Conservation for Satoyama, the Traditional Landscape of Japan

Hiromi Kobori and Richard B. Primack ost people associate the notion of Two recent projects have been effective in conservation and with restoring and protecting satoyama landscapes, V 1 "natural" areas-those that have been however, even within densely settled urban minimally affected by human activities. In areas. Crucial to the projects’ success have been many parts of the world, however, much efforts to increase public awareness of the need diversity can be found in traditional agricultural for conservation and to promote participation landscapes that people have cultivated for hun- by local citizens. dreds or thousands of years. Japan, for example, What Is It? is a densely populated archipelago that has Satoyama: experienced the impact of human activities for In the broadest sense of the term, satoyama millennia; it nevertheless has species and eco- is a mixture of forests, wet rice paddies, culti- systems of great diversity and unique character. vated fields, pastures, streams, ponds, and irriga- Since ancient times, the Japanese people have tion ditches surrounding a Japanese farming respected and preserved the natural resources of village-the entire landscape necessary to sup- their country. The traditional agricultural and ply the needs of a community. In the Edo era ~r forest landscape of Japan, known as satoyama, (1603-1867), around five hectares (over twelve ~ a mosaic of fields, ponds, forests, and villages, acres) of satoyama landscape was needed to sup- enabled this chain of mountainous islands to port each farm family of seven or eight persons. support not only a large human population The grasslands were maintained for the horses but also a great variety of plant and and cattle that served as sources of power. species in a sustainable manner. When we see Streams, ponds, and ditches were managed to photographs, paintings, and films about the maintain appropriate water levels in the rice Japanese countryside, we are usually seeing a paddies and to supply fish to eat. In a typical satoyama landscape. satoyama community, the rice fields were Today, however, the Japanese are struggling to located next to the village houses, adjacent to balance rapid economic growth with protection the grasslands and the forests, which often for their rich cultural and natural heritage. formed the boundary with the next village.2 Modernization has led to new ways of farming The word satoyama is sometimes used more and encouraged urban expansion, together with narrowly in Japan to designate only the forest large-scale civil engineering projects like dam component of the traditional landscape. These construction and wetland filling. The result forests, managed by local agricultural commu- has been neglect of satoyama landscapes and a nities, are not wild but have developed through reduction of the overall farm area where many human intervention in natural systems over the species of plants, mammals, reptiles, amphib- centuries. The villagers gathered the leaves of ians, and freshwater fish previously thrived. community forests for use as in the Twenty percent of these species, many of them rice paddies; wood was used for construction significant in Japanese culture, are now under and for cooking and heating; and shoots threat of extinction.’1 were collected for food. For each hectare of rice

Diagram of typical landscape of satoyama with villages surrounded by paddy fields, dry fields, and forest From H. Moriyamn, 1997, Reviving Nature of Rural Areas. 4

Typical land use of satoyama m Kanto distmct near Tokyo mth villages (black); hayfields (white); secondary forests (gray shadmgJ; mce paddles (crosshatchmg) Modified from K Yamaoka, H Monyama, and T Shigematsu, 1997, m Bulletm of Toyo University 20. 373-384 cultivated, several hectares of community for- to the next. Though not "natural" in the ests were needed.3 The constant collection of usual sense, therefore, the satoyama helped to leaves and wood kept the forest open and pre- maintain a rich biodiversity in the Japanese vented succession to large trees and dense countryside. shade. However, in the late Edo era and in the Active management of satoyama forests for Meiji era ( 1868-1912~, farmers began to buy agricultural purposes, for example, promoted commercial ; when leaves were no biodiversity by creating open, sunny habitats. longer needed for the rice paddies, management In most communities, farmers maintained a of the forest became less intensive. mixed forest of deciduous, broadleaf trees, with the most common being Japanese oak Biodiversity in Satoyama and its (Quercus serrata) and Japanese chestnut oak (Q. Cultural Dependence acutissima). The trees were harvested in 15- to As an indirect consequence of the agricultural 20-year cycles for fuel wood and . This practices associated with satoyama, these land- regular cutting, resprouting, and replanting pre- _ scapes supported a great diversity of plant and vented succession to the densely shaded, ever- animal species. Their mosaic structure provided green laurel forest-dominated by such species a variety of habitat types-ponds, rice paddies, as chinquapin (Castanopsis sieboldii in the oak grasslands, forests-and facilitated movement family), red machilus (Machilus thunbergii in among habitats and from one village satoyama the laurel family), and Japanese acuba (Aucuba 5

japonica in the dogwood family)-which, being native to the area in pre-satoyama times, is the usual climax forest in much of Japan. Compared to unmanaged laurel forests, the managed and more open mixed forests supported much more wildlife, much of which is familiar to the Japa- nese people and important to their culture. The national , the giant purple butterfly ( charonda), the large horned beetle (Allomyrina dichotoma), and the stag beetle (Dorcus curvidens) are some of the better- known species that are found in sunny, mixed deciduous forests but are absent in shady laurel forests. Other beneficiaries of traditional forest man- agement included many species of spring and summer wildflowers that can survive only when the foliage is thin and sunlight is able to reach the forest floor. Since these species cannot push their way through a deep layer of fallen leaves or grow in the darkness of evergreen for- est, they are dependent on the traditional prac- tices of collecting fallen leaves for fertilizer and the regular cutting of trees. In addition, grasslands that were regularly cut for fertilizer, thatching, bedding, or hay Landscape of a well-managed satoyama: at top, provided a rich habitat for wildflower and satoyama forest managed by selective loggmg species. When grasslands are not cut, creates an suitable the open understory for they undergo succession to forest and many production of edible bamboo shoots; below, species are lost. paddy connected to mixed forests And thanks to the requirements for growing rice, satoyama helped preserve wetlands where many aquatic species thrive. The rice paddies themselves comprise half of all freshwater wet- lands, and together with the associated ponds and reservoirs, they serve as a crucial habitat for most frogs found in Japan, being used through- out the year by numerous species for mating, egg maturation, larval growth, and adult feed- ing. Many bird, fish, insect, and mollusk species are also found primarily or even exclusively in the wetlands of the satoyama. In particular, these wetlands provide habitat for insect species that live in water during the early stages of their life cycle; these include fireflies and dragonflies, which are important in Japanese culture and frequently serve as motifs in poetry, painting, textiles, and toys. Since many small- and mid-sized dragonflies can migrate only The giant purple butterfly ~Sasakia charonda). short distances of a few kilometers, the creation of 6

networks of ponds and other wetlands for tradi- in grass cutting by farmers have drastically tional agriculture have favored their survival.4 diminished its numbers. Altogether, 79 of Japan’s total of 200 native freshwater aquatic Loss of the and its Satoyama Biodiversity plants are now facing extinction, according to Many forces at both the national and interna- the latest Red List.’ tional levels have transformed the traditional Many freshwater fish have also been severely Japanese landscape over the past several decades. affected by changes in agricultural practices. Because of Japan’s high cost of labor, its agricul- Among these is the Japanese killifish (Oryzias ture and forest industries are not able to com- latipes), a species so familiar to the Japanese pete in international markets, making farming people that it has more than 5,000 local names, less attractive economically, and many farmers and a folk song about it remains popular among have abandoned their satoyama to find jobs small children. Most Japanese believe that it is in cities. Many satoyama located in urban still a common fish in satoyama, present in wet- areas have been converted to residential or lands throughout the country. In reality, how- industrial uses, with the subsequent loss of ever, many wetlands suitable for the killifish natural habitat; the satoyama area in Yokohama, have been degraded or entirely wiped out by for example, has decreased from 10,000 hectares drainage, reclamation, or other civil engineering in 1960 to only 3,000 at present. projects, a situation made worse by water pollu- Outside urban areas, the decline in the rural tion and invasion by exotic species. population and the aging of the remaining farm- Modernization of agriculture has also had ers make it physically difficult if not impos- negative consequences for satoyama forests. sible-as well as economically unappealing-to Coal and oil have replaced wood and charcoal maintain satoyama as a communal village activ- as the primary source of energy, and trees are ity. The individual farmers who remain have no longer cut regularly for fuel. As the forests introduced modern technology to reduce costs become overgrown and more shaded, many and to compensate for the lack of labor, often plant and animal species are being lost; forest with financial support from the central govern- wildflowers in particular are rapidly declining ment. All components of the satoyama system in abundance. have suffered from these innovations, but wet- Conservation in Urban Areas: The lands in particular are rapidly disappearing. One Satoyama of the programs most favored by farmers, the Tokyo Example construction of new irrigation systems, has To counter the steady loss of traditional agricul- resulted in the loss or fragmentation of wetland tural landscapes and wildlife habitat, the Totoro habitat; in addition, farmers have increased Hometown Fund Campaign was founded in their use of herbicides, pesticides, and commer- 1990 as an effort to save areas of satoyama cial fertilizers, inadvertently killing off many located in the Sayama Hills on the outskirts of insect and aquatic species. The "seven autumn Tokyo, in the Saitama Prefecture.~ Initiated by wildflowers," for example-a beloved symbol of local residents together with a private environ- nature’s beauty and a focus since ancient times mental organization, the project later received for poetic sentiment-are included among the support from the National Environmental threatened species. Indeed, two of the seven, Agency and the local government as well. fujibakama (Eupatorium fortunei, a relative of The Sayama Hills, about 3,500 hectares in joe-pye-weed in the sunflower family) and kikyo area, are home to roughly a thousand species of or balloon flower (Platycodon grandiflorum in vascular plants, eleven species of mammals, and the bellflower family), face almost certain 210 species of birds. Not only is this small area extinction in the wild within the next century. a remarkable refuge for wildlife, but it is also an Fujibakama grows on river banks and flood important repository of Japan’s cultural heri- plains and depends on natural and human- tage, with 114 shrines and temples. Humans caused disturbances such as spring floods and have occupied the region from the time of the grass cutting for its survival; increased river Stone Age, and 235 sites of ancient villages have management for flood control and a decline been found there. Yet without an effective con- 7

Conversion of forests, farmlands, and parks (black) to industmal and residential use (hght shade) m the metropolitan Yokohama area from 1960 to 1990. The diagrams also show how the natural landscape is increasmgly fragmented by development. Each map represents an area of approximately 50 by 65 miles (78 by 105 kmJ. Yokohama City Environmental Protection Bureau. 8 A

and harvest rice. Volunteers also planted tree seedlings, mowed grassland, cut trees, and removed undergrowth from the forests. For many city people this was the first opportunity to work on a farm, and they found great satisfaction in reconnecting to the agricultural traditions of their culture. Third, researchers and local residents worked to- gether to gather information about the area’s Publicity for the Totoro Hometown Fund Campaign Totoro attracts many people endangered as well as the to support the national trust acumties. species about cultural history of its people servation program, the entire area would have and landscape. And finally, an environmental been rapidly converted into residential housing, education program was designed to help industrial sites, and roads. Japanese children become familiar with the The campaign used as its mascot "Totoro," landscapes and the species that figure so promi- the central character from an extremely popular nently in their culture. The program includes animated film called "Tonari no Totoro" (My guided tours, watching birds and other wildlife, Neighbor Totoro). Totoro is an imaginary furry and seasonal harvest events. animal, rounded in shape and pleasantly naive The key to the success of the Totoro Home- in demeanor, that lives in the forests of town Fund Campaign has been the combination satoyama, helping children who get into trouble of energetic citizen involvement along with when adults are absent. The movie is set in an governmental encouragement and support. imagined time of innocence in the 1950s, when Since its inception, the project has been charac- farms, rice fields, and managed forests covered terized by a strong sense of local control: it is the Sayama Hills-some of the place names local residents who direct the management and used are those of actual sites in the hills-and volunteer programs. Municipal and prefectural depicts a simple agricultural community in governments of the region have responded which villagers work together for the good of to their efforts by buying additional land sur- all. The movie has served as a powerful focus rounding the satoyama trust areas. In addition, for the positive feelings of the Japanese toward both the National Environmental Agency and satoyama and traditional village life. the government of Saitama Prefecture have The project was built around four major launched their own Sayama Hills conservation activities. During the initial phase, a broad efforts through such campaigns as "Hometowns range of people were encouraged to contribute in Contact with Traditions and Nature." money to buy land for conservation as Conservation in Urban Areas: The satoyama. In the first two years of the campaign, Satoyama Yokohama 110,000 people-40 percent of them younger Example than seventeen-donated approximately 110 Another approach to conserving agricultural million yen (equal to one million USD). landscapes has involved cooperation between Second, the organization called for volunteers volunteers and university researchers. A suc- to restore satoyama landscapes with the help of cessful example of this approach can be seen local farmers. A total of two thousand people at the Musashi Institute of Technology in worked together to rebuild rice paddies Yokohama. In 1997, when a new campus of the and water reservoirs and, later, to cultivate Institute’s Department of Environmental and 9

Farmers and urban citizens working to conserve and manage the satoyama landscape m Sayama Hills clockwise from top left, children managmg mce paddles m summer, fall mce harvest, collectmg fallen leaves m a mixed forest to encourage spnng wildflowers, children and adults identlfymg dragonfly nymphs and removmg exotic fish and crayfish

Information Studies was established on the site students, and university administrators began of neglected satoyama land, a little more than the restoration project by surveying and inven- one hectare of forest was set aside for conserva- torying the area’s resources. The area was then tion. The area, which had been abandoned divided into five zones, each with its own con- more than thirty years earlier, consisted mostly servation goals and management program. For of deciduous and evergreen trees and a fruit example, a zone of mixed deciduous broadleaf orchard, all overgrown by a dense tangle of trees was restored by removing the vines, bam- vines, bamboo, and weeds. boo clumps, and other plants that covered the The forest is now being restored and managed entire forest floor. It is now bemg monitored to by university researchers with two closely asso- document changes in the wildflower commu- ciated objectives. The first is to use the forest for nity. Just a few years after restoration, many teaching and directing research about satoyama spring wildflowers, such as the orchids ecology, management, and restoration. Students Cymbidium goeringil and Cephalanthera are able to access data accumulated in past years falcata-both widely appreciated for their great in order to make comparisons over time. beauty-have started to appear, apparently The second objective is to establish educa- growing from small, suppressed plants or tional links between the university community dormant seeds. Another zone is being managed and the citizens of Yokohama. A group of volun- for bamboo, with bamboo poles and edible teers that included local citizens, faculty, shoots being harvested in a controlled 10

directed to the need for conservation and if the projects offer volunteer opportunities that allow citizens to renew their sense of identification with traditional agriculture. Given that the rich biodiversity of traditional agricultural land- scapes is being threatened in many parts of the world, these examples may serve to promote conservation efforts in other densely populated, rapidly modernizing parts of the world.

Notes

This essay draws on the authors’ earlier work, which was published m 2003 in Ambio 32~4): 307-311, as The shpper orchid Cypripedium japonicum. "Participatory Conservation Approaches for Satoyama, the Traditional Forest and Agncultural Landscape " manner. The bamboo shoots are later used in of Japan." traditional Japanese recipes at the volunteers’ 1 Environment Agency, Government of Japan, 2000, social gatherings. Quahty of the Envmonment m Japan (in Japanese). this conservation z While project is very small K. Yamaoka, H. Monyama, and T. Shigematsu, 1997, in area, it has received considerable local sup- Ecological role of secondary forests m the traditional port and publicity. Many people living in the farming area m Japan, Bulletin of Toyo University 20: 373-384 vicinity value the project as a local resource for (m Japanese). education and recreation and as a point of con- ~ T. Shidei, 1993, Learning From Forests (Tokyo. tact with the university community. The social Kalmei Publishing Co. Ltd., m Japanese). activities of the project, especially the bamboo 4 R. Pnmack, H. Kobon, and S. Mon, 2000, Dragonfly shoot meals, are also attractive. pond restoration promotes conservation awareness m Conservauon 14. H. The Musashi project is linked to more wide- Japan, Biology 1553-1554, Nature Rural Areas conservation efforts undertaken the Monyama, 1997, Reviving of spread by (Tokyo. Iwanami Publishing Co. Ltd ), p. 4; and ibid., Yokohama which has now city government, 1998, Satoyama as reservoir of fauna and flora, preserved 1,267 hectares of the city’s remaining Landscape Studies 61: 281-283 (both m Japanese). hectares of wooded areas 3,000 satoyama by R. Pnmack and H. Kobon, 1997, Introduction designating them as citizens’ forests, parks, or to Conservation Biology ~Tokyo~ Bumchr-Sougou reserved areas. The government’s efforts, how- Publishing Co. Ltd.), p. 94; Ministry of the ever, have been restricted to setting aside the Environment, Government of Japan, 2000, Threatened Wildhfe of Japan, Red Data Book, 2nd areas; plans are now being developed to restore ed (both m Japanese). and maintain the forests’ quality by turning Totoro Hometown Foundation News management over to citizen groups and conser- 61998, (m Japanese). ~ vation organizations in order to reduce costs to the government and to increase public support for satoyama. The potential for expansion of Hiromi Kobon is a specialist m marine microbiology, conservation activities is indicated by a survey now active in conservation research, river restoration, showing that 45 percent of Yokohama citizens and environmental education. She is the co-author of a textbook m conservation and is would be to in this and simi- Japanese biology willing participate Professor of Environmental and Information Studies lar activities. Musashi Institute of Technology, Yokohama. Richard Pnmack is Professor of Plant Ecology at A Satoyama Conservation: Model for Others? Boston University, focusing on rare plants and tropical forests. He is the author of two textbooks m conser- These two programs have shown that tradi- vation biology, which have been widely translated mto tional satoyama ecosystems can be restored other languages. His current research focuses on the and maintained even within the settled densely impact of climate change on plants, including those at urban Japanese landscape if public attention is the Arnold Arboretum.