3. Claude E. Welch, Political Modernization: a Reader in Comparative Political Change 7. M. J. Levy Jr, Modernisation and the St

Notes

NOTES TO CHAPTER ONE: THE POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT PERSPECTIVE

I. R. Nisbet, Social Change and History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1969). 2. C. H. Dodd, Political Development (London: Macmillan 1972) p. 13. 3. Claude E. Welch, Political Modernization: A Reader in Comparative Political Change (Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 197 1) p. 7. 4. Ibid. 5. For details of these approaches, see: Robert A. Packenham, 'Approaches to the Study of Political Development', World Politics, vol. 17, no. I (Oct 1964) pp.108-20. 6. C. E. Black, The Dynamics ofModernization (New York: Harper and Row, 1966) P·7· 7. M. J. Levy Jr, Modernisation and the Structure of Societies (Princeton, NJ.: Princeton University Press, 1966) pp. 35-6. 8. D. A. Rustow, A World of Nations: Problems of Political Modernization (Washington: The Brookings Institution, 1967) pp. 1-5. 9. S. P. Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1968) p. 52. 10. J. A. Bill, Comparative Politics: A Questfor a Theory (Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill, 1973) p. 63· II. The technocratic dimension involved 'industrialization and embodies the contrast between pre-industrial and industrial societies. The organizational dimension reflects the degree of differentiation and specialization and embodies the contrast between simple and complex societies. The attitudinal dimension is that ofrationality, and secularization and contrasts the scientific versus the religious-magical perspective' (ibid., p. 63). 12. Henry Bernstein, 'Modernization Theory and the Sociological Study of Development', Journal of Development Studies, vol. 7, no. 2 (Jan 1971) p. 141. 13. Dean C. Tipps, 'Modernization Theories and the Comparative Study of Societies: a Critical Perspective', Comparative Studies in Sociery and History, vol. 15 (1973) p. 203. 14. Marion]. Levy Jr, 'Contrasting Factors in the Modernization of China and Japan', Economic Development and Cultural Change, vol. 2 (1953) pp. 161-97. 15. T. Parsons et al., Towards a General Theory of Action (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1951). See also T. Parsons, The Social System (New York: The Free Press, 1951); and W. C. Mitchell, Sociological Anarysis and Politics: The Theories of Talcott Parsons (Englewood Cliffs, N J.: Prentice-Hall, 1967). Notes 16. F. X. Sutton, 'Social Theory and Comparative Politics', in Comparative Politics: A Reader, ed. H. Eckstein and D. E. Apter (New York: The Free Press, 1963). 17. Ibid., p. 71. 18. F. W. Riggs, Administration in Developing Countries: The Theory ofPrismatic Society (Boston, Mass.: Houghton Miffiin, 1964). 19. W. W. Rustow, The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1960) pp. 4-11. 20. W. W. Rustow, Politics and the Stages of Growth (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971) pp. 230-66. 21. Black, The Dynamics of Moderni .. ation, pp. 67-8· 22. Lester M. Salamon, 'Comparative History and the Theory of Modernization' , World Politics, vol. 33 (1970--1) pp. 92-3. 23. Ibid., p. 92. 24· Huntington, Political Order, p. 73 25· Ibid., p. 77- 26. Salamon, in World Politics, vol. 3, p. 94. 27. E. Shils, Political Development in the New States (The Hague: Mouton, 1965) p.lO. 28. S. N. Eisenstadt, Moderni ..ation: Protest and Change (Englewood Cliffs, N J.: Prentice-Hall, 1966) p. I. 29. Quoted in Donald C. O'Brien, 'Modernization, Order and the Erosion of a Democratic Ideal', Journal of Development Studies, vol. 8, no. 4 (July 1972) P·353· 30. Tipps, in Comparative Studies in Society and History, vol. 15, p. 212. 31. s. P. Huntington, 'The Change to Change: Modernization, Development and Politics', Comparative Politics, vol. 3, no. 3 (197 1) pp. 293-4· 32. O'Brien, in Journal of Development Studies, vol. 8, no. 4, p. 351. 33. Daniel Lerner, The Passing of Traditional Society (New York: The Free Press, 1958). 34· Ibid., p. 45· 35· Ibid., p. 45· 36. Ibid., p. 46. 37· Ibid., p. 47· 38. Ibid., p. 72. 39· Ibid., p. 75· 40. L. C. Brown, 'Stages in the Process of Change' , in C. A. Micaud et al., Tunisia: The Politics of Modernisation (London: Pall Mall, 1964) pp. 3-68. 41. D. A. Rustow et al., 'Introduction', in R. E. Ward and D. A. Rustow, Political Moderni ..ation in Japan and Turkey (Princeton, N J.: Princeton University Press, 1964) p. 7· 42 • Ibid., p. 7. 43. D. A. Rustow, 'Turkey: the Modernity of Tradition', in Political Culture and Political Development, ed. L. W. Pye and S. Verbs (Princeton, NJ.: Princeton University Press, 1965) p. 173. 44· Ibid., p. 174· 45. Ibid., p. 185. 46. Richard A. Higgot, Political Development Theory (London: Croom Helm, 1983) P·93· 47· Ibid., p. 103. Notes 193

NOTES TO CHAPTER TWO: THE MIDDLE CLASS AS AN AGENT OF CHANGE

I. The outstanding contributions include S. Ossowski, Class Structure in the Social ConsciousMss (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1963); M. M. Gordon, Social Class in American Sociology (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1958); and T. B. Bottomore's two studies Elites and Socie!) (New York: Basic Books, 1974) and Classes in Modern Socie!) (New York: Pantheon, 1966). Stimulating examples are G. Lenski, Power and Privilege: A Theory of Social Stratification (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1966); and B. Moore Jr, Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World (Boston, Mass.: Beacon, 1966). See also Charles H. Anderson, The Political Economy of Social Class (Englewood Cliffs, N J.: Prentice-Hall, 1974); Peter Calvert, The Concept of Class (London: Hutchinson, 1982). 2. Among the writings of this category, the following provide especially fresh and novel insights: L. A. Fallers, 'Social Stratification and Economic Processes in Africa', in Class, Status and Power, ed. R. Bendix and S. M. Lipset (New York: The Free Press, 1966) pp. 141-9; R. L. Sklar, 'Political Science and National Integration - a Radical Approach', Journal of Modern African Studies, vol. 5 (May 1967) pp. I-II; K. W. Grundy, 'The "Class Struggle" in Africa: an Examination of Conflicting Theories', Journal of Modern African Studies, vol. 2 (Nov 1964) pp. 379-93; R. L. Hardgrave Jr, 'Caste, Fission and Fusion', Economic and Political Weekry,July 1968, pp. 1065-70;J. A. Bill, The Politics of Iran: Groups, Classes and Modernization (Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill, 1972); M. Halpern, The Politics of Social Change in the Middle East and North Africa (Princeton, NJ.: Princeton University Press, 1963) pp. 41-112. 3. Max Weber, The Theory of Social and Economic Organization (Glencoe, Ill.: The Free Press, 1965) p. 424. 4. Ibid., p. 428. 5. See T. Veblen, The Theory of the Leisure Class: An Economic Study of Institutions (London: Allen & Unwin, 1918). 6. W. L. Warner and P. S. Lunt, The Social Life of a Modern Communi!), Yankee Study Series, I (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1941). 7. T. Parsons, 'A Revised Analytical Approach to the Theory of Social Stratification', in Essays in Sociological Theory (Glencoe, Ill.: The Free Press, 1954) pp. 119-20. 8. R. Dahrendorf, Class and Conflict in Industrial Socie!) (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1959) p. 162. 9. Ibid., p. 204. 10. Ibid., p. 238. II. Ibid., p. 181. 12. Ibid., pp. 166-7. 13. J. A. Bill, 'Class Analysis and the Dialectics of Modernization in the Middle East', International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, vol. 13, no. 4 (Oct 1972) p·422 . 14. T. Parsons, 'On the Concept of Political Power', in Class, Status and Power, P·249· 15. See Authori!), ed. C. J. Friedrich (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1958). 16. L. Reissman, Class in American Socie!) (New York: The Free Press, 1958) p. 58. 194 Notes 17. See S. N. Eisenstadt, 'Changes in Patterns of Stratification on Attainment of Political Independence', Transactions if the Third World Congress if Sociology (London: International Sociological Association, 1956) pp. 32-41; and Lenski, Power and Privilege; R. Adams, The Second Sowing: Power and Secondary Development in Latin America (San Francisco: Chandler, 1967); Bendix and Lipset (eds), Class Status and Power; Halpern, Politics of Social Change. lB. For a theoretical analysis see R. Bell et al., Political Power: A Reader in Theory and Research (New York: The Free Press, 1969). 19. A partial exception is J. Berque's 'L'Idee de Classes dans I'Historie Contemporaine des Arabes', Cahiers Internationaux de Sociologie, vol. 3B (1965) PP· 169-B4· 20. Gustav von Grunebaum, Medieval Islam: A Stuqy in Cultural Orientation (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961) p. 212. 21. Ibid., p. 170. 22. Bill, in International Journal if Middle Eastern Studies, vol. 13, no. 4, p. 41B. 23. M. Halpern, Politics if Social Change, p. 46. 24. Bill, in International Journal if Middle Eastern Studies, vol. 13, no. 4, p. 424. 25. Ibid. 26. Ibid., p. 425. 27. Ibid. 2B. Ibid., p. 427. 29. See The Politics if Developing Areas, ed. G. Almond and G. S. Coleman (Prin{:eton, NJ.: Princeton University Press, 1960) pp. 33-B. 30. M. Weiner, The Politics if Scarcity: Public Pressures and Political Response in India (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962). 31. F. W. Riggs, 'The Theory of Developing Politics', World Politics, vol. XVI (Oct 1963) pp. 147-71. 32. L. Binder, Iran: Political Development in a Changing Society (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1962). 33. V. F. Costello, Urbanisation in the Middle East (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977) pp. 25-B. 34· Ibid., p. 30. 35. Farhad Fazemi, Poverty and Revolution in Iran: The Migrant Poor, Urban Marginality and Politics (New York: New York University Press, 19Bo). 36. Costello, Urbanisation in the Middle East, p. Bo. 37. Ibid., p. BI. 3B. H. Rotblat, 'Stability and Change in an Iranian Provincial Bazaar' (un• published PhD thesis, University of Chicago, 1972). 39. A. Perlmutter, 'Egypt and the Myth of the New Middle Class: a Comparative Analysis', Comparative Studies in Society and History, vol. X (Oct 1967) pp. 46--65. 40. M. Berger, 'The Middle Class in the Arab World', in The Middle East in Transition, ed. W. Laqueur (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 195B) pp. 61- 71. 41. Ibid., p. 66. 42. Ibid., pp. 6B---9. 43· Ibid., p. 69· 44· Ibid., pp. 70-1. 45. Halpern, Politics if Social Change, p. 52. 46. Ibid. Notes 195 47. Ibid. 48. Ibid. 49. Ibid. 50. Ibid., p. 59· 51. Ibid. 52. Ibid, p. 70. 53. M. W. Wenner, 'Saudi Arabia: Survival of Traditional Elites', in Political Elites and Political Development in the Middle East, ed. F. Tachau (New York: Schenkman, 1975) p. 164. 54. D. Apter, 'System, Process and Politics of Economic Development', in B. F. Hoselitzet al., Industrialization and Sociery (The Hague: Mouton, 1963) pp. 139- 40 . 55. Wenner, in Political Elites and Political Development, p. 167. 56. Bill, in International Journal of Middle East Studies, vol. 13, no. 4, pp. 427-34. 57. William Pugh, 'Emergence ofa New Middle Class in Saudi Arabia', Middle East Journal, vol. 27 (Winter 1973) pp. 7-20. 58. Ibid., p. 8. 59· Ibid., p. 9· 60. Ibid., p. I I. 61. Ibid, p. 10. 62. Ibid., p. 17. 63. Nezih Neyzi, The Middle Classes in Turkey', in Social Change and Politics in Turkey, ed. K. H. Karpat (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1973) pp. 123-50. 64· Ibid., p. 127. 65· Ibid., p. 139· 66. Ibid., p. 140.

NOTES TO CHAPTER THREE: THE BUREAUCRACY AS AN AGENT OF CHANGE

I. From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology, ed. H. H. Gerth and C. W. Mills (New York: Oxford University Press, 1946) p. 244. 2. Joseph La Palombara, 'Bureaucracy and Political Development: Notes, Queries and Dilemmas', in Bureaucracy and Political Development, ed.Joseph La Palombara (Princeton, NJ.: Princeton University Press, 1967) pp. 49-50. 3. One of the most important studies in this area is Bureaucracy and Political Development, ed. La Palombara. 4. La Palombara, 'Bureaucracy and Political Development: Notes, Queries and Dilemmas', ibid., p. 39. 5· Ibid., p. 40 . 6. Ibid., p. 43. 7. H.J. Laski, 'Bureaucracy', in Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences, vol. III (New York: Macmillan, 1930) p. 70. 8. There is an enormous literature on development administration. See I. Swerdlow, Development Administration: Concepts and Problems (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1963); Readings in Comparative Public Administration, ed. N. Raphael (Boston, Mass.: Allyn & Bacon, 1967); C. Leys, Politics and Change in Developing Countries: Studies in Theory and Practice of Development (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969); Approaches to Development: Notes Politics, Administration and Change, ed. W. J. Siffin (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1966) . 9. There are many works on Pakistan's bureaucracy. Among these are Henry Frank Goodnow, The Civil Service of Pakistan: Bureaucracy in a New Nation (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1964); Albert Gorvine, 'The Civil Service under the Revolutionary Government in Pakistan', Middle East Journal, vol. 19, no. 3 (Summer 1965) pp. 321-36; Ralph Braibanti, 'Public Bureaucracy and Judiciary in Pakistan', in Bureaucracy and Political Development, pp. 36

NOTES TO CHAPTER FOUR: THE MILITARY AS AN AGENT OF CHANGE

I. Edward Shils, 'The Military in the Political Development of New States', in The Role of the Military in Underdeveloped Countries, ed. J. J. Johnson (Princeton, NJ.: Princeton University Press, 1972) pp. 7-68. 2. Ibid., p. 30. 3. Ibid., p. I I. 4. Ibid., p. 30. 5· Ibid., p. 3I. 6. Ibid., p. 17. 7. Ibid., p. 60. 8. Ibid., p. 57. 9· Ibid., p. 54· 10. Lucian W. Pye, 'Armies in the Process of Political Modernization', in The Role of the Military, pp. 69-90. I I. Ibid., p. 69. 12. Ibid., p. 80. Notes 197 13· Ibid., p. 83. 14· Ibid., p. 83. 15. Ibid., p. 85· 16. Amos Perlmutter, Egypt: The Praetorian State (New Brunswick, NJ.: Transaction Books, 1974) p. 4. 17· Ibid., p. 5. 18. Ibid. 19. Ibid. 20. Ibid., p. 8. 21. Ibid., p. 16. 22. Ibid. 23. See The Role of the Military, esp. pp. 277-316 (M. Halpern, 'Middle Eastern Armies and the New Middle Class'). 24· Perlmutter, Egypt: The Praetorian State, p. 84. 25· Ibid., p. 98. 26. Ibid., p. 99. 27. Ibid., p. 85· 28. Ibid., p. 104. 29. Ibid., p. 122. 30. Ibid., p. 203. 3 I. J. C. Hurewitz, Middle East Politics: The Military Dimension (London: Pall Mall Press, 1969) p. 420. 32. Shils, The Role of the Military, p. 3 I. 33. M. Halpern, The Politics of Social Change in the Middle East and North Africa (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1963) p. 253. 34. J. A. Bill, 'The Military and Modernization in the Middle East', Comparative Politics, vol. 2, no. I (Oct 1969) pp. 41-62. 35. D. A. Rustow, 'The Military in Middle Eastern Society and Politics', in The Contemporary Middle East: Tradition and Innovation, ed. B. Rivlin and J. S. Szyliowicz (New York: Random House, 1965) pp. 461-74. 36. Harold Crouch, The Army and Politics in Indonesia (Ithaca, N .Y.:Cornell University Press, 1978). 37· Ibid., p. 33· 38. Ibid., p. 25. 39. In Java, the term santri signifies those who identifY with Islam, while the term hangan is used for those Muslims who identifY with and are still influenced by their pre-Islamic Japanese beliefs and practices. Those who belong to the upper stratum of this group are known as priyayi, and their social grouping is usually referred to as aliran. See Clifford Geertz, The Religion of Java (New York: The Free Press, 1960). 40. Crouch, The Army and Politics in Indonesia, p. 37. 41. Ibid., p. 267. 42. Ibid., p. 313.

NOTES TO CHAPTER FIVE: POLITICAL PARTIES AS AN AGENT OF CHANGE

I. P. H. Merkl, Modern Comparative Politics (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1970) pp. 272-3. 2. See Fred Riggs, Administration in Developing Countries: The Theory of Prismative Sociery (Boston, Mass.: Houghton Miffiin, 1964). Ig8 Notes 3. See David Apter, The Politics rif Modernization (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965). 4. See Political Parties and Political Development, ed. Joseph La Palombara and Myron Weiner (Princeton, NJ.: Princeton University Press, 1966). 5. See Michael Suleiman, Political Parties in Lebanon: The Challenge rif a Fragmented Society (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1967). 6. Scott D.Johnston, 'The Role of Parties in Political Development in the Arab Middle East', in Man, State and Society in the Contemporary Middle East, ed.J. M. Landau (New York: Praeger, 1972) pp. 135-50. 7. Ibid., p. 14I. 8. See M. Halpern, The Politics rif Social Change in the Middle East and North Africa (Princeton, NJ.: Princeton University Press, 1963) ch. 14, pp. 282-312. 9. Ibid., p. 283. 10. Ibid., p. 292. I I. Daniel Bell, The End rif Ideology in the West, Columbia U niversity Forum, Winter 1960, pp. 4-7· 12. Halpern, Politics rif Social Change, p. 292. 13. See K. H. Karpat, Turkey's Politics: The Transition to a Multi-party System (Princeton, NJ.: Princeton University Press, 1959)' 14. Clement H. Moore, Tunisia since Independence: The Dynamics rif a One Party System (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1965). 15. Ibid., p. 4· 16. Ibid., p. I. 17· Ibid., p. 43· 18. Ibid., P' 44. 19. Ibid., p. 71. 20. Ibid., p. 30. 21. Ibid., p. 56. 22. See The Draft Manifesto and Constitution: The Islamic Republic Party (Tehran: party headquarters, n.d.).

NOTES TO CHAPTER SIX: THE MARXIST PERSPECTIVE

I. Jacques Berque, 'L'Idee de Classes dans I'Histoire contemporaine des Arabes', Cahiers Internationaux de Sociologie, vol. 38 (1965) pp. 169-84' 2. Karl Marx, 'The German Ideology: Part 1', in The Marx-Engels Reader, ed. R. C. Tucker (New York: W. W. Norton, 1972) pp. 110-64. 3. Karl Marx, Capital, vol. I (Moscow: Foreign Language Publishing House, 19(1) pp. 77-8· 4. Karl Marx, 'The Civil War in France', in The Marx-Engels Reader, p. 552. 5. Karl Marx, 'The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte', ibid., pp. 459--60. 6. Karl Marx, 'The German Ideology: Part 1', ibid., p. 136. 7. Karl Marx, Capital, vol. I, pp. 644-5' 8. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, The Communist Manifesto, quoted in Marx and Engels: Basic Writings on Politics and Philosophy, ed. L. Feuer (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1959) p. 17· 9. Quoted in M. B. Brown, 'A Critique of Marxist Theories ofImperialism', in Studies in the Theory rif Imperialism, ed. Roger Owen and B. Sutcliffe, (London: Longman, 1972) p. 52. Notes 199 10. Roger Owen, 'Egypt and Europe: From French Expedition to British Occupation', ibid., pp. 195-210. I I. Ronald Robinson, 'Non-European Foundations of European Imperialism: Sketch for a Theory of Collaboration', ibid., pp. 115-42. 12. Ibid., p. 129. 13. Nicos Poulantzas, Pouvoir Politique et Classes Sociales, 2 vols (Paris: Maspero, 1971) p. 62. 14· Ibid., p. 64. 15· Ibid., p. 105. 16. Ibid., p. n 17. Marnia Lazreg, The Emergence of Classes in Algeria (Boulder, Col.: Westview Press, 1976) p. I I . 18. Ibid., p. 12. 19· Ibid., p. 14· 20. Ibid., pp. 79-80. 21. Mahmoud Hussein, Class Conflict in Egypt: 1945-1970 (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1973) p. 17. Most of the discussion that follows is based on this study. 22. Ibid., p. 17. 23· Ibid., p. 19· 24· Ibid., p. 23. 25. Ibid., p. 28. 26. Ibid., pp. 38-9. 27· Ibid., p. 79. 28. Ibid., pp. 87-8. 29· Ibid., p. 90. 30. Ibid., p. 184.

NOTES TO CHAPTER SEVEN: CENTRE-PERIPHERY PERSPECTIVE

I. R. Scott, 'Political Elites and Political Modernization: the Crisis of Transition', in Elites in Latin America, ed. S. M. Lipset and A. Solari (New York: Oxford University Press, 1967) pp. 133-4. 2. K. H. Silvert, 'The Politics of Social and Economic Change in Latin America', in Politics and Social Change in Latin America: The Distinct Tradition, ed. H. J. Wiarda (Amherst, Mass.: University of Massachusetts Press, 1974) pp. 160-2. 3. O. Sunkel and P. Paz, El Subdesarrollo Latinamericano y la Teoria del Desarrollo (Mexico, 1970) p. 6. 4. Theotonio dos Santos, 'La Crisis del Desarrollo y las Relaciones de Dependencia en America Latina', in La Dependencia Politico-economica de America Latina, ed. H.Jaguaribe et al. (Mexico, 1970). Also see his Dependenciay Cambio Social (Santiago de Chile, 1970). 5. David Ray, 'The Dependency Model of Latin American Underdevelopment: Three Basic Fallacies', Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs, vol. 15 (Feb 1973). See also R. Packenham, 'Latin American Dependency Theories: Strengths and weaknesses', paper presented at MIT Joint Seminar on Political Development, Feb 1974, pp. 16-17. A brilliant recent exposition of the importance of studying the evolution of the capitalist world system in order to 200 Notes understand underdevelopment, focusing more on the centre states than on the periphery, is Immanuel Wallerstein's The Modern World System: Capitalist Agriculture and Origins qf the European World Economy in the Sixteenth Century (New York: Academic Press, 1974). 6. J. S. Valenzuela and A. Valenzuela, 'Modernisation and Dependency: Alternative Perspectives in the Study of Latin American Underdevelopment', Comparative Politics, vol. 10, no. 4 (1978) p. 946. 7. A. Quijano, 'Dependencia, Cambio Social y Urbanizaci6n en America Latina', in America Latina: Ensayos de Interpretacion Sociologico Politico, ed. F. Cardoso and F. Welfort (Santiago de Chile, 1970). 8. For more details see Adrian Foster-Carter, 'Neo-Marxist Approaches to Development and Underdevelopment', in Sociology and Development, ed. Emanuel de Kadt and G. Williams (London: Tavistock, 1974) pp. 67-105' 9. See the following works by A. G. Frank: Capitalism and Underdevelopment in Latin America (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1969); Latin America: Under• development or Revolution (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1969); 'The Development of Underdevelopment', Monthry Review, vol. 18, no. 4 (Sep I 96g); Sociology qf Underdevelopment and Underdevelopment qf Sociology (London: Pluto Press, 1972); Lumpen Bourgeois et Lumpendeveloppement (Paris: Maspero, 1970). By Immanuel Wallerstein see The Modern World System, and 'The Rise and Future Demise of the World Capitalist System: Concepts for Comparative Analysis', Comparative Studies in Society and History, vol. 16, no. 4 (1974) pp. 387-415' 10. See Frank's Preface to Capitalism and Underdevelopment, p. 6. I I. Ibid., pp. 7-8. 12. Ibid., P' 9. 13. Ibid., p. 8. 14· Ibid., p. 9· 15. Wallerstein, in Comparative Studies in Society and History, 1974, p. 399· 16. Ibid., p. 398. 17. See Wallerstein, The Modern World System. 18. See ibid., chs I and 5. 19. Ibid., p. 127. 20. Wallerstein, in Comparative Studies in Society and History, 1974, p. 39 1. 2 I. Ibid., p. 404. 22. Ibid., p. 401. 23. For critiques of the neo-Marxist approach see R. Brenner, 'On the Origins of Capitalist Development: a Critique of Neo-Smithian Marxism', New Left Review, no. 104 (1977) pp. 25-92; E. Laciau, 'Feudalism and Capitalism in Latin America', New Left Review, no. 67 (1971) pp. 19-38; H. Gulalp, 'Imperialism and Underdevelopment' (MA dissertation, University of Manchester, 1978), and 'Frank and Wallerstein Revisited: a Contribution to Brenner's Critique', Journal qfContemporary Asia, vol. 2, no. 2 (1981) pp. 169- 88. Most of the materials used in this section are from this excellent paper. 24. Ibid., p. 185. 25. I. Roxborough, Theories qf Underdevelopment (London: Macmillan, 1979) pp. 43-4· 26. P. O'Brien, 'A Critique of Latin American Theories of Dependency', in Beyond the Sociology qf Development, ed. I. Oxaal et al. (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1975) p. 24· Notes 201 27. R. H. Chilcote, 'A Question of Dependency', Latin American Research Review, vol. 13, no. 2 (1979) p. 60. 28. See S. Lall, 'Is Dependency a Useful Concept in Analysing Under• development?', World Development, vol. 3, nos I I and 12 (1975) pp. 799-810; John G. Taylor, From Modernization to Modes of Production: A Critique of the Sociologies of Development (New York: Macmillan, 1979); Dependency Theory: A Critical Reassessment, ed. D. Seers (London: Francis Pinter, 1981). 29. R. Munck, 'Development and Politics in the Third World', unpublished manuscript (1980) pp. 61, 65; see also R. Munck, 'Imperialism and Dependency: Recent Debates and Old Dead-ends', Latin American Perspectives, vol. 8 (Summer 1981) pp. 162-79. 30. Theories of Development: Mode of Production or Dependency, ed. R. H. Chilcote and D. L. Johnson (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage Publications, 1983) pp. 17-18. 3 I. Robert L. Bach, 'Historical Patterns of Capitalist Penetration in Malaysia', Journal of Contemporary Asia, vol. 6, no. 4 (1976) pp. 457-75' 32. J. H. Drabbl, Rubber in Malaya 1876-1922: The Genesis of the Industry (London, 1973) p. 36. 33. DinJ. Li, British Malaya: An Economic Anarysis (New York, 1955)' 34. J. J. Puthucheary, Ownership and Control in the Malayan Economy (Singapore, 1960). 35· Ibid., p. 46. 36. Bach, in Journal of Contemporary Asia, vol. 6, no. 4, p. 470. 37· Ibid., p. 472. 38. Ibid., p. 475. 39. For surveys ofrhis policy see B. C. Busch, Britain and the Persian Gulf 1894-1914 (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1967); A. T. Wilson, The Persian Gulf: An Historical Sketch from the Earliest Times to the Beginning of the Twentieth Century (London: Allen & Unwin, 1928). 40. Z. Saleh, Mesopotamia (Iraq) 1600-1914: A Study in British Foreign Affairs (Baghdad: Al-Maaref Press, 1957). 41. J. S. Ismael, 'Dependency and Capital Surplus: The Case of Kuwait', Arab Studies Quarterry, vol. I, no. 2 (1979) p. 159. Most of the materials on Kuwait are drawn from this paper. 42. R. al-Mallakh, Economic Development and Regional Cooperation, Kuwait (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968) p. 4. 43. M. G. Rumaihi, Muawiqat al-tanmiyah al-ijtima iyah wa al-iqti sadiyahfi mujtamaat al-khalij aI-arabi al-muasirah (Social and Economic Obstacles to Development in the Contemporary Arab Gulf) (Kuwait: Kadhima, 1977) p. 16. 44· See Annual Statistical Abstracts, 1975, p. 251. 45. Ismael, in Arab Studies (barterry, vol. I, no. 2, p. 162. 46. Ibid., p. 163. 47· Ibid., p. 172.

NOTES TO CHAPTER EIGHT: THE ELITE PERSPECTIVE

I. See Carl Beck and J. T. McKechnie, Political Elites: A Select Computerised Bibliography (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1968). 202 Notes

2. H. D. Lasswell et al., Power aruJ Society (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1950); C. Wright Mills, The Power Elite (New York: Oxford University Press, 1959); W. Kornhauser, The Politics of Mass Society (New York: Praeger, 1969); G. Parry, Political Elites (New York: Praeger, 1969); S. Keller, Beyond the Ruling Class: Strategic Elites in a Modern Society (New York: Random House, 1963); T. B. Bottomore, Elites and Society (New York: Basic Books, 1964); G. W. Domhoff, Who Rules America? (Englewood Cliffs, NJ.: Prentice-Hall, 1967). 3. Gaetano Mosca, The Ruling Class (Elementi di Scienza Political, trs. Hannah D. Kahn (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1939); Vilfredo Pareto, The Mind and Society (Trattato di Sociologia Generale), trs. Andrew Bongiorno and Arthur Livingston, 4 vols (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1935); Robert Michels, Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchical Tendencies of Modern Democracy, trs. Eden and Cedar Paul (Glencoe, Ill.: The Free Press, 1949). 4. Mosca, The Ruling Class, p. 50. 5· Ibid., p. 40 4. 6. Ibid., p. 53. 7. Ibid., p. 154 (ch. 6). 8. Quoted in James H. Meisel, The Myth of the Ruling Class: Gaetano Mosca aruJ the Elite (Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan Press, 1958) p. 106. 9. Vilfredo Pareto, The Mind and Society (New York: Dover, 1963) p. 2031. 10. This classification is suggested in P. Thoenes, The Elite in the Welfare State (London: Faber & Faber, 1966) p. 48. I I. Mosca, The Ruling Class, pp. 415-16. 12. Michels, Political Parties, p. ix. 13. Ibid., p. II. 14. W. A. Welsh, Leaders and Elites (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1979) P·3· 15· Ibid., p. 4· 16. Ibid., p. 13. 17. G. Lenczowski, 'Some Reflections on the Study of Elites', in Political Elites in the Middle East, ed. G. Lenczowski (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise for Public Policy Research, 1975). 18. H. D. Lasswell, Politics: Who Gets What, When, How (New York: Meridian, 1958) p. 13· 19. Wright Mills, The Power Elite, p. 18. 20. Kornhauser, The Politics of Mass Society, p. 51. 21. Parry, Political Elites, p. 13. 22. Keller, Beyond the Ruling Class, p. 51. 23. Domhoff, Who Rules America?, p. 8. 24. JerzyJ. Wiatr, 'Political Elites and Political Leadership: Conceptual Problems and Selected Hypotheses for Comparative Research', Indian Journal of Politics, Dec 1973, pp. 139-40. 25. Lenczowski, in Political Elites in the Middle East, p. 3. 26. Robert A. Dahl, Who Governs? (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1961 ). 27. Floyd Hunter, Community Power Structure (Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 1953). 28. Welsh, Leaders and Elites, pp. 49-57. 29· Ibid., p. 53· Notes 203 30. F. W. Frey, The Turkish Political Elite (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1965) P·157· 3 I. See M. Zonis, The Political Elite qf Iran (Princeton, N J.: Princeton University Press, 1971). 32. Frank Tachau, Political Elites and Political Development in the Middle East (New YorhSchenkman, 1975) pp. 16-17. 33. Ibid., p. 16. 34. The analysis of Pakistan has been taken from Asaf Hussain, Elite Politics in an Ideological State: The Case qfPakistan (Folkestone, Kent: Dawson, 1979) pp. 33- 43 ('The Political System'). 35. P. A. Marr, 'The Political Elite in Iraq', in Political Elites in the Middle East, P· 107· 36. Ibid., p. 125.

NOTES TO CHAPTER NINE: CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP

I. K. J. Ratnam, 'Charisma and Political Leadership', Political Studies, vol. 12 (1964) pp. 341-54; R. S. Perinbanayagam, 'The Dialectics of Charisma', Sociological Qjtarterry, vol. 12 (Summer 1971) pp. 387-482; Richard R. Fagen, 'Charismatic Authority and the Leadership of Fidel Castro', Western Political Quarterry, vol. 18, no. 2, ptl (June 1965) pp. 275-84; Harold Wolpe, 'A Critical Analysis of Some Aspects of Charisma', Sociological Review, vol. 16 (Nov 1968) pp. 305-18; Claude Ake, 'Charismatic Legitimation and Political Integration', Comparative Studies in Society and History, vol. 9 (1966--7) pp. 1-12; C.J. Friedrich, 'Political Leadership and the Problems of Charismatic Power', Journal qf Politics, vol. 23, no. I (Feb 1961) pp. 3-24; E. Shils, 'The Concentration and Dispersion of Charisma: Their Bearing on Economic Policy in Underdeveloped Countries', World Politics, vol. I I, no. I (Oct 1958) pp. 1-19j W. G. Runciman, 'Charismatic Legitimacy and One Party Rule in Ghana', Archives Europeennes de Sociologie, vol. 4, no. I (1963) pp. 148-65;J. T. Marcus, 'Transcendence and Charisma', Western Political Quarterry, vol. 14 (1961)j Bryan R. Wilson, The Noble Savages: The Primitive Origins qfCharisma and its Contemporary Survival (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1975)· 2. Max Weber, The Theory qfSocial and Economic Organization (N ew York: Oxford University Press, 1947) p. 328. 3· Ibid., p. 358. 4. Friedrich, in Journal qf Politics, vol. 23, no. I, p. 13. 5. H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills, From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology (New York: Oxford University Press, 1946) p. 245. 6. R. C. Tucker, 'The Theory of Charismatic Leadership' , Daedalus, vol. 97, no. 3 (Summer 1968) p. 753. 7. Max Weber on Charisma and Institution Building, ed. S. N. Eisenstadt (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968) pp. 54-5. 8. Ann R. Willner and Dorothy Willner, 'The Rise and Role of Charismatic Leaders', The Annals, vol. 358 (Mar 1965) pp. 77-88. 9· Ibid., p. 79· 204 Notes 10. D. A. Rustow, A World of Nations: Problems of Political Modernization (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 1971) pp. 135-69· II. Ibid., p. 160. 12. Ibid. 13. Ibid., p. 168-69· 14. R. Hrair Dekmejian, Egypt under Nasser: A Study in Political Dynamics (London: University of London Press, 1972). 15· Ibid., p. 3· 16. Max Weber, The Theory of Social and Economic Organization, p. 359· 17. See James C. Davies, 'Charisma in the 1952 Campaign', American Political Science Review, vol. 48 (Dec 1954) p. 1083; Amitai Etzioni, A Comparative Analysis rifComplex Organizations (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1961) p. 204; Rustow, A World ofNations, p. 160; Willner and Willner, in The Annals, vol. 358, pp. 82-3. 18. Dekmejian, Egypt under Nasser, p. 4. 19· Ibid., p. 7· 20. J. P. Entelis, 'Nasser's Egypt: the Failure of Charismatic Leadership', Orbis, vol. 17, no. 2 (Summer 1974) pp. 451-64. 21. Ibid., p. 457. 22. Ibid., p. 462. 23. D. A. Rustow, 'Ataturk as Founder of a State', Daedalus, vol. 97, no. 3 (Summer 1968) p. 794. 24· Ibid., p. 797· 25· Quoted ibid., p. 799. 26. Ibid. 27. D. A. Rustow, 'Ataturk as an Institution-builder', in Ataturk: Founder of a Modem State, ed. Ali Kazancigil and Ergun Obudun (London: C. Hurst, 1981) pp.61-2. 28. Ibid., p. 74. 29. Enver Ziya Karal, 'The Principles of Kemalism', ibid., pp. 11-35. 30. Ibid., p. 23. 31. Ibid., p. 24· 32. Ibid., p. 28.

NOTES TO CHAPTER TEN: MONARCHIES AND SHAYKHDOMS

I. H. Sharabi, Nationalism and Revolution in the Arab World (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1966) p. 48. 2. Ibid., pp. 48-9. 3. Max Weber, The Theory rifSocial and Economic Organization (New York: Oxford University Press, 1947) pp. 124-6. 4. David Easton, A Systems Analysis rif Political Life (New York: John Wiley, 1965) P·278. 5. Michael Hudson, Arab Politics: The Search for Legitimacy (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1977) p. 2. 6. Ibid., p. 4. 7· Ibid., p. 17· 8. Ibid., p. 22. 9. Ibid., p. 171. Notes

10. G. Linabury, 'The Creation of Saudi Arabia and the Erosion of Wahhabi Conservatism', Middle East Review, vol. 2, no. I (Fall 1978) p. 512. Also see H. Lackner, A House Built on Sand: A Political Economy of Saudi Arabia (London: Ithaca Press, 1978) pp. 215-18. II. A. M. Sindi, 'King Faisal and Pan-Islamism', in King Faisal and the Modernisation of Saudi Arabia, ed. W. A. Beiling (London: Croom Helm, 1980) p.186. 12. Baha uddin Toukan, A Short History of Transjordan (London: Luzac, 1948) P·45· 13. N aseer H. Aruri, Jordan: A Stuqy in Political Development 1921-l¢is (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1972) p. 25. 14. C. S.Jarvis, Arab Command: The Biography of Lt Col. F. G. Peake Pasha (London: Hutchinson, 1940) p. 107. 15. Ibid., p. 27. 16. H. St.John Philby, 'Trans-Jordan', Journal ofthe Royal Central Asian Sociery, vol. II (June 1924) p. 304. 17. Aruri, Jordan, p. 76. 18. A. Kirkbride, A Crackle of Thorns: Experiences in the Middle East (London: John Murray, 1956). Kirkbride was the first British resident in Jordan after its independence. 19. Aruri, Jordan, p. 89. 20. Hudson, Arab Politics (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1977) p. 214. 2 I. U riel Dann, 'Regime and Opposition in Jordan since 1949', in Sociery and Political Structure in the Arab World, ed. M. Milson (New York: Humanities Press, 1973) p. 155· 22. Hudson, Arab Politics, p. 216. 23. Dann, in Sociery and Political Structure, p. 163. 24. For details see Roger P. Nye, 'Political and Economic Integration in the Arab States of the Gulf', Journal of Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, vol. 2, no. I (Fall 1978) pp. 3-21. 25· Ibid., pp. 15-20. 26. Avi Plascov, Modernisation, Political Development and Stabiliry, Security in the Persian Gulf Series no. 3 (London: International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1982) p. 150. 27. Emile A. Nakhleh, Bahrain: Political Development in a Modernizing Sociery (Lexington, Mass.: D. C. Heath, 1976) pp. 166-7. 28. Ibid. 29. Ibid., p. 169. 30. Ibid., p. 45. 31. Hudson, Arab Politics, p. 202. Most of the information ofGulfshaykhdoms is from this excellent study. 32. Ibid., p. 202.

NOTES TO CHAPTER ELEVEN: THE IDEOLOGIES IN THE MUSLIM WORLD

I. G. Atiyeh, 'Middle East Ideologies', in Middle Eastern Subcultures, ed. W. E. Hazen and M. Mughisuddin (Lexington, Mass.: D. C. Heath, 1975) pp. 47- 68. 206 Notes

2. H. B. Sharabi, Nationalism and Revolution in the Arab World (Princeton, N J.: D. van Nostrand, 1966). 3· H. B. Sharabi, 'The Transformation of Ideology in the Arab World', Middle East Journal, vol. 19 (1965) p. 475. 4· Ibid., p. 477- 5. Sharabi, Nationalism and Revolution, p. 52. 6. Ibid., p. 37. 7. Ibid., p. 82. 8. Ibid., p. 83. 9. F. Stoakes, 'Political Forces in the Middle East', in The Middle East: A Handbook, ed. M. Adams (London: Anthony Blond, 1971) pp. 364-73. 10. Ibid., p. 366. II. Ibid., p. 366. 12. Ibid., p. 368.

NOTES TO CHAPTER TWELVE: NATIONALISM

I. See his Muqaddima, trs. F. Rosenthal (London, 1958) pp. 264-5 and 302-7. 2. Majid Khadduri, Political Trends in the Arab World (Baltimore, Md: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1972) p. 12. 3. For his life and work, see Khaldun S. al-Husri, Three Reformers (Beirut: Khayat, 1966) pp. 55-112. Also see A. Hourani, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, 17g8- 1939 (London, 1962) pp. 27 1-3. 4. Khadduri, Political Trends, pp. 271-3. 5. Ibid., p. 20. 6. Ibid., p. 26. 7. B. M. Borthwick, Comparative Politics in the Middle East: An Introduction (Englewood Cliffs, NJ.: Prentice-Hall, 1980) p. 30. 8. Khadduri, Political Trends, p. 8. 9· Ibid., pp. 176-211. 10. Ibid., p. 181. I I. Ibid., p. 182. 12. Hourani, Arabic Thought, p. 308. 13. Quoted in Khadduri, Political Trends, p. 189. 14· Ibid., p. 192. 15· Ibid., p. 195· 16. Ibid., p. 198. 17. Ibid., p. 203. See also L. M. Kenny, 'Sati al-Husri's Views on Arab Nationalism', Middle East Journal, vol. 17 (1963) p. 238. 18. Khadduri, Political Trends, p. 204. 19. Ibid., p. 205. 20. Ibid., p. 208. 21. Henry F.Jackson, The FLN in Algeria: Party Development in a Revolutionary Society (London: Greenwood Press, 1977). 22. 'FLN Proclamation to the Algerian People and to All who Fight for the National Cause', Algiers, Nov 1954, quoted ibid., p. 24. 23· Ibid., p. 52. Notes

24. W. H. Lewis, 'The Decline of Algeria's FLN', Middle East Journal, vol. 20, no. 2 (Spring 1966) pp. 166-72. 25· Jackson, The FLN in Algeria, p. 95. 26. Ibid., pp. 185--6. 27. Lewis, in Middle East Journal, vol. 20, no. 2, p. 168. 28. John Waterbury, The Commander qf the Faithful (New York: Columbia University Press, 1970). 29. John P. Entelis, Comparative Politics of North Africa (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1980) p. 34. 30. Clement H. Moore, Politics in North Africa: Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia (Boston, Mass.: Little, Brown, 1970) p. 75. 3 I. Entelis, Comparative Politics, p. 34. 32. Ashford, Political Change in Morocco (Princeton, NJ.: Princeton University Press, 1961) p. 412. 33. C. Geertz, Islam Observed (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1968) pp.80-1. 34. E. Hermassi, Leadership and National Development in North Africa (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1972) p. II I. 35. S. Schaar, 'King Hassan's Alternatives' in Man, State and Socie{y in the Contemporary Maghreb, ed. I. W. Zartman (New York: Praeger, 1973) pp. 22g- 44· 36. Entelis, Comparative Politics, p. 60. 37. Michael Hudson, Arab Politics: The Search for Legitimacy (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1977) p. 229.

NOTES TO CHAPTER THIRTEEN: DEMOCRACY

I. John Locke, Treatise on Civil Government, quoted in The Western Political Heritage, ed. W. Y. Elliott et al. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ.: Prentice-Hall, 1957) p. 56g. 2. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract, trs. and ed. G. D. M. Cole (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1950) pp. 94--6. 3. His ideas were expressed in his Fragment on Government (1776). 4. Mills wrote On Liber{Y in 1854 and Considerations on Representative Government in 1861. See alsoJ. P. Plamanatz, Mills's Utilitarianism (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1949); and L. Stephens, The English Utilitarians, 3 vols (New York: P. Smith, 1950) . 5. M. Zetterbaum, Tocqueville and the Problem qf Democracy (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1967). 6. See Khalid M. Khalid, From Here We Start (Washington, D.C.: American Council of Learned Societies, 1953). 7. Extracts from Khalid's book are given in The Political Awakening in the Middle East, ed. G. Lenczowski (Englewood Cliffs, NJ.: Prentice-Hall, 1970) p. 104. 8. Ibid. 9. Ibid., p. 105. 10. Ibid. I I. Ibid. 12. Ibid., p. 106. 13. Ibid. 208 Notes 14. G. Lenczowski, 'Liberal Democracy in the Arab World', in The Political Awakening in the Middle East, p. 100. 15. Ibid. 16. Ibid. 17. G. P. Means, 'Malaysia', in Politics and Moderni~ation in South and South East Asia, ed. R. N. Kearney (New York: John Wiley, 1975) p. 177. 18. Ibid., p. 188. 19. Ibid., pp. 189-90. 20. B. N. Cham, 'Class and Communal Conflict in Malaysia', Journal of Contemporary Asia, vol. 5, no. 4 (1975) pp. 457-58. 2 I. See M. Rashiduzzaman, 'The Awami League in the Political Development of Pakistan', Asian Survey, vol. 10, no. 7 (July 1970) pp. 574-87. 22. For details of the coup, see RaunaqJahan, 'Bangabandhi and After: Conflict and Change in Bangladesh', Round Table, no. 261 (Jan 1976) pp. 73-84. Also see T. Maniruzzaman, 'Bangladesh: an Unfinished Revolution', Journal of Asian Studies, vol. 34, no. 4 (Aug 1975) pp. BgI--99I. 23. See 'Preamble to the Constitution of the People's Republic of Bangladesh', Bangladesh G~ette Extraordinary, pt I (14 Dec 1972). 24. Bangladesh Observer, 15 Jan 1972. 25· Ibid., 27 Mar 1972. 26. M. Obaidul Haq, 'The New Ideology: Key to Nation-building in Bangladesh', Asian Profile, vol. 3, no. 3 (June 1975) p. 310•

NOTES TO CHAPTER FOURTEEN: SOCIALISM

I. See A. Brisbane, Social Destiny of Man: Association and Reorgankation of Industry (New York: A. M. Kelly, I96g). See also N. V. Riasanovsky, The Teachings of Charles Fourier (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, I96g). 2. See his autobiography, The Life of Robert Owen (London: G. Bell, 1920), and his book A NeW View of Society (Glencoe, Ill.: The Free Press, I94B). See alsoJ. F. C. Harrison, Questfor the New Moral World: Robert Owen and the Owenites in Britain and Amer~a (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, Ig6g). 3. See A. Berkman, ABC of Anarchism (London: Freedom Press, 1964); The Anarchists, ed.1. L. Horowitz (New York: Dell, I964);J.JolI, The Anarchists (London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, Ig64);J.J. Martin, Men Against the State: The Expositors of Individualist Anarchism in A merica, 1827-1928 (New York: Libertarian Book Club, 1953); S. E. Parker, Individualist Anarchism (London, 1965); G. Woodcock, Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements (Cleveland, Ohio: World Publishers, 1962). 4. See U. M. Bakunin, God and the State (Indore: Modern Publishers, n.d.); E. H. Carr, Michael Bakunin (London: Macmillan, 1937). See also Bakunin's Marxism, Freedom and the State, trs. K. J. Kenafick (London: Freedom Press, 1950). 5. Barbara Goodwin, Using Political Ideas (Chichester: John Wiley, 1982), esp. 5, pp.87-I08. 6. See Tarek Y. Ismael, 'Socialism in Iraq', in Socialism in the Third World, ed. Helen Desfosses and J. Levesque (New York: Praeger, 1975) pp. 77--95· 7. Jean Leca, 'Algerian Socialism: Nationalism, Industrialism and State- Notes 209 Building', ibid., pp. 121-60. Also see N. Cigar, 'Arab Socialism Revisited: Yugoslav Roots of its Ideology', Middle Eastern Studies, vol. 19. no. 2 (April 1983) pp. 139-51. 8. See Valerie P. Bennett, 'Libyan Socialism', and Gerald A. Heiger, 'Socialism in Pakistan', ibid., pp. 99-120 and 291-309. See also 'Islamic Socialism of the Masjumi Left Wing', in D. E. Smith, Religion, Politics and Social Change in the Third World (New York: The Free Press, 1971) pp. 227-38. 9. The other partners in the foundation of the party were Dr Madhat Bitar, Dr Razzaz, Dr Ali Jabir, Dr Abdullah Abdul Daim, Dr Wahib al-Ghanim, Dr Jamal al-Atasi, Dr Musa Rizik, Badi al-Kasim, Sami al-Droubi and Abdul Birriyun ai-Sud. 10. M. Khadduri, Arab Contemporaries: The Role ofPersonalities in Politics (Baltimore, Md: Johns Hopkins Universtiy Press, 1973) p. 213. I I. Most of the information regarding its organisational structure is drawn taken from Kamel S. Abu Jaber, The Arab Bath Socialist Party: History, Ideology and Organization (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1966). 12. Ibid., p. 140. 13. G. Lenczowski, 'Socialism in Syria', in Socialism in the Third World, p. 62. 14· Ibid., p. 63· 15· Ibid., p. 64· 16. Khadduri, Arab Contemporaries, p. 218. 17. M. Aflaq, 'The Philosophy of the Bath and its Differences from Communism and National Socialism', in Political and Social Thought in the Contemporary Middle East, ed. K. Karpat (New York: Praeger, 1968) pp. 192-3. 18. Ibid., p. 191. 19. Ibid. 20. F. Halliday, Arabia without Sultans (Harmondsworth, Middx: Penguin, 1975) P·193· 2 I. J. Stork, Socialist Revolution in Arabia: A Reportfrom the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen, MERIP reports, no. 15 (Mar 1973) p. 8. 22. See Article J of the Constitution !if the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (Aden: The Republican Press, 197 1) p. 7. 23· Ibid., Article 9, pp. 7-8.

NOTES TO CHAPTER FIFTEEN: COMMUNISM

I. See Bertram Wolfe, 'Leninism', in Marxism in the Modern World, ed. M. Drackhovitch (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1965) p. 69. 2. Ibid., p. 78. 3. R. C. Macridis, Contemporary Political Ideologies (Cambridge, Mass.: Winthrop, 1980) p. 119· 4· Ibid., p. 123. 5. For Mao's work see Stuart R. Schram, Thl Political Thought !if Mao Tse-tung (New York: Praeger, 1971); Mao Tse-tung: An Anthology !ifhis Writings, ed. Anne Fremantle (New York: New American Library, 1972). 6. See B. Lewis, 'Communism and Islam', in The Middle East in Transition, ed. W. Z. Laqueur (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1958) pp. 311-24. 210 Notes 7. M. S. Agwani, Communism in the Arab East (London: Asia Publishing House, 1969) p. 220. 8. Adeed Dawisha, 'The Soviet Union in the Arab World: the Limits to Superpower Influence', in The Soviet Union in the Middle East: Policies and Perspectives, ed. Adeed Dawisha and Karen Dawisha (London: Heinemann, 1982) p. 22. This is an excellent study of Soviet influence in the Middle East. 9. N. P. Newell and R. Newell, TheStrugglefor Afghanistan (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1981 ) p. 45. 10. Ibid., p. 104. I I. Ibid., p. 124. 12. Ervand Abrahamian, 'Communism and Communalism in Iran: The Tudeh and the Firqah-i Dimukrat', International Journal rif Middle East Studies, vol. I (1970) p. 298. 13. Ibid., p. 301. 14. Ibid. 15. Fred Halliday, Iran: Dictatorship and Development (Harmondsworth, Middx: Penguin, 1979) p. 232. 16. Abrahamian, in International Journal rif Middle East Studies, vol. I, p. 291. 17. R. Moss, The Campaign to Destabilise Iran (London: The Institute for the Study of Conflict, Nov 1978) p. 7. 18. Sepehr Zaluh, The Communist Movement in Iran (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1966) p. 252. 19. See N. Kianouri, 'Islamic Regime is Enacting Tudeh Programme', The Iranian, 4July 1979, p. 10.

NOTES TO CHAPTER SIXTEEN: ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVES

I. Werner Levi, 'Religion and Political Development: a Theoretical Analysis', Bucknell Review, vol. 15 (May 1967) p. 94. 2. D. E. Smith, 'Religion and Political Modernization: Comparative Per• spectives', in Religion and Political Modernization, ed. D. E. Smith (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1974) p. 8. 3. Ibrahim A. Ragali, 'Islam and Development', World Development, vol. 8, nos 7- 8 (1980) p. 516. 4. Ibid., p. 518. 5. See Islam and Power, ed.A. S. Cudsi andA. E. Dessouki (London: Croom Helm, 1981); Islam and Development: Religion and Socio-political Change, ed. John L. Esposito (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1980). 6. Ali Merad, 'The IdeologisationofIslam in the Contemporary Muslim World', in Islam and Power, p. 37. 7. Michael Hudson, 'Islam and Political Development', in Islam and Development, P·14· 8. Ibid., p. 20. 9. Muhammad Asad, The Principles rif State and Government in Islam (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1961) p. 15. This is one of the best texts for the interpretation of Islamic principles on state and government. 10. Ibid., p. 23. Notes 211

I I. Ibid., p. 2 I. 12. Ibid., p. 36. 13· Ibid., p. 19· 14. Ibid., p. 20. 15. Fazlur Rahman, 'The Sources and Meaning of Islamic Socialism', in Religion and Political Modernization, p. 243. 16. See Mustafa as-Sibai, Ishtirakiyah ai-Islam (Damascus, 1958). 17. As-Sibai, quoted in Hamid Enayat, 'Islam and Socialism in Egypt', Middle Eastern studies, vol. 4, no. 2 (Jan 1968) p. 161. The exposition of as-Sib ai's work is taken from this excellent paper. 18. Ibid., p. 163. 19. Ibid., p. 165. 20. Ibid., p. 165. 21. Ibid., p. 168. 22. Ibid., p. 169. For Qutb's work on social justice, see Sayed Kotb [sic], Social Justice in Islam (N ew York: Octagon, 1980). 23. Sociery and Economics in Islam: Writings and Declarations of Ayatullah Sayyid Mahmud Teleghani, trs. R. Campbell (Berkeley, Calif.: Mizan Press, 1982). 24. Saad Eddin Ibrahim, 'Anatomy of Egypt's Militant Islamic Groups: Methodological Note and Preliminary Findings', International Journal if Middle East Studies, vol. 12, no. 4 (1980) p. 434. 25· Ibid., p. 448. 26. These four reasons are given by Ibrahim, ibid., pp. 448---9. 27. Nizih N. M. Ayubi, 'The Political Revival ofIslam: the Case of Egypt', ibid., P·491. 28. One of the best works on the Ikhwan al-Muslimun is by Richard Mitchell, entitled Sociery if the Moslem Brothers (London: Oxford University Press, 1969). Other, equally important works are Ishaq Musa Husayni, The Moslem Brethren: The Greatest of Modern Islamic Movements (Beirut: Kayat College Book Co• operative, 1956); Christina Harris, Nationalism and Revolution in Egypt: The Role of the Muslim Brotherhood (The Hague: Mouton, 1964). For a full annotated bibliography on the Ikhwan, see Asaf Hussain, Islamic Movements in Egypt, Pakistan and Iran: An Annotated Bibliography (London: Mansell, 1983). 29. Five Tracts if Hassan al-Banna, trs. C. Wendell (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1978) p. 106. 30. Ibid., pp. 61-2. 31. Ibid. 32. Ibid., p. 85. 33· Ibid., p. 47· 34. Ibid., p. 60. 35. Ayubi, in International Journal of Middle East Studies, vol. 12, no. 4, p. 488. 36. For detailed information on some of these groups, see Israel Altman, 'Islamic Movements in Egypt', Jerusalem Quarterfy, no. 10 (Winter 1979) pp. 87-105. 37. Most of the data used are from Ibrahim, in International Journal if Middle East Studies, vol. 12, no. 4, pp. 423-53. 38. Ibid., p. 430. 39. Ayubi, ibid., p. 488. 40. AI-Akbar, vol. 16, no. 9 (29 Mar 1982) p. 6. This bulletin is published by the International Islamic Federation of Student Organisations, Kuwait. 212 Notes 41. Samir G. Hajjar, 'The Jamahiriya Experiment in Libya: Qadhafi and Rousseau', JourTUlI of Modern 4frican Studies, vol. 18, no. 2 (1980) pp. 181-200. 42. Maurius K. Deeb, 'Islam and Arab Nationalism in al-Qadhafi's Ideology', Journal of South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, vol. 2, no. 2 (Winter 1978) p. 16. 43. Raymond N. Habiby, 'Muamar Qadhafi's New Islamic Scientific Socialist Society', in Religion and Politics in the Middle East, ed. Michael Curtis (Boulder, Col.: Westview Press, 1981) p. 247. 44. Ibid., p. 25 2. 45· Ibid., p. 254· 46. Ibid., p. 255. 47. Ibid., p. 256. 48. Ibid. 49· Ibid., pp. 256-7· 50. Ibid., p. 257. 5 r. Raymond N. Habiby, 'Qadhafi's Thoughts on True Democracy', ibid., p. 264. 52. Ibid., p. 265. 53. Ibid., p. 266. 54. Ibid., p. 268. 55. The Green Book: Practice and Commentary, ed. Charles Bezzina (Malta, 1979) p. 24. Quoted by Hajjar, in Journal of Modern African Studies, vol. 18, no. 2, pp.186-7· 56. Halib Inalcik, The Ottoman Empire: The Classical Age, 1300-1600 (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1973) p. 34. 57. Niyazi Berkes, The Development of Secularism in Turkey (Montreal: McGill University Press, 1964) p. 185. 58. Serif Mardin, 'Religion and Secularism in Turkey', in Ataturk: Founder of a Modern State, ed. Ali Kazancigil and Ergun Obudun (London: C. Hurst, 1981) pp.200-r. 59. Jeffrey A. Ross, 'Politics, Religion and Ethnic Identity in Turkey', in Religion and Politics in the Middle East, p. 329. 60. Paul Stirling, 'Religious Change in Republican Turkey', Middle East Journal, vol. 12, no. 4 (Autumn, 1958) p. 40r. 61. Figures according to G. L. Lewis in The Muslim World, vol. 56, no. 4 (Oct 1966) P·235· 62. J. M. Landau, Radical Politics in Modern Turkey (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1974) p. 176. 63. For various Turkish publications advocating these views, see ibid., pp. I 78-g. 64. Ibid., p. 185. 65. J. M. Landau, 'The National Salvation Party in Turkey', Asian and African Studies, vol. 2, no. I (1976) p. 55. Most of the data on the party are drawn from this paper. 66. Ernst Utrecht, 'Religion and Social Protest in Indonesia', Social Compass, vol. 25, nos 3-4 (1978) p. 408. 67. See K. D. Jackson and J. Moelino, 'Participation in Rebellion: The Darul Islam in West Java', in Political Participation in Modern Indonesia, ed. R. W. Liddle (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Southeast Asia Studies, 1973) pp. 12-57· 68. See Herbert Feith, The Decline ofConstitutioTUlI Democracy in Indonesia (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1962). Notes 21 3 69. See Ken Ward, The Foundation of the Partai Muslimun Indonesia (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1970). 70. Utrecht, in Social Compass, vol. 25, nos 3-4, p. 412. 7 I. Ibid., p. 416. 72. Allan A. Samson, 'The Political Strength of Indonesian Islam', Asian Thought and Sociery, vol. 5, no. 14 (Sep 1980) p. 148. 73· Utrecht, in Social Compass, vol. 25, nos 3-4, p. 416. 74. For a full discussion of this debate see H. Algar, The Islamic Revolution in Iran (London: The Muslim Institute, 1980). 75. Quoted inJ. S. Ismael et al., 'Social Change in an Islamic Society: the Political Thought of Ayatollah Khomeini', Social Problems, vol. 27, no. 5 (June 1980) P· 61 3· 76. Ibid. 77- Ibid., p. 61 4. 78. Ibid. 79. Ibid. 80. Ibid. 81. M. Kotabi andJ. Leon, 'The March Towards the Islamic Republic oflran: Society and Religion according to Imam Khomeini', Le Monde Diplo,matique (Paris), 6-7 Apr 1979, p. 83· 82. Ismael et al., in Social Problems, vol. 27, no. 5, p. 613. 83. Ibid. 84. Ibid., p. 614. 85. Ayatollah Khomeini, Islamic Government, trs. Joint Publications Research Service (New York: Manor Books, 1979) pp. 25-6. 86. Ibid., p. 24. 87. Ibid., p. 26. 88. Ibid., p. 28. Index

Abadan, 15 Arab Resurrection Socialist Party, 45 Abbas, Ferhat, 127 Arab Socialist Union, 98 Abboud, Mohammad, 41 ai-Arab, Husni, 145 Abdallah, Ibn Hussein, 109, 110 Arabian American Oil Company, 22 Abduh, Mohammad, 119 Arani, Taqi, 161 Abu Dhabi, 114 Aref, Abdul Salem, 92 Achour, Tahar Ben, 48 Armee de Liberation National Adams, R. M., 13 (ALN) , 126-9 Adhan (call to prayer), 100 Arrighi, G., 67 ai-Afghani, Jamal Uddin, 119, 134 Arslan, Shakib, 124 Afghanistan, 156, 157--61 ai-Assad, Hafeez, 149 Afghanistan National Liberation Atilhan, Cevat Rifat, 182 Front, 159--60 Atiyeh, G., 118 Aftaq, Michel, 93, 125, 146-7 Aures, 127 Ajman, 114 Awami League (Bangladesh), 50, Akhira (after life), 167 137, 140-1 Alamsjah, Lt Gen., 185 Azerbaijan, 162 Alavi, H., 67 al-Azhar, Shaykh, 174 Alawite Dynasty, 130 al-Azhar University, 174, 176 Algeria, 37, 59--61, 126'-9, 146 al-Aziz, Sultan Abd, (Morocco), 130 Algiers, 127 Ali, Caliph, 188 Ba'ath Party, 45, 92, 124-5, 146-51 Ali, Chaudri Mohammad, 32 Ba'ath Revolutionary Command Ali, Pasha Mohammad, 58, 174 Council (Iraq), 92 Ali, Salim Robaya, 150-1 Bach, R. L., 75 Ali, Sultan Amir, 157 Badkhshi, Tahir, 92 Allenby, Gen., 105 Baghdad, 106 Almond, G., 8 Baghdad Pact, 98 Amanullah, Sultan, 157 Bahonar, M. j., 50-1 Amin, Hafizullah, 159 Bahrain, 112-13 Amin, Samir, 67 Baku Congress, 156 Anatolia, 96, 98, 100 Bakunin, M., 144 Anglo-Persian Oil Company (Anglo- Balafrej, Ahmed, 130-1 Iranian Oil Company), 15 Balfour Declaration, 109 Antun, Farah, 119, 145 Bandung, 39 Anya Nya, 42 Bandung Conference, 98 al-Aqsa Mosque, I 10 Bangladesh, 38,90, 137, 140-3 Arab Ba'ath Party, 93 Bani Hashim clan, 108 Arab Legion, I 10 Bani-Sadr, Abol Hasan, 51 Index 215 al-Banna, Hassan, 120, 174-7 Daoud, Mohammad, 157-8 aI-Bay tar, Salah aI-Din, 93, 146 Dar-al-Harb (House of War), 167 Bazargan, Mehdi, 51 Dar-aI-Islam (House of Islam), 167 al-Bazzaz, Abd aI-Rahman, 124 D'Arcy, W. K., 15 Beheshti, Ayatollah, 50--1 Davies, J. C., 96 Beirut, 17, 120 Dawud, Abu, 171 Ben Bella, 60, 128--9 Dekmejian, R. H., 96-7 Bentham, j., 133-4 Democratic Action Party (Malaysia), Berbers, 130 139 Berger, M., 17 Democratic Unionist Party (Sudan), Berque, j., 14 42 Bettelheim, C., 67 Demokrasi Pembangunan Bhutto, Z. A., 32-3, 146 (Indonesia), 185 Bill, j. A., 4, 14-15, 37 Destour Party, 46 Binder, L., 14-15 Diriya, 105 Black, C. E., 4, 6 Djait, Abdel Aziz, 48 Bolshevik Revolution, 152, 155--6 Domholf, G. W., 85 Borneo (North), 138 Dubai, 114 Boumedienne, Houari, 37, 61, 128--9 Dunlop Corp., 73 Bourgiba, Habib, 46--9 Durkheim, E., 3 Bourguibism, 47-8 Boussouf, M., 127 East India Co., 73 Bouteflicka, Abdelaziz, 129 Ecevit, Bulent, 183 Britain, 58, 63, 108 Egypt, 9, 16, 36, 58--9, 61-5, 96--8, British Indian Army, 31 104, 107, 119, 134, 146, 156, 174-7 Brown, L. C., 9 Eisenstadt, S. N., 13 Buchanan, K., 67 Emmanuel, A., 67 Buonaparte, Napoleon, 58 Erbakan, Necmettin, 182 Bustani, B., 119 Etzioni, A., 96 Evkaf, 181 (see also waqf) Caldwell, M., 67 Evren, Gen. Kenan, 184 Calvin, J., 133 . Chilcote, R. H., 70-1 Fahmi, Mansur, 145 China, 72, 74 Farag, Abdel-Salem, 177 Chinese Communist Party, 154 Farooq, Sultan, 38, 174 Churchill-Abdallah Agreement, 109 al-Fassi, Allal, 130 Churchill, W., log Fatwa (religio-Iegal counsel), 177 Civil Service of Pakistan (CSP), 31-2 Fedayeen-e-Khalq, 162 Code of Personal Status (Tunisia), 48 Federation of Malaya Agreement, Comite d'Action Marocaine, 130 138 Constantine (North), 127 Fez, 131 Constantinople, 108 Firqah-i-Dimukrat, 162 Counseil National de la Revolution Fourier, C., 144 Algerienne, 127 France, loS Crouch, H., 40 France, A., 146 Francis, Ahmed, 127 Dahl, R. A., 85 Frank, A. G., 67--9 Dahrendorf, R., 13 Free Officers group, 64, 72, 176 Damascus, 125 Frey, F. W., 86 Index

Friedrich, C. J., 96 Hussain, Taha, 135 Front de Liberation Nationale Hussein, King, 110 (FLN), 50, 126-g Hussein, Mahmoud, 62 Fuad I, Sultan, 174 Hussein, Saddam, 92-3, 149, 156 Fujayra, 114 Hussein, Sharif, 109

Gailani, Sayed, 161 Ibrahim, Pasha, 106 George-Picot, C., 108 Idris, Kemal, 185 Gerassi, G., 67 Ijma (consensus), 169 Gibb,J.,13 Ikhwan Movement (Saudi Arabia), Gide, A., 146 106 Glubb, J. B., 109 Ikhwan al-Muslimun (Muslim Godwin, W., 144 Brotherhood), 16, 38, 45, 65, 118, Goiten, S. D., 13 120,174-7 Golkar (Golongan Karya), 39, 41, 185 Imam (Spiritual leader), 179 Golkap, Zia, 135 Inani, Abd Allah, 145 Gouvernement Provisiore de la India, 72, 74 Republic Algerienne (GPRA), Indian Civil Service, 31 12 7-8 Indonesia, 37-41, 46, 96, 156, 184--6 Greece, 98 Indonesian National Party, 40 Green Book, 173 Iran, 9, 16, 46, 50-I, 86, 104, 134, Greene, F., 14 156-7, 161-2, 186-g0 Guinea, 47 Iraq, 37-8, 87, 91-3, 104, 119, 146- 7,156 Habibullah, Sultan, 157 Irmak, Prof. Sadi, 183 Hadith (traditions of the Prophet), 22, Islam, 105--6, 114, 119-20, 123-4, 17 1, 178 142, 148, 161-g0 Hafid, Moulay, 130 Islambuli, Lt Khalid, 177 Hajj (piligrimage), 188 Islamic Republic Party (Iran), 50-1 Halpern, M., 13-14, 17-19,37 Islamic Socialism, 170 Haq, Shamsul, 140 Ismail, Abdul Fattah, 150 Harkate Inqilabe Islami Ismail, Pasha, 58 (Afghanistan), 161 Ismail, Sultan Mulay, 130 Hashmite dynasty, 106-11 Israel, 107, 110 Hassan, Crown Prince, 110 Issawi, C., 17 Hassan II, Sultan, 131-2 Istanbul, 17, 27, 98, 99 Haykal, Husayn, 145 Italy, 108 Hegel, G., 3 Hejaz, 108-g Jakarta, 39 Hekmatyar, Gulbuddin, 161 Jalee, P., 67 Hizbe Islami (Afghanistan), 160 Jamahiriya (Republic), 178 Hizb-ul Tahrir (Turkey), 182 Jamat-e-Islami (Afghanistan), 161 Holt, P. M., 17 Japan, 76 Horowitz, D., 67 Jeddah, 107 Hunter, F., 86 Jenkins, R., 67 Huntington, S., 4, 7 Jerusalem, 107-8, 110 al-Husri, Sati, 125 Jihad (struggle in the way of Allah), Hussain, Asaf, 89-g1 175, 184, 186 Hussain, Imam, 186 Jinnah, Mohammad Ali, 31, 96 Index

Johnson, J. J., 37 Levy, M. J., 4, 5 Johnston, S. D., 44 Levy, R., 1.4 Jordon, 9, 104, 107-11 Lewis, B., 13 Justice Party (Turkey), 183 Liberal Constitutional Party (Egypt), 145 Kabylia, 127 Liberation Rally (Egypt), 45 Kai-shek, Chiang, 154-5 Libya, 16-17,38, 104, 146, 177-80 Kant, I., 3 Lipset, S. M., 13 Karim, el-Kassem, 37-8, 92-3 Locke, J., 133 Karmal, Babrak, 158-60 London, log Karpat, K. H., 25 Lubis, Zulkifti (Col.), 40 Kashan,17 Luther, M., 133 Kasravi, Ahmed, 135 al-Kawakibi, Abd ai-Rahman, 122 Ma'an, 109 Keller, S., 85 MaMahan, Sir Henry, 108 Kemal, Mustafa, 37,96,98-102, 105, Madagascar, 131 12 3,181 Magdoff, H., 67 Kemalism, II, 98-102, 181 Maghreb, ll8 Kerbala, 186 al-Mahdi, Imam al-Hadi, 42 Ibn Khaldun, 122 al-Mahdi, Sadeq, 42 Khales, Yunis, 161 Mahjoub, Mohammad Ahmed, 42 Khalid, Khalid M., 135, 136-7 Mahmudi, Rahim, 161 al-Khalifa (Isla bin Salman), 112-13 Malayan Chinese Association, 139 Khalq Party (Afghanistan), 158-9 Malayan Civil Service, 33-4 Khamenei, S. A., 50-1 Malayan Indian Congress, 139 Khan, Gen. Ayub, 32, 141 Malaysia, 30, 33-4, 72-5, 137-40 Khan, Gen. Yahya, 32, 137, 141 Mali,47 Khayr ai-Din, P., 119 Manchuria, 154 Khider, Mohammad, 128 al-Mansuri, Mustafa, 145 Khomeini, Ayatollah, 16,21,50-1, Marr, P., 92 162, 186-90 Marshall, T. H., 12 Khyber, Mir Akbar, 158 Marun, Antun, 145 Kianouri, Nureddin, 162 Marx, K., 3, 55-9, 144, 146, 152-4 Kirman,17 Masjumi Party (Indonesia), 184-6 Kitchner, Lord, 108 Mecca, 22, 180 Kornhauser, W., 85 Medina, 180 Krim, Belkasim, 128 Meir, Golda, 110 Kropotkin, P., 144 Menderes, Adnan, 182 Kuwait, 72, 75-7, 120 Michels, R., 81, 83-4 Milli Nizam Partisi (Turkey), 182 La Palombara, J., 44 Milli Selamet Partisi (Turkey), 182 Lasswell, H. T., 85 Mills, C. W., 85 Lawrence, T. E., 108 Mirhum, Aziz, 145 Lazreg, M., 60 Mirza, Iskander, 32 Lebanon, 9, 16, 108, Ill, 125, 147, Misurata, 16 156 Mohammad V, Sultan, 131 Lenin, V., 58, 152-4 Moore, C. H., 47-8 Lenski, G., 13 Morocco, 104, 130-2 Lerner, D., 8, 9 Mosca, G., 81-3 218 Index Moscow, 159 Pahlavis, 21, 50, 104 Mossadegh, Premier, 38 Pakhtunkhawa Revolutionary Front Mosul,108 (Mghanistan), 161 Muhammad, Ghulam, 32 Pakistan, 30-3, 38, 46, 87--91, 96, Muhammad, Prophet, 108, 136, 188 140, 146, 157 Muhammadiah, 184 Palestine Liberation Organisation, Mujadiddi, Sibghatullah, 161 126 Mujahideen (Islamic warrior), 175 Palestine War, 63 Mujibism, 142 Pan-Arabism, 107, 124, 125 Mujtahid (Shii Islamic leader) 186-8 Pan Malayan Islamic Party, 139 Munazzamat al-Tahrir al-Islami Pangkor Treaty, 72 (Egypt), 176 Parcham Party (Mghanistan), 158 Munck, R., 71 Pareto, V., 81-83 Murtopo, Ali, 41 Paris, 147 Musa, Salama, 145 Parry, G., 85 Muscat, 112 Parsons, T., 5 Muslim League (Pakistan), 31 Partai Komunis Indonesia, 40-1 Mustafa, Shukry, 176-7 Partai Muslim Indonesia, 185 Partai Persatuan Pembangunan Nablusi, Sulayman, I II (Indonesia), 185 Nahdat-ul Ulama, 4, 184 Partai Sarekat Islam Indonesia, 184 Najd, 105--6 Pashtunistan, 157 Nakhleh, E. A., 112-13 Patai, R., 17 Nasakam,41 Peake, Lt Col. F. G., 109 ai-Nasser, Gamal Abd, 37, 45, 64-5, Peking, 154 96-8, 105, I II, 174-5 Penang, 72 Nasution, Col., 39-40, 185 People's Democratic Party (Sudan), National Action Party (Turkey), 184 42 National Islamic Front People's Democratic Republic of (Mghanistan), 161 Yemen, 146, 149-51, 156 National Liberation Front (South People's Liberation Army (China), Yemen), 149-51 155 National Salvation Party, 16, 180-4 Perlmutter, A., 17,36-7 National Union of Popular Forces Persian Gulf, 15 (Morocco), 132 Pishavari, Jafar, 162 National Unionist Party (Sudan), 42 Poulantzas, N., 59 N eo-Destour, 46-7 Progressive People's Party Neyzi, N., 24--6 (Malaysia), 139 Nietzsche, F., 146 Protestantism, 133 Numeiri, Col. Jafar, 41-3 Proudhon, J., 144 Nursi, Saidi, 182 Provisiore de la Republique Algerienne, 127 Oman, 112 Pye, L., 36 Oran, 127 Organisation of Petroleum Exporting al-Qadhafi, Muammar, 177-8 Countries (OPEC), 76, 107, 157 Qadir, Col. Abdul, 158 Ottoman, 10-11,59,98, 102, 108, Qajars, 104 122, 123, 166, 180, 182 Qavam, Premier, 162 Owen, R., 144 Quran, 22, 124, 168-71, 177-8, 187 Index 21 9 Quraysh tribe, 108, 123 Ibn Saud, Abd ai-Rahman, 106 Qutb, Syed, 173, 176 Ibn Saud, Fahd, 21, 107 Ibn Saud, Faisal, 21, 92, 106-7, 109 Rabat, 107, 131 Ibn Saud, Khalid, 21, 107 Rabbani, Burhanuddin, 161 Saudi Arabia, 17,20-2, 120 Rabbath, E., 125 al-Sayyid, Ahmad Lutfi, 119 Rafsanjani, Hashemi, 50-1 Schumpeter, J., 12 Rahman, Mujibur, 90, 96, 137, 141- Settame Melli (Afghanistan), 161 3 Seyfullah, Suleyman, 182 Rahman, Sultan Abdur, 157 al-Shaabi, Qahtan, 149 Ras al-Khayma, 114 Shah, Mohammad Reza, 189 Rashid, Shaykli Ibn Said al- Shah, Mohammad Ali, 104 Muktum,114 Shah, Reza, 161 Razak, Tun Abdul, 139 Shah, Sultan Zahir, 157-8 al-Raziq, Mustafa Abd, 145 Shanin, T., 67 al-Razzaz, Munif, 124 Sharabi, H., 103 Reissman, L., 13 Sharia (religious law), 100, 114, 166- Republican People's Party, (Turkey), 72, 177, 186 183 Shariati, Ali, 190 Republican Reliance Party (Turkey), Sharja, 114 183 Shatt ai-Arab, 15 Rida, Rashid, 124 Shaykh ai-Islam, 100 Riggs, F., 44 Shia, 122, 133 Riyadh, 22, 106 Shils, E. A., 35 Rosenthal, J., 145 Shirk (polytheism), 178 Rousseau, J. J., 133-4 Sholae Jawaid (Afghanistan), 161 Rukunegara Declaration (Malaysia), al-Shumayyil, Shibli, 119, 145 139 Shura (consultation), 134 Russia, see USSR as-Si bai, Mustafa, 171, I 73 Rustow, D. A., 4, 9-10, 96, 99, 100 Sidqi, Gen. Bakr, 38 Rustow, W. W., 6 Singapore, 72 Six-Point Programme (Bangladesh), Saadah, Antun, 120, 124 111,141 al-Sabah, 76, I 12 Smith, A., 133 al-Sadat, Anwar, 65, 156, 174 Snouck-Hurgronje, C., 184-5 Safavid empire, 122, 186 Sorbonne, 147 Sahara, 127 Sorokin, P., 12 Sahel, 46 Soummam Congress, I 27 ai-Said, Nuri, 91-2 Sousse,46 Said, Pasha, 58 Soviet Communist Party, 153 Saint, Lucien, 46 Soviet Union, see USSR Salamon, L. M., 7 Spencer, H., 3 Salat (prayers), 100 Stalin, J., 154 Sale, 131 Stoakes, F., 121 al-Sanusi, King Idris, 177 Straits of Malacca, 72 Sariyya, Salih; 176 Sudan, 32, 41-3, 46 Sastroamidjojo, Ali, 39 Sudanese Socialist Union, 43 Ibn Saud, Abd al-Aziz, 20-1, 106, Sudirman, Gen., 39 109 Suez Canal, 98 220 Index Suharto, Gen., 37 United Arab Emirates, 113 Suhrawardhy, H. S., 140 United Arab Republic, 9B Sukarno, President, 39-40, 96, IB4, United Malay National Organisation, IB6 139 Suleiman, M., 44 United States of America, 73, 76, Sumatra, 40 loB, III Sunnah (way of life), 167, IB7 Untung, Lt Col., 41 Sunni, 113, 122-3 U tojo, Col. Bambang, 40 Sweezy, P., 67 Sykes, Mark, lOB Sykes-Picot Agreement, lOB Vahideddin, Sultan Mehmed, 9B Syria, 9, 16, 3B, 9B, 106-8, 119, 146- Veblen, T., 12 51 Velayat-e-Faqih (Islamic Jurist), IB7 Syrian National Party, 120, 124 Syrian Social Nationalist Party, 45, Wafd Party, 63-4, 145 lIB al-Wahhab, Mohammad Ibn, 105 Wahhabism, 20, 106 al-Tahtawi, R., 119 Wallerstein, I., 67-9 al-Takfir w'al Hijra (Egypt), 176 Waqf(religious endowment), 171, Talal, Ibn Abdallah, 110 IBI Tanzimat period (Turkey), IBI Watanjar, Col. Aslam, 15B Taraki, Nur Mohammad, 15B-9 Watt, M., 13 Tehran, 17 Weber, M., 3, 5, 12, 2B, 30,94 Teleghani, Ayatollah, 173 Weiner, M., 44 Tilman, R. 0., 33 Willner, A. R., 95, 96 Tobbal, Ben, 127 Willner, D., 95, 96 Tocqueville, A., 133-4 World Muslim League, 107 Tonnies, F., 3, 5 Tourneau, R., 14 Treaty of Fez, 130 Yazd,17 Tripoli (Lebanon), 16 Yazid, Caliph, IB6 Tripoli (Libya), 127 Young, C. T., 17 Tse-Tung, Mao, 152, 154-5 Young Turks, II Tudeh Party (Iran), 161-2 Tunis, 46 Tunisia, 9, 46-50, 59 Zahedi, Gen. Fazlollah, 3B Turkey, 9-10, 16, 19-20, 22, 24-7, Zakat (taxes), 20, 171 36, 3B, 9B-102, 119, 122, 134, 156, Zayid, Shaykh Ibn Sultan al Nihyan, IB0--4 114 Zetterberg, L., 13 Umma{Community), 114, 122, 167, Zhiri, Col., 129 170, 175-6 Zionists, lOB, 124 Umma Party (Sudan), 42 Zonis, M., 86 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, Zurayq, Qustantin, 125 52, lOB, 156, 174 Zl\rich,5B