 20 oz., uneasiness, yellowness of the mouth and and drench with spirits of ammonia, nostrils. ; oz. gruel, i pint. 3 oz. brandy, 5 ; Cause. —Overfeeding and insufficient Repeat dose of oil, if it does not operate exercise. in twelve hours. ; HORSES. 459 Treatment.—Castrate by the covered Lead-poisoning. operation (p. 497). A disease due to the introduction of lead into the system. Staling of Blood, Symptoms.—The horse has a care- or mixture of blood with the urine. worn expression, staring coat, back Cause.—Inflammation of the kidneys. arched, legs cramped, colicky pains, and Treatment.—Feed on green meat and flow of saliva from the mouth. ; mashes clothe warmly ; give Fleming's Cause.—Grazing near rifle-butts or tincture of aconite, 8 drops, every night. lead-smelting works, drinking water im- Purgative (No. 17) should be given, and pregnated with lead, licking lead paints, three times a^day a draught in gruel, barbarous practice and the of giving shot composed of extract of ergot, J^ oz. for broken wind. tannin, '^ oz. ; dilute sulphuric acid, Treatment. — Give sulphate of mag- 2 drs. When the appearance of blood nesia, 8 oz., in a pint of water, with in the urine has ceased, give daily Per- tincture of belladonna, i oz. ; tincture of uvian bark, 1 oz. ; sulphate of iron, i dr. capsicum, }^ oz. Afterwards, give every four hours until the animal is purged, Stone in the Bladder (Calculus). sulphate of magnesia, i oz., tincture of Symptoms. — Irregular voidance of belladonna, i oz., in half a pint of water. urine, sometimes total suppression, great pain, suddenness of attack, great uneasi- Arsenic-poisoning. ness, a sediment from the urine on the Due to arsenic either given acci- floor of the stable, and profuse perspira- dentally or intentionally. tion during attack. Sym.ptoms.— Colic, staggering gait, Cause.—Formation of solids in the quick breathing, cold ears, diarrhoea, bladder, often brought on by weakness and death. or disease of the kidneys. Cause.—It is sometimes caused by Treatment.—Give morning and even- clever grooms giving it to improve the ing, in gruel, a draught containing bicar- condition of their horses, or by allowing bonate of potassium, i oz. ; benzoate animals to graze where recently dipped ammonium, i oz. If the gravel or small sheep have been lying. stones are not passed, place the case in Treatment. — Give every two hours the hands of a veterinary surgeon, who the following in haK a pint of water : will treat it for calculus, the removal of iron sesquioxide, ^ oz. ; brandy, y^ which requires an operation, the stone pint. being too large for the horse to pass. Navel Rupture. Worms. A round swelling under the belly of Symptoms.—Rough coat and half- young horses. starved appearance, at other times an Symptoms.—A soft swelling in the enormous appetite, but no improvement centre of the abdomen, ranging in size in condition; appearance of a yellow from a fowl's egg to a cocoa-nut. powder about the anus, with irritation Cause.—Due to non-closure of the and switching of the tail. navel. Treatment. — When fasting give in Treatment. — Trusses, bandages, or gruel draught (No. 11), and repeat in plasters frequently fail, and it may have three days. to be operated on by a veterinary sur- Protrusion geon. of Anus. Cause. — A drastic purge, straining Scrotal Rupture. during foaling, or in a violent fit of Descent of the small intestines into colic. the scrotum. Treatment, — Wash the anus with Cause. — By galloping, or a severe equal parts of olive-oil and liquor opii strain, but very often there at birth. sedativus, and gently work it back to Symptoms.—The testicles look large its proper place ; afterwards depress the and feel soft. tail. — ; 460 AILMENTS OF FAEM LIVE STOCK Symptoms. — Earely lameness ; the DISEASES AFFECTING THE LIMBS, sweUing is hard, and about the size of a FEET, AND SKIN. large hen's egg. Cause.—It is caused by the heel of I. THE LIMBS. the shoe in lying, which either irritates or squeezes the skin at the elbow, and Broken Knees. sets up inflammation. Cause.—A fall. Horses first brought Treatment.—If observed when only from a stable are liable, from no fault in commencing, treat as for capped hock; their build, to stumble and fall through but if left until it gets confirmed and excitement. They are also apt to tread on callous, even blisters and setons are of a rolling stone and fall. A horse that little use. Then it may have to be cut stands over i.e., whose fore legs are too out, but save the skin place in ; the far under Mm—and those that shuffle wound a piece of tow saturated with along without lifting their feet, owing to chromic acid, i part to 20 parts of the formation of the shoulder, are very water, sew the wound up, pull the tow liable to faU forward. out next day, dress again with the Treatment.—Wash with warm water lotion, and continue dressing until and remove the dirt. Apply a linseed- healed. meal poultice to allay inflammation; Curb. after twelve hours remove the poultice. If a yellow kind of oil exudes from the A swelling below the hock, seen plainly wound, it shows that the joint has been when the horse is viewed sideways. cut into, and a veterinary surgeon alone Cause. — A spram- of the ligament can deal with the case, which, to say the under the hock. least, is a desperate one. If, however, Treatment.—Foment with hot water there is no yellow joint-oil to be seen, wash and apply cooling lotion (No. 7). If the the wound with a weak solution of carbo- swelhng does not go down, apply blister lic acid, or boric acid, i part ; water, 30 (No. 4), and give complete rest. Curby parts ; adjust the injured pieces of skin, hocks are natural to some horses, but apply a piece of carbolised tow, bandage once the horse reaches maturity they with carbolised gauze, and so dress twice seldom give trouble. a-day. Keep animal on the pillar reins Cutting. until the knees are healed. If inflam- mation runs high, give every four hours The name given when a horse strikes in gruel a draught containing salicylate the inside of the fetlock with the shoe sodium, 3 drs. Purgative (No. 19) may of the other foot. Horses with feet be useful if the health of the horse is turned in or out, especially the latter, affected. are most liable to this defect. It is often brought on by fatigue or by work- Gapped Hocks, ing a young horse too soon. or a swelling on the point of the hock, Treatment. — Let the shoe fit the which does not often cause lameness, but hoof of the cutting foot, which should is shown by the swelling and tenderness be rasped on the inside to reduce it. on the point of the hock. Foment the swelling caused by the Cause.—Often caused by striking a bruises, and apply lotion (No. 7). See closing door or gate. remarks on " Speedy Cut " (p. 463). Treatment.—Foment with hot water and bathe with Enlargement of the Hock. cooling lotion (No. 7) give complete rest till cured. Apply Arising from inflammation. blister (No. 4) if the swelling has a Cause.—A sprain or a blow, such as a tendency to harden. If this swelling is kick by another horse : it produces great neglected it may prove incurable. lameness. Treatment.—Foment with hot water, Capped Elbow. apply lotion (No. 7), and give perfect A hard swelling at the elbow, varying rest. Purgative (No. 19) will help to in size. relieve the inflammation, or a draught ; HOKSES. 461 in gruel, containing salicylate sodium, 3 with cold water without afterwards dry- drs., every four hours. ing the legs, and chills caused by work If any enlargement remains when the in wet, muddy ground, after keeping in inflammation is reduced, apply blister too warm a stable. (No. 4). The object in view must be to Prevention.—The legs of horses sub- prevent a permanent enlargement of the ject to this disease should not be washed hock. unless they are afterwards dried. Let the mud dry on the legs, and then brush Fractures it ofl^; it is more than probable if you are divided into simple, compound, and do this, you will have no more trouble, compound comminuted fractures. provided other conditions are favour- A simple fracture is when the bone able. is broken into two pieces, compound Treatment. — Wash, the heel with when broken and associated with a warm soap-and-water, or if very bad, wound, and a compound comminuted poultice at first with boiled turnips and when broken into several pieces and bran, sprinkling the sores all over with associated with a wound. soot before applying the poultice, and In the horse simple fractures are the rub in ointment composed of oleate of only ones worth trying to treat. In the zinc, 1 part, and vaseline, 2 parts ; or case of the other two kinds, the sooner lard, I oz., sugar of lead, i dr. ; or wash the animal is destroyed the better. with lotion containing chromic acid, i Before trying to set a fractured limb, part, water, 8 parts. If the case proves it is wise to consider whether the animal obdurate, use ointment containing white is worth it, and if placed in slings will precipitate of mercury, i dr. ; liquor he be quiet. Having decided to set the carhonis detergens, i dr. ; vaseline, i oz. limb, place the animal in slings; take Give a mild alterative, Barbadoes aloes, some gutta-percha, place it in hot water, 4 drs. ; Castile soap, i dr. ; oil of cara- and mould it to the limb, or use some ways, 10 drops, or condition powders sheet-tin, and after moulding it to the (No. 6). Sulphate of soda, 4 oz., in the part, cover with some flannel to prevent food every night may prove a useful its cutting edges. the spKnts aperient. Iodide of arsenic, grs. at Take 4 ; the part 2 drs., tSius made, place them on to liquorice-powder, drs. ; gentian, 3 be set, and pack where they do not made into a ball with treacle and lin- exactly fit with tow; then taie a nice seed-meal, is a very good thing for this long bandage, vsind it tightly around, disease, and a ball should be given every and do not touch it for a couple of night. months. Grogginess, see Navicular Disease If the animal is a restless one, it will be only wasting time to try and set the (p. 467). limb. It is a false but popular idea that Open Joints. horses' bones will not unite; nothing will unite quicker, if the animal vfiU only The following joints are sometimes nurse its hmb. opened : hock, stifle, knee, and fetlock joint. Grease. Symptoms. — Great pain and lame- A disease of the skin of the heel, gen- ness ; a small wound is seen, and from erally of the hind feet. it flows a yellowish fluid the consistency Symptoms.—Inflammation, with pain of glycerine. and lameness at first ; discharge of mat- Cause. — Kick from another horse, ter; at first limpid, soon gets thick, accidents of various kinds, and by a foetid, and irritating; swelling; often •groom pricking the horse with his fork going on to ulceration and the forma^ when bedding the animal up. tion of fungus - like growths called Treatment is unsatisfactory. Give a "grapes.'' dose of physic ; place a cold-water band- Cause. —Too little exercise and too age around the joint for twenty -four much com ; bad or innutritions food hours ; afterwards call in a veterinary too much coarse boiled food; washing surgeon. — 462 AILMENTS OF FAEM LIVE STOCK. sary in extreme cases to apply blister Knee-Tied. (No. i). A natural defect, for which there is no Rupture the Suspensory Ligament. cure. It is a want of depth under the of knee, owing to the hinder knee-bone not Lameness from this cause is generally being large enough. incurable. The suspensory ligament sus- tains the foot, and the rupture of it Mallenders and Sallenders. allows the fetlock to drop down almost Dry scurfy humours, which, when to the ground. If the horse cannot bend affecting the front of the hock, are called his foot, it is not the suspensory ligament Sallenders, and when under the back of that is ruptured. the knee Mallenders. Cause.—Over-exertion or strain. Cause.—Neglect in the stable. Treatment.—Perfect rest, and put on Treatment. — Kest, and apply oint- a high-heeled shoe. Bandage the legs,^ ment containing tar, i oz.; sugar of lead, foment, and apply lotion (No. 7) ; if this ^2 oz. ; lard, 4 oz. ; and give draught does not reduce the swelling, apply morning and evening containing bicar- blister (No. 4) and give a mild purga- bonate potassium, 6 drs. ; spirit nitrous tive (No. 19). i oz. i oz. ether, ; tincture gentian, ; In most cases the lameness will be water, 8 oz. Feed on green food and permanent. improve stable management. If the Knocked Down. above treatment is not successful, apply Hip blister (No. 4), mixed with three times Symptoms.—^At first great swelLbg, its weight of lard. the animal goes lame, but when the swelling is reduced the hip that is Tumours. knocked down looks less than the other There are two kinds, internal and ex- when looking at it from behind. ternal. The former are usually situated Cause.—Through falling, in knocking in the brain, womb, a,bdomen, and liver, against a wall, in passing through a and nothing within the power of man doorway. can do any good. The external tumours Treatment.—Little can be done ex- are the ones we are often asked to cure, cept placing the animal in slings, and and they usually appear on the shoulders, bathing the part with hot water; if an neck, under the tail, and at the end of abscess forms, the piece of bone that is the cord after castration. knocked off must be cut down upon and Treatment.—There are various ways removed. of removing them, and the best is by the Spavin. knife. If the tumour is narrow at its base, an easy and safe way to remove it There are two kinds : is by winding a piece of green silk 1. Bone-Spavin. around its base, and allowing it to drop off. In cutting large tumours out, veter- Symptoms. —Bony enlargement on inary surgeons sometimes come in con- the inside of the hock-joint towards its tact with large arteries, and these must lower aspect, producing lameness when be caught up and tied. When a tumour first formed, till the parts accommodate appears after castration, use the hot iron themselves to the enlargement. After- and clams to remove it. wards, the lameness may be apparent only when the horse is first taken out of Bheumatism. the stable, unless it interferes with the Change of temperature and cold often movement of the joint, when a small produce stiffness of the joints, varying spavin may permanently lame a horse. in intensity. Cause. — Hereditary, local injury, Treatment.—Keep the animal warm, sprains of the ligaments and concussion, and rub the part affected with lini- ^ The frequent bandaging of the legs is apt ment of belladonna, and morning and to produce an unsightly curliness of the hair. evening give in yi pint of water iodide The application of alum, 1 oz. ; salt, 2 oz. ; in of potassium, i dr. It might be neces- 1 quart of water, will do much to remedy it. ; HOKSES. 463 overwork when young, peculiar forma- Symptoms.—The skin is torn, but tion, improper shoeing. the wound is not of any depth. Treatment.—Perfect rest and repeated Treatment.—Wash well with warm application of blister (No. 4). Should water, dress with tincture of myrrh, and blistering not remove the lameness, firing dust fuller's earth over it. may have to be resorted to. I have Incised Wounds. found ossoline efiect a cure when other remedies fail. Spavins always constitute Caused by a knife, scythe, or any such unsoundness. sharp instrument. Symptoms.—The wound usually is 2. Bog-Spavin. deep, and the edges cleanly cut. Symptoms. — A tumour, resembling Treatment. — Having thoroughly a wind-gall on the hock, formed on the cleansed the wound, sew it up with car- inside of the front of the hock. The bolised gut, and dress with liq. carlo swelling is due to distension of the bursa detergens,- 1 oz. to 30 oz. of water. of the hock with joint-oil, and is usually permanent, but does not much interfere Punctured Wounds. with slow work. Caused by long nails, horns of cattle, Cause. — Sprain and over - exertion. forks, parts of agricultural implements, Hereditary conformation. and broken shafts. Treatment.—If it is not considered Syinptoms.—A wound of some depth, advisable to keep the horse for slow and though it may not be large to look work without treating the spavin, which, at, it is the most fatal of all wounds. in my opinion, is the wisest course to Treatment.—If it is bleeding freely, pursue, apply blister (No. 3) and allow plug it up for some hours with carbolised perfect rest, in the hope of effecting a tow; after the tow is removed, inject cure, but it is not likely to be permanent. into the wound, by the aid of a wound- syringe, the following lotion : glycerine, Speedy Cut. 3 oz. ; carbolic acid, i oz. ; water, 30 oz. Horses are apt to strike the inside of and keep in the wound a piece of tow the fore leg at the lower part of the knee soaked in the lotion, until it heals. Ee- with the other foot when trotting fast, member, wounds of this kind must heal or lifting their feet high. Horses liable from the bottom. to this are dangerous to ride or drive, Contused Wounds. the force of the blow being sufficient in some cases to bring them down. Great Caused by a severe blow, fall, or kick. pain and inflammation and swelling re- Symptoms.—This is more of a bruise sult from the blow. than a wound. Prevention.—Cut the hoof away on Treatment.—Bathe for two hours the inside, and put on a shoe of equal twice a-day, and afterwards dress it with thickness at toe and heel, having only lotion (No. 7). one nail on the inside, and not project- Lacerated Wounds. ing beyond the part of the hoof which has been rasped. Keep a speedy cutting Caused by a bite from a dog or horse, boot on the injured leg to protect it. by being entangled in a fence and strug- Treatment. — Foment the bruise, gling, and in coming against the latch of apply lotion (No. 7), and allow complete a door in passing through it. rest till cured. If the bruises have a Symptoms.—A wound usually of some tendency to harden, apply blister (No. 4). size with its edges ragged. Treatment.—Cleanse the wound well Wounds. with hot water, sew up any part you Wounds are divided into abrasions, in- think necessary, and dress with liq. carbo cised, punctured, contused, and lacerated detergens, i part ; water, 30 parts. wounds. An Abrasion. Splint. Caused by falls, kicks, barb-wire, and Symptoms.—A bony enlargement on short nails, &c. the inside of the fore leg below the knee. ; 464 AILMENTS OF FAEM LIVE STOCK. It often produces lameness until fully on for a few days, and then blister with grown, when tlie lameness disappears, (No. i). unless tlie splint interferes with a tendon Sprain the Fetlock. or joint. Splints are not thought much of of unless near a tendon or joint. Symptoms.—Lameness, attended with Cause.—Young horses are very sub- heat and tenderness of the fetlock, is prob- ject to splints : they arise from injuries ably a sprain of the fetlock. to and a sudden weight thrown upon the Treatment.—Apply repeatedly blister bones of the legs, and usually found on (No. 3) till the heat subsides, then ban- the inside of the canon-bones of the dage lightly to strengthen the fetlock fore legs. give perfect rest. Treatment.—Blister (No. 4) applied Sprain the Bone or Hip. once or twice will generally effect a cure. of Round As a horse gets older splints will gener- Symptoms.—A sprain of the rounded ally disappear. bone of the thigh, by which the horse loses all power of moving that quarter, Sprain the Bach Sinews. of and drags his leg, resting it on the toe Symptoms.—Great pain, thickening alone. and inflammation in the leg above the Cause.—Sudden strain, slip, or falL fetlock, preventing- the horse bringing Treatment.—Foment and apply im- his foot flat to the ground. The leg will mediately blister (No. 3), and call in a appear to be round instead of flat. veterinary surgeon. Cause.—Inflammation of the sheath Sprain the Shxmlder. which encloses the back tendons, the re- of sult of hard work or excessive strain. Symptoms.—Great pain, especially Treatment. — Perfect rest ; foment when going down-hUl, and a dragging with hot water and then poultice with of the foot forward on the toe. If the linseed-meal and bathe with lotion (No. foot is drawn forward, the horse shows 7) ; keep the bowels open with purgative pain. No outward swelling or heat. (No. 19). When the heat subsides, and Cause.—Accident from slipping or the horse can put his foot flat to the going over rough ground. Young horses ground, bandage the leg with bandages are very liable to this. steeped in vinegar. Should the inflam- Treatment.—Perfect rest ; apply hot mation continue, apply embrocation (No. fomentations to the shoulder and bathe 12), or blister (No. 3), and give two or with lotion (No. 7), and, if necessary, three months' complete rest. blister (No. 3) ; keep down inflammation by giving purgative (No. 19). A long Sjyrain of the Coffi-rv-joint. rest, combined with this treatment, will Symptoms.—Sudden lameness, and generally effect a cure. heat and tenderness round the coronet. Shoulder-Slip. Treatment. — This kind of sprain should be treated at once, before the A peculiar outward movement of the inflammation spreads. Apply blister shoulder when the animal walks, some- (No. 3), and give occasionally purgative times, but not always, accompanied by (No. 19). Bandage the leg and give lameness. perfect rest. Symptoms.—The shoulder-joint looks enlarged, but the muscles of the shoulder S Symptoms.—Lameness ; if both legs furrow and the other out, and by pulling are affected, the animal rests first on one awkwardly and using the shoulders un- then on the other leg, and the legs have equally before getting accustomed to the a doughy feel. draught. Cause.—By a young horse galloping Treatment.—Blister the shoulder with before the bones are properly developed. (No. i), and turn the animal out for three Treatment.—Put cold-water bandages months. ; ; HORSES. 465 morning, may relieve and strengthen the Sprain the Stifle-joint. of system with satisfactory results. Symptoms. — Dropping of the hind quarters and Mud-fever. dragging of the leg ; great heat and swelling, and tenderness of the Symptoms.—Heat and swelling of the stifle. legs, and the animal goes stiff ; there is Cause.—A blow, sprain, or overwork. a certain amount of fever, hence the Treatment. — If the stifle has been name. dislocated from a kick or blow, send for Cause. — The chilling and caustic a veterinary surgeon, who alone can action of mud, which in cold weather judge as to the treatment. In case of produces inflammation in the legs of sprain, apply warm fomentations and horses, especially when the legs are ren- lotion (No. 7) till the inflammation is dered tender by clipping, repeated wash- somewhat reduced, and then apply blis- ing, and imperfect drying. ter (No. 3); give perfect rest and purga- Prevention.—Do not clip the horse's tive (No. 19). legs ; let the mud dry, and then brush it off; never wash them. Dislocation of the Stifle-joint. Treatment.— Dress the legs with a This disease is usually seen in young mixture of glycerine, 8 oz. ; carbolic acid, horses, and is due to the slipping out- I dr. ; and liq. plumhi acet., i oz. wards of the patella or bone which Swelled Legs. corresponds to the lid of the human knee. Horses of a coarse nature are very sub- Symptoms.—One or both stifles may ject to swollen legs, especially the hind be wrong, the joint looka swollen, and ones. when the animal moves it slips out and Symptoms.—With or vsdthout great in with a peculiar noise. heat ; lameness accompanied by quick Cause.—Hard galloping, feeding on pulse and fever. hilly pasture, and often a disease of the Cause.—Overfeeding, too little exer- joints occurring in foals. cise, and change of food. Treatment.—In young horses, seems Treatment.—If there is much fever, to be of little use ; but blisters may be foment the legs, bathe with lotion (No. 7), tried. If the swelling is accompanied by and give a ball containing turpentine, i fomentations oz. ginger, dr. ; linseed-meal, oz. heat and pain, apply hot ; J^ ^ and cooling lotion first. In older horses and two hours after give purgative (No. it can be reduced by flexing (working 19). If there is not much fever but backwards and forwards) the leg; push swelling, stifihess, and pain in the legs, it back into its proper place, and apply a foment them and rub lightly with em- blister. brocation (No. 12). Give gentle exercise and purgative (No. 19). String-halt. Thoroughpin. Symptoms.—^A sudden snatching up of the hind leg or legs, but usually only Symptoms. —Very similar to wind- one leg, which makes the horse's action gall (see below). An enlargement at peculiar. Probably a nervous disease, the upper and back part of the hock and practically incurable. It produces between the tendon and the bone. It no lameness, but is liable to get worse, usually projects on both sides of the and is always considered unsoundness. hook, but rarely causes lameness, if Cause.—Often produced by rheuma- taken in time before the swelling be- tism or by leaving a horse standing in a comes callous. stable without sufficient exercise, and is Cause.—Overwork or strain. hereditary. Treatment.—Eest, and apply blister Treatment.—Doses containing citrate (No. 3 or 4) till the swelling is reduced. iron, 2 drs. ; and ammonium, 2 drs. Wind-galls. tincture nux vomica, 2 drs. ; tincture capsicum, 2 drs. ; carbonate of ammon- Symptoms.— Puffy elastic swellings ium, 2 drs., given in water night and situated just above the fetlock, which VOL. in. 2 G ; 466 AILMENTS OF FAEM LIVE STOCK. become large and hard, causing lame- Corns. ness. Cause. — Strain of the tendons, and Symptoms.— The horn of the sole overwork in young horses. becomes reddish, soft, and tender. The Treatment. — Bandage with flannel horse will flinch when this part is pressed, steeped in vinegar till the swelling sub- and occasional or permanent lameness re- sides. If this does not eflfect a cure, sults. blister (No. 3) should be applied. Wind- Cause. — Careless shoeing or tight galls do not, as a rule, cause unsound- shoes, producing undue pressure at a ness. particular point. Treatment.—Old corns are difficult II. —THE FOOT. to cure; fresh ones may be prevented increasing by proper shoeing, and by Canker. paring the com as far as possible with- A disease of the frog, often extending out wounding the sole. A bar-shoe may to the sole. be put on in serious cases with advan- Symptoms. — This disease is some- tage, and the horse shod with leather. times the result of neglected thrush, and False Quarter. differs from it in its tendency to spread, and in the swelling or enlargement of Symptoms.—It is due to a division the affected parts. The diseased frog of or a want of secretion by part of the assumes a soft, fungatory appearance ; is coronary band, which extends as the liable to bleed on being touched ; emits horn grows downwards, making a fis- a very foetid, offensive, although nearly sure or wide groove in the hoof. It is colourless discharge ; and unless energeti- a serious defect, often resulting in in- cally treated the disease is apt to spread flammation and lameness, and from the over the whole sole. thinness of the horn it is very liable to Cause.—Hereditary; but often neglect injury during work. and want of cleanliness. * Cause.—Injury to the coronary liga- Treatment.—Cut away the sole where ment, and sometimes the consequence of the canker is situated, removing all fun- neglected sand-crack. gus, and apply acid solution of nitrate of Treatment.—Apply blister (No. 5) to mercury and bandage up the foot, or dust the coronet, and treat the fissure as for on iodoform night and morning ; morn- Sand-crack (see p. 468). Should the ing and night bathe with lotion—carbolic secreting coronary band be permanently glycerine, i ; injured, will acid, I part ; part and in no remedy cure the disease. four days repeat the application of acid Founder (acute), solution. If the fungus still grows, call in the aid of a veterinary surgeon. or inflammation of the feet. Symptoms. — Great restlessness and Contraction the Foot. of continual shifting of the animal's weight Symptoms.—A natural hoof is nearly from one foot to the other pain, fever, ; circular, but sometimes through neglect heaving flanks, hot feet. After a time or bad shoeing the hoof is made concave, the horse will lie down and will then and the heel contracts, producing per- rest quietly. manent lameness if not attended to. Cause. — Violent exertion on hard Cause. — Neglect in stable manage- roads, or cold causing inflammation ment or shoeing. Extreme dryness, or feeding on wheat; unusual or inordin- allowing the shoes to remain on too long, ate feeding of any kind ; from inflam- will cause the hoof to shrink. mation of the lungs, or bowels ; or from Prevention.—Stopping the feet with drinking largely of cold water when cow-dung or moist clay, and removing overheated. the shoes. Treatment. — Eemove the shoes, Treatment.—^A contracted foot can foment the feet, and poultice with lin- hardly ever be cured, but if it is decided seed-meal or bran. Give a draught in to attempt a cure, a veterinary surgeon gruel every six hours, containing bi- should be called in. carbonate of potassium, i oz. ; Flem- HOESES. 467 ing's tincture of aconite, 5 drops; the tender part being of course shown nitrous ether, i oz. Feed on mashes by the horse flinching. and green food, and keep the poultices Cause. —Commonly a fault in shoe- on for three days. Bathe the foot with ing, or a wound caused by a stone, flint, lotion containing ammonium chloride, 2 piece of glass, or nail on the road. oz. potassium nitrate, 2 oz., in 16 oz. Treatment.—Having found the ten- ; water. If the inflammation continues der place, pare that part of the sole after three days of such treatment, ap- down to the quick, and flU up the ply blister (No. 2) to the pastern. In wound with a little tow dipped in extreme cases the aid of a veterinary friars' balsam. If the horse is very surgeon is necessary. lame, or if the wound is festering, apply a poultice of linseed-meal or bran. If Founder {chronic). it does not heal, touch the place vpith The result of acute founder or inflam- chloride of antimony, which should in- mation of the foot, and nothing can cure duce the crust to form. it ; shoeing may do good. Pumiced Feet. Navicular Joint Disease. A result of inflammation of the feet. Symptoms.—A sprain of the joint The exudate thrown out between the made by the shuttle-bone at the back wall of the hoof and the cofiin-bone dur- of the coffin-joint in the foot of the horse ing inflammation of the feet forces the will, if the cartilage of the bone is in- latter to press on the sole of the foot, flamed, produce lameness. When first flattening it and causing what is called brought out of the stable, the horse will a " pumiced " foot. tread on his toes and avoid bringing his Symptoms. — HoUowness of the heel to the ground ; consequently he will middle of the front part of the foot. go lame down-hill ; when resting he will Fulness or convexity of the sole. point his feet. This lameness is very Cause. —Inflammation of the foot, or deceptive, and has often been judged to very hard work, especially on hard roads be in the shoulder. or streets. Cause. — Hereditary over - exercise Treatment. cure. Blisters or ; —No after undue rest. stimulating dressings to the coronets Treatment.—Foment and apply hot may be tried, to increase the growth of linseed-meal or bran poultices ; and give healthy horn. Care—in shoeing—that purgative (No. 19). The early advice of nothing presses on the pumiced part of a veterinary surgeon should be obtained, the foot, or a bar-shoe, is the only thing and he will best determine how ulcera- that can be done. tion and ossification of the cartilage can Quittor. be j)revented. A suppurating wound of the coronet, Over-reaching, often arising from a neglected prick. or wounding of the coronet vrith the Wounds of this nature are very serious, other foot. and should be left to the veterinary Symptoms.—Often inflammation and surgeon. pain; and the wound, however slight Ringhone. apparently, should not be neglected. Treatment.—Wash all dirt from th^ A most prevalent disease situated in wound, apply a piece of tow dipped in the pastern. In the hind feet, unless friars' balsam, and tie it up. In severe the disease is found at the front of the cases poultice with linseed-meal or bran. foot, the horse will walk on his toes; If the wound does not heal, call in a in the fore feet, owing to the greater veterinary surgeon. concussion, it is generally at the front and sides, and the animal will walk on Prichs or Wounds in the Sole. his heel. Symptoms. — Lameness, which can Symptoms.—Pain and inflammation, probably be located by pressing all with enlargement of the bone above the round the sole with a pair of pincers, coronet, generally on both sides of the ; ; 468 AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK. pastern-joint, which, if not checked, will practicable ; pare away the diseased por- spread rapidly. tion of the hoof, and apply blister (No. Cause. —Horses having straight pas- 2) to the coronet. Rest till cured. terns are very liable to this disease, ow- Afterwards shoe with side-clips. ing to their peculiar formation. It may Side-hones. also be hereditary. Treatment.—^Apply hot poultices to Symptoms. — Somewhat similar to the leg and give purgative (No. 19), re- Ringbone (p. 467), except that the disease peating the dose if necessary. If there is located above the heel ; it is an ossi- is no improvement, blister once or twice fication of the cartilages of the foot. with No. 4. Firing is often resorted to Usually found in heavy draught-horses, with success. Complete rest for some and in the fore feet rather than in the months will be necessary. hind feet. If the horse has good, well- developed feet, they do not generally Sandrcrack. cause lameness. Symptoms.—Cracks in the fore feet Cause. — Concussion and hereditary will generally be found on the inner predisposition; bad shoeing. side, and in the hind feet in the front Treatment.—Apply blister (No. 5); of the hoof. if this does not cure the lameness, have Cause.—^Brittle nature of the hoof, Professor Smith's operation performed previous disease, heavy work or neglect. on the foot by a veterinary surgeon Treatment.—-Wash the crack to clean some of the well-known patent specifics it from gravel and dirt. If the pain and may be tried with a chance of success. lameness are severe, it may have to be Thrush. poulticed. Pare and rasp it, and apply ointment composed of oil of tar, 2 oz. A disease of the frog, which secretes a fish-oil, 4 oz. ; and stop the foot with foetid matter instead of horn. cow-dung and moist clay. By passing a Symptoms. — A discharge of matter red-hot iron above and below the crack, from the cleft of the frog. There is not healthy sound horn may be got to grow often lameness, and the disease can be from the top. If any growth of proud detected only by the matter exuding flesh appears in the crack, apply nitric from the frog. If thrush is neglected, it acid, and blister the coronet with No. 2. will increase, the frog will become soft Give rest and cover the crack with a and split up, the horn will disappear, and plaster made of pitch, and bind the canker of the sole may supervene. whole up firmly for five days. If the Cause.—Generally excessive moisture coronet has been divided, the aid of a in the bedding, bad stable management, veterinary surgeon had better be ob- and constitutional predisposition. tained. Treatment.—Give purgative (No. 19), clean the frog thoroughly, and pare away Seedy Toe. aU loose horn, apply a lotion to the frog, A disease of the foot in which an un- composed of carbolic acid, i part; gly- healthy horn is secreted that fails to cerine, 6 parts, and place tow moistened maintain the connection between the with this lotion in the cleft of the frog horny laminae and the wall of the hoof. every night. If possible, remove the Symptoms.—There may or may not cause of the disease. It is not necessary be a swelling of the wall of the foot, or expedient to turn the horse out to generally situated at the toe ; sometimes grass. attended with lameness. If the part Weakness the Foot. affected is rapped with a hammer it will of sound hollow, and by paring, the crack Generally a fault in the make of the or hollow inside the wall-part of the foot horse. Sometimes the result of disease. can be found. A well-formed foot should be at an angle Cause.—Previous disease or injury, of 45° from the coronet to the toe; a naturally weak feet, pressure of a part weak foot will be perhaps 36° to 40°, of the shoe, generally the clip. which is not suflScient to bear the pres- Treatment.—Remove the cause, if sure required. No cure for this defect. ; HORSES. 469 Rasping the wall of the hoof is often the cause of this complaint. Lice may be destroyed by applying a lotion Firing composed of tobacco, 4 drs., in a is a painful operation often unnecessarily pint of hot water, or hy using an oint- performed, for more than 50 per cent of ment composed of white precipitate of the horses that are fired are as lame mercury, i part, lard, 12 parts, well after the operation as they were before. rubbed in. It is best to clip the horse Firing was at one time greatly in vogue, before applying these dressings. Clean- but, like bleeding, it is getting out of liness and nourishing food will prevent fashion, and by-and-by horses with fired their reappearance. legs will be as rare as those with cut ears. Mange or Itch. It is thought by some that the lines in firing act as a permanent bandage to the Symptoms.—Loss of hair, itching, weakened part : such is not the case, tenderness, and scurfy eruption, from but firing does act as a counter-irritant which matter issues. When the scab of a severe kind. falls off, a larger blotch will appear. It Before you resort to firing, blister your generally begins at the root of the mane horse once or twice, and give it a three or on the neck. months' run at grass; then if it comes Cause.—Stable neglect, dirt, and con- up lame, think about firing ; but remem- tagion, it being due to the presence of ber there are some cases of lameness that animal parasites — small insects called nothing will ever cure. Acari. There are two kinds of firing—lines Treatm.ent.—Give jDurgative (No. 20), and dots : line firing is the best for and rub the places with ointment com- curbs, ringbones, and the back tendons posed of sulphur, I oz. ; lard, i oz. If the dots are preferable for splints and this does not effect a cure, add to the spavins. ointment 30 grs. of white precipitate of Having clipped the hair off the part to mercury. This disease is often very be fired, secure your animal, take the obstinate, and patience must be exercised. iron and make the lines at first super- A little salt should be given with nour- ficial, then vsdth a fresh iron deepen them, ishing food, and the skin kept clean, but never go through the skin in line using warm soap-and-water for the pur- firing ; afterwards rub blister in, and tie pose. Complete isolation is necessary. the animal's head up for forty-eight Wash the stable, harness, brushes, &c., hours. with solution of chloride of Hme, i pint in 3 gallons of water, before they are Blistering. used again. Clip the hair off the chosen part, and Ringworm. rub the blister in for at least ten minutes, then tie the animal up for twenty-four Symptoms.—A parasitic fungus, which hours. After a few days a second or affects the skin in circular patches ; the third application may be necessary. hair comes off, leaving a dry and scaly eruption. Cause.—Contagion, neglect, or dirt. III.'—THE SKIN AND ITS DISEASES. Treatment.—If the animal is in high condition, or in a disordered state, give Hide-hound. purgative (No. 20), but if not, give A want of oily matter, which produces nourishing food, and keep him clean hardness of the skin, giving the coat a and isolated from other animals. Rub rough look. It shows that the digestive the fungus vnth ointment composed organs are out of order, and is not so of oleate of mercury, i part ; lard, 2 much a disease of the skin itself. parts, till cured. Clean the stable, Treatment.—Give purgative (No. 19), harness, brushes, 470 AILMENTS OF FAKM LIVE STOCK. by injury to spine, and before or after Nettle-rash or Surfeit. calving, and is called parturient paralysis. Symptoms. — Large pimples, disap- Treatment. — Give purge (No. 27), pearing as quickly as they come, which and apply liniment (No. 26) to the whole spread from the neck to different parts of length of the spine, and every night and the body. morning give in a pint of ale the follow- Cause.^—Exposure to chills, or drink- ing drench : tincture of nux vomica, 2 ing cold water when hot. oz. ; iodide of potassium, 2 drs. ; sulphate Treatment.—Give in a pint of water of iron, i dr. ; turn the animal once a- 2 oz. of spirits of ether and i oz. of day. When paralysis appears before tincture of ginger, and then treat the calving, the cow usually calves before she same as for Hide-bound (p. 469). rises; Ijut if it appears after calving, treatment often does little good, and if fat it may be best to kill the animal. CATTLE. But if a cure is to be tried, pursue the same line of treatment as before calving, DISEASES AFFECTING THE HEAD, and try galvanism. EYES, MOUTH; AND NERVOUS SYSTEM. Thrush in the Mouth. tlie Brain. Inflammation of This usually appears as an epidemic May arise from violence, disease, or as amongst cattle in cold and wet weather. an effect of poisons. Symptoms.—Small pimples and vesi- Symptoms.—Great pain and moaning, cles appear on the tongue, lips, and slow respiration, eyes red, loss of con- about the mouth ; they break and form sciousness. Attacks of delirium, and ulcers, but these ulcers soon heal. There the beast becomes ungovernable till is not much danger in this disease, though stupefaction returns, accompanied by ex- a little fever often exists. treme weakness ; at length death ensues. Treatment.—Give purge (No. 28) Cause.—Exposure to great heat, want wash the mouth out with alum-water, i of water, overdriving ; sudden change part of alum to 30 of water, and give into a rich pasture. night and morning, in a pint of water, i Treatment.—If the beast is in fair oz. of salicylate of soda. condition you should slaughter it at once. Lockjaw or Tetanus. If not, give linseed -oil, 2 pints; croton- oil, J^ dr., and three times a -day, in A disease of the nerves, producing gruel, hydrate of chloral, i oz. ; bromide contraction or spasm of the muscles. of potassium, i oz. ; and apply ice or Symptoms. — Sluggishness, and for 'cold water to the head. If the animal some days increasing difficulty in .masti- survives the first stage, blister the crown cation and swallowing, till the jaw sud- of the head and sides of the neck denly becomes rigid. The contraction with No. 22. Most probably the animal of the muscles will then extend to the will never recover. head, neck, and shoulders, and appear to cramp the whole body. Constipation. Paralysis. Eecovery is very doubtful. There may be palsy of the half, or any Cause. — Generally some wound or part, or of the whole of the body. blow affecting a muscle, or exposure to Sym.ptoms.—The animal lies, eats, cold. and chews its cud as if nothing were Prevention.—If this disease is sus- wrong ; but when you try to rouse it you pected, give in gruel Epsom salts, i lb., will see it makes several attempts to get and Fleming's tincture of aconite, 10 on its legs but fails. When parturient drops. paralysis appears before calving, it is not Treatment.—Any treatment must be so serious as the form of paralysis that prompt to be efficacious. Give if pos- comes after calving or an attack of milk- sible at once, linseed-oil, 2 pints ; croton- fever. oil, y^ dr. Inject every three hours Cause.—By derangement of the glyster of warm gruel, with yi lb. Epsom stomach, and is called reflex paralysis salts in it. If constipation continues, re- : CATTLE. 471 peat the dose of croton-oil in warm the base of the horn, which is much water. Should the attack result from thicker in young than in old animals. a wound, poultice it; and treat as Dishorning causes an abnormal increase directed for the same disease in the of pulsation and temperature, which ex- horse. Try to induce the animal to tends over several days. The appetite drink strong gruel to support the sys- is also affected during the twenty-four tem, and keep the bowels open by the hours succeeding the operation. (4) addition of Epsom salts, J^ lb., or com- Dishorning is more especially to be re- mon salt, y2 lb. As in the case of the commended for those animals that are horse, tetanus does not affect the inter- of vicious temperament, that are what nal organs ; the beast will often suffer are termed ' masters ; to be applied to ' intense hunger if it cannot get gruel. bulls and to beef animals that are kept quiet and closely stabled or shipped. Cancer of the Tongue. (5) From evidence quoted from other This disease, though not often sus- sources, it appears that dishorning is not pected, frequently exists, and the teeth necessarily a cruel practice, but may be are usually blamed for it ; but the dis- conducted to promote ends that are both ease now known as actino-nycosis is humane and desirable in live-stock often mistaken for cancer. breeding. Mr Sadler, British Consul Symptoms.—The animal is unthrifty, at Chicago, reports that in his very ex- off its food, frothy saliva flows from the tensive district the system of dishorn- mouth, and it quids its food. On ex- ing or dehorning cattle is rapidly in- amining the mouth you find the tongue creasing. Some farmers have dehorned hard in places, and slightly swollen. their whole herd. It has been calcu- Treatment.—As soon as it is detected, lated that 200,000 cattle and horses die kill the animal, or else it will gradually each year in the United States from starve to death. The enlargements on horn-thrusts. The advocates of the sys- the tongue, caused by the presence tem of dehorning claim that, besides amongst the tissues of the parasitic lessening this loss and that of human fungus known as the actino-nyces, are life, much shed-room is saved, less hay sometimes successfully treated, if not is consumed, there is less turmoil from too far advanced, but they should be restive animals, and that cows, being left to the veterinary surgeon. more quiet and docile, give more milk. " In the case of calves, the horn is Dishorning and Broken Horns. extracted by a gouge or punch when In saying a few words about dishor- two or three months old, and with full- ning, we cannot do better than quote a grown animals the horn is sawn off at paragraph from the Veterinary Journal the point where the matrix joins the of November 1888. bone horn, and should be done early in " Disliorning of Stock.—The Tennessee the spring. If sawn higher up, the Agricultural Experimental Station has horn grows again ; if below, the process issued a report on the subject of dishorn- of granulation would not take place." ing cattle. The conclusions to which the experimentalists have come are BroTcen Horns. that (i) For removing the horns, an or- If the horn is severely crushed, it is dinary meat-saw is perfectly satisfactory. best to amputate it ; but in cases where (2) The horns should be removed as it is only torn or broken off, wash clean, close to the head as possible, without smear some Archangel tar over it, wrap cutting the skull proper. The sawing some tow around, and take a long linen should be done rapidly, and with long bandage and wind around the horns in sweeps of the arm if possible. (3) Ani- the figure-of-8 style. mals one and two years of age appear to Ophthalmia. suffer considerably in dishorning. The Inflammation of the Eyes- painful effects decrease with increase of The symptoms and treatment of the age, so that an animal of ten years old diseases affecting the eyes are practically may suffer but very little. This is the same as those given in the section owing to the layer of flesh surrounding on Horses (see p. 446). 472 AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK. Cold wet districts are peculiarly subject Growth on Eyeball. to them, and certain farms are more There is sometimes seen in cattle a liable to them than others. growth on the eyeball : this can easily Prevention.—A seton in the dewlap be removed by cutting it off with a pair is the most common preventive. In of scissors, afterwards touch with nitrate many herds calves are always setoned of silver. in the spring of the year. Salt should be given, i|^ oz. daily, and care taken DISEASES AFFECTING THE THROAT, to remove the herd to poor pastures if CHEST, RESPIEATORY ORGANS, AND the disease makes its appearance. In- BLOOD. oculation as a preventive is now being experimented on. Abscesses. Treatment. — Foment the swellings Symptoms.—Frequently large lumps on the limbs v?ith hot water, and rub appear on the side of the jaw or on other well with liniment (No. 26). Every six parts of the body. In time they burst hours give, in gruel, sulphite of sodium, and discharge a large amount of matter, j4 oz. ; salicylate of sodium, y^ oz. ; and often affecting the health of the animal. Fleming's tincture of aconite, 15 drops. Cause.—Generally a blow, prick, or Wash the ulcers with chloride of lime, other injury. y^ oz., in a quart of water. Treatment.—A mild purgative (No. Bury the dead body at once, and 28) should be given in gruel, and the cover with quicklime to prevent in- abscess should be fomented with hot fection. water, and opened as soon as it is ready. Cattle Plague or Einderpest. If making little or no progress, it should be rubbed with blister (No. 22). Tonic An acute, specific, contagious fever. (No. 29) may be given in a pint of warm Symptom.s. — Weakness, skivering, ale morning and evening when recov- cold feet and horns, short breathing, red ering. eyes, mucous discharge from nostrils, sore places on the inner side of the lips Anthrax or Splenic Apoplexy. and roof of the mouth, diarrhoea, aver- A disease of the blood (see p. 452). sion to green food, loss of appetite. In Diseases generally regarded as allied to the advanced stage the body is distend- anthrax—namely. Black-leg, quarter-ill, ed, and while at first there is constipa- j oint - ill, black - quarter, quarter - felon, tion, it gives way to profuse and foetid blood-striking, inflammatory fever, hyan, diarrhoea. &c. —are usually confined to animals un- Cause. — It is indigenous to the der two years old, while anthrax attacks steppes and elevated regions of Central animals of all ages indiscriminately. Asia, and is always due to contagion Symptom.s. — These diseases usually in Britain. affect cattle under two years old, and Prevention. — During the cattle- are most prevalent in the spring. The plague epidemic all kinds of disinfec- animal will first separate itself from the tants and precautions were tried, with others, lie dovim, shiver, lose its appetite, varying success. Carbolic acid and pulse feeble and rapid, mouth hot and water is the most powerful disinfectant, dry, lameness and stiffness. Hot and and, combined with the isolation of in- painful swellings appear on the loins, fected beasts, may do much to prevent neck, or limbs, afterwards becoming the disease spreading. cold, painless, and tympanitic, and con- Treatm.ent. — Immediately slaughter taining a dark bloody fluid. The urine any beast affected with the disease, and becomes bloody and the dung foetid. thoroughly disinfect the premises. Death will often ensue after an illness lasting from a few hours to several days. Choking. Cause. — These diseases, concerning Very often cattle get pieces of turnips which at the best little is known, are or linseed-cake into their throat, especi- most prevalent in spring when the grass ally if the turnips are cut in large is flushed and the weather changeable. pieces. —;;; CATTLE. 473 Symptoms. —Animal ceases to feed, the following every three hours between nose poked out, saliva flows from the the molar teeth ; extract of belladonna mouth ; the animal in time becomes and chlorate of potash of each an ounce, hoven, and frequently dungs. If it is and made into a paste. choked by a piece of turnip, you can Consumption, smell it in the breath, and if the piece is near the larynx there may be coughing. or chronic disease of the lungs, arising Treatment.—Give a pint of linseed- from a tuberculated state of the lungs. oil very slowly. If this does not pass it Symptoms.—Loss of condition, cough, on, you must use the probang. In using which is at first clear, but gradually this instrument you must first place the becomes shorter, weaker, and more pain- gag in the animal's mouth, and have it ful. Appetite unaffected. After a time held there by two men, who cross their the breath becomes offensive, diarrhcsa hands, holding the gag in one and grasp- becomes constant, and the dung foetid ing a horn with the other; then take the skin dry and scaly, the loins tender, the probang, oil it well, and gently pass and the whole system disordered. it down the throat until you reach the Cause. — Hereditary; neglected cold, offending body. Do not use much force influences of climate, and close, badly in passing it into the stomach, for it is ventilated cow-house. It is now known an easy thing to rupture the gullet. If to be due to the irritation set up in the it cannot be moved by the probang, it tissues by the presence of a bacillus must be cut down upon and extracted by the Bacillus tuberculosis, or, as it is often a veterinary surgeon. called after its discoverer, Koch's Bacillus. Treatment.—The object in view is to Cold or Common Catarrh. prevent the confirmation of the disease Symptoms. —- Dulness ; running dis- taken in time the cough will often dis- charge from the nose; cough; watering appear, and the beast recover perfect eyes ; loss of appetite. health. In advanced stages death will Cause. ^— This common complaint is probably result. If the beast is in good most frequently met with in spring and condition and fit for the butcher, I should autumn ; it arises from exposure to strongly recommend it to be slaughtered draughts and from chills caught in wet if otherwise, remove into a cool, well- weather. If neglected, it will lay the ventilated box, feed on the most nourish- foundation of serious coughs, inflamma- ing food, give porridge made of linseed- tion of the lungs, and other formidable meal, and water in which linseed has diseases. been boiled instead of pure water for Treatm.ent.—Epsom salts, i lb., and drinking. Twice daily give, in gruel or water, ginger, J^ oz., may be given at first in draught (Ko. 25). Frequently warm gruel ; afterwards, morning and rub the throat and chest with liniment evening, in gruel, solution of acetate am- (No. 26). When recovery takes place, monia, 4 oz.; bicarbonate of potassium, the beast should be fed for the market I oz.; spirit of chloroform, J^ oz. All as quickly as possible ; it will not be drinking-water to be given with the chill suitable for breeding. off; and feed on bran-mashes and green Cough. meat. Cause. — Neglected colds are apt to Sore Throat or Quinsy. develop into coughs which are difficult Inflammation of the mucous membrane to cure. Cold caught when the system of the throat. is relaxed, as is the case with cows after Sym.ptom.s. — The animal refuses to calving, may take the form of a cough feed, pokes its nose out, breathes hard, which will settle on the lungs and pro- and makes a peculiar noise in the throat. duce serious consequences. Cause.—Cold and an insanitary con- Treatment.—Keep the animal warm dition of the byre, associated with bad give water in which linseed has been feeding. boiled for drinking purposes, and morn- Treatment—Blister with No. 22, and ing and evening, in gruel, draught (No. place a piece about the size of a bean of 25)- — 474 AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK. wheezing, loss of condition, and death, Foot-and-mouth Disease. if means are not taken to remove the A specific, contagious, eruptive fever. thread -worms in the bronchial tubes. Symptoms.—Shivering, staring coat, In the later stages of the disease there fever, quick pulse, weakness, loss of ap- is much slimy mucus about the mouth petite, tenderness over the loins, tender- and nose. It is very prevalent among ness of the jaws, profuse discharge of calves and growing stock during the stringy saliva, generally accompanied by first summer out of doors, and especially smacking of the lips. Vesicles on the lips so in the autumn when the weather is and tongue; sometimes vesicles on the wet. The cough is particularly notice- feet, udder, and between the toes. Pain able if the animals are chased. and lameness. There is a peculiar smack- Cause — Prevention. — The losses ing noise made by the mouth, which is caused by these parasites render it most very characteristic, and a movement of important that every care should be the affected feet resembling an attempt taken to keep animals likely to be to kick the hoof off. In mild cases the affected free from the influences calcu- attack is soon over, and in a week the lated to invite an attack. These para- animal will be well. In aggravated sites frequent low, marshy, and undrained cases the constitution is much reduced, ground. During a wet season any kind strength being rapidly lost. Pregnant of grass-land will be found to contain animals often suifer abortion. them. Calves and young stock should Cause. — Contagion. The germs of be kept in good condition, and, if pos- the disease may be carried by the wind sible, during the autumn should be from place to place and retain their housed at night, and not turned out till vitality for a long period. the dew is off the grass. This is the Prevention. — Under the Foot-and- surest preventive. Mouth Disease Order, complete quaran- Treatment.—Stock in the autumn tine of infected areas and powers for should be daily examined, and upon the compulsory slaughter served as the best first sound of husk the affected beast means of preventing the disease spread- should be attended to. Give daily to a ing. The liberal use of carbolic acid calf turpentine, ^ oz., beaten up with and water among the cattle is a valuable milk and an egg ; keep him well, . giv- preventive. ing linseed - porridge ; and if the calf Treatment.—Completely isolate the is young, new milk. In the case of cattle. Give, morning and evening, sul- older cattle, give morning and night phite of sodium, 3 drs., dissolved in turpentine, i oz., in six times the water, and place in the crib some fine quantity of sweet oil. I have tried meal, which wUl induce the animals to applications of tar to the animals' noses, lick a little without increasing the irrita- but they do no good. A new method tion of the mouth. If constipated, give of treating this disease is to inject Epsom salts, 12 oz., in water. Apply remedies directly into the windpipe, ointment of boric acid between the claws but this should be left to a competent of the feet and the teats, if sore. Water veterinary surgeon. in which linseed has been boiled is use- ful for drinking purposes. A useful Broncliitis. medicine is chlorate of potassium, J^ oz.; Inflammation of the small air-tubes of camphorated spirits of wine, i oz., in a the lungs. quart of water, to be given daily. Symptoms. — Animal dull, breathes Trouble must be taken to induce the quick and short, fits of coughing, and, animal to eat hay, small pieces of oil- on placing the ear against the chest, a cake, and cut grass. peculiar wheezing noise is heard. Cause.—Cold, exposure to wet, and Hoose or Hush allowing medicine to get into the wind- is a peculiar disease produced by the pipe in the act of drenching an animal. thread-worm or lung parasite of cattle Treatment.—Remove to a warm box, the Strongylus micrurus. throw a couple of sacks over its back, Symptoms. — Peculiar short cough, rub each side of the chest with embroca- ;; ;; CATTLE. 475 tion (No. 12), and give in a pint of gruel the nose. As the disease advances, blood twice a-day (No. 25). is mixed with the dung, and the breath becomes offensive. Great weakness sets Inflammation of the Lungs or in, the mouth becomes ulcerated, till Pneumonia. finally the beast dies, a mass of cor- Symptoms.—Dulness, loss of appetite, ruption. cougli dry and hard, rapid breathing, Cause. —Contagion or epidemic. hot mouth, very cold ears, horns, and Treatment.—If this dreadful disease feet, slimy discharge from mouth. is suspected, completely isolate the beast Cause.—Exposure to cold and sudden give every four hours, in warm gruel, chills. salicylic acid, 3 drs. ; tincture of cin- Treatment. Remove into a cool — chona, 2 oz. ; brandy, 4 oz., , till the loose-box, and give every six hours, in opinion of a veterinary surgeon can be a pint of gruel, Fleming's tincture of obtained, who will decide whether to aconite, 20 drops ; solution acetate of slaughter the beast or not. ammonia, 4 oz.; spirit of nitrous ether, Contagious Pleuro-pneumonia. )4 oz. Feed on mashes and green food rub the chest repeatedly with blister An infectious lung disease confined to (No. 23). If the bowels are costive, the ox tribe, which must not be con- give in gruel Epsom salts in i-lb. doses. founded with ordinary inflammation of Clothe with rugs or sacks about the the lungs. It is a combination of in- shoulders and chest. flammation of the lungs and pleurisy. This destructive and contagious disease Influenza or Epidemic Catarrh. often remains latent in a beast for a long Symptom.s. — All the symptoms at- time, and sometimes is not discovered tending common colds are intensified in till it is slaughtered, when it is found the more serious form of influenza. Pro- some part of the lungs is almost entirely fuse discharge from eyes and nose, pain- gone. When, however, the beast is not ful cough, obstinate constipation, fever, strong enough to withstand the disease followed by equally obstinate diarrhoea after its development, it is very rapid in swellings about the head, accompanied its progress, and death may result in by great weakness. Usually the disease forty-eight hours. runs through a herd, and is attended Symptoms. —An acute attack com- with considerable loss among the cattle. mences with a hard dry cough, dry Cause. —Influences of climate, which muzzle, hot mouth, excessive thirst, loss seem to make the disease an epidemic. of appetite, rough coat, weakness and Treatment. — Isolate the affected often lameness of the hind quarters, beasts. Give linseed-oil, ij4 pint, fol- heaving flanks, dung dry, black, and lowed by gruel to drink ; if constipation foetid. As the disease develops, the continues, give enemas and every six cough becomes painful, and a frothy hours a draught containing acetate of mucus runs from the mouth ; the breath ammonium, 4 oz.; bicarbonate of potash, may become offensive ; the dung watery I oz.; spirit of chloroform, J^ oz. Keep and the beast dies a mere skeleton. the Body warm, and for drinking pur- Cause.—The primary cause is con- poses give water in which a little linseed tagion ; but its spread and development has been boiled. Feed on mashes and is favoured by exposure to cold, neglect, green food. and dirt. It has been introduced into this country by direct infection from Murrain, or Gargle, or Malignant abroad. Cattle sales and markets have Catarrh. always been the most active centres of Symptoms.—This disease, which is the disease, from which it has been one of the most contagious and fatal spread over the country by contagion. to which cattle are subject, usually Prevention. —The only means is the begins with a cough, followed by heav- isolation and slaughter of the beasts ing flanks, shivering, tenderness over affected, and the free use of such disin- the loins, horns cold, dung hard, black, fectants as chloride of lime in the cow- and fcetid, bloody matter running from sheds, stalls, &c. ; ;: 4;6 AILMENTS OF FAEM LIVE STOCK Inoculation.—Inoculation as a pre- slimy. Frequently the body will swell. ventive to pleuro-pneumonia is a some- Inflammation follows, and loss of appetite. what ancient remedy, and has been tried Cause.—Excess of dryness in the food, in various countries, but has not been or the peculiar properties of some kind of very successful. underwood often eaten by cattle. Often Treatment.—Should the disease be also a symptom of some other disease. suspected, a veterinary surgeon should Treatment.—Give linseed-oil, i pint; be called in, and if he pronounces it to and warm oatmeal-gruel, in which j^ oz. be pleuro-pneumonia, it must be at once salt has been mixed. If this does not reported to the police. act, give, in gruel, purgative (No. 2 7), and, if necessary, a warm glyster of gruel and DISEASES AFFECTING THE STOMACH, yi oz. salt. LIVER, BOWELS, KIDNEYS, AND IN- Foreign Bodies in the Paunch. TERNAL ORGANS. Some cows at times suffer from de- praved appetites, and pick up almost any- Bloody Flux,, see Dysentery (p. 477). thing that comes in their way. Leather, wire, cutlery, rags, &c., have been found Colic or Gripes in the paunch of an animal. is of two kinds. Symptoms.—They are not very notice- 1. Flatulent Colic. able, and an animal might have a foreign Arising from retention of food in the body in its paunch for months without third stomach and bowels. feeling any inconvenience from it, but if Symptoms. — Fever, moaning, and the foreign body passes into any vital pain ; discharge of gas from anus, swell- organ, symptoms such as loss of appetite ing on right side of the belly, restlessness. and colicky pains are soon noticed. Cause.—Costiveness, produced by dry Treatment.—Nothing can do any good food, or overfeeding on dry meal or hay. in the shape of medicines ; if you are sure Treatment.—Give purgative (No. 27) there is something in the stomach that in gruel, and every four hours, in gruel, should not be, you must cut through the solution of ammonia, i oz. ; spirit of left side and take it out. chloroform, i oz. Give gentle exercise, Diarrhoea. and rub the belly with liniment (No. 26). Glyster of warm water may be necessary. Symptoms.—A frequent discharge of Feed on mashes and gruel. fiuid dung mixed with mucus, which soon causes great weakness. 2. Simple Colic. Cause. —Change of food, especially Symptoms. — Spasmodic attacks of when moved from a poor into a luxuriant pain, increasing in violence. Irritability, pasture. Bad water or atmospheric in- and constant striking of the belly with fluence, amounting almost to an epidemic. the hind legs or horns; continual rest- Treatment.—Give linseed-oil, i pint lessness. tincture of opium, ij4 oz. ; oil of turpen- Cause. — Chills from drinking cold tine, }i oz., and repeat the dose, if nec- water when heated ; improper food. essary, which will remove any cause of Treatment.—Give linseed-oil, i pint, irritation in the intestines : till this is repeating the dose if there is costiveness done, no astringent should be given. arid every four hours give in gruel : oil of When the oil has cleared the system, turpentine, J^ oz. ; tincture of opium, i J^ give morning and evening, in cold gruel oz. ; spirit nitrous ether, 2 oz. Walk the powdered opium, 2 drs. ; catechu, 4 drs. galls, animal about. In obstinate cases send powdered, 4 drs. ; prepared chalk, for a veterinary surgeon, and in the I oz. Looseness of the bowels, unat- meantime rub the belly with liniment tended with pain and weakness, should not (No. 26). be regarded as serious, provided it can be accounted for by change of food ; it Costiveness or Fardel-hound. should be carefully watched, and steps Sym.ptom8. — Excessive costiveness taken to prevent its assuming too violent ; dung hard, and at intervals loose and a character. ;: ;;; CATTLE. 477 Dysentery or Bloody Flux. Impaction of the Paunch, or Grainrsick. Symptoms.—Continual and obstinate This disease is seen when animals are purging, the animal is hide-bound, eyes allowed to gorge themselves with such pale, pulse weak, extreme weakness. In foods as succulent grass, chaff, potatoes, time the dung appears like undigested turnips, and grains. food, and water with clots of blood in it. Symptoms.^Animal dull, refuses food Cause.—Internal inflammation from disinclined to move and generally lying neglected diarrhcea. the left side, down ; greatly swollen on Treatment.—Clothe warmly, foment but, unlike hoove, it has a doughy feel. and rub the belly with liniment (No. 26). Treatment.—Give purge (No. 27), Feed on gruel made of oatmeal and lin- and with it i pint of linseed-oil and 2 seed, with 4 oz. of starch and i oz. nitre oz. of tincture of nux vomica; if this in it. Give three times a-day in gruel fails, you must get a veterinary surgeon ipecacuanha, i dr. ; chlorodyne, 40 drops to perform an operation to remove it. ; i oz. galls, 2 oz. opium, 2 drs. chalk, ; Give also cold glysters of oatmeal-gruel Inflammation of the Bowels. and laudanum, 2 drs. This disease is Symptoms.—Restlessness, pain, per- most dangerous and almost hopeless. spiration, hard breathing, quick pulse. Cause.—Sudden chills in hot weather, Gripes, see Colic (p. 476). as from drinking a great quantity of cold water when overheated. Hoove, Hove, or Hoven, Treatment.—Give, morning and even- or distention of the stomach by gas, ing, linseed-oil, ^ pint ; spirit of nitrous owing to the food being retained in ether, i oz. ; tincture of opium, i oz. the stomach so long that it begins to and repeat the dose of spirit of nitrous ferment. ether and tincture of opium in a little Swelling of the belly Symptoms.— ; gruel every four hours. heavy breathing ; moaning and unwill- Dropsy the Belly. ingness to move. As the gas is evolved, of the stomach becomes further distended, An accumulation of fluid in the ab- there is even danger of the paunch domen. bursting; the circulation of the blood Symptoms.—The beast increases slow- is impeded; gradually suffocation sets ly in size ; the swelling is on both sides in, till at length the beast falls and and on the lower part of the abdomen dies. as the fluid increases the breathing be- Cause.—Overloading of the stomach comes hurried, belly hangs low, the so that it is unable to react on its con- animal looks thin, and if you force your tents, greedy feeding on green food, feed- fist against the side of the belly you feel ing on clover before the dew is off it, the impulse of the returning water hence it is often termed—dew-blown. against it. Treatment.—In desperate cases the Cause.—Debility and organic disease only cure is to relieve the stomach by of the liver or spleen. means of a stomach-pump, which will be Treatment.'—The chance of success almost beyond an ordinary breeder of in treatment is not great, for the only stock. In cases of sudden emergency, thing to be done is to tap the abdomen an incision into the paunch behind the with a trocar and canula to let the fluid short ribs with a penknife will give relief. out, and if it again accumulates the case A trocar and canula should be used if it is hopeless. can be got. In ordinary cases give at Inflammation the Fourth Stomach. once in a pint of water hyposulphate of of soda, 4 oz., repeating the dose till relief Symptoms.—Uneasiness, pawing of is afforded. When recovering, Epsom the ground, striking of the belly with salts, I lb., and ginger, J^ oz., may be the feet, showing where the pain is lo- little food allowed till the cated dung thin and offensive given, and hut ; ; pulse digestive organs have recovered their hard and quick ; breathing accelerated strength, alternately hot and cold shivering fits. ; 478 AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK. Cause.—Unwholesome or poisonous Inflammation of the Liver ( Yellows or food ; change from a poor to a rich pas- Jaundice). ture ; prolonged indigestion. Treatment. — Feed on bran-mashes, Symptoms.—Yellowness of the eyes ; ears but no green food; give linseed-oil, i and skin ; pulse quick and horns pint ; and every six hours, in gruel, tinc- hot ; muzzle dry ; shivering of the right ; side ; stiffness, fulness of the ture of opium, 2 oz. Fleming's tincture beUy ; pain of aconite, 30 drops ; spirit of chloroform, when the right side is pressed ; urine and I oz. The belly may be frequently dung light brown in colour. rubbed with liniment (No. 26). Cause.—Over - fattening ; driving in hot weather; injury to the body near Gut Tie. the liver, impeding circulation and in- It is only seen in castrated animals, ducing inflammation. and generally terminates fatally. Treatment.—Give in warm water Symptoms.—It is usually seen at the purgative (No. 27), and feed on bran- age of two or three, rarely before. mashes. Morning and evening give in The animal at first appears dull and warm water chloride of ammonium, 4 loses its cud ; after a time colicky drs. ; bicarbonate of potassium, i oz. pains appear, it strikes its belly with ginger, 4 drs. Keep free from draughts. hind legs, goes stiff, breathing becomes The animal should be sold when occasion hurried, the animal wears an anxious offers ; it is never likely to do well after expression, no medicine seems to do the attack. any good, and in a few days it dies Fluhes in Liver. in great agony. Cause. —The cord of the testicle en- Cattle, like sheep, suffer from flukes circling a portion of the small intestines in their livers, but not so severely, and and strangulating it. it is rarely discovered until their death. Treatm^ent.—There is only one thing The reasons for cattle not suffering so to be done, and that is, cut into the right severely as sheep are—firstly, they do side, introduce the hand, and release the not feed so close to the ground, and thus imprisoned gut. pick up fewer fluke-eggs ; and, secondly, their livers are larger, and can stand the Kidneys. Inflammation of the ravages of the fluke better. Symptoms.—Straining to void urine, Loss Cud. which is forcibly ejected in small quan- of tities ; loins tender and hot. After a Symptoms.—Very often cattle do not time blood and pus may be mixed with chew their cud properly, and a great the urine and the straining increases; quantity of saliva dribbles from their muzzle becomes dry, horns cold, breathing mouth. quick. Diarrhoea follows, dung becomes Cause. —Indigestion. foetid; pain increases, total suppression Treatment.—Change the food, and of urine takes place, and the animal will give a dose of linseed-oil, i pint, and, in die in about three days. the case of a calf, give oatmeal-porridge Cause. —Unwholesome food or a chill with bicarbonate of soda, i dr., night and which has produced inflammation in this morning. A little salt thrown with the particular part. food will help to remedy the evU. Treatment.—Foment the loins with hot water, and rub in mustard mixed Poisons. with water ; give glyster of warm gruel The poisons that cattle usually suffer with 2 oz. salt in it, adding tincture of from are yew, rhododendron, arsenic, opium, ij^ oz., if straining continues. mercury, and lead. Give at once, in gruel, purgative (No. 27), and three times a-day give, in gruel, a Yeio-poisoning draught containing Fleming's tincture of is perhaps most frequently met with. aconite, 20 drops; solution acetate of Symptoms are those of a virulent ammonium, 3 oz. ; and tincture of opium, poison, and is rapidly fatal. The animal I oz. usually dies in a few hours. CATTLE. 479 Cause. —By animals being allowed to Sed Water. graze in the vicinity of yew-trees, or by the trimmings of these trees being thrown When in an acute form, it is often within their reach. called Black Water. Symptoms. — The first thing that Rhododendron-poisoning. draws attention to the animal is usually Symptoms.—This poison is not so the red colour of the urine, which froths quick in its action ; the animal staggers, when it falls to the ground ; this is gener- becomes partially paralysed, colicky ally accompanied by diarrhoea or scour- pains ; animal lies and moans and fre- ing, which soon gives way to constipation. quently vomits, the vomit being greenish The urine gets darker, the appetite fails, in colour. the animal gets weaker, and the heart Cause.—Same as yew. can frequently be heard beating while Treatment.-—The treatment of these standing behind the animal Death two vegetable poisons are identical. often ensues within three or four days. Open the stomach and remove the Cause.—It is not very well known. poisonous stems and leaves, then give It is most common in milk cows, occur- purge (No. 28) and half a pint of brandy ring generally from ten to fifteen days in some water every three hours. after calving. But in some districts when it is very common it attacks bulls, Arsenic-poisoning. oxen, and heifers as well, and at all Symptoms.—Great prostration, shiv- seasons. Too many turnips have been ering, colicky pains, diarrhoea, and death. blamed for it, and particular jjlants grow- Cause.—In being given by accident, ing in some soils. Undoubtedly it is and by grazing on land where recently most common on moorland soils, and dipped sheep have been lying. where there is a wet retentive subsoil. Treatm.ent.—Give the following in a Prevention. — Careful feeding after pint of water every hour : dialised iron, calving, a limited supply of turnips, some I oz. ; brandy, 6 oz. linseed -cake, and other foods allowed. Thorough draining and manuring of the MerGUry -poisoning. land. Symptoms.—Flow of saliva from the Treatment.—If observed before the mouth, breath foetid, gums red and ten- appetite and rumination are diminished, der, colicky pains, and appetite lost. give in gruel : Epsom salts, 16 oz., and Cause. —By dressing cattle with mer- ginger, |^ oz., but not otherwise ; and curial preparations to cure mange and morning and evening give tincture of warbles. perchloride of iron, ifi oz. ; spirit of Treatment.—Give purge (No. 28) chloroform, 3^ oz., in gruel, and give with half-a-dozen eggs, and follow every milk, raw eggs, and stimulants if appe- two hours with iodide of potassium, 2 tite lost. drs. ; opium powder, 2 drs., in gruel. Yellows, see Inflammation of the Liver Lead-poisoning, (p. 478). Symptoms.—Animal dull, abdomen Bleeding. tucked up, eyes staring, unsteady gait, bowels constipated, swelling under jaw, Cattle are bled from the following and emaciation. veins : jugular, the vein below the eye, Cause.—Grazing near smelting fur- and the milk-vein. The jugular is usu- naces or rifle-butts, and by eating red ally opened in cases of milk-fever, apo- paint or tea-lead. plexy, &c., and is easily got at on either Treatment.-^Use the stomach-pump, side of the neck. First raise the vein by afterwards give the following in a quart placing a rope tightly around the neck, ; of magnesia, i lb. of water sulphate ; turn the neck a little to the opposite sulphuric acid dil., 3 drs. Give every side, and a sharp blow will send the three hours the following : iodide of fleam through the skin into the vein. 2 drs. sulphuric dil., potassium, ; acid 3 The fleam should be a size larger than eggs ; half pint of water. that drs. ; 3 and a used for a horse. Afterwards, close 2 48o AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK. the wound with a pin, and twist tow Calving, see Parturition (p. 482). around it. The vein below the eye is Cow-pox. opened with a lance in cases of inflam- mation of the eye, and the milk-vein in Symptoms.—Small ulcers or pustules cases of inflammation of the udder. Two on the teats, which, when large, produce quarts of blood is a fair quantity to take inflammation and affect the health. from an animal. Cause. —Constitutional, and contagion from other cows, carried by the milker's DISEASES AFFECTING THE PARTURI- hand. TION AND MILKING ORGANS. Treatment. — Give purgative (No. 28); keep the teats clean, and bathe Abortion. them with goulard water, or chloride of Symptoms. — When abortion takes lime, J^ oz., dissolved in half-gallon of place in early stages of gestation, as it water. The pustules will soon heal. often does in the second month, the Bull-burnt or Clap. symptoms are very slight, and may be passed unnoticed, especially in the sum- This is a contagious disease of the mer when the cattle are at grass. In genital organ, and is propagated through the later stages of gestation, the symp- copulation. toms are easily recognised. There is Symptoms. — In the cow a glairy restlessness and derangement of health, discharge is seen coming from the vagina the udder becomes enlarged, accompanied a few days after being bulled ; in the by calving pains, and discharge from the bull this discharge is seen issuing from vagina. But frequently the first sjrmp- the penis. tom is the appearance of the calf. Treatment.—Inject into the vagina Cause.^—There is so much uncertainty twice a-day a little of the following, after connected with this disease, that it is syringing with lukewarm water : liquor sufiicient to remark here that blows, opium sedativus, i oz. ; sulphate of zinc, injuries, exposure to cold, improper food, yi oz. ; water, i quart. In the case of foul smells, and overdriving are the most the bull, it must be injected into the immediate causes. But there are some sheath. Give the animal purgative (No. forms of abortion that, once started in a 28) now and then to keep its bowels herd of cows, are to all appearance com- open. municable by contagion. Falling Down the Calf-bed. Prevention.—Careful attention, good of water, and the removal of any existing Symptoms.—After calving, the womb influence will do much to make the sometimes follows the calf, and hangs occurrence of the disease rare. A goat down like a large red bag. allowed to run amongst the cows is a Treatment. — Return the womb as good preventive. Have the cow isolated soon as possible, having first dressed it as soon as observed, before abortion if with lotion composed of extract of bella- possible, and attend to the thorough donna, I part ; water, 30 parts. Give a cleansing and disinfection of everything draught in warm gruel containing tinc- with which the calf or the discharges ture of opium, 2 oz. ; chloral hydrate, i could have come in contact. And, lastly, oz. ; spirit of chloroform, i oz. Raise the rejection for breeding purposes of the animal higher behind than in front. any animal that has once aborted. Afterwards place a truss on the animal Treatment. — Should any symptoms to keep it in. of abortion appear, give Epsom salts, 1 Mooding after Calving. oz. ; Fleming's tincture of aconite, 10 drops ; chloral hydrate, i oz., in a pint A flow of blood from the womb. of warm water, and repeat the dose of Cause. — Rupture of some of the aconite in a half-pint of water three times vessels of the womb through using force a-day if there is no improvement. Bury in extracting a calf. the fcetus at once, and if it takes place in Treatment. — Keep the cow higher in front or cold- a field, remove any cattle in it to another behind than ; place ice across every pasture. water cloths the loins ; give ; ;; CATTLE. 481 three hours in a pint of cold water the on the udder after each milking, and if following : tincture of perchloride of there is much tenderness give purgative iron, oz. ; tincture of opium, i oz. J^ ; (No. 28) in gruel. and tincture of ergot, 2 oz. Bloody Milk. Garget, Symptoms.—Generally the first and or inflammation of the internal part of only symptom is the presence of blood the udder. in the milk, and it is very often confined Symptoms. — This is a very serious to one teat. The udder may neither disease, and often attacks young cows be hard nor painful. This disease is after their first calf, and if the inflamma- especially prevalent among young cows tion is not reduced, the milk will become after the first calf. discoloured, the health and appetite Cause.—Injuries to the udder ; sudden affected, and the cow may be lost. change to a rich milk - producing diet Cause.—Careless milking; too hasty chills ; too hasty drying of the cow; care- drying of the cow ; injury to the udder less milking, &c., &c. lying on cold wet land in the autumn. Treatment.—Give Epsom salts, i lb.; Prevention. — Should there be any nitre, i oz.; and ginger, i oz. Follow appearance of the disease, the calf vsdth tonic (No. 21). Milk the aflfected should, if possible, be put to the mother, teat or teats into separate vessels. and it will, by its sucking and bumping, Warts on Teats. speedily relieve her of the pressure of milk and disperse the lumps. These little but troublesome things Treatment. — Should the disease be- can easily be removed by winding green come established, draw oflf gently all the silk around them and allowing them to milk at frequent intervals, and apply drop off; or by cutting them off with a linseed-poultices to the bag, containing pair of scissors, afterwards touching the belladonna, 3 drs. Give four times a- parts with nitrate of silver. day, in gruel, bicarbonate of potassium, Inflammation the Womb. I oz.; Fleming's tincture of aconite, 10 of drops. Should ulcers form and break, S3rmptom.B.—After calving, inflamma- they should be dressed with lotion con- tion of the womb sometimes sets in, taining carbolic acid, i part ; water, 20 causing fever and loss of milk, accom- parts. panied by inflammation of the bladder, and a foetid discharge from the uterus Overstocking or Hefting. sometimes the discharge from the uterus This is not a disease, but the conse- is suppressed. There is generally pain, quence of the cruel practice of placing fever, stiffness, straggling gait, and an elastic band around the teats, or straining. plugging them up with grains of barley, Cause.—Generally injury done during and not milking the animal for twenty- parturition, either from violence used in four to thirty-six hours, with the result the assistance given, or otherwise. High that the animal arrives in the market condition and improper rich food induce with a beautiful udder, and the owner a tendency to this complaint. tries to get more for the cow than she Prevention.—A fortnight before calv- is worth. The results of overstocking ing, a cow's diet should be reduced to are intense suffering of the animal, in- the simplest character. If the condition flammation of the udder, and a permanent of the beast is very high, Epsom salts, interference with the secretion of milk. I lb., and }^ oz. ginger in gruel, or a pint of Hnseed-oil, given a few days before Hard Udder. calving, vrill do much to ensure safe Cows' udders frequently become hard, recovery. especially with heifers after their first Treatm.ent.—If there is difficulty in calf. passing urine, the aid of a veterinary Symptoms.—Swelling and inflamma- surgeon should be at once obtained. tion. In the first stages of the disease give Treatment.—Kub a little goose-grease a warm glyster containing tincture of VOL. in. 2 H ; 482 AILMENTS OF FAEM LIVE STOCK. opium, 2 oz. If constipation, give pur- of ammonia, 4 drs., should be given gative (No. 27), and repeat in half-doses every day, unless diarrhcBa supervene, till the bowels are opened ; then give until it appears. Should decomposition every six hours in gruel, salicylate of actually commence, the hand must be sodium, 4 drs.; tincture of opium, ij^ introduced, and the placenta removed as oz.; solution acetate of ammonium, 4 oz., gently as possible. and rub the spine and loins with lini- Dropsy of the Womb. ment (No. 26). Feed on mashes, and be careful not to allow the animal to get a An accumulation of fluid in the womb, chill. and is often mistaken for pregnancy. Sym.ptom.s.—The cow looks as though The Whites. she were pregnant ; but when her time is Called so from the colour of the dis- up—that is to say, if she has been to charges. the bull—she shows no sign of calving, Symptoms.—The cow is unthrifty, and if you place your hand up the and a white discharge runs from the rectum nothing but a huge water -bag vagina, especially when she coughs or can be felt. lies down. Treatm.ent consists of tapping the Cause.—From injury to the womb, womb and allowing the fluid to escape. usually after difficult calving. Puerperal or Milk Fever (Dropping after Treatm.ent.—Give tonic (No. 29) night Calving). and morning in a pint of ale ; inject into the vagina, by the aid of a syringe, the Symptoms. — After calving the cow following twice a-day : sulpho-carbolas of will appear restless, muzzle hot and dry, zinc, j4 oz. ; water, i quart ; and feed udder tender and hot, constipation. In- the animal well. creasing weakness, ending in death, if the treatment is not successful. Some- Parturition or Calving. times cows have been knovm to suddenly The natural presentation of a caK is drop down a few hours after calving with the muzzle resting between the fore without the herdsman previously know- feet, with the back of the animal up- ing that anjrthing was wrong. wards. In cases of unnatural presenta- Cause.—The origin of the disease is tion, assistance will always be required. as yet not satisfactorily settled; there Every endeavour should be made to get are many opinions, the enumeration of the calf into a proper position. Experi- which would occupy too much space to ence and skill in extracting the calf is be profitable for our present purpose. more needed than mere force. Every care Prevention. — A fortnight before must be taken not to wound the cow. calving keep the cow on a spare diet, No description within the scope of the composed in winter of bran-mashes and present treatise could give a proper idea other opening food ; a little linseed meal of the methods used in all cases of un- or cake will help to keep the bowels natural presentation. The aid of an ex- open. After calving, it has always been perienced surgeon must therefore always my practice to give a drink of thin gruel be obtained if the case is beyond the vsdth 12 oz. Epsom salts in it; and knowledge of the man in charge. Two should any signs of derangement appear, or three hours after calving it may be add Fleming's tincture of aconite, 10 prudent to give, in warm gruel, purga- drops; repeating the dose of aconite tive (No. 28). Shortly after calving the every six hours should signs of restless- cleansing or after-birth should come away. ness continue. If retained more than twenty-four hours, Treatment. —When once this disease with no appearance of coming away, it is established, give linseed-oil, 2 pints; should be carefully removed before de- and every four hours a draught in gruel composition is too far advanced, as it containing carbonate of ammonia, 4 drs. very often sets up a septic or putrefactive powdered ergot, i oz. ; whisky or brandy, inflammation ; but if not removed, a 6 oz. Apply cold water to the head, draught in gruel containing Epsom salts, but keep the body warm, as, if the cow oz. ; 8 ; powdered ergot, i oz. carbonate is very ill, the temperature very often ; CATTLE. 483 falls below normal. Warm glyster of Then dress the feet with a mixture of gruel, containing J^ lb. of Epsom salts, gas-tar and powdered sulphate of copper. will help to loosen the bowels. The in- Should much swelling of the ankle with jection of olive -oil and liquor opium some lameness remain, apply blister (No. sedativus, one to seven, into the uterus, 23). If there is a wound in the foot repeating the injection every twelve caused by a splinter, apply a hot poultice hours, has in some cases been tried with of linseed-meal and bind up the foot. success in addition to the above treatment. Enlarged Knees. This disease is a very dangerous one, and in many cases the animal will have to be Cows in byres frequently suffer from slaughtered. If milk -fever does not an enlargement on the front of the knee come on before the end of the third day through lying on the stony floor. after calving, the cow may be held to be Treatment.—If there is much pain nearly out of danger. and swelling, apply warm fomentations assiduously, and cooling lotion (No. 7). Sore Teats. See that the knees are protected from the Symptoms.—After calving, cows are hard floor and from the manger. liable to have sores or small cracks or Lice. chaps on the teats, making them very tender and painful. Symptoms.—Cattle in poor condition Treatment. —Apply boracic acid oint- often lose their hair, especially on the ment to the teats, having previously neck and back, owing to their being bathed them with warm water to remove infested with lice. all scabbiness and dirt. Cause.—Want of cleanliness and poor condition. Suppression of Urine. Treatment.—Wash the part affected Cows in calf are very subject to this vsdth lotion made from tobacco, 4 drs., complaint, in consequence of the pressure dissolved in i pint of hot water. Oint- caused by the calf. It is also a symptom ment made of lard, 6 oz., white precipitate of several other diseases. of mercury, J^ oz., is a certain remedy, Treatment.—Keep the bowels open but requires careful handling. Improve by giving in warm gruel purgative (No. the quality of the food and keep the tonic 28), assisted by a glyster of warm gruel, animal- clean ; give (No. 29). and give till relieved, morning and even- Mange. ing, in gruel, tincture of perchloride of Symptoms. Itching, loss of hair, scurf, iron, I oz. ; spirit of chloroform, J^ oz. — scab, or sores, especially on the back. Cause.—It is caused by a small in- DISEASES AFFECTING THE LIMBS, sect (the Acarus bovis), and it is favoured FEET, AND SKIN. by dirt, poverty of the blood, and ne- glect ; and is very contagious when Foul or Foot Rot. animals can get into contact. Ssrmptoms.— Cattle are very liable to Treatment.—Improve the food given, this disease of the foot, which produces and keep the animal clean. Hub the great lameness. There is a good deal of places affected vdth ointment composed I oz. ; lard, oz. foetid discharge from the cleft of the of sulphur, 4 ; give in foot, also swelling of the ankle. gruel mild purgative (No. 28), adding Cause.—Driving over rough roads or sulphur, I oz. If this does not effect a for long distances ; injury from a prick, cure, wash the places with corrosive sub- nail, or splinter ; standing on moist and limate, ^ oz. ; muriatic acid, i oz. ; soft dirty bedding. water, 2 quarts ; or by the treatment Treatment. — Put the beast into a recommended for lice. dry, clean place. Dress down the dis- Rheumatism, Lumbago, Felon eased hoof with a knife, and wash with Chine. hot water and soda. If there is pain and Symptoms.—Swelling of the joints fever, and the lameness excessive, poultice stiffness ; listlessness ; unvidllingness to for some days to reduce the inflammation. move, which the beast does vrith pain. ;; 484 AILMENTS OF FAEM LIVE STOCK. Cause.—Cold, especially after calving maggot about May or. June in the fol- or when weakened by illness. lowing year. Treatment.—Give a draught in gruel Prevention.—None, except the exter- or warm water, morning and evening, mination of the flies by diligent destruc- containing carbonate of ammonia, i oz. tion of the maggots. of potassium, i oz. gentian, Treatment. — In April or May all bicarbonate ; I oz. ginger, i oz. the parts cattle should be examined, and the mag- ; Eub affected with liniment of belladonna, i gots squeezed out between the fingers, part, compound liniment of ammonia, i which may easily be done, and in my part. Give nourishing food and a little opinion is the best way of ensuring their linseed meal or cake, and keep free from destruction. If the holes are smeared chills till quite cured. with M'Dougall's cattle-smear, the mag- gots are no doubt killed, but they re- Ringworm main in the ulcer, and certainly the is caused by a parasitic fungus growing most healthy way is simply to crush in the skin. them out and reheve the beast of them Symptoms.—Loss of the hair, which at once. comes off in circular patches, leaving a The damage done by this fly to the dry and scaly eruption. The face, neck, cattle and the hides in the country may back, and root of the tail are the parts be estimated at millions of pounds; most generally affected. every means should therefore be taken Cause.—Contagion, neglect, and dirt. to remove this pest from the country. Treatment.—If the animal is in high condition or out of health, give purga- Wounds. tive (No. 28), and keep on nourishing In severe cases, unless the animal has food. Eub the parts affected with oint- a fancy value, it would be better to ment composed of oleate of mercury, i slaughter at once. Simple cases may part; lard, 2 parts, or use a lotion of be cured by bringing the edges of the perchloride mercury, i part ; water, 500 skin together, and fastening them with parts. I have used lotions composed carbolised gut and a bandage of car- of sulphurous acid, but have found the bolised gauze. The bowels must be mercurial ointment the most efficacious kept open by doses of purgative (No. sometimes a second application • is not 28), and the wound kept clean by bath- even necessary. Wash the cribs, rub- ing with warm water. bing-posts, &c., which have been used by a beast affected with ringworm with SPECIAL DISEASES I pound chloride of lime dissolved in 2 AFFECTING gallons of water, to avoid spreading the CALVES. disease among other stock. Constipation. Cause.—Frequently the first milk or Symptoms.—Early in the year and in biestings from the cow has not been the spring, from January till May, large given to the calf, and constipation en- lumps about the size of half-a-crown may sues. Also, when milk has been taken often, be found along the backs of cattle to excess it is apt to coagulate and pro- these increase in size till the contents, duce constipation. the maggots of the bot-fly (QSstrus bovis), Prevention. — In a young calf the escape. There is always a small air-hole natural first milk of the mother is to be seen in the middle of the lump, most suitable, and afterwards care and the head of the maggot is often should be taken that only as much visible. milk is given as the digestive organs Cause.—^The bot-fly pierces the skin can dispose of. of the beast while out at grass during Treatment.—Give castor -oil, i oz., the hot weather in July and August, beaten up in the yolk of an egg, with and leaves an egg at the bottom of the ginger, i scr. ; repeating the dose if wound, which hatches, develops, and necessary. Glysters may be required, grows, till at length it emerges a large but not so often as in young foals. ; SHEEP. 48S sheep on the richest pastures, especially Diarrhoea. in the spring of the year. The animal Cause.—Injudicious feeding, and at seized will drop down suddenly, and in too long intervals; bad smells, cold, extreme cases die at once. Any animal acidity in the stomach, produced by affected should be killed immediately. any sudden change of food, or by any- thing which deranges digestion. Louping-ill or Trembles. Prevention. —Care should be taken A disease of the nervous system. that the milk given to calves should be Symptoms. — The animal trembles, sweet, and that the air is kept pure. breathes in a jerky manner, moves its Treatment.—If the calf refuses its legs in an automatic style, occasional food, and blood is mingled with the spasms of the muscles of the neck, which dung, accompanied by great pain and usually terminate in paralysis. weakness, immediate steps must be Cause. —It is seen only in certain dis- taken to remove the irritating matter. tricts, and is supposed to be due to a Give castor-oil, 2 oz., to relieve the in- peculiar formation of the soil or the con- testines, and after this has had time to dition of the grass. act, give morning and evening i oz. of Prevention. —Dip the sheep, remove calf-cordial (No. 24). If this does not them to fresh pasture, and give them produce any effect, give four times daily, corn and salt ; to every pound of salt tincture of catechu, 2 drs. ; spirit of add one ounce of sulphate of iron. chloroform, 30 drops; and dilute sul- Treatment.^—Of little use; look to phuric acid, 30 drops, in thin gruel. prevention. Diarrhoea, indigestion, and death are Blindness. also caused by hair balls, which form in the stomach. There is no preventive. Sheep are sometimes attacked by tem- Caused by the calves licking each other. porary blindness, often lasting only about ten days. Navel-ill. Cause. — Changes of temperature Calves sometimes suck one another's blight. navels, which causes swelling and inflam- Prevention.—None. mation of it ; or it may be caused by the Treatment.—If left to nature, the cord breaking off too short, by neglect, blindness will probably pass away. exposure to cold, wet, and dirt. Lambs thus affected require extra care, Treatment.—Poultice, if no tendency and should be put to the ewes so that to bleeding, or apply hot fomentations they should not suffer from loss of milk. persistently, and carbolic oil to the raw surface. Lockjaw or Tetanus. Sym.ptoms.—Practically the same as White Skit. those in the case of the horse (p. 443). Whitish. diarrhoea seen in calves that Cause.—Cold, especially during lamb- live on a milk diet. ing-time ; also produced by careless cas- Treatment.—Give castor-oil, i to 2 tration, wounds, &c. oz., according to the size of the animal, Prevention.—Shelter and careful at- and follow up vsith calf-cordial (No. 24). tention will do much to avert this dis- Keep the animal for a few days on lin- ease. (See pp. 443, 444.) seed or oatmeal gruel. Treatment.— Give castor-oil, 2 oz., repeating the dose every six hours till it takes effect. Give, in gruel, tincture of SHEEP. opium, I dr., morning and evening. Flem- ing's tincture of aconite, 5 drops, may be DISEASES AFFECTIKG THE HEAD, added to the gruel if there is no relief. BYES, MOUTH, AND NERVOUS SYSTEM. Staggers, Sturdy, Goggles, Fern-sick, Apoplexj/. Bunt, or Turn-sick. This disease cannot be treated or Symptoms.—Dulness; unsteady walk, guarded against ; it attacks the fattest generally in a circle; separation from — 486 AILMENTS OF.FAKM LIVE STOCK. the rest of the flock; blindness. The Treatm.ent.. — Give daily, in linseed animal affected will often fall into a gruel, nitre, i dr. ; digitalis, i scr., and ditch and perish, or die gradually. This keep the animal warm. disease generally attacks sheep in good Foot-and-m,outh Disease. condition. Cause.—A species of parasite—the A disease of the blood. (See p. 474.) Cosnurus cerehralis—in cysts or bladders Symptoms.—Mouth hot, with small containing fluid, which lodge in the vesicles on the inside of it, dribbling brain. saliva, swollen and painful legs. The Prevention.—Young sheep in damp udder and teats of ewes become sore situations are very liable to this disease, and painful. and care should be taken to avoid put- Cause. —Usually contagion. ting them into such pastures. The use Prevention. — Careful isolation of of lump or rock salt, which they can lick infected stock, and the free use of dis- as often as they like, helps to ward off infectants, such as carbolic acid and this and similar diseases. Keep your water. sheep-dog free from tape-worms, for it is Treatment.—Give three times a-day, the egg of this worm that gets into the in warm water, sulphite of sodium, i dr. brain. Apply carbolic acid ointment to the Treatment.—Slaughter is the most udder and teats, and the same or boracic profitable course to follow. There is a acid ointment to the feet. Completely method of treating this disease by punc- isolate all sheep affected, and induce turing the soft place in the skull, and them to eat fine meal and hay. removing the bag or cyst; but unless This disease comes under the Con- this is done in good time, and performed tagious Diseases Act. skilfully, it is rarely successful. Hoose or Hush. Water on the Brain. Symptoms.—A short husky cough, This disease often affects very young which increases if the animal is hurried. lambs. Gradual loss of condition, tiU the health Symptoms.—Dulness and stupidity; is undermined. In time the diseased staggering gait; rapid loss of flesh. lungs will no longer be able to purify Death may ensue in about a month. the blood, and the animal wiU die. Cause. — Often congenital, taking Cause. —The presence of parasites place before birth ; constitutional weak- the Strongylus filarius—in the throat ness. and lungs. Treatment.—No cure, so far as the Prevention. — Lambs should never farmer is concerned. be depastured on land fed previously the same year with sheep. If this ad- vice is acted on, and proper care taken DISEASES AFFECTING THE THROAT, of the flock, cases of hoose will be less CHEST, RESPIRATORY ORGANS, frequent on most farms. AND BLOOD. Treatment. —Give daily : turpentine, I dr., for a lamb; 3 drs. for a sheep, in Anthrax. respectively 6 and 12 drs. of sweet-oil, See Anthrax (p. 472) for description of and feed liberally, giving some good this disease. Sheep will die in convul- linseed-cake with the food. sions in about twenty-four hours. Pneumonia—Inflammation of the Lungs. Catarrh. Symptoms.—Hard breathing ; loss of Symptoms.—Dulness ; loss of appe- appetite ; fever ; cough, which becomes tite; difficulty in swallowing; water more and more distressing; fcetid dis- running from the eyes and nose; hot charge from the nose; thirst. After- mouth and muzzle ; constipation ; cough, wards intense weakness sets in, followed and discharge of yellow mucus from the by unconsciousness and death. nose. Cause.—Cold, particularly from shear- Cause. —Chills and exposure. ing in cold weather. ; SHEEP. 487 Treatment. — Give, in linseed - tea, Fleming's tincture of aconite, 5 drops, Fleming's tincture of aconite, 5 drops, may be given in gruel every morning, three times a-day, and witli it once a- and the food should be sparing, with a day tartar of antimony, J^ dr. Keep little linseed. The treatment of the dis- warm, and in cases of complete prostrar ease is generally unsatisfactory. Change tion, give, as a stimulant, in the gruel, their pasture, and if on good arable grass, gin, I or 2 oz. put them on the heather, if possible, for a day or two. Small-pox. Calculus or Gall-stones, and Kindred A very rare disease in this country. Diseases of tlm Bladder. Symptoms.—Loss of appetite ; sep- aration from the flock ; stiffness of the Symptoms. — Dulness ; loss of appe- hind quarters; costiveness; red patches tite ; separation from the flock, generally on the limbs ; later lying and stomach a small down ; quick breathing ; when red eruption appears on the skin and roused, painful efforts to void urine, only face. In severe cases a great part of the a few drops of which come away. Sahne flock may succumb to the disease; and deposits will sometimes be found in the when mildest it is a very serious malady. sheath. Cause. —Contagion. Cause.—High and stimulating system Prevention. —This disease should be of feeding, especially on saccharine roots, stamped out and not treated ; the ani- such as mangel-wurzel ; want of exercise mals attacked should be destroyed, and absence of water for drinking. the premises disinfected. Prevention. — Avoid an exclusively saccharine and starchy diet, and allow free access to water. DISEASES AFFECTING THE STOMACH, Treatment. In the latter case warm Ln^ER, BOWELS, KIDNEYS, AND — fomentations and syringing with tepid INTERNAL ORGAl^'S. PARTURI - water may get rid of the deposit ; after- TION AND MILKING ORGANS. wards wash out the sheath with an astringent lotion. But if the seat of the I. —STOMACH, LIVEE, BOVSTELS, KIDNEYS, AND INTEENAL OEGANS. malady cannot be reached, the sheep should be at once slaughtered when the Braxy or Sickness. disease is suspected. Symptoms.—Eestlessness ; hanging of Constifatimi. the head ; aching of the back ; grinding of the teeth ; cold extremities ; kicking Symptoms.—Dulness and costiveness. of the belly with the hind feet ; separat- Cause.—Especially prevalent among ing from the rest of the flock. young lambs, caused by the quality or Cause.—Inflammation of the bowels too great quantity of the ewes' milk, from cold or feeding on strong rank which has coagulated in the stomach. grass, some of which may have been rot- Prevention. —Avoid any irregularity ten. Prevalent in the autumn, especially in the ewes' food, and especially too among the lambs ; often runs through a luxuriant pasture. flock like an epidemic. Treatment.—Put the ewes on shorter Prevention. — If possible, keep the pastiu-e, and give every morning as much sound pastures for the lambs, and avoid warm water, vpith Epsom salts, i oz., letting them have too succulent pasture dissolved in it, as the lamb can take. for grazing, and always let rock-salt be Lambs also suffer from wool halls, within reach. Don't allow an affected which form in the stomach. There is no animal to be bled or slaughtered on cure, but care should be taken that the ground that the rest of the flock have bags of ewes should be kept as clear of access to, as blood diseases of an anthra- wool as possible, in order to prevent coid nature, as well as inflammation of the lambs getting it into their stomachs. bowels, enteritis, and acute indigestion, Diarrluxa. are sometimes all included under the general name of braxy. Symptoms.—Simple looseness of the Treatment.—Give purgative (No. 34). bowels without much pain. ; ; 488 AILMENTS OF FAEM LIVE STOCK. Cause. — Fresh, succulent herbage, gas. The subsequent food should be especially when it has been touched with rather scanty. frost. the Liver. Treatment. —Change the pasture or InfloMimation of source of irritation, and if weakness Symptoms.—Loss of appetite ; skin comes on, give rhubarb, i dr., and after- hard and itchy ; tongue foul ; dung white wards, in warm gruel, powdered opium, and foetid ; weakness. 20 grs. ; catechu, dr. prepared chalk, Cause. Sudden change from poor to J^ ; — is generally the cause. }i oz. nutritious food Prevention.—Extra care when any Dysentery. change of food takes place. Symptoms.—Frequent evacuations of Treatment.—Give daily, in gruel, pur- hard lumps of foetid dung, mixed with gative (No. 32). Foment the body near ; loss appetite pain, slime and blood of ; the liver vsdth hot water, and inject warm fever, and great weakness. Affects sheep water if the bowels are costive. In of any age, generally in the summer. chronic cases of this disease, salt (4 oz. per Cause.-—Aggravated and unchecked head per week) should be given in addi- diarrhoea ; chills after being clipped. tion to the purgative above mentioned. Many believe it to be contagious. Prevention.—Sheep that are scouring Inflammation of the Stomach. should be watched, the food altered, and Symptoms. — Loss of appetite and any aggravation of the attack checked. separation from the flock ; alternate hot Treatment. — Give in warm water, and cold shivering fits ; restlessness three times a-day, ipecacuanha, J4 dr. straining to empty the bladder. powdered opium, 20 grs.; chlorodyne, 10 Cause.—Too nutritious food, or, in drops ; chalk, ^ oz. Gruel, or if animal some cases, inflammation after castration. will eat, flour -porridge, sprinkled with Prevention. — Avoid exposing the salt, should be given. lambs to chills and cold east winds after being cut, and exercise care when forcing Hoove. on sheeiJ for the market. A distention of the stomach by gas, Treatment. Foment the belly give — ; owing to the fermentation of food which Fleming's tincture of aconite, 5 drops, has been too long retained in it. twice a-day, and purgative (No. 34), Symptoms. •— Enlargement of the halving the dose in the case of young belly, especially on the left side, which lambs. Keep warm, and let the food sounds hollow when tapped. Stupor consist of warm gruel with a little boiled and death foUow, unless the animal is linseed in it. relieved. Cause.—^When sheep are incautiously Jaundice. fed on green clover or turnips, they are Symptoms.—Yellowness of the skin apt to eat to excess, and fermentation of and eye ; constipation ; urine brown ; • food in the stomach sets in before the loss of appetite. organs are able to dispose of the accumu- Cause.—Kichness of the pasture, es- lation of food. pecially in damp sultry weather. Prevention.—Green clover and tur- Prevention. —The use of salt among nips should be given in small quantities the artificial food, combined with care as at first, and sheep should only be turned to the nature of the pasture, will make into a very succulent pasture for an hour the appearance of this disease rare. or two till they get accustomed to it, Treatment.—Give purgative (No. 32) when there will be no danger of hoove. and frequent doses of salt, 4 oz. per head Treatment.—The insertion of a trocar per week. into the flank will relieve the pressure of Bot. gas, and a dose of purgative (No. 33) will open the bowels. A drachm of Symptoms.—At first the animal will chloride of lime dissolved in a quarter of lay on fat very quickly, but afterwards a pint of water, and horned into the the wool begins to fall off; the eyes sheep, will often reduce the pressure of become hollow, the belly enlarged; swell- ; SHEEP. 489 ings appear on the body ; scouring sets 8 parts, carbolic acid, i part. Great in, and finally death ensues. cleanliness should be observed in the Cause.—The presence of the Bistoma lambing - yard, and a free use made of hepaticum, or flukes in the liver, especi- carbolic acid, and the hands washed and ally prevalent in wet seasons, or -when nails cut before manipulating the womb. turnips are mildewed. Sheep fed on Treatment.—Besides the injection of low-ljdng, wet, and undrained land are carbolic lotion, give every four hours very subject to this disease. carbolic acid, 20 drops, in water; and Prevention. use of salt in the if constipated, purgative (No. give —The 33) ; food and judicious grazing during wet plenty of gruel and linseed - tea. If seasons will do much as preventives. straining and diarrhoea come on, give I Treatment. — Kemove the flock at whisky, 4 oz., and tincture of opium, i once to dry uplands or salt-marshes if oz., in gruel. The treatment is, however, available, and give salt in the food, 4 generally unsatisfactory. oz. per head per week, and as much in the troughs as the sheep will lick up. Abortion, or the premature expulsion of the foetus. II.—PAETimiTION AND MILKING ORGANS. Symptoms.—There are no particular symptoms in abortion among ewes. Garget, or Inflammation of the Udder. Cause.—Overdriving ; cold ; improper Symptoms. — Pain when the lambs food ; injuries to or disease of the ab- are sucking, lameness, restlessness, fever, domen. A very frequent cause is the inflammation, and swelling of the udder, disturbance of sheep by dogs. which becomes ulcerated and painful. Prevention and Treatment.—When Cause.—Stoppage of the secretion of cases of abortion occur, the cause of the milk ; exposure to cold ; injuries. disease must, if possible, be ascertained Prevention. — Care should be taken and removed. It may .generally be to prevent the udder being surcharged traced to one of the causes mentioned vsdth milk, especially when the lambs are above. When one sees a flock of ewes weaned or dead. occupying a turnip-fold, only vacated by Treatment.—Foment the udder with the fat hoggs when it was too l)ad for warm water, and clear it from all wool. them, up to their bellies in mud, one can If not very painful, let the lamb suck it hardly be surprised that cases of abortion and knock it about as much as possible. are only too frequent. Given a proper Give purgative (No. 33), and remove all rational system for the management of the milk by frequent milkings ; rub the a breeding flock, and cases of abortion udder with belladonna liniment. will be rare, and only the result of cir- cumstances which cannot be altogether Parturition Fevei—"Heaving," avoided. Should a ewe appear sickly "Straining." after abortion, inject lotion composed of Symptoms.—Fever, loss of milk, list- carbolic acid, i part ; water, 40 parts lessness, frothy saliva, stiffness of the and give purgative (No. 33). hind quarters, discharge of dark fluid Tumours on the from the vagina, swelling of the vagina, Udder. straining, and pain. The whole con- Treatment.—Give purgative (No. 33), stitution will now be affected, diarrhoea and lance the tumours, taking care that will set in, followed by death. This the bottom is reached; afterward dress disease is nearly always fatal. with lotion (No. 30). Cause.—Probably the result of blood- poisoning, owing to deleterious matter entering the system through wounds of DISEASES AFFECTING THE LIMBS, the parturient organs. FEET, AND SKIN. Prevention.—Should any wounds be Foot-rot. made during parturition, they should be washed with warm water and syringed Symptoms. — Lameness, which may with lotion (No. 30) daily for some days, be traced to disease between the claws and afterwards anointed with glycerine. of the feet, indicated by the discharge 490 AILMENTS OF FAEM LIVE STOCK. of matter and swelling, which, if not elements necessary to produce a perfect checked, will gradually extend to the offspring. Food grown on light moor whole of the foot. tillage land, dressed with caustic lime, Cause.—Often contagion, grazing on vidll produce rickets. low, rich pastures, encouraging over- Prevention.—^Avoid in-and-in breed- growth of the hoofs, which are apt to ing, and also food grovsoi on land which, split and crack and collect dirt. as above described, is apt to produce the Prevention. —The maxim, "A stitch maKormity. in time," (fee, if put into practice, will Treatment.—Direct treatment is use- prevent the disease spreading, and will soon cure those affected. As a means Scali. of prevention it is useful to pass the whole flock twice a -year through a A pustular eruption of the skin, pro- solution of arsenic, put into a trough, duced by parasites — the JDematodectes through which the sheep are driven ovis—minute acari which burrow in the slowly. The solution is thus prepared : skin. Boil 2 lb. of arsenic with 2 lb. of potash Symptoms. — Constant rubbing (pearl-ash) in i gallon of water over a against gates, (fee. ; loss of wool ; skin slow fire for half an hour ; keep stirring, red, rough, and afterwards covered with and when like to boil over, pour in a hard scabs ; loss of health and condition. little cold water ; then add 5 gallons of Cause.—Generally contagion. cold water. Put this solution into the Prevention.—Bottling, or smearing trough to the depth of i J^ inch. The the sheep with salve, is the best pre- solution is poisonous, so the trough servative, and isolation of infected stock. should be kept locked when not in use. Treatment.—Kub the part affected Treatment. — Pare away all loose with ointment composed of corrosive ragged horn, to allow the matter to dis- subhmate, 4 oz. ; train-oil, 3 gals. ; resin, charge, cut away any proud flesh with I lb. ; tallow, i lb. ; and wash all posts sharp scissors, dress the foot with chloride and gates against which the sheep may of antimony. If much diseased, wrap it have rubbed with carbolic acid, i part, in tow to prevent its getting fly-blown, water, 100 parts. and every day dress it with lotion This disease comes under the Con- (No. 31). Cauterising with carbolic acid tagious Diseases Act. might be tried, but it must be done very Vermin. carefully. Note.—Sheep, when they have trav- Sheep ticks and lice may be destroyed elled far on hard stony roads, get very by the use of one of the many dips foot-sore. When thus affected, the sore which are sold for the purpose. feet should be dressed daily with vase- Maggots may be destroyed by apply- line, and poulticed if required ; any ab- ing spirit of tar, i part, olive-oil, 4 parts, scesses should be opened with a knife, to the places affected. It will also keep and bathed with carbolic acid, r part, off the flies. water, 30 parts. Riclcets— Weak Backs. SWINE. Lameness of hind quarters, resulting AntJirax—Blood-striking (see from fracture of bones, which, from their p. 472). malformation, are liable to injury under A disease of the blood. trifling exertion. This disease only af- Symptoms. — Dulness ; thirst, hot fects the lambs, and when once it ap- ears, brownish - red eyes, tender hind pears, will run right through the flock. quarters ; urine, and sometimes the The outbreak may occur at any time of dung, mixed with blood, black spots on the year. the skin, external swellings. When Symptoms.—DiflSculty in rising ; the caused by eating the flesh or blood of fore feet are not affected. animals dying of the disease, there is Cause.—Peculiar condition of the soil, nearly always great swelEng about the pointing to an insufficiency of particular throat. — — ;; SWINE. 491 Cause. Generally contagion. goes down at the end of a few days, a Prevention. —Keep in good condition, dark-red patch will be left. and avoid close buildings, putrid food, Cause. —Want of ventilation ; dirt and bad water. Completely isolate all heating food ; wounds. diseased animals. Treatment.—Give, in gruel, jalap, i Treatment. —Owing to the rapid and dr. ; sulphate of magnesia, 3 oz., mixed fatal nature of this disease, all treatment in a little water, and as soon as the pur- is unsatisfactory. But it is not so fatal gative has acted, give muriate of iron, as in horses and cattle, although young 10 drops, night and morning in food. pigs are more easily affected by it than Foment the swellings on the skin with grown ones. Give Epsom salts, 3 oz., water, i quart, in which i oz. of sul- and oil of turpentine, 2 drs., in a little phate of zinc has been previously dis- linseed -gruel, and rub the limbs with solved. Good nourishing food should oil of turpentine. Call in a veterinary be given, and the animal should be com- surgeon, who will inject diluted carboho pletely isolated. acid under the skin. Foot-and-mouth Disease. Convulsions. A disease of the blood (see p. 474). Symptoms.—Young pigs are subject Symptoms.—Shivering ; hot and dry to convulsions, which take the form of mouth ; lameness ; blisters in the mouth, sudden spasms with complete insensi- on the teats, and between the claws. bility, frothing from the mouth, and Sometimes the entire hoof drops off. redness of the eyeballs. Animal buries itself in its bedding. Cause.—Disorders of the brain ; indi- Cause. — Contagion, especially by gestion ; sometimes intestinal worms. means of milk, which should be boiled Prevention.—Good water and nour- if suspected. ishing food. Prevention.—Total isolation of dis- Treatment. — Give a purgative — eased stock and the use of disinfectants. Epsom salts — regulating the dose ac- Treatment.—Give Epsom salts, 2 oz. cording to size. Eemove as far as pos- Wash the mouth with lotion composed sible the cause of the attack i.e., expel of borax, i oz. ; tincture of myrrh, i oz. the worms if they exist (see p. 493), or and water 12 oz. Dress the feet and alter the food if it indiges- teats acid, dr. glycer- has produced with carbohc yi ; tion. Give sulphate of iron, i dr., in the ine, 10 oz. Feed on mashes, and re- food. move all diseased horn in the feet, and poultice if much inflamed. Very dan- Diarrluea. gerous to sucking-pigs. Symptoms.—Looseness of the bowels, The disease comes under the Contagious which affects the health. If unaccom- Diseases Act. panied by loss of appetite, fever, or pros- Husk (see p. tration, no treatment is required beyond 474). care that the complaint does not increase. Symptoms.—Short, dry cough; frothy Cause.—Often a symptom of some discharge from the nose ; loss of appe- other disease. Often caused by indi- tite ; thirst ; loss of flesh, till finally gestion, putrid food or water. death results. Prevention. —Proper food and atten- Cause. — The presence of worms in tion. the air-passages, amounting almost to an Treatment. — Give castor-oil, 3 oz., epidemic in certain districts. and peppermint-oil, 5 drops, in gruel, Prevention.—Keep in good condition, and if possible remove the cause of the and isolate from infected animals. complaint. Treatment. —Give, in milk, salt, i teaspoonful (i dr.) ; oil of turpentine, i Erysipelas. teaspoonful, daily. Fumigate in a close Symptoms. — Heat ; itching ; red- building by burning flowers of sulphur ness; tenderness and swelling of the on a hot shovel till the animals can bear skin, generally on the head and neck; no more without coughing violently, and loss of appetite. When the swelling repeat the fumigation every week. Give ; ;; 492 AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK. linseed-porridge, nourisMng food and Treatment.—Give Epsom salts, i oz., plenty of skim-milk. and sulphur, i oz., in thin gruel, and repeat the dose twice a -week. Keep Inflam/mation of the Lungs. warm, and feed on nutritious food of Symptoms. — Shivering ; hot skin good quality. Rub the limbs with tur- laboured breathing ; red eyes, nose, and pentine, 4 parts; mustard, i part; and mouth; cough deep and dry; yellow olive-oil, 2 parts. discharge from the nose. Sore Throat {Malignant). Cause.—Cold, aggravated by neglect and predisposition to the disease. Symptoms.—Swelling of the throat Prevention.—Nourishing food, and and neck; bluish -black colour of the warm dry bedding. lining membrane of the mouth and Treatm.ent.—Cover with a warm rug, throat; swelling of the tongue; loss of but allow plenty of cool fresh air ; rub appetite ; difficulty in breathing and the chest with mustard, i part, and tur- swallowing; weakness and death. pentine, 4 parts, and repeat the rubbing. Cause.—Exposure to cold and wet Give spirits of nitrous ether, 2 drs. improper food ; dirt and neglect. tincture of opium, 2 drs., in a little milk Prevention. — Cleanliness and com- twice a-day, and put 2 drs. of nitrate of plete isolation of diseased animals, and potash in its food every time the animal disinfection of premises tenanted by is fed. them. Treatment.^—A dose of Epsom salts, MeaiUs. to be followed by small doses of chlorate Symptom.s.—Fever ; cough ; loss of of potash and acetate of ammonia in appetite ; red patches on the skin ; pus- their food, with very hot fomentations tules under the tongue. to the throat. Treatment.—Give, fasting, i oz. of sulphur in the food, and repeat the dose Surfeit. till the animal is quite recovered. Keep Symptoms. — Fever ; swellings in the animals warm. patches on the lips, eyelids, and nostrils, which quickly appear and disappear. Protrusion the Rectum. of Cause.—Change of food or climate. After parturition the rectum sometimes Generally occurs in the autumn. protrudes and swells. Treatment.—Give in gruel, jalap, i Treatment. — The gut should be dr.; Epsom salts, i oz., and avoid im- emptied and washed. It may be re- proper feeding. turned by inserting the finger into the Swinefever—Hog-cholera. opening and pressing it into the anus. A nourishing diet should be given. Sym.ptoms. — Shivering ; dulness Sometimes a truss will be necessary to sunken eyes ; loss of appetite ; thirst keep the gut in its place after it has unwillingness to rise; heat and sore- been returned. It may be necessary to ness of the skin, which is covered with amputate the protruding part. Advice red and black patches; costiveness, fol- should be obtained if this is found to be lowed by foetid diarrhoea mixed with necessary. blood. Cause.—Contagion. Rheumatism, Cramp, Lameness. — Prevention. — Cleanliness and good Symptoms. ^Dulness ; lameness, es- food, together with ordinary care. Iso- pecially of the hind quarters ; tenderness lation from all infected animals, and the of the joints ; constipation. use of disinfectants, such as carbolic Cause. •— Damp bedding ; lying on acid. cold brick floors; chills. Especially Treatment.—Immediate slaughter is prevalent where pigs lie on fermenting the only course to follow at present. horse-manure. Immediately bury the dead body, and Prevention. — Allow young pigs cover it with quicklime; disinfect the plenty of exercise and dry bedding in premises. This disease comes under the which they may bury themselves. Contagious Diseases Act. RECIPES. 493 2. Powdered cantharides (Cantharis), % lb. Worms (Intestinal). Lard (Adeps prceparatus), I lb. Resin (Resina), % lb. Symptoms.—lU-healtli ; scurvy ; dry Melt the resin and lard together at a low ; irregular ; skin appetite itchiness of temperature, then sprinkle in the cantharides, the arms, and tlie passing of worms; and stir till cold. loss of flesh ; cough ; scour. 3. Perchloride mercury (corrosive sublimate) Prevention. —Sound food and water. (Hydrargyri percldoridum), 40 grs. methyU), I oz. Treatment.—Give santonine, 3 grs., Methylated spirit [Spent on an empty stomach, and four days To be applied with a small brush. Shake together in a bottle until dissolved. later repeat the dose ; the next day give Red iodide of mercury {Hydrargyri iodi- 3 oz. Epsom salts. Allow access to 4. dum ruhrwm), yi lb. plenty of coal, slack, or cinders, so that Lard (Adeps prceparatus), 4 lb. the pigs may eat as much grit as they Mix together. Poison. like. 5. Iodine (lodum), 2 oz. Trichinosis. Iodide of potassium (Potassii iodidum), I oz. Camphor (Camphora), J4 oz. A parasitic disease of the pig, but Methylated spirit, i pt. rarely seen in this country. Should be made up by a. qualified party. iodide potassium in a Symptoms.—The animal is dull, loss Put the iodine and of bottle with 15 oz. of the spirit, shake till of appetite, goes stiffly, vomits frequent- dissolved. Dissolve the camphor in 5 oz., then ly. the disease advances, the animal As mix together. persistently stands, and when it lies CONDITION POWDEKS. down it tries to bury itself under the bedding. 6. Fenugrek, 2 parts. Carbonate of iron, I part. Cause.—It is due to a minute worm Nitrate of potassium (Potassii nitras), 2 called the Trichina spiralis, which infests the whole causing what is called body, Gentian powder (Gentiancn radix) i part. measly pork ; far more common in Ger- Sulphur (Sulphur sublimatum), 2 parts. many and America than in this country. Mix aU together and sift. Give i oz. daily Treatment.—Slaughter and bury the in the food. animals at once, for the diseased pork is COOLING LOTION. poisonous to human beings. 7. Solution of subacetate of lead (Liquor plumbi sutacetatii), i part. Lice. Tincture of arnica (Tincturce arnicce), 3 parts. wash- These may be easily removed by Water (Aqua), 8 parts. ing with water saturated with petroleum. Mix. CODGH BALL. 8. Digitalis (Digitales folia), % dr. RECIPES. Powdered opium (Opium), i dr. Aloes (Aloe barbadensis), i dr. Soft-soap (Sapo mollis) to The scientific names are given as found } enough Linseed-meal (Lini farina) make a ball. in the British Pharmacopceia and Squire's ( Make into a stiff mass. Give one ball every Companion to the British Pharmacopceia. Directions for preparing the mixtures are appended to each recipe. 9. Spirits of ammonia (Spiritus ammonice aro- ABBREVIATIONS. matious), 1%, oz. Grains, grs.; scruple, scr.; drachms, drs.; Chloroform (Chloroformum methyU), I oz. Pounds, lb.; ounces, oz.; quart, qt.; pint, pt. Bicarbonate of potash (Potassii biearbo7ias), J^oz. HORSES. Water (Aqua), 10 oz. Mix. Shake up well before giving in gruel BLISTEES. or other bland liquid. Every two hours till I improvement, then twice a-day. I . Powdered cautharides {P. Cantharis), oz. (Oleum olivce), 8 oz. Olive-oil FOE BEONOmTIS. Use the ordinary " salad - oil " obtainable from grocers. Mix together in an earthen- 10. Tincture of digitales (Tinciura digitalis), ware pot, and infuse in a water-bath for four 3 drs. hours, and strain. Clip hair off the part before Bromide of potassium (Potassii bromidum), application. 2 drs. . 494 AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK. Nitrous ether spirit (Athens nitrosi), i oz. 19. Aloes {Aloe harhadensis), lyi dr. Water {Aqua), 10 oz. Tartar emetic {Antimonifum tartaratum), Di.s3olve Ijromide of potassium in water, add I dr. the other ingredients, and make up with water Nitre {Potassii nitras), 2 drs. to 10 oz. To be given three times a-day. Digitalis {Digitales folia), yi dr. To be made into a ball with meal and treacle. FOB WOEMS. OBDINABT PUROATIVB. 1 1 Extract male fern {Bxtractum filicis liqui- dum), 2 drs. 20. Barbadoes aloes {Aloe harhadensis), 1% dr. Oil of turpentine {Oleum terehinthincc), Calomel {Hydrargyri subchZoridmn), I dr. Ij4 oz. To be made into a ball with meal and treacle. Linseed-oil {Oleum, Uni), I pt. Mix and shake well together. 21. Sulphate of iron {Ferri stdph.), 1)4 dr. EMBROCATION. Sulphate of quinine {Quinina; sulph.), 12. Hartshorn {Liq. ammon. dU.), i oz. 20 grs. Turpentine {Oleum terehmthince), 2 oz. Sulphuric acid, diluted {Acidum sulphuri- Spirit of camphor {Spiritus camphorw), cum dilutum), 2 drs. 2 oz. Water {Aqua), 10 oz. Laudanum {Tmetura opii), }4 oz. Dissolve the sulphate of iron in water, Olive-oil {Oleum olivce), 6 oz. diffuse quinine in the solution, then add di- Mix the hartshorn with the olive-oil, and luted sulphuric acid, and make up to 10 oz. shake, then the turpentine, spirit of camphor, Give morning and night. and laudanum, shaking after each addition. Shake well before using. CATTLE. 13. Oatmeal, 3 qts. Salt, 3 oz. 22. Powdered oantharides {OantJiaris), i oz. Olive-oil, )4 pt. Olive-oil {Oleum, olivce), 8 oz. Give warm, and repeat till relief is given. Use the ordinary " salad-oil " obtainable from grocers. Mix together in an earthenware pot, and infuse in a water-bath for four hours, and 14. Ammonia solution {Liquor ammonice, F.), strain. Clip hair off the part before appli- 3 oz- cation. Soft-soap {Sapo mollis), 4 oz. cantharides, i part. Oil of turpentine {Oleum tereiintKmm), 23. Powdered Venice turpentine, i part. 8 oz. Resin, I part. Olive-oil {Oleum olivce), 4 oz. Lard, Rub the soap with the olive-oil to smooth- 4 parts. resin lard together, ness, then add turpentine and ammonia solu- Melt and then stir in the cantharides Venice turpentine. tion. Bottle, and shake well. and OALF-OOEDIAL. 24. Prepared chalk {Creta prmpdrata), 2 oz. 15. Mustard {Sinapis), 4 oz. {Cateehu), Oil of turpentine {Oleum terehinthince), Powdered catechu i oz. Ginger {Zingiber), oz. 5 oz. }4 Opium {Opium), 2 drs. Linseed-oil {OUum Uni), I pt. Mix together, and shake thoroughly. Peppermint-water {Aquce menihm peperitce), 1 pt. LOTION. Dose for calf, two tablespoonfuls morning and evening ; dose for sheep, one tablespoonful 16. Tincture of myrrh {Timctura myrrhce), morning and evening. I oz. Mix all together. Alum {Alu/mcu), 2 drs. Water {Aqua), 6 oz. DRAUGHT FOE COUGHS, &C. Mix together. 25. Powdered digitales {Digitales folirn), i dr. PUBGATIVES. Liquor ammonia acetatis {Liquor aTrtmonii acetatis), 3 oz. 17. Aloes powdered {Aloe harhadensis), 6 drs. Spirit nitrous ether {Spiritus Ginger {Zingiber), 2 drs. cetheris nitrosi), 2 oz. Made into a ball with soap or treacle. Extract belladonna {Extraetum beUadonnce), 18. Calomel {Hyd/rargyri suhcMoridum), i dr. 2 drs. Opium, powdered {Opium), 20 grs. To be given in a pint of water. To be made into a ball with linseed-meal Melt extract of belladonna in a little warm and treacle. water ; when cold, add the other ingredients. APPENDIX. 495 Shake, and make up to a pint with cold SHEEP. water. LOTION. 30. Carbolic acid (Acidum carbolicum), I part. Water (Aqua), 50 parts. 26. Oil of turpentine {Oleum tereiinthince), Shake. 80Z. DKESSIKQ FOB POOT-EOT. Solution of ammonia [Liquor ammoniw, F.), 3 oz. 31. Bed nitrate of mercury (Hydrargyri Soft-soap (Sapo mollis), 4 oz. oxidum rubrum), i oz. Rub down the soft-aoap in the turpentine, Nitrous acid, 2 oz. then add the ammonia, and shake. To be mixed with two tablespoonfuls of water ; dissolve the red nitrate of mercury PUEQATIVES. in the acid, and then add the water. 27. Epsom salts [Magnesii sulphas), 16 oz. PnKQATPVES. Powdered aloes (Aloe barbadensis), 8 drs. 32. Calomel [Hydrargyri subcJdorid/um), 5 grs. Ginger (ground) [Zingiber), i oz. Powdered opium (Opium), 4 grs. be given in To a quart of warm water or Epsom salts [Magnesii sulphas), I oz. gruel. To be given in 3 oz. of gruel or water. Epsom salts for cattle costs is. a stone. All obtainable from a druggist. Mix and Use Barbadoes aloes and ordinary domestic give in gruel. Ask for Epsom salts for cattle. ginger. 33. Epsom salts (Magnesii sulplias), 3 oz. MILD PUEGATIVB. Ginger (ground) (Zingiber), i dr. In thin gruel. 28. Epsom salts [Magnesii sulphas), 12 oz. Take ginger used for domestic purposes, [Zingiber), oz. Powdered ginger }4 mix with the salts, and give in thin gruel. To be given in a quart of warm water or Castor-oil (Olewm gruel. 34. ricini), 2 oz. Tincture of opium (laudanum) (Tinctura Salts for cattle, and ordinary ginger. opii), 2 drs. Use ordinary castor-oil and laudanum ; mix, and give. 29. Gentian [Gentianw radix), I oz. Note. —The doses given, except where other- Ginger (Zingiber), }4 oz. wise stated, are intended for fair -grown Carbonate of ammonia (Ammonii carbonas), animals of medium size. Allowance must Yz oz. therefore be made should the age or size of Carbonate of iron, 2 drs. the animal to be treated exceed or otherwise To be given in a pint of gruel or water. the average. ;; 496 AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK. and pull the horse's head up ; the medi- place the toe of the boot into the pig's cine should be slowly poured into his mouth, pour the medicine into the leg mouth, for horses are slow swallowers. portion of the boot, and the pig will bite Never be guilty of pouring it down the savagely at the boot and swallow the horse's nose, as I have seen some men medicine at the same time. do, and kill the animal. If the animal makes an attempt to cough whilst you FOMENTATION. are drenching him, let his head down instantly. Fomentation is of great value in all TJie Ball.—They should never exceed cases of pain and inflammation. Never ij^ oz. in weight, and never be given start to foment a part, however, without when they have become hard. The best having plenty of hot water and time, way to give a ball is by the hand, and for it does little or no good unless con- with a little practice it can be soon tinued for an hour or two. learned. Take the tongue gently in the In cases of external injuries or inflam- left hand, and draw it to the side of the mation—if it is on the knee or below it mouth, place the ball between the fingers —^place the leg in a tub full of hot water, of the right hand, quickly run the hand if elsewhere soak a piece of flannel or along the roof of the mouth, and leave sponge in hot water, and hold on the the ball at the back of the tongue ; with- part. draw the hand, and let go the tongue. For internal inflammation, such as in The animal will soon swallow, and you the bowels and the chest, double a will see the ball pass down the left side blanket, soak it in hot water, and have it of the neck. If you are not clever held against the chest or belly as the enough to give it in the manner de- case may be, by a man on each side of scribed, use a billing gun or iron. Do the animal, and place over it a water- not attempt to give a ball on the end of proof carriage -rug to keep in the heat. a pointed stick, for you are sure to run The blanket must be dipped into the the stick into some vital part of the hot water every three or four minutes. throat, and perhaps ruin the animal. If the blanket is too hot for your hand it is too hot for the horse's skin, so be Cattle. careful not to scald the animal. The cow is best drenched with a bottle or horn, and the quantity should not ENEMAS. exceed 2 qts. In giving the medicine, stand on the right side of the cow, seize Enemas or injections are of various the nose with the thumb and finger of kinds, and are given in cases of constipar the left hand, and get some one to hold tion to hasten the action of the bowels the horns on the left side. A cow in dysentery and diarrhoea, to check swallows much more quickly than the the action of the bowels ; in debility, to horse, so it takes but a minute or two to support the animal, and when in pain give a drench; to relieve it. An enema for constipation should Slieep. consist of linseed-oil, i pint ; salt, 4 oz A long-necked sauce-bottle is best to and warm water, i gallon, to be repeated, use for sheep. The quantity to be given if required, every four hours. should not exceed 4 oz. Stand on the For diarrhoea and dysentery use liquor right side, span the nose with your finger opium sedativus, 2 oz. ; starch, 4 oz. and thumb, place the finger in the and warm water, 3 pints. For weak- mouth, and slowly run the medicine in ness and debility use half a gallon of at the right side of the mouth. warm milk with two eggs, or the same quantity of beef-tea to be given every Swine. four or six hours. The quantity to be given should not To relieve pain use warm water, i exceed 5 oz. In giving physic to a pig, quart ; extract of belladonna, i drachm take a child's old boot, cut a hole in the or liquor opium sedativus, i oz. ; to be toe of it about the size of a shilling. given every three hours. ; ; APPENDIX. 497 An enema is given by the enema- Having haltered the colt, take him syringe, and the tail should be depressed to the chosen spot, pass his head through for a few minutes after it is given. the loop in the rope, pass the two ends between his fore and hind legs, bringing through the loop BACK-EACKING. them back, pass them at the shoulders, and draw tight until This is occasionally done to remove the animal is on his side ; then tighten the hard dung from the bowels, but it up, wind the rope around the fetlock, is not necessary if an enema has been include the fore legs, and get a man given. The person who performs this on each side to hold the end of the operation should have a small hand, rope so as to keep the animal on his cut the nails short, and oil the hand back. before introducing it. To remove the stones by torsion, make a bold cut through the bag, release the the cord, POULTICES. stone, place the clams around put the torsion forceps on the cord about Poultices are applied to certain parts half an inch from the clams, and twist to relieve pain, soften, and draw out the forceps slowly around until you sever any matter that may exist. The poul- the cord ; the other stone to be treated tice should be made of boiled turnips in the same way. or bran, the softer and warmer the To operate with the hot iron : Having better. A poultice to do any good must placed the stone in the clams, take a red- be of considerable size, kept on from hot iron and saw the cord slowly through twelve to twenty-four hours, with hot close to the clams. water continually poured over it, taking As to after-treatment, house the animal care not to scald the animal. for a few days, and then let it run out For the foot the poultice should be during the day, housing it again at placed in a stout bag, and fixed around night. the fetlock by a strap. From castration, lockjaw, bleeding, inflammation of the bowels, or broken CASTEATION. back sometimes arise. If the animal has only one stone down, The horse is usually operated upon postpone the operation, for it is almost at the age of one or two years ; but he certain to come down in a few months is sometimes allowed to go uncut until if it never appears, the animal is most three years old to see if he is worth likely a "rig," and must be operated on keeping for an entire horse, or to allow as such. his neck to get developed. The spring Calves. or autumn is the best time to perform this operation, as we then avoid the When a few weeks old they can be cut cold winds of winter, and the sultry standing, by twisting the tail around one weather and the troublesome flies of hind leg. Stand behind the calf, cut summer. through the bag, twist the stone several There are various ways of performing times and scrape the cord closely through this operation, but the best and most with your finger-nails or a blunt knife. successful way is either by torsion or When they are several months old they the hot iron. Some precautions should require to be cast. This is done by be taken before operating. Handle the tying the hind legs together with a rope, colt for several weeks before, so that place a halter around the neck, take the when he comes to be cast he will not shank end of the halter and run it fight, struggle, and break out into a through the rope that joins the hind sweat ; feed him sparingly the day before legs, tying it back, pass it through the the. operation; make sure that both test- portion that is around the neck, and icles are down and no rupture exists draw the legs tight, and fasten. The always see that the ground is soft and fore legs can be held by a man. Take free from stones where you intend to the stones oflf with the hot iron as in cast the animal. the case of the horse. VOL. III. 2 I 498 AILMENTS OF FAKM LIVE STOCK. The bull is best castrated standing of either draining an abscess, acting as with, the hot iron. a counter-irritant, or for the purpose of inoculation. In using a seton for draining an abscess, Let a man seize the pig by its hind such as poll-evil or fistulous withers, al- legs and hold it between his legs. ways bring it out at the lowest part of Cut through the bag, twist the stone the abscess, so as to secure drainage. several times, and scrape through the In using setons as counter-irritants in cord with a blunt knife or your finger- cases of lameness, diseases of the eye or nails. brain, pass them simply underneath the skin, and be careful not to wound any Lamhs. internal structure. Let some one hold them on a bench For inoculation, in cases of black- for you ; cut the tip of the bag off, and quarter or pleuro-pneumonia, the seton use the hot iron and clams, or do them must be soaked with some irritant, such the same way as the pig. In many parts, as embrocation (No. 12) in the case of one person takes the lamb in his arms, black-leg, but in pleuro-pneumonia with holding its four legs tightly, two in each the serum of a diseased lung. hand, while the shepherd cuts the top off out the bag with a sharp knife, presses NUKSING THE SICK. the stones with his fingers, and draws them away with his teeth, then using All the doctoring in the world is of the hot iron.> no avail unless associated with good nursing. com- SPAYING. Sick horses should be placed in a fortable loose-box, free from draughts, Heifers and sows are frequently spayed and with plenty of straw in it. In cold in order that they may fatten more weather a rug should be placed on the quickly, but a description of this opera- animal, and its legs bandaged. Animals, tion would not enable one to do it, and like human beings, soon lose their appe- it can be learned only by watching those tite when sick, so that every means skilled in it. should be tried to induce them to feed. The diet must be soft, nourishing, and DOCKING. given frequently in small quantities. The following foods are recommended : It is best performed when the animal bran -mashes, with bruised oats, sweet is but a few months old, and at that age hay with a little treacle-water sprinkled the tail can be easily cut off with a stout over it, scalded oats, a little linseed-cake, pocket-knife, and the end seared with and, when in season, grass, tares, carrots, the poker. In adults the operation is as and parsnips can be given sparingly if simple, but often followed by excess of the horse is not suffering from any bowel bleeding, lockjaw, or an abscess at the affection. A pail of oaten or linseed end of tail. Having parted the hair gruel should be placed within the reach at the spot where the tail is to be cut of the animal, and if it does not drink off, tie the top hair back, get some one this, give it treacle-and-water, or water to hold the tail out, and with a sharp with a tablespoonful of nitre dissolved in stroke of the docking-machine it is di- it. Take the chill off the water if the vided. Afterwards, hold the tail up, weather is cold. slightly sear it with the searing -iron, Never allow one kind of food to re- then place a piece of tow saturated in main too long in front of the animal; perchloride of iron on the end, bring the take it out and try something fresh. hair over it, and tightly tie below. The animal should, if strong enough, and the weather perfnits, be taken out SETONING. every day, and led up and down for haK an hour with a rug on. Exercise of Setons are tapes passed through cer- this kind strengthens the animal and tain parts of the body, with the object increases the appetite. See that the FARM-SERVANTS AND WAGES. 499 manger and bucket from wliich the horse A USEFUL TABLE. is fed are clean, for horses are naturally very sensitive as to what they eat, and It is useful for stock-owners to have more so when they are sick. Sick horses before them the following table, indi- should every morning get a thorough cating a normal condition of the pulse, msping down. respiration, and temperature of their Do not work the animal before it has various animals ; also the period of ges- properly recovered, and then gradually. tation. ; 500 FAEM-SERVANTS AND WAGES. of wages is higher by 2S. or 3s. per week. haytime and harvest, and is conditional On the other hand, in counties further upon the man giving satisfaction to his away from London, the rate is lower— employer. los., IIS., and 12s. per week, with similar The feeding of farm-servants in this perquisites, being paid in several English part of the country is very different from counties. what it was about 1850. Tea and coffee In Essex, a day's work with horses is are now largely substituted for oatmeal, only 7j^ to 8 hours. Including cleaning and beef and mutton for bacon. The and feeding, the men are daily about hinds have usually at least a two-roomed hours in actual work general house, with a garden for vegetables. 9^ to 10 ; A labourers, 9j^ hours, sometimes 10 hours man who has in his family a lad or a daily. Field-work all stops at 4 p.m., woman to work out in the fields can except in haymaking and harvesting. generally obtain about is. per week more Bailiffs get about ^^50 to ;^6o in wages than if he could not provide these money, with house and perquisites in workers. ' Although what is known as addition. Cattle-men generally get 2s. the " bondage " system has been nomi- or 3s. per week more than ploughmen, nally abolished, families with working as their hours are a little longer, and members in it are most in demand. they have Sunday work. Housemaids As to the hours of labour, the rule in get about ^'j to £,% per annum. No this district in the spring and summer servants are boarded ; every man brings months is for the ploughmen to take his in their his own food, and takes meals the horses out of the stable at 6 a.m. ; stable, barn, or outside in summer. The they are allowed a quarter of an hour for men will Ukely have a fire in the harness- breakfast, and a quarter of an hour for room in cold weather. tea in the field, vsdth two hours for dinner, These rates with little variation would the day's work terminating at 6 p.m. apply to a great part of England. Female field-workers commence work at 8 North of England.—As a rule, the A.M., have an hour and a half for dinner, rate of wages is higher in the northern and stop work for the day at 6 p.m. than in the southern counties of England; In Northumberland and many other and it is asserted by many that the parts, the women and the men have the quality of the labour is better. The same hours at work. following are the wages and perquisites Berwickshire.'—^Where paid by the " on a farm in North Durham ; Steward old boll," the allowances for ploughmen — 2 IS. per week, free house and garden, are, per annum : ;^i2 in money ; 60 cartload of coals driven to him, a pota- bushels of oats ; 30 bushels of barley toes as they are lifted, and a sack of 1800 yards potato-ground ; one cow flour at Christmas. Cattle-men— 19s. per housed and fed ; free house and coal week, and the same perquisites as above. driven ; butcher-meat for one month in Ploughmen— i8s. per week, and the same harvest. When paid by money, the rate perquisites as above. Women field- is : 13s. per week, with a cow's keep, workers — 2S. 6d. per day in harvest, 1800 yards of potato-ground or i6s. per ; and IS. 2d. per day at other times. week, if no cow is kept. Women at farm- Kitchen servants—^^19 per annum and work get 9s. per week in the summer board. Housemaid — .^12, los. and half-year, and 8s. per week in the winter, board. Lads, boarded in the farm vpith 15 s. per week in the few weeks of kitchen, hired half-yearly, get from ;^20 the grain harvest. to ;^27 a-year, according to ability. Farm grieves get about j£io more. In Northumberland wages are about Cattle-men get about the same as plough- IS., and in South Durham 2s., per week men. Shepherds have similar perquisites, less than the above. but instead of money most of them are In this part of the country the men allowed to keep a " pack " of their own, are usually hired for the year, and the consisting perhaps of about 10 ewes and wages paid fortnightly " in sickness and 3 hoggs, it being a condition that they in health, rain or shine." The sack of keep a strong lad, who receives about 9s. flour mentioned above as given at Christ- per week. The shepherds on the Cheviot mas is anent food and extra hours in Hills will have about 50 Cheviot ewes and • — FARM-SERVANTS AND WAGES. SOI hoggs in their own " pacic," with a cow's similar, although the form in which the keep, three loads of oatmeal, and coal or perquisites are given varies considerably. " peat " driven. The general tendency "West of Scotland.—In the west of now is to lessen the perquisites and in- Scotland the good old system of boarding still crease the pajrment in money ; but it is the servants in the farmer's kitchen very doubtful if this change is advanta- survives, although it is not so general as geous to the servants. in former times. On an Ayrshire farm, East Iiotbian. —^In East Lothian, with half-yearly engagements, the rates Farm managers who have entire charge are: ploughmen from _;^i2 to ^I'j per get from ^"jo to ;£ioo a-year, a cow's half-year, with board and lodging ; dairy- ha,lf-year; keep, I ton dressed potatoes, and in some maids from_;^ii to _^ 1 4 per cases free coals and light. Stewards get general women servants, for wintering ;^40 to £(>o, a cow's keep, i ton dressed cattle, house and outdoor work, from potatoes, 40 to 65 stones oatmeal, harvest ;^8 to ^10 ; and lads from ;£s to j£io food or jQi for same ; in some cases 2 tons —all with board and lodging. wages and of free coals and J^ quarter of wheat. Porfar and Perth.—The Worhing grieves get £2>° ^^ £4°! ^ cow's perquisites generally paid in these coun- keep, I ton of dressed potatoes, 40 to 65 ties are :— stones oatmeal, quarter wheat, har- J^ Farm Grieves or Stewards (generally vest food or _;^i for same. Ploughmen, Married Men). when a money wage is agreed upon, get 15s. to i6s. a-week, 16 cwt. to i ton Experienced men of this class, at of dressed potatoes, harvest food or _;^i present, get on an average wages equal for same. A leading ploughman, who in value to about ^^65 a-year, or 25 s. stacks and sows, gets )4 quarter wheat a-week, as under : for same. the is in money When payment 1. Cash, from ;^40 to £^i, say . ;^42 10 o and meal, the ploughman gets ^£^0, with 2. Oatmeal, an allowance of 6% being 65 stones oatmeal, 16 cwt. to i ton bolls (a boll of meal 140 lb.) during the year, dressed potatoes, harvest food or ^i for equal in value to about . 5 10 o same. Ploughmen on the " gains " system 3. Sweet milk, an allowance gene- get £24 to ^£'26, 65 stones oatmeal, 16 rally of 24 gills daily, yearly cwt. to 1 ton dressed potatoes, i}4 value 900 aver- quarter barley, yi quarter beans (some 4. Potatoes, I ton of potatoes, age value . . . . 2 10 o get in place of barley and beans 2 quarters 5. Free house and garden, equal to 600 wheat), harvest food or ;^i for same. On some farms in the upland parts of £6S 10 o the county a cow is kept by the plough- man, and _;^5 to ^6 deducted from the Besides other small perquisites, such as money wage. Cattle-man.—If a first-class firewood for kindling, not included. man, he is paid the same wage as a Very often grieves get a whole cow's ploughman, but has extra for Sunday milk, which would be worth not less than labour, generally £1, but in some cases ;^i5 a-year; but when a cow is given, IS. for each Sunday's labour. Cottars the allowance of money is generally less (out-workers) get is. 4d. a-day, 8 to 10 in proportion, so that the result would cwt. dressed potatoes, harvest wages and be much the same. food for a month, or, in place of harvest Ordinary Ploughmen. wages and food, ^£2. Some also get extra pay during potato-lifting, to the This class of servants get on an average extent of 6d. or 8d. per day. Frequently about ;£48, 1 OS. a-year, or i8s. 6d. a-week. cottars do not take potatoes, and in such In the case of married men, as under : cases IS. 6d. a-day is paid instead of 1. Cash, from £2& to £^2, say £zo IS. 4d. Bo^s and girls get from gd. to 2. Oatmeal, 6% bolls, value . 2s. a-day, according to qualifications. 3. Milk, 16 gills daily, value . the sons and daugh- These generally are 4. Potatoes, I ton, average value ters of the householders on the farm, and 5. Free house and garden, value reside with their parents. In adjoining counties the rates are — — — S02 FAEM-SEEVANTS AND WAGES. o le. a-week . . 12 In the case of unmarried men living Lodgings, . ;^2 potatoes, say 15 o in bothies, the details are somewhat 4 . . .0 ' ^^f ,.-. . , Meal, same as married men . . 4 10 o ctiflerent, namely : ^' 1. Cash, from ;^30 to ^34, say . ;^32 o o 2. Oatmeal, usual allowance of 6^ tolls, value . 10 o . . . 5 Ploughmen (single, in bothy), ;^2 2 to ° ^:^u^l'^n/"itrf;eeby ' ° ^37, and the Uowing perquisites :- the master, equal to . . 2 10 o -p^^^^^ ;f i o o is. • 12 S. Lodgmgs, valued at a-week 2 o ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^ ^^.^^^ ^^^ . 4 10 o Coals for bothy fire, say . . f Q J, n .200 ;^7 10 o Foremen in this class and experienced ——^— ^attk-men generally get from £2 to ^3 ^ads (in lodgings), ^12 to £19, and- " '. Extra or Orra Labourers, engaged '. '. " Potatoes . . ! o 15 o only from day to day. Lodgings. . . . . 2 12 o of servants get Men, from This class : /7^7~~o 3s. to 3s. 6d. a-day; women and young —^—— lads, from is. 4d. to is. 6d., without any other allowance. During harvest and Lads (in bothy), ;^i2 to £i<), and potato-lifting, however, these orra workers same perquisites as single ploughmen, get extra pay. Lads (in kitchen), ;^i2 to £ig, and In harvest, men get from 30s. to 36s. board in kitchen, say ^10. a-week; women, from 25s. to 30s. a-week. Out-women, £\2 to £\(3, and board During potato-lifting, men get from i8s. in kitchen, say ^10. to 21S. a-week; women and boys, 12s. Kitchen-women, £10 to ;^i5, and to 15s. a-week. board in kitchen, say ;^io. Women engaged for the year to work Milk is paid for in all these cases. in the house and out on the farm when The men get it at the farms good and by required, get from ;^i6 to ;^2o a-year, large measure, but they pay for it. They with board. Servants for house-work may buy it, however, anywhere else, This is to save only, about £2 less. which they never do. "Halflin" lads engaged for the year complaints as to quality of it. get from £14. to ^^17, with the same As to the housing of servants, ex- allowance of meal and milk as other Provost Black of Sherifston, to whom we men. are indebted for the foregoing figures, MorayBMre.—The following are the says: rates for the year paid by several farmers " Morayshire is on the whole well pro- with houses for married servants. in this county : vided Grieves, in money, £30 to £s5, and I have all I need—seven in number, the following perquisites :— "I bave sometimes a single man or lad, or both. They are lodged with some House, say ;^3 o o of the ploughmen, or in a cottage on the Coals, I ton 100 farm, where they find lodgings when they Potatoes, say . . . . .200 pjgfej. it. They get their food prepared, ''^^^3' their and fire and for fr/erlrpS^ holl-1^ house-rooiif ^t all, say 4 10 o IS. arweek. They sleep at the steadmg in an apartment for the purpose, adjoin- £^° 1° ° ing the stable—indeed, over a loose-box. I mean to turn the loose-box itself into a Ploughmen (married), ;^22 to ;^27, sleeping-room after Whitsunday, fitting it and the same perquisites. up properly for the purpose. Ploughmen (single, in lodgings), "I have no bothy. They are used, ;^2 2 to .1^27, and the following per- however, on most of the large farms, and quisites : are generally of a superior and comfort- ; FARM-SEEVANTS AND WAGES. 503 able character, kept clean and tidy, and bound to receive his domestic servant to the men's food prepared either by one of his or her situation, and to provide the the out-women or one of the kitchen- servant with bed and board during the women. period of the service, unless there be an " On the smaller farms a good many agreement to the contrary. A male do- still have the men and lads in the kit- mestic servant may be compelled to reside chen. Young lads prefer this to the out of his master's house, the master bothy—or, at any rate, their fathers and paying expenses, but a female is entitled mothers do. Some of the men prefer to the protection of her master's house. the kitchen—others the bothy. A master is not bound to provide medical " Out-working women are very few in attendance or medicine to a servant in ' servant number now—I mean fee'd ' ones. Most sickness, even in cases where the of them are hired by the day. I hire all is entitled to bed and board from the at IS. 3d. a-day. They find everything master. But if the master himself call themselves. Sometimes at hoeing -time in the medical man, or authorise this to the wage is is. 6d. ; and in harvest this be done, he will be liable for the bill, year (1890) it was 17s. a-week—last year, and will not be entitled to charge the iSs. 6d.—they finding everything except servant with the amount, or retain it out the usual drink of beer and piece of of the wages. bread in the middle of both the forenoon Duties of Servants.—Servants are and afternoon work turns." bound to serve their masters in every- thing relating to the situation for which they have engaged themselves. They LAW OF PAEM-SEEVICE. must be respectful to their master and "Aries."—It is not necessary to give his family, and in their general conduct earnest or "arles" to servants when avoid actions scandalous or of bad ex- hiring them, unless such be the universal ample. They have no right to absent custom of the district ; but if such a themselves without leave. They are re- custom does prevail, the engagement is sponsible for everything committed to not complete unless earnest be given. their charge in the routine of their duty, A servant who has received " arles " on but not for such accidents as are not engagement is not entitled to dissolve the attributable to their fault. They have engagement by returning the " arles." no right to draw nice distinctions between Period of Eugagement.—Farm-ser- what comes vidthin their duty and what vants are presumed to be hired for one does not ; but they cannot be employed year when no specified period of endur- against their will on any duty really ance is stipulated, and when no other different from the customary duties of period is to be presumed from the cir- the service which they have undertaken, cumstances of the contract or the custom and therefore any unusual branch of of the district. If a servant be engaged service should be matter of special ar- for a period differing from the customary rangement when the engagement is period, and particularly if the engage- made. ment is to endure for more than one Payment of "Wages, Sec, and Breach, year, it is desirable that the agree- of Engagement.—Where the amount of ment be in writing and signed by both wages is not fixed, the customary amount, parties. or such amount as the Court in case of Travelling Expenses.—In ordinary dispute shall fix as reasonable, will be circumstances the master is not bound to payable. The servant has a right to pay the expense incurred by the servant leave his master and claim wages (and in going to the place where the engage- board wages if entitled to board) should ment is to be fulfilled, or in returning his wages not be paid at the terms agreed after the termination of the engagement on or implied from the engagement. but when servants are brought from a The servant may also leave in the event great distance, it is usual for the em- of any other serious breach by the master ployer to pay the expense of their removal of the conditions of the employment, to the place of service. but should, where practicable, first en- Board and Lodging.—A master is deavour to have the grievance remedied. ; S04 FAKM-SEEVANTS AND WAGES. Though a farm-servant be engaged by the he may sustain against the servant, and year, his wages are payable half-yearly. in the case of a female servant, against Sickness or Accident.—If a servant her husband. be disabled from performing his service Enlistment is not a justification of by sickness or accident attributable to breach of his engagement by any servant his own fault, wages will not be due for but may give rise to a claim of damages the period of disablement, and the ser- at the instance of the master. A servant vant may even be liable in damages to unjustifiably leaving or failing to enter the master should such be sustained on the master's service may not only beyond the amount of the wages. But forfeit all claim for wages for any period a short temporary disablement in the for which service has been rendered ; but course of service, not attributable to the is liable for the damages resulting from servant's fault, will not entitle the master his desertion. to retain part of the servant's wages, Dismissal.—A servant may be dis- particularly if the illness of the servant missed for immoral conduct, disobedience, has not necessitated the emiDloyment of or habitual neglect of duty, or for absence a substitute. What length of disable- without leave, or other serious fault ; but ment will entitle a master to provide a remonstrance is expected of a master for substitute, or to terminate the engage- the less serious faults before resort is had ment and cease payment of wages de- to dismissal. Legal dismissal forfeits the pends upon the circumstances of each right of the servant to wages even for the case. period of actual service ; but in some If a servant die between terms, his cases, where the dismissal, though justi- representatives are entitled to wages for fiable, has not been for the gravest fault, the period during which he gave his and the forfeiture of wages would be service. disproportionate to wages earned, the Death or Bankruptcy of Employer. Court has held that the servant is entitled —When the master dies during the en- to wages for the period of actual service. gagement, wages, and also board wages, A servant is bound to leave, when dis- il: the servant be entitled to board, are missed even without sufficient or any due to the servant to the next term (not cause, and by leaving quietly does not within the period of notice) or to the end forfeit right to compensation for wrongous of his engagement if that be earlier. But dismissal. the servant should make reasonable ITotioe of Ijeavlng.—If a master exertions, if called on, to get another wishes to part with a servant, or the situation, and on the new engagement servant wishes to leave his situation, at commencing, the wages in respect of the the expiry of the engagement, reasonable former will cease. While in receipt of warning must be given, unless the local wages after his master's death, the servant custom is to give no warning. The is bound to continue service. period of warning requisite in the case of The effect on the engagement of the agricultural and domestic servants, en- master's bankruptcy is similar to the gaged for a year or for half a year, is effect of his death. Domestic and farm forty days. If timeous warning be not servants have for long enjoyed in Scot- given on either side, the engagement will land a preference for their wages for the be held to be renewed for one year, or current term on the death or bankruptcy such less period as may be usual in the of their master. In England by statute particular occupation and locality. the same preference is accorded to them Character.—A master is not bound to as to other servants. give a servant a character, or to state his A master may at any time turn off his reason for withholding it. If he know- servant on paying him full wages to the ingly give an untrue character, he will be end of the engagement, including board responsible for the damages consequent wages, if the servant is entitled to board. on his act. But if, when asked for a The marriage of a servant is not a character, he gives it to the best of his ground for dismissal ; and if a servant belief, he will not be liable to the servant leaves service on marriage, the master in damages, although the character be may have a claim for any damage which unfavourable and injurious to the servant. " CARE OF IMPLEMENTS. 505 CAEE OF IMPLEMENTS. Farmers are in many cases not so care- paired, taken to pieces and cleaned, the ful as they ought to be in protecting their journals greased, and the separate parts implements from injury, by exposure to stowed away in the implement-house. the weather. Implements are used both The small manual implements, turnip- within and without doors. Those used hoes, spreading-graips, dung-hawks, hay- without doors may be divided into those knives, scythes, if not placed in the in use every season, and those only occa- implement-house whenever out of use, sionally. Implements frequently in use are liable to be lost. upon the soil cannot be otherwise than Of all implements, carts receive the constantly exposed to the weather ; and most neglect. Their axles are not fortunately they are of simple construc- greased, their bodies and wheels un- tion, and are less affected than those of washed, holes in the bottom or sides get complicated construction, which are used enlarged, and the tire of a wheel becomes for a short time at certain seasons. loose, till some day it flies off, to the risk The implement most frequently in use of breaking down the felloes. The is the plough. Being now made of iron, threshing-machine should be cleaned out it can withstand exposure. Harrows, every time a different sort of corn is also frequently in use and much exposed threshed, otherwise samples will be im- to the weather, are now made of pure. The gudgeons are oiled every iron. Not being required in winter, they time the mill is in use. Wherever a are placed in the implement-house. The repair is required, it should be done tines should be sharpened just before the immediately, otherwise a serious and commencement of the oat-seed in spring. expensive fracture may ensue. The roller being only occasionally in use, Holes in sacks and in barn and chaff in rolling young grass and spring crops, sheets should be instantly repaired by and pulverising the soil in summer, is patching and darning ; and a broken replaced in its shed whenever its services mesh in a riddle or a hole in a " wecht are no longer wanted. The small double or basket should be at once repaired. mould-board ploughs, being used in spring Implement-house. and summer, should be placed in the implement-house before winter sets in, The fitting up of the implement-house, scraped clean of earth, and have the irons for the accommodation of the finer and repaired. smaller implements, should be so arranged There are few implements which receive as to have the floor unencumbered, and less regard when not in use than scufflers give free access to every implement re- and grubbers. They are often allowed quired at a time. To effect this most to remain at the sides of head -ridges easily, the house should extend from the and corners of turnip and potato fields, floor to the roof. The floor is flagged to perhaps the whole winter. Being made prevent rusting of iron in the implements. of iron, they do not suffer much from— A wooden floor should be placed half- weather ; but having many small parts way between the ground and roof to form tines, coulters, wedges, screw-bolts—they a loft, covering only two-thirds of the are best preserved in the implement-house, area of the house, and having one trap- after having been repaired. stair to ascend to it. Both floors contain Delicately constructed machines—such a large number of things, while the as grass-seed sowing, drill-sowing, turnip- height to the roof admits of long forks, sowing—are seldom allowed to remain shafts, feering-poles, &c., being put into longer in the field than in use, but often a corner. remain unheeded at the steading for a Wheels, short shafts, and angular considerable time. Instead of, as is often pieces of iron are best placed against a the case, being taken to the stackyard and wall upon strong nails. Articles of covered with straw, they should be re- length, as sowing-boxes, are best sup- 5o6 CAEE OP IMPLEMENTS. ported against a wall upon brackets. large implements ; and were cross-beams Small articles of iron and other material put upon the wall-heads, they would are best kept upon shelves. Hand-hoes contain many others. and weed-hooks are best placed in framed Neglect of implements may fairly be stands. Scythes are best suspended from imputed to the steward. Were he to the balks. The bodies of small ploughs, give strict orders that every implement grubbers, and scufflers should be placed out of use shall be put into the imple- along the foot of the walls. ment-house, that every one may know If every implement were put into its where to find it when again wanted, and own place at the end of its season, con- to see that his orders are obeyed, there fusion would be avoided in seeking for would be no waste of time in seeking them, and many more articles find room for anything—there would be no loss of in the implement - house when well implements or parts of them—and the arranged, than when things are put implements themselves would last much down anywhere, without regard to longer, to the manifest advantage of the order. farmer, and to the steward himself in the The cart-shed forms a good store for long-run. — INVENTORY AND VALUATION OF STOCK. 507 FARM BOOK-KEEPING. It is generally believed that farmers Such an attempt at estimation would in- have no regular system of book-keeping. volve the labour of many men, and incur The belief is true in regard to farmers as the disbursement of a large amount of a class ; but many farmers have correct wages. Estimation of such items may sets of books, and many more now keep amuse the leisure hours of the amateur books than in former times. or the investigator, but they would not Difficulties of Farm Book-keeping. suit the matter-of-fact working business —But, at best, farmers cannot keep a of a farmer. perfect set of books as mercantile men Coramon-sense Book-keeping.—The can. It would be impracticable for them common-sense view of the matter is this : to put a value on every article they use Let the farmer keep such books as will on the farm ; for consider how a farm is acquaint him whether the balance of pro- conducted. The farmer, for example, duce and of cash is greater or less this cannot estimate the value of every stone year than in the last. The theory of a of straw given daily to his live stock as system of book-keeping for a farmer is fodder or litter. He cannot estimate the simply this : Let the farmer take an m- various amount of labour, manual and ventory and valuation of his live stock, mechanical, bestowed on the land before implements, crops, cost of labour, and it yields its produce. He cannot esti- debts due to and by him at the begin- mate the value of manure when first ning of every agricultural year, and he taken to the dunghill, or then estimate will see whether his capital has increased it again when applied to the soil after or diminished in the bygone year. Let being fermented. He cannot put a value him keep a cash-book, which will inform on every turnip, every handful of corn him whether he has received or paid or forage, and every mouthful of grass away more cash in the course of the year. his live stock consume. The weight of Let him have a day-book, into which is all these articles could be ascertained by inserted every transaction as it occurs. the steelyard; but of what use would It is clear that a knowledge of all these the estimate of their weight and money- particulars will acquaint him with the value be, since they are not sent to mar- real state of his affairs at the beginning ket and turned into cash, except in farms of every agricultural year. Here are in the neighbourhood of large towns 1 samples of inventory : INVBNTOKY AND VALUATION OP STOCK ON 1ST OCTOBER 1889. Farm 500 acres under the mixed husbandry. I. Cash— £ s. d. On hand 40 o o In British Linen Co.'s Bank . 300 o o 340 o o II. Implements 300 o o III. Horses— 14 horses, at £zs IV. Cattle— I Shorthorn bull 20 6 Shorthorn cows, at £z-2 10 steer calves, at ^4 . 5 heifer calves, at £3 15 yeai'Hngs, at £Z, los. . 5038 FAEM BOOK-KEEPING. V. Sheep— 200 Leicester breeding ewes, at 32s. . 60 Leicester draft ewes, at 32s. 290 Leicester hoggs, at 21s. 320 Half-bred wethers, at 30s. . 3 Leicester tups, at 60s. VI. Pigs— 3 sows, at 60S. I boar, at 60s. 20 pigs, at 22S. VII. Corn— II stacks wheat, 20 q^rs. each, 220 qrs. at 31 10 It barley, 30 each, 300 at 20s. 17 tt oats, 40 each, 680 at i6s. . VIII. Seed and Laeoue— Upon 100 acres of turnips at 70s. per acre IX. Debts due me as per Ledger— James Marrowman Thomas Butters X. I OWE TO MY Landlord— Half-year's rent due Martinmas 1889 II II Whitsunday 1890 Capital in 18 — INVENTOEY AND VALUATION OF STOCK. sop £ s. d. Brought forward 4589 II 7 X. I OWE TO MY Landlord— £ s. d. Half-year's rent due Martinmas i88g . . 500 o o II II 'Whitsunday iSgo , 500 o o 1000 o o Capital in 1890 3589 II 7 II 1889 3173 o ° Gain on crop 1889 £ii6 II 7 On comparing the two inventories, we find that the capital has increased by £416, iis. 7d. in the year from ist October 1889 to ist October 1890. We do not propose giving the elab- would thus show the profit or loss for orate details of a whole year of a farm, any period that may be wanted. of which the foregoing are the inven- This is the system which was illus- tories. For those who have not time to trated and recommended in former edi- keep more detailed accounts, a simpler tions of this work, and although other system may be adopted, showing a cor- systems may be better or as good in cer- rect result in so far as money transac- tain respects, yet it is well thought of tions are concerned — the basis of the by many farmers, and is reproduced in system being that all sales and purchases the original form. or sums due, such as rent, are entered in To carry out this system the books re- a Day-book (whether received or paid or quired are : not). Every entry in this Day-book is 1. Day-book, containing a record of posted to its individual ledger account, sales and purchases, and of moneys and when the transaction is settled it due. passes through the Cash-book, from 2. Cash-book, containing a record of which it is posted to the Ledger. The the receipt or payment of the sums system is one that does not enter into referred to in the Day-book. the settlement of accounts between buyer 3. Ledger, containing the combined and seller, but shows the balance on each entries in the two previous books. branch of receipt and expenditure. The A specimen of each kind of book is here balancing of such Ledger, combined with given, drawn up by an eminent account- the estimated value of crop and stock, ant in Edinburgh. [Day-book. 510 FARM BOOK-KEEPING. DAY-BOOK. Dr. Or. i88g. Mar. 9 CASH-BOOK. 511 CASH-BOOK. Bt. Cr. IS89. Mar. 9 II II 11 13 512 FAKM BOOK-KEEPING. O en O vO Ol^O \o CO ^^ O^O CT s?p vo in .*vo m o LEDGEE. VOL. Ill, 2 K SI4 FARM BOOK-KEEPING. .a PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT. 515 STATEMENT OF TRANSACTIONS FOR TEAR TO FEBRUARY l8gO. Crop sales, ledger folio 2 Crop purchased, ledger folio r £56 15 5 Live-stock sales, « 348 15 Live stock purchased, n 4 44 5 o Manure purchased, n 5 334 10 ir Implements and harness, ir 6 39 18 3 Servants' wages, n 7 69 7 6 Rent and taxes, ti 8 604 19 II Miscellaneous expenses, n g 663 3 3 759 3 6 ^rgi5 16 9 jQiQiS 16 9 STATE OP BALANCE. Balance as above ;£759 13 6 Due to farm for crop sold, as per ledger Due by farm for crop purchased, as per • folio 2 £100 T7 o ledger folio i 9 19 9 Balance due by Bank of Scotland, as per Due by farm for live stock purchased, as ledger folio 10 .... .' 605 o o per ledger folio 4 . . 22 5 o Balance due to farm, as on cash-book . 86 i 3 ;C79i 18 3 ;£79i 18 3 PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT, FEBRUARY 1890. Horses per inventory ;£lOO o Implements do, . 87 10 Cattle do. 115 o Piga do. 25 10 do. . 68 o Accounts due to farm £100 17 In bank . 60s I Cash in hand . 86 Less due by farm for crop purchased . Do. for live stock purchased Capital, 1890 . Capital, 1889 Profit for year Si6 FAEM BOOK-KEEPING. COKN-ACCOUNT. 517 5i8 FAEM BOOK-KEEPING. Oct. IS Nov — STOCK ACCOUNT. 519 The Live-Stock Accounts give, in like numbers on hand at different periods manner, the particulars of every species the prices obtained and the prices paid of stock — the disposal of them —the for them. STOCK ACCOUNT— 1889. S20 FARM BOOK-KEEPING. Date. ACCOUNT OF CHAEGE AND DISCHAKGE. 521 Date. 522 FAEM BOOK-KEEPING. DISCHAEGB. 1890. Jan. 24 June 24 ; — LABOUE-BOOK. 523 Memorandum-lDook.—Every farmer stances of accuracy in farmers who trans- ought to be provided with a pocket acted business of the most multifarious memorandum - book, to contain every character by memory alone ; neverthe- item, great or small, connected with the less, the safer plan for every farmer is to farm, whether involving cash or not. jot down every particular incident in the Without such a memorandum, confusion memorandum-book that involves the in- may arise from broken promises, forget- terests of others as well as his own. fulness, or neglect. At one time it was Iiabour -books. —Here is a simple customary in farmers to trust solely to form of keeping the field-workers' daily the memory to retain their transactions labour-account : and we have heard extraordinary in- Isabel Kerr, Oct. ... | =18 clays, at is., £0 18 o | | | { I I I I I I Anne Paterson, n . . = 19 II at IS., o 19 o { | | | | | I I I { I I I Mary Scott, • n | | • • • = l^ " ^t IS., o 16 o | | I I I I Between the long strokes is compre- of wages per day, and the gross amount hended one week ; the short strokes are of the half-year's earnings is. brought out the days of the week. Suppose the distinctly. account runs for the half-year across two A proprietor not living on the estate ruled pages of the book. The name of in which his home-farm is situated, is the field-worker is written on the left desirous of knowing how the work goes hand. A short stroke is made for every on on his distant farm. Here is an ex- full day the field-worker has worked. If ample of a labour-book which would suit she has only worked j4 day, the J4 is his purpose. It contains columns indica- marked. If ^ of a day, ^ is marked. ting the number of hours each labourer If she has not been working, then i dot • is employed daily, with a weekly sum- is made. Thus at a glance is seen the mary showing the total number of days work done every week, as well as when and hours for each person employed, and work was not done. The account thus rate of wages, from which the amounts kept for the half-year, the days are earned can easily be calculated. summed up and calculated at the rate LABOUE-BOOK. Date of First Day of Week. 524 FINAL EXHORTATIONS. FINAL EXHOETATIONS. When the young farmer is settled on tion on his live stock. In winter, those his farm, he undertakes certain duties confined in the steading should have and obligations which he must fulfil. abundance of food at regulated hours, "Work well advanced.—It is an im- be comfortably lodged, and carefully portant duty of a farmer of arable land to tended, and those in the fields provided have his field operations in an advanced with shelter and food. Turnips should state at all seasons. If by negligence a be stored in the best state, in case of delay of an operation takes place for one frost ensuing. In summer, pasturing day or two in its proper season, it can- the grass fields requires attention, both not be executed in the best way ; and if on account of the pasture itself and the then overtaken by bad weather, the risk stock upon it, with a sufficient supply is incurred of a deficient crop. When of water. Any stock on green forage re- field ojDerations are in advance, a few quires more particular attention. days' waiting can do no harm ; and when Marketing Corn.—As long as the finished in a good state, a well-founded corn -market is active in winter, the hope may be cherished of a good return. farmer should attend to the threshing To secure an advance in labour, the work- and cleaning of grain, for the double ing stock should be adequate to complete jjurpose of supplying his stock with every operation in its season. Time lost straw, whether with fodder or litter,, then can never be made up by inefficient and of disposing of the corn. It is not means of labour. a farmer's duty to sijeculate on his own ^Efficient and Well-arranged La- corn in the stack; for the live stock bour.—That labour may be employed have a legitimate demand upon the straw, most economically, the farmer should have and if by speculation they are deprived the ingenuity to arrange the labourers to of fodder and litter, so is the land of work for one purpose. For example, when manure ; and, on the other hand, if he ploughs are working by themselves, and thresh faster than the stock can consume the field-workers by themselves, they do it, the straw suffers deterioration as fod- their respective works efficiently; but der and litter, and as manure. The corn when ploughmen and field-workers are at presented at the market should be in a the same work—manual and mechanical perfect state of cleanliness, not only on labour combined —the strength of each account of the farmer's own sake of ac- party should be proportioned to produce quiring the character of a clean dresser of the desired result in a given time. To grain, but for his demanding the highest make the co-operation perfect, the horses price. should be well matched, sufficiently fed, Bearing to-wards Work-people.— and judiciously wrought ; and as a coun- In his bearing to his work-people the terpart, the field-workers should be active, farmer should be kind and reasonable. wilhng, strong, and skilful. He should not be constantly rebuking. Good Implements. — Still further A fault should be checked; and one means to the same end, the -best-con- arising from the head, not the heart, structed implements should be selected, should be gently dealt with. Theft and for skilful labourers require the best im- falsehood should never be forgiven, and plements, and the horses use them with the delinquent should be got rid of at the greatest ease. Ploughmen, horses, im- the first term, for no trust can ever be plements, and field-workers are the work- confided in him. When a ploughman ing stock of a farm ; and unless all these quarrels seriously with his horses, the are maintained in the most efficient state, safest expedient is to cause him to put the farmer cannot expect his operations them into the stable till next day, when to be executed in the best manner. his temper will have calmed down, and Attention to Live Stock.—Besides the affi-ont will have served to curb it. the land, the farmer must bestow atten- A mere severe rebuke at the time, with FINAL EXHOETATIONS. S2S allowance to continue at work, will never evening is great. It is then physically convince liim that he was wrong. The impossible to betake to reading on a sub- wives and children of married men are ject that requires thought. The desul- frequently troublesome on a farm ; when tory newspaper affords the most fitting a man cannot control his own household, reading until the hour of bed, which he should be parted with. Much more must be early. In winter it is different, work will be obtained from field-workers and at that season it is not true that by a little indulgence than by over exac- the farmer does not read—for many read tion of work. A sliort rest at mid- much ; and as they advance in years, yokings has a wonderfully encouraging much leisure is given to reading. We effect, especially upon field-workers. have only to peruse the discussions in Punctual in paying "Wages. —The farmers' clubs to be satisfied that the farmer should be punctual in his jsay- present race of farmers read, and have ments to his servants at the specified read to good purpose. terms ; for if he be not, he loses control, Townspeople also believe that the and places himself in their power in artisans of towns are much more intel- many ways. Work-people calculate on ligent than the labouring people of laying out their earnings when they be- the country. There are different kinds come due ; and on being disappointed, it of intelligence. We have had many causes them much inconvenience and vex- opportunities of conversing with both ation of spirit. Women especially feel classes of workpeople, and we like to the disappointment keenly. do it, but never could observe the supe- Relation to Ifeiglibours. — In rela- rior intelligence of the town artisan. The tion to his neighbours, the farmer should country labourer is a keen observer of be punctual to his engagements. If he nature : he knows the symptoms of the promised to buy or sell any commodity weather, different kinds of soil, of rocks, with a jperson on a given day and hour, of trees, the habits of many animals, he should keep his appointment. If he and the properties of the plants he culti- has promised to settle accounts with any vates ; and as to the shepherd, no ordinary tradesman at a given time, he should do artisan is his superior. The manufacturer so without fail. A few breaches of pro- is favourably contrasted with the farmer, mise soon affect a man's character where since he avails himself of every improved he resides, and a few more may ruin his piece of machinery, while the farmer veracity, and even credit. neglects similar opportunities for improv- Eeoreation and Instruction. —The ing his business. The eases are not farmer should provide himself with re- analogous. The manufacturer knows creation and instruction at home. Re- with certainty that machinery and ma- creation he will find in his own family, terials which suit a co-manufacturer will in field-sports and manly exercises, and' suit him also ; but the farmer has no in visits to and from friends at a dis- certainty of any implement or manure tance, and neighbours around. For in- suiting his own climate, soil, situation, struction he must have recourse to books, and locality, until he has tried it—and papers, and conversation. If he does not it is only once in a year that he can try provide attractions at home, he will go it. He prudently waits the approval of elsewhere for them, and neglect his farm. others before he adopts it. It is a common remark among towns- In catering for mental food, the young people, that farmers, as a class, read farmer should take the periodicals con- little. If they knew the habits of farmers nected with the agricultural societies of as well as we do, they would consider the kingdom, as well as those in any this no obloquy. Little do townspeople class of literature which suits his taste. know the fatigue which is endured in Agricultural chemistry and physiology, early rising and constant exercise in animal and vegetable, he should not ne- the fields on foot, when even ordinary glect. His local newspaper he patron- operations are going on in summer, and ises ; and, above all, he should have a especially when improvements are on , good agricultural paper. It is a great hand. The lassitude consequent on matter for the farmer, especially the fatigue which overtakes the frame in the young one, to take a short ramble now 526 FINAL EXHOETATIONS. and then, in summer, in Continental between the proprietor and labourer of countries. Travel expands the mind, the soil. He thus belongs to that middle presents new objects, refines intelligence, class which forms the staple portion of corrects prejudices, and adds many ma- the community. In taking leave of our terials to happiness. young friends, we do so in the anxious In parting with the young farmer, and heartfelt hope that this effort in the now no longer a pupil, we would exhort cause of agriculture may prove as pro- him always to maintain independence fitably instructive and as practically use- of mind and honourable behaviour. He ful as have the former editions of this forms the connecting and binding link work. 527 INDEX. Volume I. embraces Divisions i and 2 ; Volimie IJ., Divisions and 3 4 ; Volume III. , Divisions 5 and 6. 528 INDEX. Atmosphere, height of INDEX. 529 Biestings, composition of . S30 INDEX. Cake, linseed, composition of, . INDEX. 531 Cattle, oalviug of 532 INDEX. Clover, crimson .... . INDEX. S33 Customs, of arsenic iii. Scotch feeding . . . i. 372 Dipping mixtures, quantity 148 Cutter cart, the i. 178 II II safe method of using iii. 147 - Curry-comb, brush, foot-picker, mane- II II stirring lii. 147 iii. comb ...., i. 404 II sheep .... 141 iii. II II process of 145 Dairy factories, origin and develop- II II time for dipping . iii. 148 II bath iii. ment of ii. S20 II tossing sheep into 146 iii. farming i- S II II weather for dipping 148 farm, stoclcing a . . . . i. 6 Diseases of calves ii. 46 iii. farm, cow-byre for . . . iii. 333 II of horses 442 knowledge required for a . . i. 6 Distillery wash . i- 254 iii. compartments in the . . . ii. 472 Divisional fences 210 iii. linishings of the . . . . ii. 472 Docking animals 498 milk-shelves . . . . ii. 472 Dorset homed sheep . iii. 429 motive power for ... ii. 473 Draff i- 253 movable milk-stands . . . ii. 482 Drainage accelerating harvest ni. 251 iii. situation of the . . . . ii. 471 II and autumn-sown crops 255 for iii. of iii. steading .... 336 II causes wetness in land 255 . iii. temperature of the . . ii. 472 II of clay-land 25s . . 1". utensils . . ii. 473, 479 II conducive to health . 255 work ii. 470-521 II by contract iii. 268 Dairymaids, . . . . i- . iii. duties of 9 II custom in executing 268 " Damp course iii. 381 II " Deanston system of iii. 249 Darby's i. for iii. steam-digger .... 147 II determining necessity 256 Dari or durra for stock-feeding . . i. 255 II early methods of iii. 249 Dead hedge iii. 226 II and economical manuring iii. 255 " Deanston reaper iii. 62 II " Essex system of . iii. 249 De Laval separator . . . . ii. 485 II evaporation lessened by drainage iii. 251 Devon cattle, beef production . . iii. 412 11 evaporation and loss of heat iii. 251 II characteristics of . . iii. 412 II examining soil for iii. 258 11 colour of . . . iii. 412 II execution of iii. 270 „ early breeders . iii. 411 II extension of iii. 250 II milking properties . . iii. 413 II facilitating tillage iii- 255 IT origin of . . . iii. 410 II fertility from rain-water m. 253 II plumpness . . .iii. 412 II first step in iii. 256 II Quartly herd of . . iii. 411 II improving pasture iii- 255 II weights .... iii. 413 II increasing produce iii. 254 Devon long-wooUed sheep . . . iii. 428 II and irrigation iii. 256 Devonshire cream-stove . . . ii. 483 II land, antiquity of iii. 248 Dew . i. 34 II loans for . iii. 250 II beneficial intluence of . . . ii. 309 II mitigating drought iii. 254 II cause of ii. 309 II natural iii- 255 i. II Dr Wells's theory of . . . 34 II and nitrification . iii- 253 II heavy, foretelling rain . ii. 310 II object of iii. 250 ii. outfalls II measuring .... 305 II iii. 257 Dipping bath for sheep . . .iii. 141 II outfalls, scouring iii. 258 . iii. II 11 catching pen . . 145 II and root cultivation . iii. 255 ir II concrete for . . . iii. 142 II soils retaining water . 111. 251 11 II construction of . . iii. 141 II and soil temperature . iii. 251 II II cost of . . . .iii. 146 II of springs . iii. 259 11 11 depth of . . . iii. 142 II superintending, work . iii. 269 M II dripper, the . . . iii. 143 II time for . . . iii. 257 II II emptying the . . iii. 143 II varying with soil iii- 259 II II finishing the . . . iii. 144 II and ventilation of the soil iii- 253 M II length of . . . iii. 146 Drain-cesspools . iii. 277 II II making the concrete for iii. 144 II for liquid manure i- 223 II II plans of. . . . iii. Draining, best 145 season for ..'• 7S II II plunge-bath for small flocks iii. 146 II hill pasture iii. 294 II II situation for . . . iii. iii. 142 II land .... 248 II II size of dipper, and num- II machines iii. 276 ber of hands . . iii. 142 II per acre, cost of . iii. 276 11 II stone and wood . . iii. 146 II plough iii. 270 II II Wood's swimming bath iii. 141 II surface iii. 285 II mixtures .... iii. 146 II waste land . iii. 288 II II composition of non- Drains, blocking of iii. 278 poisonous dips . iii. 147 II chart of . . . iii. 276 II 11 dressing for scab . iii. 148 II clearing rods iii. 278 II II good mixture, a . iii. 147 II cost of cutting iii. 274 11 II home-made dips . iii. 147 II depth of . . . iii. 259 II II mixing poisonous II displacement of pipes in iii. 260 and non-poison- II distance between iii. 260 ous dips . . iii. 148 II falling in of iii. 271 II II non-poisonous iii. dips 147 II filling .... iii. 276 II oil II in dijis . . iii. 148 II flushing of . iii. 277 II II poisonous dips . iii. 147 II inspecting iii. 271 . . . 534 INDEX. ii. Drains, material for . iii. 262 Dung, farmyard, its character and uses 96 fertility in a ton ii. II planks for . iii. 273 of 97 field for ! 11 peat . . . • • iii. 263 sheds S07 iii. fresh and rotten . ii. 96 ri pipe-laying iron . 275 M pipes iii. 264 ii. 304 iii. for grass lands . ii. 130 plug . . • • 263 „ . kinds of i. II preliminary surveying tor . iii. 260 heat from various S13 iii. hen II. 304 II stone 263 .... 1. II tile iii. 263 horse and cow, compared 512 ii. . iii. 270 influence of II width of ... 99 Drake, duck, duckling i. 436 losses from want of care of 1. SOI ii. Dray's Hussey reaping-machine . iii. 66 loss of residual manure 100 Dreg i. 254 mechanical uses of ii. 98 Drill-plough .... ii. 346 mixing i. 502 DriU-sowing, advantages of 11. 243 oozing of liquid from heaps of i. 509 Drying racks .... iii. 102 open and covered dung-court 11. 96 building iii. pig i- Dry-stone walls or dykes, art in 232 . S13 ii. II badly built dykes iii. 230 pigeon 304 i. II building iii. 230 pit S09 II building in poultry ii. 303 stretches iii. 232 preparing iii. 47 II carrying stones for iii. 231 putrefaction of ii. 128 iii. i- I, coping 232 S13 II cost of dykes iii. 231 spade for i. S07 iii, iii. II obvers 232 spreading 47 II curves in dykes iii. 234 stock . i. 512 M dimensions of iii. 230 turning i. 506 varieties quality ii. II double and single in the of 94 . faced dykes iii. 231 for wheat . ii. 129 DunghUls, II dry weather for forming i. S02 dyke-building iii. 231 Dung-spreading machine ii- 351 II dykes as fences iii. 233 Dunlop cheese li. 512 iii. II frames for dykes 232 Dutch cheese ii. 515 II gaps in dykes iii. 233 II hoe . iii. 228 II ,1'oining stones iii. 234 II levelling the dyke Ear-marking sheep ii- 454 top . iii. 232 Eaves, gutter ill. 384 II lining carts for Edam cheese ii- 515 stones iii. 231 Egg-ended steam boiler i. 122 II preparing founda- Eggs, number of, in a setting ii. 293 tion iii. 231 II selecting, for hatching ii. 293 II process of build 11 selecting hen ii. 292 ing . iii. 232 II sex of . ii. 293 II providing stones iii. 231 II testing fertility of ii. 294 II repairing dykes iii. 23s Electricity . i. 28 II shelter iii. 234 II motion of . ii. 310 II stones to be used iii. 230 Electro-culture . i. 28 II sunk fence . iii. 23s Elevation and local climate iii. 183 II supplementing Embankments against a stream i. 27 dykes for sheep iii. 233 Enclosure and shelter 210-215 II thorough-bands iii. 232 Enemas iii. 496 II tools for dyke- Engineering i. 22 building . iii. 231 Engines, steam, simplicity in i. 124 II utility of dykes iii. 23s English sowing-basket ii. 193 II watering pools iii. 234 Entomologists, services of ". 395 II wire over dykes iii. 234 Entomology i. i6 Duck dung, its composition ii. 304 Entrance gates . iii. 383 Duckling 1. 436 Ensilage i. 306 Ducks, hatching ii. 299 advantages of i- 32s II II care of ducklings ii. 299 analysis of sweet aud 1- 313 II M duck-rearing in Ayles- chaffing for i. 318 bury ii. 300 choice of methods i. 317 II M hens as foster-mothers clover silage 1- 319 for ducks ii. 299 crops for sUage . i. 318 Duncan's rack for drying sheaves iii. 105 examples of stack i- 314 Dung, application of . ii. 126 feeding value of silage 1- 323 for bare fallow . iii. 46 future of 1. 327 carting i- S04 grain crops for silage i. 322 carting out . ii. 126 for hay iii. 37 composition of . ii- 95 history of . i. 3°^ covered courts for 1. 510 an increased facility for storage i. 326 cow . i. 512 introduction of, into Great Britain i- 307 duck . ii. 304 meadow-grass silage i. 318 emptying courts of i- SOS methods of pressure 1. 311 for different kinds of crops 1. 502 oat silage and roots L 323 — . . .. . INDEX. 535 Ensilage, progress of . I. 307 Farm buildings, ventilation 111. 314 iii- 11 rearing stock on . i- 324 II water-supply of . 315 silos . I- II 1- 307 business .... 73.74 II special silage crops i. 322 cottages .... iii. 358 II stack . i. 311 horses, treatment of, in winter i. 401-408 II stacks V. silos i. 311 house, cheese-room of iii. 344 M sweet and sour silage i. 312 II comfort and convenience II sweet silage, making i. 312 of iii- 3S7 111- 11 water and dry food in silage and hay i. 319 II first-class, designs for 344 iii- Evaporation ii. 312 II general principles for 357 il- corre- II in spring S II house and farm to Ewes, age of draft 192, il. 457 spond .... iii- 357 in- II breeding "• 457 II mUk-house 343 111- II feeding of . i. 191 II outline and ornamentation 353 iii- II management of . i. 194 II plan of kitchen, &c. 342 II milking " 453 II plans of different classes of iii. 344 iii- II treatment of draft 11- 457 II position of, and steading . 340 iii- Exhortations, final II. 524 II second-class, designs for . 353 Experiments with different kinds of II site of ... . lii. 341 manure at Rothamsted u. 135-170 II third-class, designs for in- 353 Experiments with manure- II trees and shrubs around . iii- 341 In Aberdeenshire ... 11. 170-175 II upper storey of 111- 343 In Sussex ii. 174 insects, literature on . n- 413 By Highland and Agricultural labour, variety of . . . i. 2 Society .... ii. 175-185 live stock iii- 393 II ailments of . iii. 439 Factory dairies, origin and develop- plants, new varieties of ii. 187 ment of u. 520 pupils, hints to . M system, utility of ii. 521 II fees for . 1- Fahrenheit thermometer i. 29, 30 II must work 3 Fallow, bare, antiquity of iii. 44 II personal attention by 1- 3 II for iii. II i- II dung 46 training .... 3 II M objects of iii. 44 II a word to guardians of . i. 2 II wheat, sowing . iii. 126 servants, hiring .... iii- 499 Fanner for dressing grain i. 468 bailiffs . iii. 500 et seq. Farm, adjusting, labour iii. 20I cattle-men . iii. 500 et seq. II compensation for improvements on iii. 198 farm managers iii. 501 et seq. II conditions of cropping iii. 195 field-workers iii. 500 et seq. II conditions of lease 111. 193 lads . . iii. 502 et seq. M entering a iii. 198 ploughmen . iii. 499 et seq. M estimating rent .... iii. 188 shepherd . iii. II methods of estimating rent iii. 188 steward . iii. II offering for a iii. 191 servants, wages of . . . iii. 499 II produce rent of . iii. 189 Farm service, law of . . . 111- 503 II stocking a iii. 202 Board and lodging iii- 503 iii. Character iii. II term of tenancy .... 189 504 II valuing sheep stocks on iii. 202 Death or bankruptcy iii. 504 Farm book-keeping Dismissal iii. 504 Accoimt of charge and discharge . iii. 521 Duties of servants iii. 503 Cash-book iii. 511 Notice of leaving . iii- 504 Corn account iii. 516 et seq Payment of wages, &c. iii. 503 Day-book ui. 510 Period of engagement iii- 503 Inventory and valuation of stock . iii. 507 Sickness or accident iii- 504 Labour-book iii- 523 Travelling expenses iii- 503 Ledger iii. 512 Farm steward, his duties i- 7 Memorandum-book iii. 523 II tip-cart "- 349 Profit and loss account iii- 515 Farmer, his duties 7 ; ii- 316 Rationale of 111- 507 II young, parting advice to iii. 526 Stackyard crop .... iii. 516 Farming, advantages of a thorough State of balance .... iii- 515 training to farmers i. 4 Statement of transactions lu. 515 II difficulties in learning Stock account .... iii. 519 II a faithful guide .... lu. Farm buildings 311 II farm pupils .... „ II for different classes of II hill Ul. iii. learn i. farms 316 II young .... iii. loss . i. II II drains ... 314 II from want of training II II food-preparing machinery iii. 315 II methods of acquiring practical . i. iii. II ,, general arrangement of 313 II necessity of foresight . II II general principles of . iii. 316 II search for informa,tioii II II importance of position iii. 313 II selecting, a system of II II internal divisions . iii. 315 II study stock feeding II principles of iii. II arrangement 318 II tutor farmers .... II II road to . . . iii. 317 II variety of farm labour II sites to avoid . . iii. II 317 Farmyard manure .... II II stalls and boxes . . iii. 314 II II treatment of .. 536 INDEX. Farmyard manures for turnips ii. 363 Fleece of wool, parts of Farrowing of sows ii. 290-292 Fat as a food constituent i- 303 Fat-globules li. 47S Fecundity of swine ii. 292 Feeding cattle, systems of . i- 338 111. II horses in the field 94 II value of silage . i. 322 Feering .... ii. 219 land i. 107 II .... Pelt on roofs iii. 384 Fences, economical iii. 213 iii. 215 II and houses . iii. 201 II and renewals iii. 201 11 repairing ii. 431 II for shelter . iii. 213 II in upland districts iii. 215 II wire field . iii. 23s Fertility, exhaustion of ii. 89 II restoration of ii. 89 Feudal customs . iii. 198 Field-gates . iii. 243 II angle-iron gate . iii. 247 II construction of . iii. 243 II deficiency of common gates iii. 246 II fastening iii. 248 II fence steps . iii. 348 II gate for farmyard iii. 247 II gate-posts . iii. 248 II hanging iii. 248 II iron gates . iii. 247 II painting gates iii. 248 II preserving gate-posts iii. 248 II wickets for foot-passengers iii. 247 II wire gates . iii. 248 Field-mice . iii. IIS Field-workers, duties of i. 9 Fields, convenient iii. 212 II large . iii. 212 II number of iii. 212 II shape of iii. 211 II size of iii. 212 II small . iii. 212 II straightening iii. 211 Final exhortations iii. 524 Fire-extinguisher iii. 205 Fire-fang in manure . i. 231 Fish-guano as food i. 279 Fish-meal for cattle . i. 278 Fish-ofFal, utilising i. 279 Flail, the, and its construction ui. 37 Flauchter-spade . " 30s Flax, advantages of, over corn " 325 botanical position of . li- 317 composition of the ash of 11. 317 disadvantages of, over corn "• 325 experiments in growing u. 324 fibres of . . . 11. 318 for fibre and seed, growing i. 258 growing in Great Britain II- 323 meal .... ii. 327 plant, structure of ii. 326 puUing, steeping, and drying ii. 321 rotation for ii. 318 seed .... ii. 319 soil for ii. 318 sowing ii. 319 straw for paper-making 11. 324 straw, uses of 11. 324 tillage for . ii. 318 top-dressing ii. 320 tmne, rope, and thread ii. 327 weeding ii. 320 yield per acre ii. 324 . INDEX. 537 Foods, mangels and turnips for . 342 Galloway cattle, milking properties ni. 420 method of cooking 335 Galloway, Rhins of. Cattle Insurance II mixing 333 Company milk-fever preventive . 346 motive power in preparing . 333 Mr Carrington's system of feeding cows • 346 nutrition in dry and green • 330 preparing pulped mixtures 332 proportion of • 331 pulped, for store cattle 360 rations for dry cows . 352 silage in the Duke of Manchester's dairy 1. 346 skim-milk as, for cows 343 warm mashes for cattle 341 wintering dry and breeding cows 350 winter rations for dairy cows 343 " Foot-pound" and horse-power " 129 _ s crops 253. 386 for heavy lands . li. 254 1 importance of ii. 2S4 II as substitutes for turnips ii. 254 Force-pump ... 1. 24 Forests and temperature Hi. 185 Foretelling weather . i- 39 Fork for straw 1. 404 Forming compost i- 532 Fowler's double - furrow plough with single lever ii. 189 Fowls, fattening of i- 434 II care of laying hens iii. 156 II collecting eggs iii. 156 II ducks .... iii. 158 II eggs for preserving iii. 157 II fancy prices for poultry iii. 158 M goose rearing iii. 158 M hatching in autumn . iii. 154 11 M periods Hi. 154 M humane methods of management iii- 155 II individuality of eggs . iii. 156 II moulting iii- 155 II nest-eggs iii. 156 11 nests .... iii- 15s II non-sitters . iii- 155 II nutrition in an egg iii. 158 II pigeons iii. 158 Ti preserving eggs . iii. 156 II prevailing laying period of iii- 15s ti preventing clucking . ill- 155 11 rearing turkeys . m. 158 11 selecting winter layers iii- 15s II shell-less eggs iii. 156 II specific gravity of eggs iii. 158 II stray hatching . iii. 154 II weight of eggs m. 156 Frame for com and hay cart iii. 87 Fresh butter ii. 498 Frost-nails .... iii- 154 Fructification, organs of 392, 393 Fuel i. 32 II comparative value of different kinds of . 1. 32 Fungoid attacks on crops . ii. 414 Furrow-water ii. 212 Furze, whins, or gorse, composition of i. 269 11 how to feed stock on . i. 268 II a green food for winter i. 268 II preparing, as food , i. 268 11 as winter food i. 268 "Gaiting" .... iii. 76 Gaitins, carting . iii. 93 Galloway cattle, origin of . m. 4Z0 II characteristics of iii. 420 . . 538 INDEX. Grain harvest, happy medium 111. S4 Harrowing, process of ii. 196 II M harvest labour iii. 56 Harvest forks iii. 88 II II judging ripeness iii- S5 Hatching compartment ii- 293 II II loss hy too early cutting lii- 53 II open-air laying and ii. 295 II II potato-oats . m. 54 11 time for setting . 11. 294 ii. II II progress of ripening in- SS II training hens to sit 294 iii- . iii. 216 M 11 ripening process . SS Hawthorn plant II II ripening in the sheaf 111. 54 Hay and straw, economy of iii- 313 II M seed grain m. 54 Hay i. 272 II II shedding or shaking iii. 54 11 barns .... iii. 21 II II stage for cutting . iii. S3 11 composition of . i. 271 Graip i. 234 11 clover and meadow i. 272 Granaries 447 11 damaged i. 272 II construction of . 1. 447 II for feeding . iii. 2 as for 11- ii- Grass food cattle 4S9 II knife .... 317 II and rotation 111- 173 II loss in hay-making 1. 272 II II soil nitrogen iii. i6g 11 manurial value of i- 273 Grass-land, lime for . iii. 299 11 rack for horse 1- 397 Grass-seed sowing 219-239 11 11 for storm li. 86 Grass-seeds, crops accompanying ii- 239 11 roots of iii. 106 II II De Laune's mixtures ii. 236 II for seed iii. 2 II II frost injuring clover ii. 239 11 V. artificial food i. 272 II II hand-sowing . ii. 237 Haymaking II . ii. artificial II harrows 238 II hay-drying 37 II 11 machine-sowing ii. 237 II dressing stacks . 31 11 II methods of sowing . ii. 237 II English methods 8 II II sowing with spring crops ii. 239 11 Fifeshire practice ni. 32 II II time of sowing ii. 236 11 Gibbs's hay-drier iii. 38 II II varieties of ii. 219 II hay-bams . 21 Grasses and clovers i. 269 II hay-stacks . 22 II II determining their II hot-air and Neilson systems of grazing value i. 269 drying . 37 11 for different soils ii- 235 II improved hay-stacking apijlilances lu. 25 11 for permanent pasture u- 235 11 Irish method of . 31 II varieties of, sown 11. 234 II making the hay . 8 floors cutting Gravel .... in. 379 II methods of 4 bulls . ii. Grazing and cows together 467 II mowing-machines 4 Green maize and its composition . i. 276 II tedding 9 II manuring .... iii- 47 II object of . . . lu. 1 II rape, a spring and autumn food i. 267 II permanent stacking . iii. 20 II rye as manure iii. 129 II preparing to cut iii. 4 Greens, cauliflowers, &c., farm culture II pressing hay 40 of iii. 133 II Scotch methods . II Grubbing for turnips . ii- 341 II by stages 19 Gruyere cheese and its production ii- 514 II threshing hay m. 34 Guano, composition of ii. 103 II time for cutting . iii. dissolved ii. varieties of . iii. II .... 104 II hay II fish ii. 103 II weather and iii. II Frey Bentos ii. 104 Hay-stack, how buUt . 111. 11 Peruvian .... ii. 102 II method of cutting a . i. for . Guinea-fowls .... 436 II horses Gullies in. 379 Hay-stacking appliances Gunpowder, a scare for birds iii. 114 Heat, conductors of . Gypsum, sources of . . . ii. 120 II dissipation of II use of ii. 120 II economical uses of . ii. 120 11 properties II value of ... its II the source of energy . Hackney horse or Norfolk trotter iii. 404 Heather-burning . 11- 437 II origin of . . . iii. 404 Hedge plants, different lands of II practice of breeding . iii. 404 II spade .... II Society and Stud-book iii. 404 II weed-hook . Haiks .... iii. 387 Hedgers, duties of Haims ..... i- 95 Hedges, beginning operations for Hammels .... i. 219 planting . II for fattening cattle iii. 326 11 breasting bank and ditch hedges iii. care Hampshire sheep 428 II of .... Hand-hoes .... ii. 368 11 charring stakes . Hand-pick .... iii. 216 II cutting down Hand-threshing machines . i- 4S4 II II and breasting over Harness pegs i. 398 II II an old . 11 plough 1. 94 11 dead-hedge .... Harrison & M'Gregor's self-raking 11 duration of a dead-hedge . reaper .... iii. 68 II earthing the plants Harrows, iron ii. 196 II exposing hedge-roots . . ii. 11 filling II grass seed 238 gaps ...... —. — INDEX. 539 Hedges, form of hedge 111. 220 Hill pasture, cropping 111. 293 iii. II forming right angles . iii. 2i8 11 deterioration of 293 iii. II II curves . iii. 2i8 II Glenbuck improvements 294 iii. II II the trench iii. 2i8 11 heather-bummg 293 iii. II growth of the iii. 220 II improvement of 292 iii. II hawthorn seed iii. 228 11 irrigation of 293 iii- II hawthorn an ancient fence . iii. 228 II liming . 293 iii. II hawtliorn plant . iii. 216 II manuring 293 - II hedge-planters . iii. 217 II Mid Lothian improve- iii. II Injured by snow . iii. 220 ments 293 i. II keeping the line straight iii. 217 Hinds . 192 i- II laymg the plants iii. 218 Hoar-frost . 34 ii. II II young twigs iii. 225 Hoeing-machines 368 II method of plashing . iii. 223 Holly hedges iii. 229 iii- i. mismanagement of iii. 223 Homesteads, modem 3" II mode of breasting over iii. 221 Hooding iii. 76 II 11 cutting down iii. 221 Hook-stones iii. 380 iii. culture II old system .... 218 Hop II old men for weeding . iii. 228 After culture ii- 330 II paling iii. 227 Creasoting poles ii- 331 i- Details of dressing "- II planting .... 75 331 ii- II II along a water-course iii. 219 Drying hops . 333 M 11 thorn . iii. 215 Harvesting hops ii- 332 II II young quicks iii. 225 Hop plant . ii- 334 iii. poles u- II plashing .... 223 Hop 331 11- II II in England . iii. 224 Insect and fungoid attacks 332 II preparing the ground . iii. 21S Longevity of the hop ii- 332 II protecting young iii. 226 Manuring ii- 330 .11 prevention from damp iii. Z18 Picking ii- 332 iii. 220 Planting hops ii- II pruning .... 329 11 railway fences iii. 21s Pocketing ii- 333 ii. Poling . 11 repairing .... 431 " 331 II II hedge-banks iii. 224 Preparing land 11- 329 II scouring ditches . iii. 224 Rearing hop plants ii- 329 11 shelter from stake-and-rice fence iii. 227 Soil for hops ii. 328 II stake-and-rice fence . iii. 226 Stacking ii- 334 II surveying the ground . iii. 217 Substitutes for poles ii- 332 II thorn hedges around plantations iii. 219 Tying up the bines ii- 332 II time for planting iii. 21s Hop plant, the II timely weeding . iii. 228 Acreage under the ii- 335 11 tools for plantmg iii. 216 Ash of hops . "- 334 11 11 weeding iii. 228 Cost of hop-planting "• 335 II transplanting thorns . iii. 2x6 II hop cultivation Ii- 335 II trees and .... iii. 219 Hop-growing risky 11- 336 II trench-planting . iii. 216 Insects which attack u- 403 II trimming old iii. 221 Male and female hops "• 334 iii. in II turf fence .... 227 Mildew u. 430 II untrimmed thorns iii. 221 Price of hops 11- 336 11 up and down strokes in cutting iii. 223 Produce of hops . ii- 336 II weeding hedges . iii. 227 Spent hops as manure "- 335 iii. 219 Varieties of hops . 11- 334 II wire fences .... iii. 227 Horizontal engines 1- 134 Hemp, composition of seed . ii. 328 II condensing engines 1- 134 II culture of . ii. 327 Horn-branding sheep . " 455 II its botanical position . 11. 327 Homsby binder . m. 79 object its culture II. II II method and of 327 II working of 111. 79 II narcotic properties of . ii. 328 Horse, ailments of the iii. 442 ,1 on ii. 328 II forks . iii. 27 11 plant, structure of ii. 328 11 hoe ii. 366 II pulling, steeping, and stacking of 11. 327 II power in threshing i. 462 11 sowing of . 11. 327 II 11 of steam-engines i. 129 Hen dung, its composition . ii. 304 Horses, breeds of iii- 393 Hereford cattle, origin of . 111. 409 Cleveland iii. 402 II 11 characteristics of iii. 410 Clydesdale iii. 396 II II colour iii. 409 Hackney iii. 404 properties iii. II II milking 410 Shire iii- 393 II 11 size and weight iii. 410 Suffolk iii. 401 Herring-meal for cattle i. 278 Yorkshire iii. 403 II composition . i. of 279 binding i- 399 II value of ... . 1. 279 breeding 1. 405 Highland and Agricultural Society's carrot for 1. 414 manure experiments 175-185 clipping 1- 419 Hill-farms, configuration of iii. 176 corn . i- 400 of iii. 11 geology 176 English rations for i- 413 Hill pasture, bracken cutting iii. 293 feeding i. 408 540 INDEX. Horses, feeding, in the field 111. 94 Hygrometers, conservatory 1- 31 II grooming . 1. 403 II nay-racks for 1- 397 Implements, care of . II intelligent animals 1. 407 11 injured ty green food . u. 470 II in autumn . lii. 150 II II spring . ii. 280 II II summer . ii. 469 M language to horses i. 97 II littering 1. 418 M maize for i- 413 II mashes for . 1. 412 II mixed food for . i- 413 II names of farm 1. 408 II nomenclature of . i. 407 II oats for i. 412 II pasturing work . ii. 469 II potatoes for i. 4r2 M pulse of i. 414 II rations for . 1. 301 II roots for i. 414 II rubbing 1. 403 II singeing 1. 419 M soiling ii. 469 Ti stable management of i. 420 II tramway i. 416 II turnips for . i- 413 II ventilation for . 1- 395 II watering 1. 401 II whin for i. 414 Horse-shoeing iii. 150 II oalkings iii. 153 II Charlier method . 111. 153 II evils of shoeing . lu- 153 II faulty . 111. 151 II fitting the Charlier shoe iii. 154 It II shoe . in- IS3 II fore and hind feet ill. 152 II form of shoes iii. 152 II frog . iii. 152 II frost-nails . : iii. 154 M functions of parts m. 152 II have the foot level iii- 153 II hoof growing 111. 152 II hoof, the iii. 151 II improvement in . ill. 151 M nails . iii- 153 II not always necessary iii. 151 II object of iii. 151 II principles of iii. 152 II process of . iii. 152 II rasping iii- 153 II roughing in- 154 II shoeing for ice m. IS4 II sole iii. 151 II studs . iii. 154 M weight of shoes . iii. 152 Howard's binder . iii. 83 M self-delivery reaper iii. 69 Humus iii. 170 II its character i. 28 Hummellers i- 478 Hurdles, construction of i. 212 II English wooden . i. 170 II erecting i. 170 II growing willows for i. 212 II wooden i. 169 Husbandry, mixed i. 7, 84 It It a necessity iii. 312 Hydraulic press . i. 26 It ram i. 218 Hydraulics . i. 26 Hydrostatics i. 25 Hygrometers I- 31 M Chiminello's quill 1. 32 — . . INDEX. S4I Jack's farm-cart iii. n potato-digger Jersey creamer .... M and Guernsey cattle, origin of n II M characteristics of II II II milking prO' perties of Johnson's ensilage press Judging land i II etiquette of farm-seeking . II examining a known farm . II II soil and subsoil , II II an unknown farm It local knowledge necessary . II variety of soils on a farm . Kale, consuming . ti thousand-headed II transplanting Keds . . ; . Keel-marking sheep Kerr's reaping-machine Kerry cattle Characteristics The "Dexter" . A family cow Live-weights Milking properties Origin of Robertson herd Typical animal Kidney vetch as a forage plant Kohl-rabi . II advantages of II analysis of . II ash of . II planting or sowing IT produce of . 11 soil for „ storing II thinning and hoeing II tillage and manuring II time for sowing . II uncertain crop . II varieties of . Labour, efficient and well-arranged II hours of . . . Lactocribe .... Ladders for farmyard . Lambing, abortion among ewes 11 after .... II ailments among lambs II assistance in ; in . lambs to suck bad weather and Cajsarean operation carrying lambs . castration of male lambs catching ewes changing ewes and lambs classifying ewes for cleaning . II ewe's udders cow's milk for lambs . docking lambs . early market lambs ewe and lamb box false presentations fattening lamb and ewe together feeding of ewes . flushing ewes fold for . . . forcing young lambs . . 542 INDEX. Light, nature of ii. 312 Malt-combs as manure Lightning ii. 310 II conductors ii. 310 Lime, action of iii. 297 . iii. II application of ... 297 benefits iii. II from .... 297 II dissipating plant-food . . . iii. 298 effects iii. II on land .... 293 II effete iii. 301 II frequent iii. 300 grass land iii. II for .... 299 II guided by the crop . . . iii. 298 for hill pasture iii. ir .... 300 hill pastures iii. II on .... 293 M and nitrification .... iii. 298 II preparing iii. 303 II quantity of, per acre . . iii. 300 II regulating action of . . . iii. 298 II in restoring grass-land . . iii. 300 soils iii. II for sandy .... 298 II slaking iii. 303 soil 11 and nitrogen .... iii. 298 II and soluble phosphates . . iii. 299 II top-dressing grass with . . iii. 299 II varieties of iii. 301 Limestone, composition of . . . iii. 302 Lincoln sheep iii. 426 Linseed, adulteration of cakes . . i. 259 II analysis of i. 257 II boiling i. 258 II cake, analysis of . . . i. 258 II preparing and using, as food . i. 257 II storing i. 259 II varieties of i. 257 Liquid-manure cart .... i. 523 II II composition of . . i. 514 II II compost with . . i. 525 II M drains . . . i. 521 M II irrigation with . i. 526, 528, 529 II II pump ... i. 224, S21 II II scoop .... i. 524 II II tank ... i. 224, 520 II II valuable character of . i. 517 Literature on farm insects . . . ii. 413 Litter for cattle i. 214 Littering courts of a steading . . i. 214 Live stock, ailments of farm . . iii. 439 II II attention to . . . iii. 524 II II insurance of . . . iii. 205 n II in summer . . . ii. 430 Lochlyoch stock iii. 297 Locust or carob beans .... i. 261 II II analysis of . . i. 262 II II how to be used for cattle . . i. 262 Loft roof iii. 383 Lqug-horned cattle, scarceness of . iii. 416 II II characteristics of iii. 417 Lonk breed of sheep .... iii. 425 Lucerne, botanical position of . . ii. 256- II for cattle-feeding . . . i. 279 II crop of ii. 257 II soil suitable for . . . . ii. 256 II solving ii. 256 Lupin, the cultivation of . . . i. 257 Maggot-fly ii. 436 Main posts iii. 381 Maize for ensilage .... i. 320 II as a forage plant . . . ii. 260 II green, and its composition . . i. 276 V. grass silage i. II .... 321 Malleable iron fence .... iii. 243 Malt-combs, composition of . . i. 253 II for cows i. 253 — INDEX. 543 i, 262 Manurial value of uriue . . . i. 283 Molasses, useful properties of . i. 262 'Manuring, green iii. 47 ,1 for young bulls \i hill pastures .... iii. 293 Mole-drainage iii. 281 Mares in loal i. 404 Advantages of mains . iii. 283 Marking of sheep . . . . ii. 454 Auxiliary registering of mole-drain . iii. Marks, sheep . . . ii. 456 Channel 284 iii. Marl clay, composition of . . . iii. 302 Contracting, and price for 284 n shell, composition of . . . iii. 302 Cost of mole and pipe draining Marling land iii. 302 compared iii. 284 Martinmas entry iii. 129 Cost per acre iii. 284 iii. Mashes, warm, for cattle . . . i. 341 Coulter track 284 Mashlack iii. 130 Depth of mole-drains . iii. 284 Marketing corn iii. 524 Destruction of mole-drains iii. 28s iii. 281 Mason-work .... iii. 385-390 Different soils and Mattock iii. 288 Distance apart iii. 284 M'Cormick's reaping-machine . . iii. 66 Draining permanent pasture iii. 281 iii. Meadows, water, advantage of . . iii. 306 Draining ploughs . 282 tillage . iii. 281 11 II catch-work . . iii. 309 Draining land iii. II 11 forming . . . iii. 308 Duration of mole-drains 285 II II for Highland districts iii. 306 Enemies of mole-drains iii. 285 Mechanics i. 21 Main drain . iii. 283 Mertoun flock . . . iii. 431 Method of . iii. 284 Meslin iii. 130 Outfall iii. 283 Meteorology i. 20 Process of mole-draining iii. 282 Mildew, corn ii. 414 Repair of mole-drains . iii. 285 Milk, artificial means of milking . . ii. 28 Time for mole-draining iii. 281 iii. M II souring of . . . ii. 503 Mortar for farm-buildings . 380 II ash of . . . . . ii. 474 Mountain-ranges and temperature iii. 186 II for calves ii. 479 Mountains and climatic variations iii. 182 I, churning ii. 489 Multitubular boiler, locomotive i. 124 I, condensed ii. 477 Mustard, botanical position of ii. 260 . . . . culture . ii. II composition of ii. 474 II of 260 II II from different breeds ii. 474 Mutual insurance against disease iii. 205 II n skim . . . ii. 500 I, consumption and selling of whole ii. 479 Names of horses .... i. 408 II cream from ii. 474 Natural history . i- IS II destination of the . . . ii. 478 II philosophy .... 1. 19 II dishes ii. 480 Neighbours, relation to "1- 525 II fever, prevention of . . . ii. 23 Nets for enclosing sheep i. 171 Ti II symptoms of, in cows . ii. 23 Neufchatel cheese and its production ii- 519 II as food for young animals . . i. 244 Nievling in milking ii. 26 „ globules ii. 475 Nitrate of potash ii. IDS I, heating and cooling . . . ii. 476 It soda ii. 104 II pail ii. 25, 480 Nitrifaction, theory of ii. 105 ,1 period ii. 29 Nitrogenous manures, characteristics II preserving ii. 477 of ii. 106 ,1 purifying . . . . ii. 476 Nomenclature of sheep i. 174 in sealed bottles . . . . ii. cattle II 477 II .... i. 225 selling . . . . ii. I, trade 479 It horse .... 1. 407 separated II .... ii. 487 II poultry 1. 436 II sieve ii. 481 Norfolk and Suffolk Eed Polled cattle- 1, specific gravity of . . ii. 475 Characteristics of . iii. 416 statistics . II ii. 475 Origin of ... iii. 416 „ sugar ii. 475 Yield of milk ... iii. 416 II testing percentage of cream . ii. 474 Nursing-mares, feeding ii. 287 qualities of . . . ii. II various 474 II working ii. 287 II weighing ii. 476 Nursing sick animals . iii. 498 Milking cows, first milk . . . ii. 24 II 11 hefting . 11. 25 Oats 1. 491 II operation II the of ii. 26 antiquity of cultivation of . 1. 494 of ii. . II II theory 24 as food for stock 1. 494 II II troublesome li. 27 barley and, mixed ii. 214 side ii. I, 26 chaff i. 499 stool . ii. n 26 11 as a foot-warmer 1. 499 II tubes . ii. 28 classification by the grain . 1. 491 Mill-dam, forming i. 456 classifying by the ear . 1. 492 Mill-wheel arc iii. 386 culture of . ii. 211 Mist or fog . i- 35 experiments with iii. 131 Mixed farming i. grains in . 6 a bushel of .} 493 flour preferred iii. II 130 harrowing .... ii. 212 II husbandry, steadings for iii. 326 kernel and husk , i- 493 Moist and dry winds . i- 34 improvements in culture of ii. 212 Molasses or treacle i. 262 limits of culture of i. 494 II how, is used i. 262 machine sowing . u. 212 11 stock i. risky for breeding 262 manuring for . . . ii. 214 544 INDEX. Oats, mixed INDEX. S4S Ploughs, mechauios of the 546 INDEX. Protective moulding and its merit . . ; INDEX. 547 Keaping apiiliauces iii. II II reaping-maoliine w II scytlxe . II sickle or hook cost of . oats .... process of . . . wheat, "barley, oats, and rye machines, American II ancient II first effective II modern II nineteenth-century Hearing stock on silage Recipes for ailments of farm live stocli Recreation for farm-servants Red-clover seed, cutting and drying II II harvesting II II threshing . Redonda phosphates . Re-draining land Rennet II action of . . . II testing Rent, covenanted II estimating .... II offering Reopening drains Reynolds's ensilage press Rice for stock-feeding Rice-meal for stock-feeding Richmond's rack for drying sheaves Rick-lifters II stands Rickling, or temporary stalking . Riddles, wheat .... Ridges, ancient form of casting cleaved-down . . direction of. gathered .... gathering up levelling parts of . . . twice-gathered-up width of Ring-fences .... Ripening of grain, irregular Roads to farm-buildings Rollers, diameter and weight of II divided II water-ballast Rolling land II process of . II speed in . . . II time for Romney Marsh sheep . Rones 1- 21S Roof-boarding Roots, advantages of storing ascertaining weight per acre careful and careless thinning of carting .... comparative mineral ingredients estimating weight of . of hay keeping properties and feeding value of swedes nutritive matter in an acre of II different Icinds of plan of stripping turnips . pulling mangels . II turnips . quantity of, to be left for sheep storing .... 548 INDEX. Semi-portable engine . . . . INDEX. 549 Shire horses, origm 550 INDEX. Sowing beans .... INDEX. SSI straining-posts 552 INDEX. Threshing by out-going tenants . — INDEX. 553 storing in houses objectionable !• 157 Poor land iii. 291 . iii. cc hurdle enclosures i- 157 Process of reclamation . . 287 Swedes .... "• 337 Reclaiming plantation ground . iii. 288 iii. 288 For table use iii. 135 Removing turf .... Taking roots from the store i- 157 Renewing pasture . . iii. 292 Temporary storing on lea ! 157 Rules for land improvement . iii. 286 ii- example iii. 287 Thick and thin sowing . 353 Scotch .... Thinning machines ii. 368 Trenching iii. 287 Tillage of land for ii. 339 Trenching stony ground . . iii. 288 Time for storing swedes i. 161 Water i. II of sowing ii- 352 Brush 404 Topping and tailing I. 153 Channels in ploughed land . . i. 75 i. Tops as food . i. 152 Cistern 217 i. II as manure . i. 152 Horse-power of . . . . 28 ,1 how to utilise iii- 135 How to measure quantity in stream i. 28 Turnip-meal i. 264 Meadows for Highland districts . iii. 306 II tops . i. 265 IT on farms . . . i- 75 iii. Varieties of . i. 160 II irrigation of . . . 305 II in use ii- 337 On pastures ii. 432 II swedes i. 162 Pump ii. 432 Weight and sizes of white i. 162 Quantity of, for stock . . . ii. 432 When to store white i. 167 Ram ...... i. 26 White varieties i. 161 Running ii. 432 As winter food for cattle i. 263 Supply in buildings . . . i. 217 Yellow varieties . i. 162 IT for farm-buildings . . iii. 313 Yield per acre of white i. 161 II measuring the . . . i. 455 II of yellow i. 162 Tank iii. 379 Troughs . . . . i. 217 ; iii. 384 Udder, cows, its structure . ii. 24 Turbines i. 460 II preventing, from running ii. 30 Velocity of, from an orifice . . i. 26 M sore, and its treatment ii. 29 Waste steam, condensing . . i. 130 Undershot water-wheels i- 455 Wheels 1-27, 455 value of i. 66 . . . . i. Unexhausted manures, II breast 27, 459 Urine cesspools . iii. 386 IT maximum effects of . i. 27 of . i- i. II composition 516 II overshot .... 459 i- II decomposition of 51S II speed of the wheel i. 460 IT iixing ammonia . i. 516 II troughs and sluices . . i, 459 to i- i. II fresh, injurious vegetation 527 II undershot ... 27 the, utilised i. iii. II how may be 5" Watering-pools .... 234 II specific gravity of i- 516 Wayfares and fences ... .iii. 212 Useful table for stock-owners iii- 499 Way-going crops .... iii. 199 Weaning of calves . . . ii. 45, 465 i- foals . . . . . i. Vapour .... 34 IT 406 i- II weight of . . . 34 II lambs ... . . ii. 452 feeding calves for 11. pigs . ii. Veal, 44 TT .... 291 26 Velocity of water Weather axioms .... 1- 33 measured i. . II a stream, how 27 II and farm worlc 1- 33 principles of . i. foretelling . Ventilation, 25 II 1- 39 for farm buildings Hi. II required 314 ,T judging .... 1- 33 stables . i. . M of 39s II most wholesome ! 35 Ventilators .... iii. loi, 382 Weather forecasts 1. 20 Vermin, precautions against i. 447 Weathercock i. 24 Vertical engines . 1- 134 Wechts, bam 1. 474 boiler engine 1- iii. II and 135 Weed-cleaning .... 197 M boiler . . . , 1. 123 Weeds, cleaning of land from iii. 171 Vetches, how fed to stock . i. 276 IT on alluvial deposits ii- 11 or tares 23s II IT arable land, clay . . i. 47 Veterinary science i. 16 11 II gravel i. 48 i- Guide-books . 17 II II mossy land ... i. 49 better than cure 1. Prevention 17 II II mountain pasture ... i. 49 i. Studying minor ailments 17 II II peat i. 49 II II sandy soils . . . i. 48 in paying iii. Wages, punctuality • 525 II II vegetable soil ... i. 50 Waggon, farm iii. 88 I, collecting iii. 46 ii. Washing of sheep 438-441 11 disposing of . . .iii. 46 Waste land, improving— II forking out .... ii. 345 Cropping new land iii. 290 II and harvest work . . iii. 107 cost trenching iii. 288 Depth and of II on pastures ii. 433 iii. 288 in Draining II relation to soils ... i. 47 111. Hni pasture . 290, 292 Weevils, bean-seed . . . . ii. 396 iii. Irish example, an 291 Weighing-machine, balance . . i. 481 iii. Levelling-box 289 II portable i. 482 land iii. Well for . . . II 289 farm buildings iii. 379 ridges . iii. 288 . II Welsh cattle, characteristics of . iii. 424 . iii. 286 IT Methods of II milking properties of . iii. 424 2 N . ; INDEX. 5 54 Welsh cattle, origin of . . . 111. Wensleydale cheese .... II sheep West Highland cattle, origin of . „ „ II characteristics of ,1 ,1 „ meat producers II M II typical animal Wheat- After beans . After grass ... ii. 198 After potatoes Ancient practice of storing . Antiquity of the cultivation of Artificial supply of nitrogen essen- tial for . . . Art of sowing Broadcast sowers . For cattle and sheep . Chaff .... Classification of, by the ear Classifying by the grains Colour of Composition of Date of sowing Drill sowers . Dung for Experiments on the continuous growth of, at Eothamsted Fallow .... Feeding value of, for cattle Firm seed-bed for For flour Good land for Grubbing for Hand seed-drill Harrowing . Judging of . Kernel and husk of Late varieties of . Limits of culture of Manuring for . ii. 135, 169, 201 Number of grains of, in a bushel One-hand sowing . Origin of . . . Pickling Preserving, in granaries Presser-roUer Production of an acre of Quantity of seed . Relation of ear and grain of For seed Seed-basket . Simple classification of Sowing .... M in spring . II machines . Storing v, immediate selling of Straw, ash of II uses of Two-hand sowing . Tillage for . Varying with soil Vilmorin's classification of Weight of . . . Whin hedges II II raising . 11 II trimndng Whitsunday entry Wicket for hurdle-fence Wilkie's plough . Willows, growing, for hurdles Wind -Si FLA TF J k TZAT'E 11 PZATEm COMMON FARM Fi^ I Scale-. •30 10 20 30 10 .iO 60 70 SO ^0 FLATE JV rE AD 1 NG k^^:^^^ '™, f\\ Mil, A<7 J 1±0 ]S0 ISO PZATHV CARSE FARM STEADING PLAN OF A DAIRY HOMESTEAD FO R EIGHTY COWS AND FORTY YOUNG CATTLE PAIR OF COTTAGES TtnsHousemigkt J, hejilaceAsotliat / I / \the'DvmTailss'hdU those ofiheFamv \ S Buildjnps DWELLINC HOUSE J-J.ATK 17 ^.^ >- h- < < PLATE TU FRONT ELEVATION OF FARM HOUSES PLATEVIU C2, I'ui I i Ui m% I I to . ' \ m n % 3"1' ft r-i I 1 'r ij m \ V i-';;' FiQ 2 CI .#' ^--^'jii III !;^, MS'. ^1 J; ft cfULJ * I U! f, jCEDR N# fffii 1 up qu 'ijULLil r] COfM I %^ Ji ^^"^^'^y;:;^ l^>°" 111! frfti (ill IDI f^Tlfni ii I Li I L fiiP \v^ if .!.._ J^ .if TA ZO__ -JO^ Scale ?-_-.:--. ^-.-^ _ M _iS>jn [______:: THE BOOK OF THE FAEM MTierefore come on, young husbandman ! Learn the, culture proper to each kind, ViKGIL. THE BOOK OF THE FARM DETAILING THE LABOURS OF THE FAEMER, FAEM-STEWAED, PLOUGHMAN, SHEPHEED, HEDGEE, FARM-LABOUEEE, FIELD-WOEKEE, AND CATTLE-MAN BY HENRY STEPHENS, F.R.S.E. CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE NATIONAL AND CENTRAL SOCIETY OF AGRICULTURK OF FRANCE J OF THE AGRICULTDRAL SOOrBTV OF GALICIA ; OF THE AGBICULTORAL INSTITUTE OF GOREGORETZK IN RUSSIA; OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF SWEDEN ; OF THE ROYAL IMPROVEMENT SOCIETY OF NORWAY FOURTH EDITION REVISED, A:ND in GREAT PART REWRITTEN, BY JAMES MACDONALD OF THE *FAilMING WORLD*; ' ; ATJTHOR OF FOOD FROM THE FAR WEST ' JOINT AUTHOR OF 'polled cattle,' 'HEREFORD CATTLE,' ETC., ETC. IF THREE VOLUMES VOLUME I. WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS EDINBUEGH AND LONDON MDCCGXCI PEE FACE. More than twenty years have elapsed since the third edition of The Booh of the Farm was prepared. In that comparatively short period of time British agriculture has undergone a striking change. It has seen its highest point in prosperity and almost its lowest in depression. Since the disastrously wet and sun- less year of 1879, bad seasons have in themselves swept away a vast amount of farming capital. Foreign countries, with virgin soil and cheap labour, have flooded our open ports with meat and bread-stufis ; and, in spite of a largely increased population and much greater purchasing power on the part of the consuming public, the prices of nearly all varieties of farm produce have greatly declined. How serious is the influence which these great movements have exercised upon our beloved country cannot readily be conceived. What they have signified to the farming commu- nity itself has, alas ! been only too clearly visible. How funda- mentally the fabric of British agriculture has been affected will be best understood by a consideration of the figures which represent the movements in imports and prices of agricultural produce, as well as the variations in the cropping and stocking of British farms. The value of the imports of agricultural produce had grown vi PEEFACE. in 1887 to the formidable figure of ^117,019,064, rather more than 48 }4 miUions sterhng in excess of the sum sent abroad, for these commodities twenty-one years previously. Reckoned per head of population, the imports in 1887 amounted to ^3, 3^. gd. for every man, woman, and child in the United Kingdom, or nearly i8s. 6d. per head more than in 1866. And the growth in quantities has been greater than in the value of the imports by from 25 to 30 per cent. With such a vastly increased volume of foreign competition as these figures exhibit, the prices of farm produce in British markets could not fail to have suffered decline. The falling off in prices has indeed been very great, and it has extended in less or greater extent to almost every article produced on British farms. It has been greatest in grain, greatest of aU in wheat. From about 50s. per quarter in 1866 wheat fell to 31s. in 1887. In the same period barley lost lis. and oats 8s. per quarter. Wool has fallen from is. gd. to from lod. to is. per lb. The prices of beef and mutton have had many "ups" and "downs" since 1866. They are now (May 1891) not much below the level they presented then, but are from 15 to 25 per cent below the high range of prices attained between 1870 and 1883. In sympathy with these alterations in prices, the systems of cropping and general farm management pursued throughout the United Kingdom have naturally undergone, and are still undergoing, considerable modification. In the extent of cultivated land—arable land and permanent pasture —there has been a substantial increase in the past twenty years,—no less than 2,870,714 acres in Great Britain. But, as the result of the depression, as many as 833,393 acres have in twenty years gone from regular tillage into permanent pasture. Looking more narrowly into the division of the arable land amongst the various crops, we find that the twenty years from PKEFACE. vii 1868 to 1887 introduced changes which are even more signifi- cant. The corn crops have lost ground considerably, falling from about 52 per cent of the arable land in 1867 to about 48 per cent in 1 887. Green crops and grasses have both grown in proportion- ate extent—the former by about 7 and the latter by 58 acres in every 1 000 acres of arable land. But the most notable change occurs in the area of bare fallow, which has fallen off by nearly 50 per cent. In Ireland similar movements have taken place. In the relative positions of the individual crops in regard to acreage, the past twenty years have effected some significant changes. Amongst cereals, wheat has had to yield the premier position to oats. Barley has been nearly stationary. Beans have declined by nearly 30 per cent. Turnips are losing ground, potatoes gaining a little. The former is still, of course, by far the most extensively grown of the green crops. Mangels have increased by about 50 per cent. It is thus obvious that corn-growing has lost its supremacy in the agricultural interests of this country. Increased reliance is placed upon live stock ; and although this industry has not escaped the vicissitudes of the recent depression, it has never- theless made substantial progress during the past twenty years. The progress in that period has not been continuous, and it has not extended to all varieties of farm live stock ; yet the national wealth in the live stock of the farm is very much greater now than it was prior to 1 8 70. Between 1867 and 1887 the stock of cattle in Great Britain increased by nearly i ^ million head, and in Ireland by about half a million head. Curiously enough, in the same period the stock of sheep fell ofi" by nearly 3 million head in Great Britain and I Yi million head in Ireland. Somehow pig-rearing, although when well conducted it is notoriously profitable, does not find favour with the majority of British farmers, and their stock of pigs has decreased by more than half a million head in the past twenty years. Irish farmers are more kindly disposed towards the pig, and their stock has increased substantially since 1867. viii PREFACE. Despite the prediction that the steam-engine would tend to sup- plant horse-labour, the demand for draught-horses is now greater than ever. The stock of horses is larger than it was twenty it is undoubted that the breeding of horses might years ago ; yet be extended with profitable results. The important circumstances thus briefly indicated have pro- duced something like a revolution in the position and prospects of the British farmer. He can no longer be the easy independent waiter upon Providence that he used to be when wheat was at 50s. per quarter. His life must be a struggle for existence, and he must prepare himself with a scientific and technical knowledge of his work in all its details and departments ; must acquaint himself with the latest ideas of the practical and scientific agri- culturist, and test them by his own experience and possibilities ; and must cast around him in search of information as to how he can make the most of the altered condition of things. It is by knowledge combined with experience that the farmer of the future must make his way. The State has begun to appreciate this fact by establishing means of providing agricultural in- struction. But the practical farmer requires more full and special sources of information,—a work which he can with profit make the subject of general study, and which he can with confidence refer to at any moment when he is in want of advice. Such a work, it is hoped. The Book of the Farm in its new and en- larged form will prove to be. In the preparation of this the Fourth Edition of Tlie Booh of the Farm, the important changes of the past twenty years have been carefully and anxiously considered. To a large ex- tent the work has been rewritten ; what remains of the original text has been carefully revised. Alike in providing the new matter and in revising the old, the great object aimed at has been to adapt the work to the altered and still shifting circumstances and surroundings of the . PREFACE. ix British farmer. Without neglecting, or turning our back upon, any of the branches of farming which may perhaps be of comparatively less importance than in former times, we have devoted more attention than was given in previous editions to some other interests which have risen in the scale of import- ance. Prominent amongst these latter is the great subject of stock-rearing, notably the breeding and feeding of cattle. The portions in the new edition relating to this branch of farming consist almost entirely of fresh matter ; and so important is it considered, that it has been dealt with more fully and more exhaustively than has ever before been attempted. Scientific and practical research have thrown fresh light upon the fundamental processes of maintaining the fertility of the soil. An entirely new chapter places the reader in possession of this extended and corrected experience. The system of ensilage, the latest agricultural innovation, and the extension of dairy farming, have received due attention. Every modification and develop- ment of great or minor importance, every new or extended influence affecting agriculture, has had careful consideration. Brief sketches of all the varieties of British horses, cattle, sheep, and swine are enhanced in usefulness by a full series of high- class animal portraits, which embraces typical animals of all the leading breeds, and which has been specially prepared at great expense for this edition by eminent artists. It is interesting to contrast with these the few portraits retained of animals repre- senting the period from 1840 to 1850. The original plan of the work has been in the main preserved. With the view of facilitating reference, some minor changes, such as headings instead of numbers to paragraphs, have been introduced. Much care has been bestowed upon the introduc- tion of these paragraph headings, and they are set forth clearly, so that the reader may learn at a glance the subjects dealt with in any part of the work. As in the third edition, the work is divided into heads : i Initiation, in which the young man desirous of becoming a X PKEFACE. farmer is advised to acquaint himself beforehand with certain branches of science which have a close relation to Agriculture, and is also instructed as to how this knowledge is to be obtained and as to where he can best learn the practice of his art ; 2. Practice, which details the entire operations, through the four seasons, of raising crops, and rearing the domesticated animals ; 3. Bealisation, wherein the young farmer is advised how to bargain for and stock a farm—how to execute many operations he may have to undertake—how to judge and to conduct the breeding of live stock—and, lastly, how to keep accurate accounts of all his transactions. It is hoped that the new edition, in its greatly extended and thoroughly revised form, may efficiently help farmers to pursue their occupation with pleasure and profit. Farming, if it is to maintain its importance as an industry, must, like any other business, be conducted at a profit. With reduced prices and other magnified obstacles, it is more difficult than ever to accomplish this. More than ever, therefore, is it important that the farmer should fortify himself with all the guidance, stimulus, and encouragement which The Boole of the Farm, is capable of affording to him. The work is designed as a guide to him in every piece of practical work and every item of farming business he is called upon to engage in. It presents itself as a faithful compendium of the experience of a whole army of agricultural " specialists," —men who have shown themselves to be proficient in some special branch of practical farming or province of allied science. The work thus aims at forming in itself a compendious professional library for every well-equipped farmer. In taking up the life-work of the able and respected author of Tlie Booh of the Farm, I have felt the responsibility all the greater because of the exceptional conditions which at the present moment surround the British farmer. Happily, in the preparation of the new edition, I have had the privilege of the cordial co-operation of a great many of the leading agri- cultural and scientific authorities of the day. I have, in particu- ;; PEEFACE. xi lar, had valuable aid from the following, to whom, and to many other helpers, I heartily acknowledge my indebtedness—viz., Mr Gilbert Murray, Elvaston Castle, Derby ; Mr George Brown, Watten Mains, Caithness ; Miss E. A. Ormerod ; Mr John Speir, Newton Farm, Glasgow ; Professor Primrose M'Connell ; Pro- fessor M'Cracken ; Dr A. P. Aitken ; Mr Bernard Dyer, F.C.S. ; Mr C. M. Aikman, M.A., F.C.S. ; Mr R Warington, F.C.S. Dr Fream ; Professor Thomas Jamieson ; Professor R. Wright Professor Long ; Mr John Milne, Inverurie, Aberdeenshire ; Ex- Provost Black of Sherifston, Elgin ; Mr Charles Whitehead ; Mr Martin John Sutton ; Mr Robert Bruce ; Mr Alexander Macdonald ; Mr Thomas Bell ; Mr William Morton ; Mr John M'Laren ; Mr H. Evershed ; Mr Edward Brown ; Mr Sanders Spencer ; Mr R. H. Rew ; Mr W. Scarth Dixon ; Mr H. F. Euren, &c. &c. I feel that, by the assistance thus accorded to me, I have been enabled to impart to the work a comprehensiveness and efficiency which could not otherwise have been attained. It will be sincerely gratifying to me if the work in its new form should be considered worthy the memory of the late Heniy Stephens, whose services to the interests of British farmers have earned for his name a lasting place in the annals of agriculture. JAMES MACDONALD. Edinburgh, 1891. 1 CONTENTS OF VOLUME I. INITIATION. Methods of acquiring a knowledge of The steam-engine ... 30 practical farming I Weather . . -33 Different kinds of farming 4 Rainfall . .... 36 Persons who conduct and execute Soils . . 40 farm-work 6 Subsoils . ... 42 " " Science of agriculture lo Conditions and characters of soils . 43 Science with practice lO Kelation of plants to soils . 50 Scientific education in agiiculture II Distribution of plants . . 51 Sciences to be studied \>y farmers 12 Structure and composition of soils . 5 The atmosphere 22 Fertility of soils .... 56 Barometers 23 Exhaustion by removal of crops Wind . 24, 39 and stock .... 62 Principles of ventilation . 25 Composition of crops . . 63 Weight of fluids 25 Composition of animal products 64 Specific gravity 25 Restoring of fertility by manuring . 64 Water-powers . 26 Value of unexhausted manures . 66 Horse-power . 28 Causes of infertility in soils . 68 Electricity Agricultural education . . 68 Electro-culture Teaching institutions . 69 Heat Plan of the work . . 73 Air-engine 30 PRACTICE—WINTER. Weather and field operations in Turnip-tops as food and manure 152 winter .... 75 Turnip-lifting appliances 153 Work in the steading 75 Methods of storing roots . 156 Pield work . . 75 Varieties, weight, and yield of tur- Varieties of ploughs 85 nips 160 Mechanics of the plough . 89 Quantities of turnips eaten by sheep 163 Plough-harness . 94 Specific gravity and composition of Ploughing ..... 96 roots. .... 164 Agricultural steam-engines 122 Sheep in winter 169 Details Fuel . . ... 128 of management in typical Combustion . . .128 flocks .... 191 Properties of steam ... 1 29 Cattle in winter 213 Different types of engines . . 134 Nomenclature of cattle . 225 Steam-cultivation . . . . 141 Cattle-courts, covered and uncovered 226 Steam -digging. . . .146 Rearing and feeding cattle in winter 232 . . . Food and feeding Storing roots . .149 . 240 Turnips consumed on the ground Varieties of food 244 by sheep 150 Albuminoid ratio . 280 . . XIV CONTENTS. Hints on the purcliage of foods 282 Feathers , Manurial value of foods 283 Food rations . 290 Oil as food 303 Ensilage . 306 Silos 307 Me'thods of pressure 3" Stack ensilage 311 Sweet and sour silage 312 Crops for silage 318 Feeding value of silage 323 Preparation of food 328 Pulping . 329 Cooking or steaming 334 Chaff-cutting . 335 Systems of feeding . 338 Winter feeding of cows 338 Winter dairying 354 Store cattle in winter 354 Fattening cattle in vanter 361 Early maturity 361 Scotch feeding customs 372 Cattle-feeding in England 379 Cattle-feeding in Ireland 382 History of a butcher's beast 382 Preparation of show cattle 386 Horses in winter 392 Swine in winter 420 Nomenclature of pigs 425 Poultry in winter . 426 Varieties of farm poultry 426 Fattening fowls 434 Nomenclature of poultry 436 LIST OF ILLUSTEATIONS IN VOLUME I. PORTRAIT OF THE AUTHOR Frontispiece PLATE DOUELE-HORSE CART AT WORK—OLD STYLE I ANIMAL POETEAITS. POULTRY . CLYDESDALE STALLION' . 3 SHIRE STALLION 4 DRAUGHT STALLION 5 DRAUGHT HORSE (1840) 6 DRAUGHT MARE . 7 CLEVELAND STALLION . 8 SHORTHORN COW . 9 DRAUGHT STALLION 10 SHORTHORN OX . II SHORTHORN COWS 12 HEREFORD BULL . 13 GENEEAL ILLUSTEATIONS. I >^ I T I A T I H". Fia. PAGE PAGE 1. Barometer .... 23 5. Stack or dung thermometer 30 2. Aneroid ..... 23 6. Conservatory hygrometer 31 thermometer . Funnel 3. Fahrenheit mounted 29 7. rain-gauge . 36 4. Minimum thermometer ... 30 8. Section of soils and subsoils 42 "\V I N T E R. 9. Furrow -side elevation of a Scotch 12. Sellar's modern Scotch plough (side swing-plough . . . . . 86 view) .... 87 10. Land-side elevation of a Scotch I T,. Sellar's modern Scotch plough (ver- swing-plough .... 86 tical viewy ..... 87 11. Scotch swing-plough . 86 " " Plan of a 14. Ransome's jSTewcastle plough . 87 . XVI ILLUSTEATIONS. 15. Oliver's chilled plough . 70. 16. Eansome's chilled plough 71- 17. Howard's chilled plough 72. 18. Plough-staflf .... 91 73. 19. Swing-trees for two horses 92 74- 20. Swing-trees for three horses . 93 75- 21. Trussed iron Whipple- trees 93 76. 22. Swing-trees for four horses 94 77- 23. Scotch horse collar 95 78. 24. English horse collar 95 79- 25. Scotch plough at work with two 80. horses ..... 96 81. 26. Scotch plough at work with three 82. horses .... 97 27. Effects of a rectangular furrow-slice 97 83- 28. Effects of a crested furrow-slice 84. 29. View of the movement of the fur^ 85. row-slice .... loi 86. 30. Iron hammer nut-key . 106 87. 31. Plough-slide .... 106 32. Feering-pole .... 107 33. Mode of feering ridges . 108 89. 34. Gathered-up ridges from the flat no 35. Open furrows with mould or hint- 90. end furrow-slices no 91- 36. Cast, yoked, or coupled ridges III 92. 37. Mode of making a gore-furrow 112 93- 38. Feerings for ploughing ridges two 94- out-and-two-in . "3 95- 39. Ploughed ridges two-out-and-two-in 114 96. 40. Twice-gathered-up ridges 115 97- 41. Cleaved-down ridges without gore 98. furrows ..... "5 99- 42. Cleaved-down ridges with gore-fur- 100. rows . • . . . 116 lOI. 43. Ill-ploughed ridge . 117 102. 44. Eansome's One-way plough . 117 103. 45. Cooke's One-way plough 118 104. 46. Single plough and patent suhsoiler 119 105. 47. Conjoint operation of the common 106. and subsoil trench-plough . 120 107. 48. The steam-engine cylinder 132 108. 49. Vertical boiler and engine 135 109. 50. Semi-fixed engine and boiler . 136 no. 51. Portable steam-engine . 137 52. Agricultural locomotive or traction III. engine .... 139 112. 53. Ploughing engine . 142 113- 54. Double-engine steam-plough . 142 114. 55' Single-engine steam-plough . 144 115. 56. Single engine and windlass steam 116. plough .... 146 117. 57. The Darby digger . 147 118. 58. Proctor's digger 149 119. 59. Methods of stripping the ground of turnips in given proportions 151 60. Method of pulling turnips in prepar- ation for storing them 152 61 and 62. Implements for topping and tailing turnips . 63. Turnip trimming-knife . 64. Mode of topping and tailing turnips 65. Turnip-lifter . ' . 66. Triangular turnip-store . 67. White globe, purple - top swede, Aberdeenshire yellow bullock 68. Ill-shaped turnips 69. "Wooden hurdles for sheep ILLUSTEATIONS. 130. THE BOOK OF THE FAEM WTierefore come on, young husbandman ! 'Learn the culture proper to each kind. ViKGIL. ; THE BOOK OF THE FARM DETAILING THE LABOURS OF THE FAEMEE, FAKM-STEWAED, PLOUGHIMAN, SHEPHEED, HEDGEE, FAEM-LABOUEEE, FIELD-WOEKEE, AND CATTLE-MAN HENEY STEPHENS, F.R.S.E. OORRBRPONDINQ MRMBER OF THR NATIONAL AND CRNTRAL SOCIETY Of AOBICULTURR OF FRANCE ; OF THE AORT CULTURAL SOCIETY OF GALICIA ; OF THR AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE OF GOREGORETZK IN RUSSIA; OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF SWEDEN; OF THE ROYAL IMPROVEMENT SOCIETY OF NORWAY FOURTH EDITION BEVISEB, AND IN GREAT PART REWRITTEN, BY JAMES MACDONALD OF THE ' FARMING WORLD ' ' AUTHOR OF FOOD FROM THP, FAR WEST ' ; JOINT AUTHOR OF 'polled cattle,' 'HEREFORD CATTLE,' ETC., ETC. IS" THREE VOLUMES VOLUME II. WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS EDINBUEGH AND LONDON MDCCCXCI .. . CONTENTS OF VOLUME II. PRACTICE—SPRING. Field operations and spring weather I Highland and Agricultural Society's Cattle in spring 9 experiments 175 The calving season 9 Seed-time 185 Abortion . 12 Wheat 188 Calving . H 201 Milking cows 24 Peas 205 Calf-rearing 3° Barley 207 Details of calf-r 32 Oats 211 Calf-rearing in pure-bred herdi 42 Rolling land, &c. 214 Sheep in spring 46 Grass seeds 219 The lambing season 47 Varieties of grasses . 220 Lambing period—Details of man- Varieties of clovers . 231 agement 60 Varieties of grasses sown 234 Early market lambs 61 Seeds for rotation grasses 234 Hampshire customs 62 Grasses and clovers for permanent Suffolk flocks . 65 pasture 235 Shropshire flocks 66 Grasses for different soils 23s Scotch flocks . 68 Standard seed mixtures 23s Hill flocks 72 Germination of seeds 239 After lambing . 75 Different methods of sowing and Abortion among ewes 80 germination 242 Produce of Iambs 86 Forage crops . 2S4 Lambing table 87 Vetches 2S5 Manures and manuring 89 Lucerne 256 Farmyard manure . 94 Sainfoin 257 A word for dung lOI Rye. 258 Artificial manures . 102 Cabbages 258 Nitrification . los Rape 259 Characteristics of nitrogenous Mustard 260 ures 106 Planting potatoes 261 Phosphatic manures 109 Tillage for potatoes 261 Potassic manures 119 Manuring potatoes 261 Gypsum . 120 Details of planting 265 Gas-lime . 120 Varieties of potatoes 271 Compound manures 120 The boxing system of preparing Economical purchasing of 121 potato sets . . 274 Analysis explained . 121 Raising new varieties of potatoes 276 Mixtures and mixing 123 Horses in spring 281 Application of manures 126 The foaling season 281 Application of dung 126 Reviving weak foals 283 Application of artificial manures 130 Rearing foals . 283 Rothamsted experiments . 13s Weaning foals . Aberdeen and Sussex experiments 169 The mating season vi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME 11. ANIMAL POETEAITS. . . . Vlll ILLUSTEATIONS. 269. Preeser-roUer .... 199 307. Wheat plant in the state of germina- 270. Action of the edge of presser-wheels 200 tion ...... 242 271. Clay's cultivator . 203 308. Well-ploughed regular furrow-slices 242 272. Broadshare cultivator 203 309. Positions of seeds on regular furrows 243 273. Saddle drill-harrow 205 310. Irregular braird upon regular fur^ 274. Acme harrow 208 rows ..... 275. Cast-iron land-roller 21s 311. Ill-ploughed irregular furrow-slices 276. Water-ballast roller 216 312. Irregular positions of seed on ill 277. Field feered for cross-ploughing 218 ploughed furrows 278. Fiorin, or creeping bent grass 220 313. Irregular braird on ill-ploughed fur- 279. Meadow foxtail 220 row ..... 280. Sweet-scented vernal 221 314. Regular depth of seed by drill-sow 281. Yellow oat-grass . 221 ing 282. Crested dogstail . 222 315. Regular braird from drill-sown seed - dibbling- 283. Rough cocksfoot . 223 316. Newberry's one rowed 284. Meadow fescue 223 machine .... 285. Tall fescue . 224 317. Newington's 6-rowed dibbling-ma 286. Sheep's fescue 22s chine ..... 287. Hard fescue . 225 318. Double roots of deep-sown wheat 288. Perennial rye-grass 226 319. Roots of shallow-sown wheat 289. Italian rye-grass . 228 320. Scotch drill-plough 290. Timothy .... 229 321. Potato handrbasket 291. Smooth-stalked meadow-grass 229 322. Triple drill-plough 292. Rough-stalked meadow-grass . 230 323. Section of a flower 293. Evergreen meadow-grass 230 324. Horizontal section 294. Perennial red clover 231 325. Vertical section of a potato-blossom 295. Red or broad clover 232 326. Stamen discharging pollen 296. Perennial white clover . 232 327. Pistil with pollen-grains on top 297. Alsike clover .... 233 328. Pollen-grain magnifled . 298. Common yellow clover or trefoil 233 329. Vertical section of style and stigma 299. Grass-seed iron harrows, with wings magnified .... and swing-trees .... 237 330. Potato-plum . 300. Chain harrows .... 238 331. Plum cut, showing seeds inside 301. Carriage for conveying harrows, &c. 238 332. Potato-seed magnified . 302. Cloddy and stony soil . 240 333. Sties for brood-sows under one roof 303. Soil with water and without air 240 334. Common spade 304. Soil with air and without water 241 335. Flauchter-spade at work 305. Soil with water and with air . 241 336. Paring-plough 306. Component parts of a grain of wheat 242 337. Paring-sock .... SUMMER. 338. Hay-knife 317 361. Wardlaw's turnip-thinner . hand-hoe 339. Lightning hay-knife . .317 362. Improved 340. Crosskill's clod-crusher . . .318 363. Turnip hand-hoe . 341 Side view of one wheel of the clod- 364. Weed-hook . crusher ..... 319 365- Steerage horse-hoe fructification wheat 342. Norwegian harrow . . . .319 366. Organs of in in 343. Square mode of planting hops . 329 367. Organs of fructification wheat 344. Quincunx mode of planting hops . 329 368, Bean aphis .... 345. Barclay and Sellar's patent digger 369. Beet-fly .... or cultivator .... 342 370. Large white cabbage butterfly 346. Digging and pulverising plough . 343 371- Small white cabbage butterfly 347. Drill-plough 346 372. Grain aphis .... 348. Farm tip-cart .... 349 373- Daddy longlegs 349. Tip-cart going down hill . 350 374- Ribbon-footed corn-fly . 350. Cart tipped 350 375. Corn saw-fly .... 351. Dung-spreading machine . • 3Si 376. Hessian fly . 352. Turnip drill-sower . . . -351 377. Hessian fly attack on barley . 353. Seed and water drill . . . 352 378. Chlorops .... 354. Scotch drill-scuffler or horse-hoe . 366 379. Wheat-midge 355. English horse-hoe or turnip-scuffler 366 380. Wire-worms .... 356. Horse-hoe and harrow . . . 366 381- False wire-worms . 357. Turnip horse-hoe .... 367 382. Ear cockles .... 358. M'Kidd's drill-scarifier . . 367 383. Tulip-rooted oat plant infested ty 359. Dickson's turnip-cleaner . . 367 eelworm .... 403 360. Briggs's turnip-thinner . . . 367 384. Hop aphis .... 404 . . ILLUSTRATIONS. IX 385. Hop-jumper ..... 405 421. Scalder and cooler 478 386. Red spider .... 405 422. White Wedgewood-ware milk-Jish 480 387. Ouion fly ... . 406 423. Enamelled iron milk-pan 480 I'ea and bean weevils . . 406 424. Iron milk-pan 481 Colorado beetle .... 407 425. Milk-sieve 481 390- Death's-head moth . . . 407 426. Cream-skimmer 481 391- Turnip-fly ..... 408 427. Cream-jar 481 392. The strawsoniser at work . . 409 428. Movable milk-stand 482 393- Turnip aphis ..... 410 429. Swartz system 482 394- Dart moth ... .411 430. Cooley system 483 395- Turnip saw-fly . . . .411 431. Devonshire cream stove 483 396. Turnip saw-fly grub at work . . 412 432. Jersey creamer 484 397- Section through a fragment of a 433. Speedwell cream-raiser . 484 potato-leaf . . . .419 434. Speedwell method of skimming 485 Section through a fragment of old 435. De Laval separator 485 " " potato-leaf . . . .421 436. Baby separator 486 399- Anbury or club-root—early stage . 427 437. Speedwell cream-cooler . 486 400. Secure mode of fixing the hanging- 438. The " ladies' " plunge-churn 491 post of a field-gate . . . 432 439. Barrel churn . 491 401. Salt-roller .... 433 440. End-over-eud churn 491 402. Washing-pool and sheep-washing 439 441. The " Index Diaphragm " churn 492 403- Wool-shears ..... 442 442. Charlemont churn and butter- 404. First stage of clipping a sheep 443 worker 493 405. Second stage of clipping a sheep . 444 443. Box churn 493 406. Third stage of clipping a sheep . 445 444. Speedwell crystal churn 494 New-clipped sheep . , . Butter-worker 407. , 446 445. 496 " 408. Rolling a fleece of wool . . 448 446. D($laiteuse " centrifugal butter- 409. Fleece of wool rolled up . . 449 drier ..... 497 410. White- shouldered wool-moth . . 449 447. Butter-beaters or boards 497 411. Weighing and packing wool . 450 448. Butter- boxes .... 498 412. Punching-nippers for sheep . 455 449. Milk-vat .... 500 413- Buisting-iron for sheep . . . 455 450. Curd-mill .... 501 414. Branding-iron for sheep and cattle . 455 451. Single cheese-press 501 415- Opened bull's ring . . 465 452. Double cheese-press 502 416. Closed bull's ring .... 466 453. Curd-knives .... 507 417. Swivelled spring-hook . . 467 454. Metal chesset or cheese mould 508 418. Sandringham dairy herd rcconler 476 455. Wooden chesset or cheese mould 508 419. Temperature can . . . 476 456. Curd-breaker 509 420. Lawi'ence's refrigerator . . 477 THE BOOK OE THE EAEM "Wherefore come on, young husbandman ! Learn the culture proper to each kind. ViEGIL. THE BOOK OF THE FARM DETAILIXG THE LABOURS OP THE FAEMEE, FAEM-STEWAED, PLOUGHMAX, SHEPHEED, HEDGEE, EAEM-LABOUEEE, EIELD-WOEKER, AXD CATTLE-MAI^ BY HENRY STEPHENS, F.R.S.E. CORRESFONDIKG MEMBER OF THE NATIONAL AND CENTRAL SOCIETV OF AGRICULTURE OF FRANCE ; OF THE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETV OF GALICIA ; OF THE AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE OF GOREGORETZK IN KL'SSfA; OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF SWEDEN ; OF THE ROYAL IMPROVEMENT SOCIETY OF NORWAY FOURTH EDITION REVISED, AJfD IN GREAT PART REWRITTEN, BY JAMES MACDONALD OF THF;; ' FARSIING WORLD'; ' AUTHOR OF FOOD FROM THE FAR WEST ' ; JOINT AUTHOR OF 'POLLED CATTLE,' 'HEREFORD CATTLE,' ETC., ETC. IN THREE VOLUMES VOLUME III. WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS EDINBUEGH A^^D LOIs^DOX 3IDCCGXCI CONTENTS OF VOLUME III. PRACTICE—SUMMER (continued). Haymaking i Artificial hay-drying 37 Method of cutting ... 4 Pressing hay . 40 EnglisL. methods . . . S Bare fallow 44 Scotch methods . . . . 11 Harvesting turnip-seed 48 Improved hay-stacking appliances . 25 PRACTICE—AUTUMN. Autumn weather and field . VI CONTENTS. Management of fowls 154 Farm-houses .... Animals destructive of poultry 159 Bee-keeping 161 Rotation of crops 168 Realisation 176 Physical geography of farms 176 Judging land . 185 Characteristics of soils 186 Estimating rent 188 Offering for a farm . 191 Conditions of lease . 193 Conditions of cropping . 19s Feudal customs 198 Land burdens . 198 Compensation for improvements 198 Entering a farm 198 Adjusting farm labour 201 Valuing sheep stocks 202 Stocking a farm 202 Insurance against fire and disease 204 Mutual insurance against disease 205 Enclosure and shelter 210 Draining land . 248 Mole-drainage . 281 Process of mole-draining . 282 Surface-draining 28s Improving waste land 286 Rules for land improvement 286 Scotch example 287 Other methods. 287 Improving poor land 291 Improvement of hill pasture 292 A Mid-Lothian example . 293 Improvements at Glenbuck 294 Trench and subsoil ploughing 295 Liming land ... 297 Injury from imprudent liming 297 Quantity of lime per acre 300 Chalking land . 301 Marling land . 302 Limestone 302 Preparing lime 303 Over-liming 303 Compost . 304 Gas-lime . 304 Irrigation 304 Systems of irrigation 308 Farm buildings 311 Modern homesteads 3" General principles 316 Farms and steadings 316 Situation of the steading 317 Principles of arrangement 318 Plans of steadings . 319 Pastoral farming 319 Cattle pastoral farming 319 Sheep pastoral farming 321 Pastoral and arable farming 321 Sheep and arable farming 323 Steading for arable farming 324 Steadings for mixed husbandry 326 Steadings for dairy farming 336 Steadings for suburban farmin-j 338 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME III. ANIMAL POETEAITS. PLATE OXFORD DOWN BAM .... 28 HAMPSHIRE DOWN WETHER . 29 LINCOLN RAM ..... 30 SUFFOLK RAM ..... 31 BORDER LEICESTER EWE AND LAMB (1850) 32 BORDER LEICESTER RAM 33 BLACKPACED RAM .... 34 CHEVIOT RAM .... 35 LARGE WHITE PIG "j 36 BERKSHIRE BOAR ) MIDDLE-WHITE BOAR 1 37 TAMWORTH BOAR J BLACK SOW AND SMALL WHITE BOAR 38 FAEM BUILDINGS. DETACHED PASTORAL FARM-STEADING FOR REARING CATTLE ") ' ' ' COMPACT PASTORAL PAEM-STBADING FOB REARING CATTLE j FARM-STEADING FOR REARING CATTLE WITH ARABLE CULTURE ) FARM-STEADING FOR BEARING SHEEP WITH ARABLE CULTURE j SMALL DAIRY FAEM-STEADING ] ' SUBURBIAL FARM-STEADING FOR ARABLE CULTURE j COMMON FAEM-STEADING ...... CARSE FARM-STEADING ...... PLAN OP A DAIRY HOMESTEAD FOR EIGHTY COWS AND FORTY YOUNG CATTLE FARM-STEADING AT INVEBQUHARITY ...... FRONT ELEVATION OP FARMHOUSES ...... — ILLUSTRATIONS. IX GENERAL ILLUSTRATIONS. SUMMER cont inucd. I'-lO. 457. Reaper knife-sharpener . 473- Pollock's hay-sledge 458. Howard's mower . 474. Horse pitch-fork . " " 459. The Munster mower . 475- Wallace's horse hay-fork " " 460. The Victor mower . 476. The "Star" horse-rake. " " 461. The Albion mower . 477- Howard's horse-rake 462. " Caledonian Buckeye " reaper and 478. The " Stamford " horse-rake mower , . . , . 479- Hay-ooUector 463. Howard's haymaker 480. Mode of erecting a rick-cloth over " ' 464. The Taunton ' haymaker 9 hay-stack when being built 465. The "Acme" haymaker. 9 481. Threshing rye-grass seed in the field 466. Hand hay-fork II either in sheaf or in bulk . 467. Hay-shed .... 21 Hand-ilail .... 468. Hay-waggon .... 23 483. Steam-power hay and straw press 469. Hay hand-rake 24 484. Horse-power hay-press . 470. Wallace's hay -sledge, empty . 26 485. Bamber's hay-press 471. Wallace's hay-sledge, in the act of 486. Barford & Perkins's hay-press loading .... 25 4S7. TurubuU's hay-press 472. 'Wallace's hay-sledge, with load 27 AUTUMN. Progress of ripening in a stalk of 517. Completed knot oats .... 55 518. Knot tied by the Hornsby binder 489. Toothed sickle 56 519. Hornsby binder at work 490. Large smooth-edged sickle 57 520. Howard's binder . 491. Sheaf-gauge .... 57 521. Bisset's binder 492. Reaping with the Hainault scythe 58 522. Corn and hay cart tops or frame 493- Cradle-scythe for reaping 58 523. Transverse section of the tops or 494. Common reaping-scythe 59 frame .... 495- Mowing corn with the scythe 60 524. Common corn and hay cart . 496. Bell's reaping-machine . 64 525. Farm waggon 497- Dray's Hussey reaping-machine in 526. Coiled-up cart-rope perspective 66 527. Old throw-crook . M'Cormick's reaping-machine 67 528. Best throw-crook . 499- Harrison and M'Gregor's self-raking 529. Making a straw-rope with » throw reaper .... 68 crook ..... 500. Howard's self-delivery reaper 69 530. Coil of straw-rope . 501. Samuelson's back-delivery reaper 69 531. Bunch of drawn straw . 502. Wood's self-delivery reaper . 70 532. Thatch-making machine 503- Corn-band ready to receive the slieaf 73 533. Making a stool for a corn-stack 504. Hand stubble-rake 74 534. Building a stack of corn 505- Ordinary stock of wheat 76 535. Stack-trimmer 506. Barley or oat stock hooded 76 536. Lozenge mode of roping the covering 507. Gaitin of oats 77 of a corn-stack . 508. Finger arrangement 80 537. Net-mesh mode of roping the cover 509. Conveyor-roll 80 ing of a corn-stack 510. Needle .... 81 538. Border mode of roping the covering 511. Knotter 81 of a corn-stack . 512. String laid across knotter 81 539. Pyramidal boss and trestle SI3. Quarter turn, showing position of 540. Prismatic boss string on top of jaw . 81 541. Taylor's stack ventilator 514. Half turn .... 82 542. Richmond's corn-rack . 515- Whole turn, jaws open and string 543. Richmond's corn-rack—section entering .... 82 544. Potato-graip .... S16. Jaws closed on string ; the string- 545. Powell Brothers & M'hittaker's poti knife then cuts the ends, and the to-digger .... lever draws the string off, com 546. Jack's potato-digger pletiug the knot 82 547. Jack's farm-cart . . . . X ILLUSTEATIONS. 548. Potato-raiser attaohed to a plough 122 605. Iron field-gate with iron posts and 549. Conical and prismatic potato-pits 123 stay 550. Potato-separator . 125 606. AVrought-iron field-gate 551. Iron liarrows 126 607. Angle-iron field-gate 552. Batli-stool for sheep 140 608. Gate for farmyard 553. Bath-jug 140 609. Field-wicket .... 554. Bathing sheep 141 610. Turnstile .... 555. Dipping-bath HS 6ri. Fence steps .... 556. Horse's foot in the natural state 151 612. Water-table in drained and 557. Shelter afforded by a low wall drained land against a cutting blast 214 613. Cause of wetness in land Hand-pick 558. .... 216 614. Water-level test-holes . 559. Ditcher's shovel 216 615. Inclination of drains and strata 560. Thorn plant .... 217 6i6- 619. Wedge-and-shoulder drains 561. Bad effect of weeds on thorns 219 620. Surface-turf cut to shape '• " 562. Switching-bill 220 621. Plug draining . 563. Triangular form of thorn hedge 220 622- 626. Stone drains . 564. Breasting-knife 221 627- 629. Peat drains 565. Hedger's axe .... 221 630. Special tool for cutting peat drains 566. Breasted thorn hedge on bank and 631- 636. Tile drains ditch ..... 222 637- Longitudinal sections 567. Plashing and laying an old hedge 638- 640. Sections of cylindrical pipe bank, and water-tabling a ditch 224 641. Drain with cylindrical pipe . 568. Dead-hedge of thorns 226 642. Longitudinal sections of collared 569. Stake-and-rice fence 226 pipes, A and B . 570. Common wooden paling 227 643- Ordinary digging spade . 571. Hedge-spade. 228 644. Draining-plougli . 572. Dutch hoe .... 228 645. Divisions of trench 573. Hedge weed-hook . 228 646. Clay-cutter, hollow or circular pat 574. Building a dry-stone dyke 232 tern ..... 575. Increasing the height of a dry-stone 647. Clay-cutter, socket pattern . dyke ..... 234 648. Cast-steel clay spade 576. Four watering-pools formed by tw 649. Drain-scoop to pull, square pattern dykes crossing . 234 650, Drain-scoop to pull 577- One watering-pool common to four 651. Drain-scoop to push 'fields . 234 652, Drain-shovel, square pattern . 578. Clump of trees within the meeting 653. Positions of planks, and props in e of four dykes 234 deep drain to prevent earth fall 579. Straining-post with sole and stay ing in .... underground . . . . 235 654. Drain gauge .... 580. Straining-post, with planks under 655 Showing the line of pipes truly laid ground 235 with regular fall, and pipes im 581. Straining-post, with standard and properly laid on uneven bot- stay above ground 236 tom ..... 582. Wrought-iron straining-post 236 656. Challoner's level. Giving a fall of 583. Winding-pUlar 237 % inch to the yard . 584. 'Wrought-irou standards 238 657. Levelling-staff, or boning-rod, for 585. Barb-wire 238 testing the uniform fall in drains 586. Standard for barb-wire . 239 658. Showing use of levelling-staff 587. Wire-strainer 239 659. American method of regulating fall Wire-straightener 588. . 239 in drains .... 589. Wire-knotting tools 239 660. Pipe-laying iron 590. Iron and wire fence 240 661. Drain cesspool 591. Section of bulb-angle iron 240 662. Drain -clearing rods 592. Horse and cattle fence . 240 663. Section and plan of drain in process 593. " Corrimony " fence 241 of being cleaned, showing arrange 594. Iron hurdle . 241 ments .... 595- Iron hurdle on wheels , 242 664. Windlass for chain cleaning drains 596. Wicket for hurdle-fence 242 665. Upright for lower end of drain, with 597. Folding hurdle 243 runners .... 598. Unclimbable hurdle 243 666. Section of drain with pipes laid in 599. Light ornamental hurdle 244 cinders .... 600. Iron raihng and wicket . 244 667. Displacement of pipes in a drain 601. Malleable-iron fence 244 668. Mole-draining 602. Rectangular frame with diagonal 669. 670. Mole- draining ploughs . strut .... 244 671. Junction with main drain 603. Strong field-gate . 245 672. Auxiliary and mole-drains 604. Common wooden field-gate 245 673. Closing coulter-track — ILLUSTEATIONS. XI 674. Mattock 288 722. Ground-plan of a second-class farm 675. Levelling-box, or scoop , . . 290 house .... 676. Catcli-work water-meadow . . 310 723. Cellar-plan of a second-class farm 677. Upper floor of a steading for cattle house .... pastoral farming with arable cul- 724. Chamber - plan of a second - class ture ...... 322 farmhouse .... 678. Upper floor of a steading for sheep 725. Front elevation of a second-class pastoral farming with arable cul- farmhouse .... ture ...... 324 726. Side elevation of a second-class 679. Upper floor of a steading for carse farmhouse .... farming ..... 325 727. Side elevation of a second-class 680. Upper storey of a steading for com- farmhouse .... mon farming . . . .327 728. Ground-plan of a third-class farm 681. 682. Ground-plan of complete stead- house .... ing for farm of 500 acres . 328, 329 729. Chamber-floor plan of a third-class 683. Entrance elevation of main build- farmhouse .... ings 330 730. Front elevation of a third-class 684. Back elevation of main buildings . 330 farmhouse .... 685. Side elevation of shed, barn, stables, 731. Ground-plan of a small hind's hou.se &o 330 of one room 686. Side elevation of main buildings . 330 732. Ground-plan of a large hind's house 6S7. Section and elevation of main build- of one room ings at A B . . . .331 733. Ground-plan of a small hind's house 688. Section of main buildings at C D 331 with two rooms . 689. Section of stables at E F . . 331 734. Ground-plan of single-storeyed de 690. Ground - plan of modern Scotch taohed cottage ... steading ..... 332 735- Front elevation of a single-storeyed 691. Section of cow-byre . . . 333 detached cottage 692. East elevation .... 333 736. Ground-plan of a single-storeyed 693. South elevation . . 333 detached cottage 694. North elevation . . 333 737. Front elevation of a single-storeyed 695. Section at A B . . . 334 detached cottage 696. Section at C D . . . 334 738. Ground plan of a two-storeyed de- 697. Upper or roof plan . . . 334 tached cottage . 698. Upper storey of a steading for 739. Chamber-floor plan of atwo-storeyed small dairy farming . . 336 detached cottage 699. Butter-dairy . . . 337 740. Front elevation of the two-storeyed 700. Section at A B . . . 338 cottage in fig. 738 701. Section at C D . 338 741. Ground -plan of single-storeyed 702. Front elevation . . . 338 double-detached cottages . 703. Upper storey of a steading for sub- 742. Alternative ground-plan of single urban farming with arable cul- storeyed double - detached cot- ture 339 tages ... 704. Ground-plan of a kitchen, &c., of 743. Front elevation of the double-de farmhouse ..... 342 tached cottages in fig. 741 705. Cheese-room, &c. , of farmhouse . 343 744. Alternative front elevation to front 706. Ground-plan of farmhouse . 345 elevation in fig. 743 . 707. Chamber-floor plan of farmhouse . 346 745. Alternative ground-plan to ground- 708. Alternative arrangement of part of plan in fig. 741 . chamber-floor storey . . . 346 746. Alternative ground-plan to ground 709. Side elevation of farmhouse . . 347 plan in fig. 741 ... 710. Back elevation of farmhouse . . 347 747. Alternative ground-plan to ground 711. Side elevation of farmhouse, finished plan in fig. 741 . to show stone-rubble walling . 348 748. Ground-plan of two-storeyed double 712. Back elevation of alternative design 348 detached cottages 713. Vertical section of milk-house and 749. Chamber-floor plan of fig. 748 cheese-room, flgs. 706 and 707 . 349 750. Front elevation of the cottages in 714. Ground-plan of farmhouse in Italian fig. 748 .... style 349 751. End elevation of cottages in fig. 748 715. Cellar plan . ... 350 752. Ground-plan of two-storeyed double- 716. Alternative cellar plan . . . 350 detached cottages 717. Chamber-floor plan of farmhouse in 753. Chamber-floor plan of fig. 752 Italian style .... 350 754. Front elevation of cottages in fig. 752 718. Front elevation of farmhouse in 755. Two - storey double cottages Italian style . . . .351 ground-plan 719. Back elevation in the Italian style. 351 756. Upper floor . 720. Side elevation in the Italian style . 352 757. Section ..... 721. Side elevation in the Italian style . 352 758. Front elevation xu ILLUSTRATIONS. 759. Ground-plan of modern English 766. Ground - plan of a two - storeyed cottages . . . . 372 bothy 376 760. Upper floor 372 767. Chamber-floor of a two-storeyed 761. Front elevation .... 373 bothy 376 762. Ground - plan of single - storeyed 768. Ground-plan of a single-storeyed double cottages, consisting of lar- bothy . . . . .376 ger and smaller houses . . 373 769. Iron buildings .... 378 763. Small two-storeyed double cottages 374 770. Window-sill . . . . . 380 764. Elevation of small tvfo-storeyed 771. Coping to yard wall . . 380 double cottages . . . . 374 j^^^S^'^^ 380 765. Upper storey of composite cottage 773- fig. . . applied to 734 . 375 774. Shepherd's dog or collie . . 438 5^*-%^^