Towards a landscape ecosophy. Interpreting how the - Pucón urban system inhabitants in the Araucanía region of perceive and relate with the dynamics of Landscape

Rumo à uma paisagem ecosofia. Interpretando como os habitantes do sistema urbano de Villarrica-Pucón, região Araucania do Chile, percebem e se relacionam com a dinâmica da paisagem Licenciado sob uma Licença Creative Commons

Gonzalo Salazar[a], Daniela Jalabert[b] DOI: 10.1590/2175-3369.008.001.SE02 ISSN 2175-3369

[a] Católica de Chile, Villarrica, Chile [b] Campus Villarrica & Instituto de Estudios Urbanos y Territoriales, UC Centre of Local Development, Pontificia Universidad

UC Centre of Local Development, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Villarrica, Chile Abstract As a reaction to the complex global crisis, the notion of ecological urbanism has emerged in order to understand and attend the inaccuracy between the urban system and the environment of which it is a part. This article suggests that the form we perceive the city-nature relation deeply determines the praxis of urbanism arguing that the problem of ecological urbanism is essentially epistemological and ethical. Accordingly, the article introduces the concept of “landscape ecosophy” through which not only is possible to understand the indivisible connection of perception and socio-ecological practices, but also help us to reconnect the praxis of urbanism with a relational epistemology and landscape. The article empirically seeks to interpret how the Villarrica and Pucón urban system inhabitants in the Araucanía Region of Chile perceive and relate with the mountain and lacustrine landscapes in their daily practices of inhabitation. To achieve this, an ethnographic methodology is used. The discussion central line is represented by the question, ‘So close, but so far?’, as in spite of the fact that both cities are deeply connected to the landscape, their socio-cultural constructions

are defined by the notions of disconnection and a lack of awareness. On the other hand, in a sort of circular the urban system and the landscape of which it is a part, but also contribute to trigger the emergence of causality, the article also identifies how certain urban initiatives may not only imply a reconnection between deeper landscape ecosophies.

Keywords: Ecological urbanism. Landscape. Ecosophy. Resumo Como forma de reação à complexa crise global, a noção de urbanismo ecológico surge com o propósito de compreender e responder à descalibragem entre o sistema urbano e o meio ambiente do qual este é parte. Ao argumentar que o problema do urbanismo ecológico é essencialmente epistemológico e ético, o presente

GS is doctor of Philosophy, University of Dundee, UK; Assistant Professor, Campus Villarrica & Instituto de Estudios Urbanos y

Católica de Chile, e-mail: [email protected] DJTerritoriales, is researcher Pontificia of the UC Universidad Centre of LocalCatólica Development; de Chile; Director Anthropologist, of the UC UniversidadCentre of Local Austral Development, de Chile; MasterPontificia Asentamientos Universidad

urbe.Humanos Revista Brasileira y Medio de Gestão Ambiente, Urbana (Brazilian Pontificia Journal of Universidad Urban Management Católica), 2016 jan./abr., de Chile, 8(1), 28-41e-mail: [email protected] Towards a landscape ecosophy 29

artigo sugere que a maneira como percebemos a relação entre cidade e natureza determina profundamente a práxis do urbanismo. Neste sentido, o artigo introduz o conceito de “paisagem ecosofia”, que permite tanto comprender a conexão indivisível entre prácticas de percepção e sócio-ecológicas, como também nos permite reconectar a práxis do urbanismo com uma epistemologia relacional e ética da paisagem. O artigo procura interpretar empiricamente como os habitantes do sistema urbano de Villarrica e Pucón, cidades da Região Araucania do Chile, percebem e se relacionam com as montanhas e paisagens lacustres nas suas práticas diárias. Para tanto, é utilizada uma metodologia etnográfica. A linha central do debate é representada pela questão: “Tão perto, porém tão longe”, pelo fato de que ambas as cidades, apesar de profundamente ligadas à paisagem, têm suas construções sócio culturais definidas por noções de desconexão e de falta de consciência. Por outro lado, numa espécie de causalidade, o artigo também identifica como certas iniciativas urbanas podem tanto implicar numa reconexão entre o sistema urbano e a paisagem do qual este é uma parte, como desencadear o surgimento de paisagens ecosofias mais profundas.

Palavras-chave: Urbanismo ecológico. Paisagem. Ecosofia.

Introduction done so, it is necessary to emphasize that ecological urbanism must be understood within this framework. As neoliberal, socio-economic globalization Thus, there are four fundamental and cross-cutting has become an increasingly mass and universal aspects to these emergent lines of thinking, which phenomenon during recent decades; there is an are important for ecological urbanism (Salazar & emergent sensation and generalized certainty that ): 1) a criticism of the modern paradigm regarding its assumption of a transcendental reality is triggering an unprecedented ecological crisis. thatBaxter exists 2015 independently of human relations and Inglobal light society, of this, conceptsas defined such by as modern ecological urban urbanism living, and design have emerged in response to this crisis, phenomenon, the knowledge point of departure and proposing changes on how the relationship between waysexperience; of inhabiting 2) that the human world; perception 3) that the is anworld embodied where cities and the rest of the biosphere is understood and we live, or the phenomenological Being-in-the-World, is organized (Van der Ryn & Cowan, 1996; ; a dynamic relational process that is constantly changing, ). The conceptual and operative roots in which the being and the world are an inseparable of this line of thinking can be found to a greatOrr, measure 2002 Mostafavi, 2014 and the rest of the biosphere are complementary paradigm which, focusing on the emerging global (phenomenon; and 4)). that the wellbeing of humans ecologicalin the emergence crisis, proposes of a new that scientific/philosophical the primary problem lays in the dominant modern dichotomies between ofPrimack several et authors al., 2001 have been central to providing reason‑emotion, individual-environment, and city‑nature. a formIn the for field ecological of urban planning urbanism and along design, these the visions lines: Patrick Geddes, at the end of the 19th century, called emerged through various disciplines and theories for a greater understanding of the interdependence rangingFrom mid-1950s, from cybernetics, a new systemic ecology, or relational phenomenology, paradigm between man and nature, cities development based cognitive sciences, complexity mathematics, quantum on a holistic perspective, and to think globally and physics, constructivism, and Gestalt psychology. act locally regarding the environmental crisis facing This new paradigm left behind the mechanistic and the world ( ); Aldo Leopold, who using reductionist visions of reality, leading to a new form the concept of “land ethics”, introduced the idea of of understanding the biosphere organization, and the intrinsicGeddes, value of 2010 other living beings and the rest how humans inhabit it. Although the purpose of of nature have, and the responsibility of humans to this article is not to explore the foundations of this take care of the ecosystems that they inhabit (Leopold, new paradigm, especially as others such as Capra (1996, ) and , b) have already century “mechanized” and “dehumanized” American 1990); Lewis Mumford, who as a critic of the early 20th 2004 Wilber (2000a urbe. Revista Brasileira de Gestão Urbana (Brazilian Journal of Urban Management), 2016 jan./abr., 8(1), 28-41 30 Salazar, G., & Jalabert, D.

urbanism, focused on generating an interdisciplinary and relates to the natural ecosystem encompassing vision that conceived of the city and regional he cityencompassing the city. In order to approach such a research challenge, this technological elements in an integral and indivisible article combines two ecological urbanism theoretical mannerdevelopment (Luccarelli, as the confluence1995; of social,); Ian natural McHarg, and concepts, which have previously been vaguely related: who introduced the term ecological urban planning, landscape (understood as the eco-cultural hinterland which provides incentivesWahl, for urban 2006 planners and of which an urban system is a part), and ecosophy designers to value and consider ecosystemic variables (McHarg, 1995; ). meaning and value that the urban inhabitant assigns to(as the a subjective landscape orienting encompassing framework his regardingor her city). the and apparently Wahl,common 2006 elements regarding the The connection between these two concepts can be theoreticalThese precursory discussion onvisions a more reflect ecological certain urbanism. central considered as “landscape ecosophy”. Altogether, this Ultimately, these authors express that the actual term has two important implications to this research; problem of ecological urbanism is simultaneously 1) epistemological: this is to say, regarding how relational (or socio-ecological) epistemology, which we understand the relationship between city and isthe implicit first is to related the landscape to connecting concept, the with aspects the ethical of a should aspects of the ecosophy that establishes how the relate to others, the rest of the biosphere, and future individual (in this case the urban inhabitant) assigns generations.nature; and 2) ethical: i.e. regarding how we meaning and value to the landscape encompassing This epistemological and ethical foundation to the city. The second implication is related to scale. A “landscape ecosophy” implies the local scale research aimed at understanding the relational revaluation, in favor of a more ecological urbanism dynamicurban ecology between opens city and up nature, a wide-ranging in which the field city of is in the globalized era. When localization becomes considered to be part of a larger ecosystem. However, this foundation is not always made very explicit, the context of global crises such as climate change and is often ignored. In recent decades, research andan inevitable peak oil, phenomenonit is necessary for to the imagine 21st century, and value in on cities has been dominated by a functionalist and the importance of a smaller scale for organizing productivist vision of economic, ecosystemic and the dynamics of the city in a global era. This is cultural transformations. The perceptual dimension, about valuing and taking hold of the singularity of on the other hand, through which we understand the place that we inhabit (Jackson, 1996; Barnhill, and value the relationship between cities and their 1999; Goldstein, 1999), bioregionalizing the city surrounding environments, has been relegated to a (Aberley, 1999) and starting to position the city secondary concern. for higher organizational levels and productive However, in order to take up and revalue the self-reliance (Douthwaite, 1996; ; ecological urbanism research epistemological and ethical foundation, this article is based on the idea that is understanding how the our contemporaryShuman, 2000 cities the manner we perceive the relationship between the inhabitantsHopkins, 2008 perceive). A first and step use towards their local this achievement landscapes, in order to begin to imagine the shift towards a more determines the very praxis of urban‑territorial ecological urbanism. planning.city and its If natural in the ecosystem,context of aninforms ecological and significantly paradigm, First, the article generates a theoretical urbanism is understood as an experiential, cultural framework on landscape and ecosophy in order to and territorially dependent phenomenon, it is construct the concept of landscape ecology. Based important to adopt lines of research that consider this on this, a case study is presented. Here the paper singularity. Such research must also reveal current seeks to interpret how the urban inhabitants of perceptions and practices that serve as a basis for a an urban‑territorial system perceive and use the more ecological and inclusive way of forming cities. landscape encompassing their city. Finally, certain Thus, among other challenges, it becomes necessary implications are discussed on the article central to interpret how the urban inhabitant understands concept regarding the case study.

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Landscape: a relational epistemology “[...] landscape is the world as it is known to those for ecological urbanism along the paths connecting them”. Landscape emerges who dwell therein, who inhabit its places and journey This research landscape concept value is marked as an inevitable, accumulative footprint; as a dynamics mainly by the epistemological contribution that it of human´s embodied existence in continuous social provides on the person-environment and city-nature and ecological interaction. relationship. This concept has allowed researchers to Landscape therefore is also a perceptual phenomenon. And as such, it cannot be dislodged from environment understanding (or city and nature) to a relationalmove away and from indivisible a static one. and Forpredefined ecological person urbanism, and for creating interpretations, archetypes and readings, dependingthe influence on of the culture, existing as the social latter groups is responsible (Nogué, be understood as epistemologically anti-ecological: , ). Thus, the landscape is also, “a way of thethis isrelationship a fundamental between clarification. human The and former environment view can seeing” ( or city and nature is secondary, or even irrelevant, as is1992 a certain2008 rationality that is basically based on the Nogué & de San Eugenio, 2011, p. 27). There a priori, before their interrelation way of being a part of a landscape. For this reason, ( ). Even more, the natural environment “[...] the landscape valuation, although it seems to be iseach conceived are defined as a (Aristotelian) container in which sustained by certain instinctive aspects, is essentially theIngold, city 2000and human-cultural actions are simply cultural and learned [...]” ( , p. 5). In other words, its perception is an experiential and relational Alberto, 2009 is conceived as an ecological phenomenon per se: phenomenon; it is an individual, physiological, and thelocated. landscape On the is other a result hand, of thethe relationalconcept of dynamic landscape of eco-cultural act. human habitation itself, in continuous interaction with social, cultural and environmental dynamics. Thus, the notion of landscape undoes the dichotomist Towards a “landscape ecosophy” assumptions regarding a “built” urban system and a “natural” system, in order to formulate one sole, interdependent system. However, although the landscape notion is extraordinarily importantLandscape in order is a firstto end step the towards epistemological urbanism dichotomy ecology. between person and environment (or city and nature), Soriano (2003, p. 29-30) builds upon this line of it does not necessarily imply the emergence of more [...] the result of the anthropic, physical and thinking by defining landscape as ecological behavior in urban-territorial planning mental construction of every moment in history, and design (one that points, for example, to a better which is determined and made possible by the quality of life). Ecological urbanism that seeks out natural environment, which in turn is constituted sustainability and quality of life also needs a guiding by abiotic and biotic factors. framework, mainly in the ethical-political dimension. An orienting framework for an ecological urbanism that seeks sustainability means, “[...] giving direction, Zuluaga’s (2006) definition includes three dimensions, guiding action, distinguishing between what is correct in which the first is objective (physical, geographical and incorrect, saying how one should act and live attributespace) is subject value to to a administration portion of the or geographic government; space; the [...]” ( andsecond the is third subjective is temporal (cultural) (causal), by which as social it is relatedgroups as well as Felix refer to natural and human factors, and their respective to withBecker, the term 2012 ecosophy., p. 17). This is precisely what Arne interrelations. However, while these authors establish NaessFor (1990) the ecosophyGuattari is rational, (2000) personal multidimensional patterns regarding the concept philosophical system that leads one closer to deep of landscape, they still divide landscape in different ecology.Naess Naess (1990) sought to transcend ecology as a science, realms – i.e. in-out, mind-world, meaning-substance – centering on the study of the unity that emerges thereby neglecting or misunderstanding its relational through interrelation, which is best approached by , p. 193) a combination between ecology and philosophy: eco-philosophy. It is through this platform that Naess essence. On the contrary, it is Ingold’s (2000 work that achieves a more integral definition:urbe. hereRevista Brasileira de Gestão Urbana (Brazilian Journal of Urban Management), 2016 jan./abr., 8(1), 28-41 32 Salazar, G., & Jalabert, D.

introduces the term ecosophy, as a code of values and to the emergence of what we refer to as a “landscape a way of seeing the personal world that guides one’s ecosophy”. This is a personal system in which the decisions. Thus, he invites each individual to develop relational epistemology of the landscape of which one their own ecosophy, arguing that this is how more is a part is combined with an orienting framework profound, ecologically social and institutionalized regarding how we should inhabit this landscape. postures would emerge; i.e. through processes of unity A landscape ecosophy also demands “placing” or within diversity. Thus, the personal rationality of the “localizing” ecological urbanism. This is to say, to plan ecosophy is vital to be able to achieve processes of ecological urbanism. This occurs to the degree that landscape based on socio-cultural capacities, ecological the term ecosophy remains linked to the importance and design the city and its relationship with a major within the system. This is the landscape singularity– and ecological transformation of those who utilize whichlimits and is revealed personal in subjectivities all of its capacity of the and various limits actors by a ecologicalof the subject urbanism. (subjectivity) Along in thethese processes lines, Guattari of social landscape ecosophy – in which ecological urbanism emphasizes that the current technocratic can really become developed in an appropriate manner, outlook – which also explores through and thus deals with a global crisis. ecological(2000) design – is not really capable of dealing with the complexityOrr of (2002) the prevailing crisis. Inversely, emerges: to examine the links between “the three according to ecologies”Here, a ( significant empirical) that actors research in a certain dimension urban [...] only an ethic-political articulation – which Guattari (2000, p. 27) relate inhabitingGuattari, the 2000 urban system to the immediate I call ecosophy – between the three ecological andsystem global develop, landscape, specifically encompassing how they understand the city. and registers (the environment, social relations,

[the issues of a planetary crisis]. and human subjectivity) would be likely clarify Case study and methodology It is in the combination of these three ecologies that the individual role – and especially the perception With no doubt the urbanization processes – which ) – has generated vital for ecological urbanism. subjectiveEcological dynamics urbanism, that commands to the degree actions that – becomesit enters intertwinedin Chile reaches with a 86.6% manner ( INE,to understand 2002 the relationship into the practical and political arena in terms of betweensignificant the ecological city and transformations its landscape. This on localsituation scales, is how the city should be organized and planned to even more accentuated in the case of intermediate achieve a better quality of life, is not only inserted urban systems, due to their functional and cultural within the power dynamics itself. In addition, it also closeness with the surrounding hinterland. reveals a variety of visions, perspectives and practices Recently, the specialized literature has moved from regarding the city planning (or non-planning), and the concept of “mid-size” cities to “intermediate” cities understanding it (or not) as part of a higher order ( ; ) in landscape and biosphere. order to reveal such cities importance on articulating The most complex issue here is related to the differentBellet & territorialLlop, 2004 andBolay institutional & Rabinovich, scales—i.e. 2004 a level of understanding on the ecological urbanism. unique role of intermediation between the urban distinguished the difference between and the rural, as well as the local and the global in shallow ecology and deep ecology. While shallow economic, ecological and socio-cultural dimensions. ecologyNaess (1973) is focused on solving environmental problems In Latin America, intermediate urban systems tend to through technological innovation and within an have a high level of connection with the local ecosystem anthropocentric model, deep ecology is organized based on a foundational change, both epistemological power of local ecological and cultural transformation, and ethical, that recognizes and values the relational aswhere well they as a arevital inserted, role for which eco-cultural implies conservation a significant form of human beings as part of the biosphere network. and sustainable local and regional planning. The combination of the term landscape and Regarding the empirical dimension, the current ecosophy, as it has been previously explained, leads relationship between the Villarrica-Pucón urban

urbe. Revista Brasileira de Gestão Urbana (Brazilian Journal of Urban Management), 2016 jan./abr., 8(1), 28-41 Towards a landscape ecosophy 33 system and its surrounding mountainous landscape lakes of glacial origin as tall as the Mountain Range, a height level of endemic qualities pertaining Villarrica Volcano) in the Araucanía Region of Chile to the Andean Temperate Forests and numerous has(specifically been used the as Villarrica a case study National (Figure Park 1). and Due the to volcanic centers ( ). This area makes up their “intermediation” role, Villarrica and Pucón part of the Araucarias Biosphere Reserve, proclaimed socio-ecological and economic dynamics allow Gedda, 2010 researchers to conceptualize and categorize them as RBARAUCARIAS, an interdependent urban-territorial system. They not by UNESCO). However, (United it is consideredNations Educational, to be one of Scientific the most only have a strong relationship between themselves threatenedand Cultural areas Organization) of the country in 1983 by ( but also with the landscape they are within. That is, 2014 [...] urban expansion, the cutting and destruction while it is not a conurbation, it would be inadequate to disassociate the two cities in this analysis as they the introduction of invasive species as a result share landscape, intercultural bouquet, and territorial of nativehuman forest activity, habitat, and single-crop grazing, forest farming fires and [...] and economic developmental aspects. ( ). This urban system is part of the so-called Central Lacustrine Zone and the Glacial-Volcanic Plains (Gedda, In addition,RBARAUCARIAS, the area 2014concentrates high indices of interculturalism, marked by the culture

2010, p. 28). Within this system it is possible to discover

Figure 1 - Villarrica-Pucón urban system and its mountain-lacustrine ecosystem Source: Own Preparation with data from SIIT-BCN (Sistema Integrado de Información Territorial, Bibliotena del Congreso Nacional de Chile).

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or contamination from formal measures or in this Region). preconceived problems [...] ( (23.5%The Villarricaof the indigenous National population Park is located of Chile in lives the Empirical data was collected in two phases through Andean sector of the Araucanía Region, including the Martínez, 2005, p. 2). semi-structured interviews with key informants. municipalities of Villarrica, Pucón and Curarrehue, as well as the Los Rios Region, including the municipality of Panguipulli. The Park includes an expanse of over keyThe localfirst experienceactors from was the citydeveloped of Villarrica over 9(pertaining months in ). Within the Park is the to2013, the generating public, civil 20 semi-structuredsociety and private interviews sectors). with Villarrica Volcano, located southeast and northeast The second data collection phase was between August of53,000 the Villarrica hectares and(CONAF, Calafquén 2014 Lakes, respectively. Its

having experienced several eruptions during the and September of 2014, leading to the application of volcanic activity dates back to over 100,000 years, from the public sector, as well as tourism operators of30 thesemi-structured mountainous interviews areas. Local with inhabitants key informants were also interviewed. This second period included both 20thThis century research (1908, methodological 1948-49, 1963-64, focus contributes1971, 1984 the cities of Villarrica and Pucón (Table 1). toand the 2015). discussion on the complexity between city The formulation of the interview questionnaires and landscape from the perspective of several local focused on the following topics: (1) uses, practices and actors who experience the place socio-ecological transformations where they live every day. Based on this methodological focus, work was done onmeanings the Villarrica attributed volcano to the andmountain the Villarrica and/or lacustrine National over a period of three years, using qualitative park;landscape; and (3) (2) processes primary landmarks and characteristics that occurred regarding based methods that emphasize an ethnographic approach. urbanization and local sustainable development of This ethnographic element of the research is the Villarrica – Pucón urban system. The informants intended to perceive [...] the current realities, social entities and human perceptions, as they are and as they are andwere each adults one from agreed 23 to to the 85 interview years of age;by reading they were and present in themselves, without any intrusion signingcontacted a letter personally of informed by email consent. and/or telephone,

Table 1 - Sample description considered in semi-structured interviews

Villarrica-Pucón Sample description and numbers of interviewees Man Woman Man Woman Civil society (key speakers and common inhabitants) Man/woman who has been living in the area for more 14 2 - - than 10 years

Public sector (Municipal mayors; municipal public Man/woman related to public decision making process 23 2 - - workers) and university teachers (in socio-cultural, ecological and economic sectors) in a communal scale; and Man/woman related to academic research (in cultural and planning studies)

Technical officials from regional public offices Man/woman working on monitoring the volcano - - 2 - Villarrica and Villarrica National Park

Local tour operators Owners, guides or workers related to tourism companies 6 1 - - based in Villarrica and/or Pucón and that provide services to Villarrica´s Volcano and National Park Source: Own preparation.

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Ecosophies of urban inhabitation: observing the volcano because you’re so used to seeing it [...]”5; the mountain landscape from afar “[residents] like to look at the volcano from afar, but from close up I don’t know too many people who say From an ethic1 perspective, there is an initial that they’ve actually been there [...]”6; “I think that tendency to consider that the Villarrica-Pucón urban half [of the population of Villarrica] have been to the system would have a direct relationship regarding volcano, but the rest just look from here [...]” . Thus, the socio-ecological disconnection relationship7 with National Park, as it is immersed in the mountainous the volcano can be reduced to observing it from afar, experience and enjoyment of the Villarrica Volcano and person. ratherWhile than it ais feeling certain of that really this knowing disconnection it in the firstis a pointedlandscape. to However, the very based opposite. on the As fieldwork, this perception a recurring is theme from the narratives of the interviewed subjects constant within the narratives shared by the informants, it is worth noting that the notion of appropriation of the interviewees, it is possible to determine the comprehensionquite internalized ofwithin the themountain discourse landscape of the majority over imaginaries. This is because while there is no physical relationship,takes on a significant there is andegree important of strength relationship within their on a dichotomy: on the one hand, there is disconnection andthe pastlack 30of awareness;years as being and subject on the to other the followinghand, an appropriation that translates territorially into identity emotionalsubjective level, level. the This disconnect generates completely a dichotomy disappears, in the and relevance for tourism. associo-cultural the ‘looking from definition afar’ is transformedof the landscape. into a looking On an Starting with the Villarrica Volcano, allusion is that reveals the image of the volcano as an important made to the fact that several decades ago, “[...] it was iconic identify of the urban system. It comes to be like a tradition to go to the volcano at least once in your conceived as a constituent element of the sense of life [or even] once a year”[...] , or that, “[...] there were some families that walked, even2 from Pucón [...]”3, to vase of the city”, the typical drawing made by school the base of the volcano, leading to believe that the belonging. This is because it is seen as the “flower current disconnect has not always been the case travels out of the city. Thus, the looking from afar does among the urban population. However, as observed notchildren, prevent or athe certain subject feeling of conversation for the volcano, when nor oneit is from the interviews made to actors pertaining to the visually incorporated within daily life. This blooms civil society sector, at the same time, privatization and into a series of meanings that represent the volcano the charge of an entry fee have contributed to local in terms of “[...] inspiration [...]” ; “[...] the beauty of residents refraining from making the trip. nature in all its splendor [...]”9; “[...]8 life, or that you see Certain observations obtained from interviewees the earth represented there [...]” . pertaining to the public, civil society and private sectors The notion of appropriation, from10 the interviewees’ allow researchers to deduce that the socio-cultural perspective, is so relevant that it even leads to a metaphorical dispute between Villarrica and Pucón its distance from the resident population. Among the regarding to which city the volcano belongs. If the mountain landscape construction is defined based on phrases that point this out are: “[...] people in other win as it is located at the volcano’s base, and is the countries would be fascinated with our volcano, only winner were to be judged by distance, Pucón would half an hour from the city of Pucón; this is a privilege, 5 [...]” ; “[...] people here have taken it for granted people Municipality of Villarrica. always say that sometimes you don’t even4 look at Interview with an official from the Emergency Office of the 6 Interview with an inhabitant of Villarrica. 1 The point of view of someone who is not from the place in Interview with a tourism operator from Villarrica. question. 7 Interview with a tourism operator from Pucón. 8 Interview with an inhabitant of Villarrica. 9 2 3 Interview with an inhabitant of Pucón. Municipality of Villarrica. Interview with an official from the Tourism Office of the Interview with an inhabitant of Pucón. Interview with a tourism operator from Villarrica. 4 10 urbe. Revista Brasileira de Gestão Urbana (Brazilian Journal of Urban Management), 2016 jan./abr., 8(1), 28-41 36 Salazar, G., & Jalabert, D.

“[...] city’s backdrop [...]”11; but Villarrica also claims Natural Areas (ASPE, for its Spanish acronym), or victory, boasting that “[...] something that they don’t Biosphere Reserves. However, in practice this is an have is the view, and that’s why I think that in Villarrica appropriation that is stronger on paper, and through this lakefront development emerged, with all of these the work of a particular group of experts, while still buildings that look out on the volcano and the lake” . being very far from assimilated within the imaginary Basically, the city structure and the possibility 12of and socio-ecological relationships within the local seeing the volcano every day have an imperceptible community. There is a general observation that when [...] you talk to the majority of people that live the same way the coming and going between the two influence on the process of appropriation, although in here in Villarrica or around here, it’s not really cities facilitates the process by which the inhabitants a big deal for them, because they don’t have unconsciously incorporate the mountain landscape a clear vision of what the Park means as a nature reserve, as protecting nature for future What happens when the radius is widened to generations. They don’t see it like that, so it’s as a defining element of their sense of belonging. include the Villarrica National Park? Even though its not important for them [...]. 17 surround the volcano and imbue its base with a deep shade53,000 of hectares green, when of abundant asked about forest its and relevance vegetation the Landscape instrumentalization of: Mountain unanimous response is that there is little connection tourism as an environmental economic project with the Park. Some observations taken from the narratives show that there is also a certain lack of As manifested in some interviews and observed awareness regarding the relationship with the Park. directly by the authors in the ethnographic process, Some of these include: “[...] there are probably even when one walks down the streets of Villarrica people who don’t even know that the Park exists [...]”13, and Pucón, in some ways the “looking from afar”, “[...] when you get there [to the volcano] you find the which implies the lack of feeling and knowing the CONAF center, and only then can you tell that it’s a National Park [...]” , “[...] the local people aren’t used incorporation of an additional dichotomy regarding to using the Park or14 nature as a source of recreation thelandscape relationship in first between person, comes the city into and tension the mountain with the or contemplation [...]”15, or if “[...] you ask a random [...] homeowner or student out in the street they’ll crafts fairs, tourism agencies and concession stands probably tell you that they didn’t even know there is landscape. The names of businesses, flyers, arts and a National Park 15 kilometers outside of town [...]”16. In the case of the Villarrica National Park, the ofdisplay the population a functional does reality include very suchconnected notions to ain major their primacy of this lack of awareness is interrelated with landscape. This also implies that a significant portion According to the Park or who have heard of it, recommend it as a socialwork, andprofession natural orlandscapes projects. are made and remade in placea lack toof go,appropriation. and thus incorporate On one hand, it as those part of who the knowcity’s Lowenhaupt (2008, p. 197), “[...] identity, though without changing the generalized lack transformedrelationship with social several and naturalenvironmental world throughprojects[...]”, the institutionalized through the concept of State Protected as “[...] each environmental project drives us to a of awareness. On the other hand, appropriation is and environmental practices”. That is how the city’s 11 functionalityway in which ends it combines up instrumentalizing significant ideas, the landscape. policies

Interview with an official of the Municipality of Pucón. This is to say, it imbues the landscape with a use in 12 the Municipality of Villarrica. Interview with an ex-official from the Emergency Office of 13 Interview with a tourism operator from Villarrica. city sustained on tourism, in which local, regional order to achieve a certain purpose: a project for a and national actors turn the landscape into “[...] a 14 Municipality of Pucón. Interview with an official from the Tourism Office of the concrete actions in space [...]” ( 15 Interview with an academic from the PUC Villarrica campus. strategic instrument for defining both interventions and 16 Interview with a university professorZuluaga, from 2006Villarrica., p. 79). 17 urbe.Interview Revista Brasileira with de Gestão an officialUrbana (Brazilian of the Journal Municipality of Urban Management of Pucón.), 2016 jan./abr., 8(1), 28-41 Towards a landscape ecosophy 37

not far from an economically based vision. This is to obtained in the interview by different local actors, it say, a vision focused on the use that the landscape isDuring possible the topast suggest 30 years, that based the mountain on the information landscape can deliver for economic development of the urban instrumentalization takes on a socio-economic aspect system, and not primarily focused on the conservation that operates primarily within two areas: of the mountain landscape as a value in and of itself. First as a tourist commerce of the volcano and the up to the volcanic crater, volcanic caves, canyoning, The Villarrica Lakefront: towards a landscape photographyVillarrica National tours, Park. ski Startingtrips and at trekkingearly 1980s, became trips ecosophy based on urban habitation? popular, together with new forms of cultural tourism From the point of view of urban development, areas surrounding the Park. In the same way, large companiessuch as indigenous became incorporated and/or Mapuche into this tourism new market, in the transformations, most of all regarding processes of having been awarded public bids to build infrastructure, urbanization,the tourism boom urban has expansion, triggered the significant development spatial of provide services, and maintain the National Park. commercial infrastructure, and real estate speculation. In The second operational area is related to how the the context of a heavily neoliberal planning system with actions aimed at strengthening the tourism activity have an unregulated land market, this process would seem to and care for the landscape. Thus, mountain tourism (see ; ). a resulting influence on the ecological conservation Inbe the triggering absence a ofsignificant strategic process planning, of the spatial development segregation of professionalization in areas such as the generation of commerceZunino and & Hidalgo accommodation 2010 Hidalgo for tourists, & Zunino real 2011 estate becomes an environmental project that has sought development of summer homes, and the prevalence of of Tourism Service Providers provided by the National public services in areas of high tourism interest, have Tourism Quality Certifications and a National Registry Tourism Service (SERNATUR). In addition, other not only had negative socio-spatial consequences within actions such as the implementation of environmental the city. In addition, and as it was exposed by several municipal ordinances; the regulation of the number of actors for different sectors, there have also been negative people hiking the volcano ; the declaration of Areas consequences regarding the relationship between the 18 local inhabitant and his or her natural surrounding among others, have also emerged. The branding of of Interest for Tourism (ZOIT, for its Spanish acronym), landscape. Visiting the National Park and climbing up to tourism experiences associated with concepts such the volcano become, or feel like, activities for a certain as “ecotourism”, “sustainable tourism”, or experiences kind of visitor. At the same time, accessing the natural with “pristine nature” has also become common in areas is no longer as easy as it once was, due to the processes of privatization and territorial atomization. personnel, point to the fact that the establishment The places with a better view, better connectivity, more ofrecent tourism years. as Severalthe primary local actors,economic including activity CONAF in the scenic beauty, are no longer as open as they once were area, unlike the extractive forestry industry that had in past decades. This contributes to the fact that, in operated for several decades prior, has had favorable practice, the local inhabitant of the city is increasingly consequences for biological conservation and a cultural less physically connected to the landscape. revaluation of the importance of such ecosystems for quality of life. on such unregulated urban-territorial planning. Both of these areas of operation – tourism development In particular,However, newthe new urban Villarrica projects Lakefront seem to be is effective a prime example. This place has been recurrently used by the for the landscape – would seem to be functionally interviewees in order to exemplify and embody the intertwined.and the valuation Ultimately, of ecological understanding conservation/care of the need to conserve and take care of the landscape through issues related to more inclusive urbanism, as well as a more ecologically “innocuous” tourism seems to be space can have on the valuation, identity, recreation to reflect on the influence that having such an urban and even appreciation of the landscape. 18 and there must be one guide and one assistant for every 6 people.Agencies can take a maximum of 24 people up at a time, Public Works, involved the construction of an urban The original project, developed by the Ministry of urbe. Revista Brasileira de Gestão Urbana (Brazilian Journal of Urban Management), 2016 jan./abr., 8(1), 28-41 38 Salazar, G., & Jalabert, D.

highway that would have ended up dislocating the go, fomented the low levels of connection among city from its waterfront with the Villarrica Lake. the population [...]. [Nowadays], everybody recognizes that [the Lakefront has] changed movement, which managed to detain the original the face of Villarrica, bringing it closer to the Due to multiple factors this project triggered a social lake [...].19

project, install a basic level of public participation, This space is important to the city, bringing it closer to the lake and thus forming a closer identity generatedand influence and the articulated design of a newpedestrian project. zone In contrast, (which the new lakefront – inaugurated in December 2009 – to the rest of the landscape. This perception is includes recreational, commercial and conservation triggered by the Lakefront use: a place for meeting fellow city dwellers, for experiencing the lake and the volcano that crowns the living landscape. It is in areas and a new 400 meter long artificial beach – the a vehicular street and parking areas ( ). the resourcefulness of the urban space use that the latter inaugurated in December 2014) with a bikeway, basis is set for the emergence of a deeper ecosophy Figure 2 positive effects that this new space has generated for within the local actor: theThe inhabitants significant factorof Villarrica. here however is related to the First, the fact that the public was able to organize When someone comes from out of town and values this, it starts to produce a change in you… local requirements not only shows the importance of everybody that comes says, ‘‘wow what a beautiful publicand redesign participation a project in localso that urbanism it was more but italigned also points with lakefront, it’s like a different city”. So then the [local] to the value within the perceptual frameworks and people start to think that yes, it does local knowledge base regarding a more appropriate seem to be a good thing… certain spaces that they build, that encourage changes in attitudes, or certain things that can be strengthened that Secondly, the Lakefront has emerged as a true before hadn’t been developed [...]. platformsocial and forecological socio-ecological design for theexperiences, project. with 20 In the Lakefront case as a new urban space, what the city and the rest of the landscape: happened was an opening of the city to its surrounding significant implications for the relationship between landscape. It is a door, a threshold of daily use that The lakefront became a central point for city life invites the local inhabitant to look with new eyes upon in Villarrica. To a significant degree. If it’s a nice day, everybody goes there, to walk, to jog, to play. more in the lake, to observe in more detail the volcano There was nowhere like that before. [...] the fact togetherthe major with landscape others, encompassing and to feel that the these city. elements To swim that there were no spaces before for people to of the ecosystem are also part of the urban routine, and thereby of their landscape ecosophy.

Final considerations

This work has been proposed as a contribution to the socio-cultural construction of the surrounding landscape compared to the urban habitat. The use of multiple perspectives (both perceptual and regarding habitus) by various urban actors allows us to observe that effectively the intermediate urban system and its surrounding landscape are related in a complex

manner,19 Interview to the with point a university that neither professor one from can reallyVillarrica. define Figure 2 - The new Villarrica Lakefront Interview with a President of a Municipal Union of an Urban Source: Picture taken by the authors, 2015. 20 Neighborhood Association.

urbe. Revista Brasileira de Gestão Urbana (Brazilian Journal of Urban Management), 2016 jan./abr., 8(1), 28-41 Towards a landscape ecosophy 39

also be a trigger and facilitator of epistemological leads us to understand the importance of studying and ethical frameworks that seek to install a more localitself withoutsystems the based other. on On their one particularities, hand, this relationship and the profound landscape ecosophy. perspectives of such constituent actors of a unique hand, this relationship also suggests a high degree of Acknowledgements complexityand continuously regarding changing the construction landscape. ofOn landscape, the other We thank the three anonymous reviewers for their variety, that are even at times contradictory, are all constructive comments. This research was supported interconnected.in which projects The perceptions, recognition uses, of these meanings perceptions and a by the singularity and the multiplicity and landscape uses make N° CONICYT Local. Epistemologías Research de Project la Sustentabilidad Fondecyt Iniciación en la 11130519 The landscape relational construction emphasizes Región de la, Araucanía“Planificación (Chile)”; y Desarrollo by the Centro Urbano de theup a need significant to transcend portion Cartesian of the ecology visions of thaturbanism. divide Desarrollo Urbano Sustentable ( the city (as a cultural entity) from the environment Nº , Chile); and by Interdisciplinary Centre CONICYT, FONDAP (as a natural entity). However, despite the fact that for Intercultural and Indigenous Studies ( 15110020 this is increasingly evident in academia, it is not Nº , Chile). CONICYT necessarily true in the ways of inhabiting the city FONDAP 15110006 itself. In practice, this case study speaks of an urban inhabitant that recognizes having a high level of References disconnect with the surrounding landscape, which represents a dichotomy concerning several different Aberley, D. (1999). Interpreting bio-regionalism: a story aspects. The disconnection and instrumentalization from many voices. In M. V. McGinnis (Ed.), Bioregionalism. of the surrounding landscape has strongly minimized the emergence of deeper ecosophies among the urban New York: Routledge. dweller. As such, the possibility of an ecological urbanism y problemas ambientales. Geográfica Digital, 6(11), 1-13. Alberto, J. (2009). Geografía y crecimiento urbano: paisajes extended to many intermediate cities in Chile (and Barnhill, D. L. (1999). At home on the Earth: becoming probablyis also jeopardized. in the Latin As American a phenomenon region) that it is seem important to be native to our place: a multicultural anthology. Berkeley: that ecological urbanism takes on the challenge of University of California Press. generating a more deep-seated “ecological literacy” Sustainability ethics and sustainability ( ) within the urban inhabitant. This can research. Dordrecht: Springer. be achieved by putting emphasis on facilitating an Becker, C. U. (2012). experientialOrr, 1992 closeness with the surrounding landscape. Such literacy is not only vital for the emergence of a urbanos. Revista Electrónica de Geografía y Ciencias Bellet, C., & Llop, J. M. (2004). Miradas a otros espacios more profound personal ecosophy. In addition – as Sociales has been observed in this research – it is vital for the , 8(165). contribution that it can have to providing ecological Latin America risk and opportunities of coherent urban urbanism with value-based, emotional and cognitive Bolay, J., & Rabinovich, A. (2004). Intermediate cities in development. Cities bases that are more appropriate to particular places. The case of the Villarrica Lakefront reinforces this , 21(5), 407-421. http://dx.doi. point. As a variety of local actors are increasingly org/10.1016/j.cities.2004.07.007Capra, F. (1996). The Web of life: a new synthesis of mind allowed to intervene in the opportunities for urban and matter. London: HarperCollins. planning and design, there is a higher level of The hidden connections: a science for sustainable living. Anchor Books. the activities that can take place in the new urban Capra, F. (2004). spacesvaluation that not are only developed. of the project Thus, it itself, would but seem also that of Parque ecological urbanism emerges not only from these Nacional Villarrica Corporación Nacional Forestal – CONAF. (2014). perspectives, but in a sort of causal circularity, can . Santiago. Retrieved in 26 June 2014, from urbe. Revista Brasileirahttp://www.conaf.cl/parques/parque-nacional-villarrica/ de Gestão Urbana (Brazilian Journal of Urban Management), 2016 jan./abr., 8(1), 28-41 40 Salazar, G., & Jalabert, D.

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