Socio-Economic Survey on the Importance of Seagrass Beds To

Socio-economic survey on the importance of seagrass beds to coastal communities in Kampot Province, Cambodia Building Resilience to Climate Change Impacts in Coastal Southeast Asia (BCR) Agne Kaarlep

INTERNATIONAL UNION FOR CONSERVATION OF NATURE

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Acknowledgements

Sincere gratitude goes out to the research team members Mr Vanny Lou from IUCN Cambodia, Mr Seila Voen from the Fisheries Administration Cantonment, and Ms Soriya Minhchan from the Department of Environment of Cambodia; whose contribution and dedication were integral for the success of the entire research process.

The author would particularly like to thank Mr Sar Sorin, Head of the Kampot Fisheries Administration Cantonment; Mr Suy Thea, Director of the Department of Environment; and H.E. Mr Saut Yea, Deputy Governor of Kampot Province; whose support and expertise were so vital for carrying out this study.

Most importantly, the research could have not been successful without the support and active participation of village chiefs, community fishery chiefs, and inhabitants of the studied villages in Kampot Province.

Foreword

Sea-grass meadows are incredibly important coastal ecosystems. They provide spawning and nursery areas for many species, sequester large amounts of carbon and provide significant support to local livelihoods. The coastline of Kampot Province in Cambodia hosts one of the most important seagrass areas in Southeast Asia, but so far is relatively unknown and has not been subject to any in-depth study. Its importance and value to local livelihoods, and its significance in terms of climate change mitigation and adaptation are not properly understood, and are consequently not sufficiently taken into account in development planning. Large scale development projects with direct impacts on sea-grass such as port and harbor construction are already underway and are rapidly destroying and degrading significant areas of this precious resource before its real value to the people of Kampot Province and the rest of Cambodia are fully understood.

Kampot is one of eight Provinces in three countries selected for pilot activities in the “Building Resilience to Climate Change – Coastal Southeast Asia” Project (BCR) funded by the EU and implemented by IUCN and partners.

This report is the second in a series of linked reports looking at the biological condition, socio- economic importance and conservation management priorities for Kampot sea-grass, in the broader context of overall coastal spatial planning of Kampot Province.

Table of contents

Executive summary ...... 11 I. Introduction ...... 12 II. Objectives of the study ...... 12 III. Methodology ...... 13 3.1 Study design and data collection ...... 13 3.1.1 Participatory Rural Appraisal ...... 13 3.1.2 Household survey ...... 15 3.2 Data analysis ...... 15 3.3 Limitations ...... 15 IV. Study area ...... 16 4.1 Kampot Province ...... 16 4.2 The seagrass ecosystem ...... 17 4.3 Management of seagrass and fishery resources ...... 18 4.4 Village profiles ...... 20 4.4.1 Chang Houn Village ...... 21 4.4.2 Rolous Village ...... 22 4.4.3 Trapeang Sangke Village ...... 22 4.4.4 Koh Kreusna Village ...... 22 V. Results of the study ...... 23 5.1 Demographic indicators of the respondents ...... 23 5.1.1 Age ...... 23 5.1.2 Marital status ...... 23 5.1.3 Religious affiliation ...... 24 5.1.4 Education ...... 24 5.1.5 Family size ...... 24 5.1.6 State of settlements and land ownership ...... 25 5.1.7 Livestock ownership ...... 25 5.1.8 Monthly income and expenditure ...... 26 5.1.9 Loans ...... 26 5.2 Occupational distribution ...... 27 5.3 Dependence on seagrass ...... 28

5.3.1 Fishing practices ...... 28 5.3.2 Fishing grounds by importance ...... 31 5.3.3 Main income generating species ...... 32 5.3.4 Perceptions of the value of seagrass ...... 34 5.4 State and changes in fishery resources ...... 35 5.5 Drivers of change and proposed solutions ...... 37 5.5.1 Development activities, loss and degradation of habitat ...... 37 5.5.2 Disputes over fishing areas ...... 39 5.5.3 Use of illegal fishing devices ...... 39 5.5.4 Increase in fishermen ...... 39 5.5.5 Low capital and increasing costs ...... 40 5.5.6 Climate change ...... 40 5.6 Future outlook ...... 40 VI. Findings ...... 42 VII. Recommendations ...... 44 VIII. References ...... 45

List of abbreviations

ACLEDA Association of Cambodian Local Economic Development Agencies

AmK Angkor Microfinance Kampuchea

BCR Building Coastal Resilience

CDC Council for Development of Cambodia

CwDCC Child and Women’s Development Center of Cambodia

CFi Community Fishery

DANIDA Danish International Development Agency

DFID UK Department for International Development

DoE Department of Environment

EIA Environmental Impact Assessment

FGD Focus Group Discussion

FACT Fisheries Action Coalition Team

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

FiA Fisheries Administration Cantonment

IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature

MAFF Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries

MIME Ministry of Industry, Mines and Energy

MLMUPC Ministry of Land Management, Urban Planning and Construction

MoE Ministry of Environment

MPWT Ministry of Public Works and Transport

MRD Ministry of Rural Development

MoT Ministry of Tourism

NTF Non-Timber Forest Product

PRA Participatory Rural Appraisal

RFLP Regional Fisheries and Livelihoods Programme

UNDP United Nations Development Programme

UNEP United Nations Environment Programme

List of figures and tables

Figure 1: Participatory Rural Appraisal with Rolous village community members ...... 14

Figure 2: Map of Cambodia…………………………………………………………………………….16

Figure 3: Distribution of seagrass in coastal Cambodia ...... 18

Figure 4: Location of villages, Community Fisheries and the port development area…………...21

Figure 5: Middlemen waiting to buy blue-swimming crabs in an unofficial landing site ...... 37

Figure 6: Map indicating location of port development...... 38

Table 1: Focus Group Discussion respondents ...... 14

Table 2: Seagrass and mangrove areas in Cambodia ...... 17

Table 3: Community Fisheries in Kampot Province ...... 20

Table 4: Household survey respondents ...... 23

Table 5: Age distribution ...... 23

Table 6: Marital status ...... 24

Table 7: Religious affiliation ...... 24

Table 8: Education ...... 24

Table 9: Family size ...... 25

Table 10: Land ownership ...... 25

Table 11: Livestock ownership ...... 26

Table 12: Average monthly income ...... 26

Table 13: Average monthly expenditure ...... 26

Table 14: Reasons of expenditure...... 26

Table 15: Loans ...... 27

Table 16: Reasons for borrowing money ...... 27

Table 17: Seasonal Calendar ...... 28

Table 18: Types of fishing gears ...... 29

Table 19: Types of boats ...... 30

Table 20: Hours per day spent fishing ...... 30

Table 21: Importance of fishing grounds ...... 31

Table 22: Main species caught by fishermen ...... 33

Table 24: Perceptions of indirect values of seagrass ...... 34

Table 25: Total marine catch in Kampot Province ...... 35

Table 26: Perceptions of fish catch ...... 36

Table 27: Perceptions of size of fish ...... 36

Table 28: Condition of seagrass in the future ...... 42

Table 29: Perceptions of the sustainability of a career in fishing ...... 42

Executive summary

This report documents the socio-economic importance of seagrass beds to fishery communities in Kampot Province. The research was carried out under the umbrella of the European Union funded project “Building Resilience to Climate Change Impacts – Coastal Southeast Asia”.

The aim of the report is to analyze local perceptions on the current state of fishery resources and seagrass habitats, to examine the drivers of change, and explore their possible management solutions. The presented analysis is based on a field study conducted from August to October in 2013. During this time, both quantitative and qualitative data was collected from four villages spanning the entire coastline of Kampot Province.

Findings indicate high economic dependence of coastal fishermen on the seagrass ecosystem. The collected data shows that 89% of the income generating species caught are dependent on seagrasses in their life-cycle. Official statistics on catch volumes, obtained from the Fisheries Administration Cantonment, show an overall increase in catch during the last three years while fishermen are reporting a decrease in individual catch volumes, indicating increasing pressure on coastal resources.

The perceived drivers for this change include an increase in fishermen accompanied by a lack of skills and a shortage of alternative livelihood options. Further problems were seen in illegal fishing gear usage and foreign vessels operating unlawfully in Cambodian waters. The most pervasive pressure is exerted via coastal development projects, particularly the construction of the Kampot Special Economic Zone, which includes a deep sea international port. As a result of dredging and land filling, 8% of the seagrass in Kampot Province have been destroyed.

The data clearly shows high economic dependency and increased pressure on seagrass from multiple sources, making proper management and protection of the remaining ecosystem imperative. There are management mechanisms in place at the community level which seem to be effective, with 90% membership rates amongst fishermen and the increasing health of seagrass being reported in these areas. However, it is still clear that there is a need for a large scale, long term coastal management plan to ensure future development activities are planned in appropriate areas.

It is one of the recommendations of this report that a provincial level Coastal Zoning Plan be fully implemented in order to designate proper areas for development and conservation in close cooperation with fishery communities. This would be a significant step to ensure the long-term health of seagrasses and continuing profits from the ecosystem, which is currently producing economic benefits valued at around US$ 30 million per year.

I. Introduction

The “Building Coastal Resilience to Climate Change Impacts – Coastal Southeast Asia” project is working in eight target provinces in three countries; namely Thailand, Viet Nam and Cambodia. One of these target provinces is Kampot, located in the southwest of Cambodia, with a coastline of 66.5 km and a known seagrass area of approximately 25,000 ha. Seagrass beds are increasingly recognized as a highly productive and important ecosystem, contributing significantly to economic and food security in coastal communities.

The coast of Kampot Province is comprised of two interrelated systems; with the ecological system providing life-support functions for living organisms and also significantly producing goods and services for socio-economic development. The increasing number of stakeholders and conflicting demands on the coastal environment have brought about the need to closely examine the relationships between ecological habitat and the socio-economic system that governs it. This will ensure best management practices are adopted, thereby allowing both systems to thrive.

A previous Vulnerability and Capacity Assessment of Kampot Province conducted by IUCN in 2011 found that the subsistence fisher communities are threatened by the degradation of coastal habitats and increasing pressure from development projects. Deterioration of the coastal ecosystem is the result of land development, agricultural run-off, lack of an effective waste management system, the use of illegal and destructive fishing gear; all of which are contributing to pollution and the decreased productive quality of the coastal habitat. Further pressure is imposed on the coastal areas through land reclamation, sand dredging and mining; resulting in habitat destruction and fish stock depletion.

Therefore, it is of increasing importance to understand the health of the ecosystem and the extent of the dependence of coastal communities on the services provided by seagrasses. An assessment of the socio-economic importance of seagrass was undertaken through this study, to be able to adequately assess the impacts of current development plans on the future food and economic security of the province’s coastal inhabitants.

II. Objectives of the study

This is the first assessment documenting the extent of dependence of coastal communities on the seagrass ecosystem in Kampot Province. Given the very large seagrass area and the pressure it is currently under, it is important to understand the patterns of usage and the socio- economic benefits derived from this ecosystem.

Overall objective:

To assess the extent of dependence of coastal fishermen on the seagrass ecosystem.

Specific objectives:

1. To document the local perceptions on the current state and changes in the coastal fishery resources and seagrass habitats; 2. To examine the drivers of change in seagrass coverage and livelihood strategies; 3. To explore possible management solutions from the perspectives of local communities and relevant government officials.

III. Methodology

3.1 Study design and data collection

The study was conducted over a span of six weeks; between August and October in 2013. The team comprised of four researchers, two IUCN staff members, an employee of the Kampot Department of Environment, and an employee from the Fisheries Administration Cantonment of Kampot Province. The team was composed with the aim to include local expertise in the study’s design and data collection.

The research was carried out in a total of four villages spanning the entire coastline of 66.5 km in Kampot Province. Target villages were selected to represent each of the three main seagrass patches in the coastal area. Data collection was completed in two phases. Firstly, a set of Participatory Rural Appraisal tools were implemented to explore the perceptions of local villagers on their livelihoods and the ecosystem. Secondly, a household survey was conducted to collect statistical data on coastal fishermen.

In addition to these methods, in-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted with the Head of the Kampot Fisheries Administration Cantonment, the Director of the Department of Environment, the Deputy Governor of Kampot Province, four village chiefs, three Community Fishery Chiefs, and one former Community Fishery Chief.

The research team was provided training in the research approach and methodologies used for this study. All data was recorded in Khmer and then translated by the Cambodian research team members to English, after which the analysis was conducted.

3.1.1 Participatory Rural Appraisal

The first part of the study, spanning three weeks, implemented a set of Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) tools in all the four target villages. PRA is a qualitative approach to collaboratively explore the perceptions of local villagers about their livelihoods and the surrounding ecosystem.

The particular methods were chosen in accordance with the study objectives. A total of six PRA tools were applied: (1) resource mapping; (2) stakeholder analysis; (3) market flow analysis; (4) seasonal calendar; (5) timeline; (6) problem matrix and solution analysis. The PRA tools were

implemented through Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) over the span of two days in each of the four villages.

Figure 1: Participatory Rural Appraisal with Rolous village community members

The participants of the FGDs were invited on the principal of including a diverse set of villagers: village chiefs, community fishery chiefs, fishermen, middlemen and farmers. Altogether, 72 people were involved in the FGDs.

Table 1: Focus Group Discussion respondents

Respondents Target Villages Chang Koh Trapeang Occupation Houn Kreusna Sangke Rolous Fishermen 8 9 7 3 Middlemen 1 1 2 0 Farmers 6 6 5 13 Village Chiefs 1 1 1 1 Community Fishery Chiefs 1 1 1 0 Deputy Village Chiefs 1 0 0 0 Deputy Community Fishery Chiefs 1 0 2 0 Gender of respondents Men 12 12 15 10 Women 7 6 3 7 Total 19 18 18 17

3.1.2 Household survey

The second phase of the study, spanning another three weeks, involved a household survey in all the four target villages. Due to the specific focus of the study, the sample size was calculated from the number of known fishermen in all the villages. The statistics obtained from the Village Chiefs showed that there are 1087 fishermen distributed as follows: 275 in Chang Houn, 77 in Rolous, 305 in Trapeang Sangke, and 430 in Koh Kreusna. The sample size was then calculated using the Taro Yamane formula: . This method gave the final sample size of 91 when a confidence level of 90% was applied.

A structured questionnaire was used to interview respondents. A pre-test on the survey was conducted and improvements were made before the final version was implemented. Respondent households were selected at random in each village. A map was used to first indicate all the households which had fishing as a primary occupation. Depending on the number of households identified in each villages, every seventh to tenth household was chosen to be interviewed.

3.2 Data analysis

The PRA data was analyzed using content analysis and the results were used to improve the household questionnaire implemented in the second phase of the study. The data received from the interviewers were checked every evening to ensure the accurate completion of all the undertaken surveys and this also allowed for any misunderstandings or errors to be corrected by the interviewers during the next day. All data from the household surveys was entered into Microsoft Excel which was the primary tool of analysis.

3.3 Limitations

The study aimed to collect both quantitative and qualitative data to ensure a good depth of understanding regarding the coastal situation of Kampot Province. A slight limitation emerged from the different nature of the data collected. The statistics obtained from the household survey can be used to characterize the situation of fishermen across all villages, as the fishermen from all target areas were treated as belonging to the same sample population. Comparisons between the villages are therefore based on qualitative data obtained from the PRA study.

Due to the limited time-frame of this study, a complete valuation of the seagrass beds was not possible, as any such estimation would have resulted in a gross undervaluation of the economic benefit of this ecosystem. Therefore, the dependence was measured as a percentage and not in actual monetary terms.

Furthermore, it should be noted that the results may exhibit a seasonal bias as the study was conducted between August and October in 2013. The degree and direction of the bias is difficult to estimate, as in August and September strong winds and heavy rains are still prevalent. This might have resulted in an underreporting of the overall catch. However, the peak fishing season

generally starts in October, which may have resulted in a positive bias for reporting fishing catch volumes.

IV. Study area

4.1 Kampot Province

Cambodia’s coastline covers 435 km; covering two provinces Kampot and Koh Kong, and two municipalities Kep and Sihanoukville.

Figure 2: Map of Cambodia Source: Department of Fisheries (2005)

Kampot Province in itself covers an area of 4,873 km². It has a population of 585,850 (Rizvi & Singer, 2011). Between 1998 and 2008, the population in Kampot declined. However, the high growth rate of 1.67% (The World Factbook, 2013) in the entire country is an indication of a possible future increase in the population of the province. Furthermore, the 2008 government census found that 3% of the inhabitants in Kampot Province were migrants from other provinces, indicating a modest in-migration pattern for coastal areas (Rizvi & Singer, 2011).

The coast of Kampot is comprised of three districts, nine communes and 31 villages. The majority of the population lives in rural areas and is heavily dependent on the exploitation of natural resources, with one of the main occupations being fishing. Most fish production in Cambodia derives from freshwater fisheries, with marine fisheries accounting for only about 30% of the total. However, marine capture fisheries are highly valued, as their contribution to the national economy is about 40% of the total production (UNEP, 2007a). In 2006, the revenue from exports was an estimated US$ 63.5 million (The Learning Institute, 2010). However, this is possibly a considerable underestimation of the actual economic contribution of the marine fisheries sector, because the statistics do not include illegal sales to adjacent countries. Illegal fishing in Cambodian waters undermines the potential additional contribution marine fisheries could make to the economy of Cambodia.

Cambodia has been experiencing rapid economic growth in the last decade, with Kampot Province being no exception. The province has been a target for various developmental projects, with both direct and indirect impacts on coastal ecosystems and on the socio- economic conditions of the general population. The main areas of interest for development in the province are the marine product export sector and tourism. The Kampot International Port is currently under construction, adjacent to which is the Kampot Special Economic Zone (SEZ). The international port is meant to increase tourism and facilitate export and import, while the Kampot SEZ will include the establishment of processing and manufacturing facilities (Council for the Development of Cambodia, 2013). The expected completion of these projects has been significantly delayed, and they remain in the early construction phase, with ongoing sand dredging for land filling.

4.2 The seagrass ecosystem

Ecologically, seagrasses and mangroves play a critical role in the marine environment, as they are nursery grounds for various commercially important fish species. Degradation of this ecosystem will have significant effects on offshore fish production (Osborne, 2012). However, the importance of seagrasses has only been recognized relatively recently and, as a result, they have received much less national and international attention than mangroves.

In the case of Kampot Province, it is especially important to recognize the value of seagrasses due to the sheer expanse of the ecosystem. Kampot Province has the largest seagrass area in Cambodia and possibly in the whole of Southeast Asia covering an area of 25,240 ha. Table 2 below provides a comparison amongst the coastal provinces of Cambodia in terms of the seagrass and mangrove areas, while the location of seagrass beds is depicted in Figure 2 (page 14).

Table 2: Seagrass and mangrove areas in Cambodia

Resource Kampot Koh Kong Sihanoukville Kep Seagrasses 25240 ha 3993 ha 164 ha 3095 ha Mangroves 1900 ha 62000 ha 13500 ha 1005 ha

Source: Department of Fisheries (2005); Mangroves for the Future (2013)

Figure 3: Distribution of seagrass in coastal Cambodia Source: Department of Fisheries (2004)

The annual economic value of seagrasses in Cambodia has been estimated to be around US$ 1,186 per hectare. However, this value is most likely a gross undervaluation of the actual benefit provided by seagrasses, as it only takes into account captured fish, shrimp, crabs, shellfish/molluscs and seaweed production. It does not account for the values of beach protection, nursery functions, carbon sequestration, oxygen release and nutrient removal etc. It is therefore highly probable that the actual monetary value of the area is double the current estimation (UNEP, 2007b).

4.3 Management of seagrass and fishery resources

Numerous government bodies have an influence in the planning and management of the coastal areas of Cambodia. These include the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries

(MAFF), the Ministry of Environment, the Ministry of Land Management, Urban Planning and Construction (MLMUPC), the Ministry of Industry, Mines and Energy (MIME), the Ministry of Tourism (MoT), the Ministry of Public Works and Transport (MPWT), the Ministry of Rural Development (MRD), and the Ministry of Women's Affairs and the Ministry of Planning (DoF, 2005).

The day-to-day management of seagrass beds and fisheries resources in Kampot Province is under the jurisdiction of the Deputy Provincial Governor of the Department of Environment and the Fisheries Administration Cantonment. The former is legally responsible for the ecosystem itself, whereas the latter is responsible for the products it provides. Despite the legally overlapping roles of these institutions, problems on ground-level are rare. However, the number of stakeholders does complicate the efforts for mitigation against possible threats, such as excess sediment and nutrients from development activities both in the coast and upstream (Morgan, 2011). Conflicting interests arise in the same space with MIME, MRD, MoT and MPWD being responsible for developing the coastal area; and DoE and FiA for management and protection.

Relatively recently, another level of management was added to the administrative system of coastal areas. In an effort to decentralize the administration of natural resources, the Royal Government of Cambodia made a significant shift towards promoting community-based management of fishing areas through the establishment of Community Fisheries (CFis) in 2000. A CFi is defined as a group of Khmer citizens living in one or more villages who voluntarily agree to cooperate for the purpose of participating in sustainable management and use of fisheries resources in their local area (The Learning Institute, 2010).

Chapter 11 from Cambodia’s Fisheries Law outlines the relationship between the FiA and CFis. According to this, all Cambodian citizens have the right to form CFis in their own areas on a voluntary basis, and MAFF is entitled to allocate a part of the fishery domain to the CFi that lives inside or nearby the fishery domain. The CFis need to be continuously managed by the fishing communities in accordance with the management plan which is approved by relevant authorities. The FiA will provide technical support at the request of local communities and monitor the implementation of individual CFi management plans (Law on Fisheries, 2007).

Table 3 (on the following page) shows all ten of the legally established CFis in Kampot Province and the areas allocated to them, including a separate conservation area to ensure the sustainability of resource usage.

Table 3: Community Fisheries in Kampot Province

Size of Conser- Develop- Number of CFi Year of fishing Sign- Members vation Crab ment conser- name creation domain board site bank partner vation poles (ha)

Trapeang UNDP Ropov 2002 155 1251 2 1 390 7 Prek Thnoat 2000 248 702 1 1 DANIDA/FIA 205 5 Chang Houn 2002 411 1504 1 1 DFID/FIA 241 4

Kep

Thmey 2005 124 804 1 1 DFID/ FIA 15 2

Toteung

Thangai 2005 132 600 0 0 - 0 2

Chum

Kriel 2013 262 650 1 0 - 9 0

Trapeang

Sanke 2009 734 337 2 0 DFID/FIA 46 6

Kampong

Samaki 2006 396 537 1 1 UNDP 335 5

Koh

Kreusna 2003 245 235 2 1 Corin/UNDP 90 7

Lork 2004 347 330 1 0 Corin 0 5

Source: Fisheries Administration Cantonment (2013)

4.4 Village profiles

The survey targeted four villages representing the whole coastline of Kampot and the three main seagrass patches along the coastline. Two villages, Rolous and Trapeang Sangke, were selected to represent the biggest seagrass area. The main occupations in all villages are fishing and farming, with the exception of Rolous Village in Teuk Chhou District, which has recently undergone a shift from fishing to wage labour due to coastal development projects. All the villages have a CFi, except for Rolous Village, where it was abolished in 2008 due to the beginning of port construction.

All villages have a similar internal structure; with main administrative positions being the Village Chief, Community Fishery Chief, Commune Chief, the Commune Policeman, and middlemen. Further importance was given to Patrolling Units in Chang Houn, Trapeang Sangke and Koh Kreusna villages. Their role is to prevent and report illegal fishing activities to the relevant institutions.

Figure 4: Location of villages, Community Fisheries and the port development area Source: Ministry of Land Management, Urban Planning and Construction (2012)

4.4.1 Chang Houn Village

Chang Houn Village is located in the western part of Koh Kong Province in Prek Thnoat commune, Teuk Chhou district. The village has a population of 1,826 people, comprising 362 families, out of which 65 are headed by women. The population is primarily Buddhist and the village has a pagoda.

The infrastructure in the village is poor. While there is no health centre directly in the village, the nearest one is located 8 km away. However, a pharmacy is in the village. There is an uneven distribution of water from the existent water system. Households by the main road are able to access tap water, while people in the middle of the village buy water or use wells with pumps. Around 90% of the village homes are connected to the electric grid. However, the high per unit price of electricity at 0.3 US$/kWh is significantly limiting its consumption.

The primary school is located inside the village area, while the secondary school is 4 km away and the high school is at a distance of 7 km. According to the Village Chief, about 95% of the

children study until the end of secondary school, after which many leave due to monetary constraints and the long travel time to the high school.

4.4.2 Rolous Village

Rolous village is located in Boeung Touk commune in Teuk Chhou district. The village has a population of 1,694, comprising 355 families, with 105 headed by women. The population is mainly Buddhist, with a small number of Muslim households. The village has a pagoda.

The nearest health centre is 5 km away. Water is mainly accessed using wells and people have an adequate access to water resources. About 70% of the village is connected to the electric grid; the rest lack the funds to pay for the one-time connection fee which is around US$ 93.

There is a primary and secondary school located inside the village. According to the Village Chief, around 95% of the children proceed to high school, which is located outside the village.

4.4.3 Trapeang Sangke Village

Trapeang Sangke is located closest to Kampot town in Trapeang Sangkae commune, Teuk Chhou district. The village has a population of 2,631 people, comprising 446 families, out of which 67 are headed by women. The majority of the population is Muslim with a strong Buddhist minority. There are two mosques and one pagoda in the village.

The village has a health centre and four pharmacies. The one-time connection fee to the water system is relatively high, costing US$ 60, and many people resort to using ponds, wells and rainwater instead. About 90% of the village is connected to the electric grid, but as with the other villages, the connection fee and electricity price per kWh are high.

The village has a primary school, but for secondary and high schooling, the children need to commute. According to the Village Chief, almost all children finish secondary school, after which many stop due to monetary constraints.

4.4.4 Koh Kreusna Village

Koh Kreusna is located near the border of Viet Nam in Russey Srok Khang Lech commune, Kampong Trach district. The village has a population of 1,240 people, comprising 233 households, with 55 of them headed by women. The majority of the population is Buddhist and the village has one pagoda.

The village has a health centre and there is a private clinic nearby. Some of the wealthier families are connected to the water system, but most people collect rainwater and use ponds and wells for their water needs. Only around 50% of the village is connected to the electric grid due to the high connection fees and the per unit price of electricity.

There is a primary and secondary school in the village, and most children go to both. There is a high school 13 km away, but as in the other villages, many children are unable to attend it due to financial constraints.

V. Results of the study

5.1 Demographic indicators of the respondents

According to the village data books from 2012, there are 1,396 households and a total of 7,391 people in all the villages, out of which 1,087 people are fishermen. The household survey that was conducted targeted 91 households for data collection.

Out of all the respondents interviewed, 67 were heads of their households. When the male head of the household was not available, the spouse was interviewed. All the households interviewed were headed by men.

Table 4: Household survey respondents

Respondent Frequency Percentage Head of household 67 74% 24 26% Spouse of head of household Total 91 100%

5.1.1 Age

The age was recorded for both the head of the household and the spouse. The distribution was calculated amongst all recorded answers. Majority of the respondents were mature adults in their 30s and 40s, with these categories representing 64% of the total answers recorded.

Table 5: Age distribution

Age Frequency Percentage 20 - 29 26 15% 30 - 39 53 30% 40 - 49 60 34% 50 + 38 21% Total 177 100%

5.1.2 Marital status

Majority of the respondents interviewed were married, while four were single due to their young age, and one was a divorcee.

Table 6: Marital status

Marital status Frequency Percentage Married 86 95% Single 4 4% Divorced 1 1% Total 91 100%

5.1.3 Religious affiliation

The predominant religion in Cambodia is Buddhism, which is practiced by more than 95% of the population and there is a Muslim minority of 2% (The World Factbook, 2013). Out of the 91 households interviewed for this study, 72 were practicing Buddhism.

Table 7: Religious affiliation

Religion Frequency Percentage Buddhist 72 79% Muslim 19 21% Total 91 100%

5.1.4 Education The educational status of the respondents was relatively low, with only 25% of the male respondents and 13% of the female respondents having studied above the primary school level. However, the overall literacy rate was comparable to the national average, which is 82.2% for men and 65.9% for women (The World Factbook, 2013). Out of all the respondents surveyed, 82% of the men and 70% of the women were literate.

Table 8: Education

Education Male Percentage Female Percentage No education 14 15% 21 24% Read Only 3 3% 5 6% Primary School 52 57% 49 57% Secondary School 16 18% 10 12% High School 6 7% 1 1% Total 91 100% 86 100%

5.1.5 Family size According to the 2003 national census, the average family size for the coastal areas of Cambodia was 5.1 (Ministry of Environment, 2005). On average, the respondents of this survey had 3.8 children, resulting in a slightly larger family size than the coastal average a decade ago.

The large family sizes of the respondents reflect their rural, and predominantly subsistence, livelihood strategies.

Table 9: Family size Amount of children Frequency Percentage No children 5 5% 1 child 8 9% 2 children 11 12% 3 children 23 25% 4 children 13 14% 5 children 14 15% 6 children 7 8% 7 children 4 4% 8 children 3 3% 9 children 3 3% Total 91 100%

5.1.6 State of settlements and land ownership

Around 92% of the respondents have a permanent house, indicative of a predominantly stable lifestyle of the overall population. Furthermore, 89% of the households interviewed own land, with 70% of them had a legally recognized land title. However, most of the land holdings are relatively small and could be classified as residential land supporting only farming and livestock for household consumption.

Table 10: Land ownership

Size of land Frequency Percentage No land 10 11% Residential land 70 77% 1 ha 6 7% >1 ha 5 5% Total 91 100%

5.1.7 Livestock ownership

Majority of the respondents also rear livestock, with 85% of the households raising at least a few animals. Poultry-raising is most popular, and more than 90% of the respondents rear either chickens or ducks.

The respondents who were not raising any animals explained that this was due to a lack of space for them. Two respondents out of 14 mentioned the high expenditure on feed and lack of skill, resulting in high mortality rates as constraints for raising animals.

Table 11: Livestock ownership

Type of Average number of livestock Frequency Percentage heads Poultry 71 92% 12 Cow/Buffalo 21 27% 3 Pig 23 30% 3

5.1.8 Monthly income and expenditure

Monthly income and expenditure in rural livelihoods exhibits a seasonal variation, which is why high and low levels of both were recorded. It should also be noted that many respondents found it difficult to report monthly incomes due to the variety of revenue sources and the income fluctuation between different months of the year. Expenditure levels are also unstable—peaking from November until April—due to the higher frequency of ceremonies, weddings and festivals.

Table 12: Average monthly income Table 13: Average monthly expenditure

Income High (US$) Low (US$) Expenditure High (US$) Low (US$) Average 456 150 Average 290 130 Max 3500 1500 Max 3000 1200 Min 81 25 Min 63 19 Median 300 100 Median 200 100

Table 14 indicates the main items respondents spent their incomes on. The highest expenditure is incurred for household food consumption and education of children.

Table 14: Reasons of expenditure

Reason for expenditure Average (US$) Maximum (US$) Median (US$) Health 15 125 9 Education 46 180 35 Food 83 225 75 Clothes 7 25 6 Ceremonies 23 83 17 Electric usage 5 12,5 5

5.1.9 Loans

It has been understood that the informal lending sector dominates the formal banking sector in rural livelihoods (The Learning Institute, 2010). Furthermore, this has been used to indicate that the middlemen buying goods from fishermen have a monopoly over the market as fishermen depend on their credit (UNEP, 2007a). However, the results of the present study indicate that the services of micro-credit institutions are readily available to villagers. In total, 52 of the

respondents had acquired a loan, which accounts for 57% of the total respondents. Out of these, the vast majority acquired a loan from institutions such as Angkor Microfinance Kampuchea, Vision Fund, Prassac, Hatha Kasikor, Amrit, Sathapana and Niron.

Table 15: Loans

Origin of loan Frequency Percentage Village middleman 3 6% Bank 43 83% Savings group 1 2% Other 5 10% Total 52 100%

The chief reasons for borrowing money were to buy or repair fishing gear. Other reasons included to connect to the electricity grid; running costs for a shop; buying a motorbike, land, medicine, pigs, a biogas oven, animal feed, food, ceremony costs; and the education of children.

Table 16: Reasons for borrowing money

Reason Frequency Percentage Buy fishing gear 32 58% Repair fishing gear 6 11% Repair house 6 11% Other 11 20% Total 55 100%

5.2 Occupational distribution

The main characteristic of rural livelihoods is occupational diversification, where people depend on more than one income source. Of the 91 male respondents in the household survey, 72% had more than one occupation. In addition to fishing, the male respondents were mostly involved in livestock rearing and farming to support their household’s income. Other occupations included shop keeping, wage labour, boat-fixing, working as motor taxi drivers, non-timber forest product (NTFP) collection, trading and processing marine products.

Female occupational distribution was more diverse. Primary occupations included fishing, processing food, trading, shop keeping, being a housewife and wage labour. Out of the 86 female respondents, 63% also had a secondary occupation for providing additional household support.

The high number of respondents having two occupations can be seen as a strategy to cope with the seasonal fluctuations in terms of availability of natural resources. The Seasonal Calendar

exercise done with the Focus Groups in all villages clearly shows fluctuations in the possible income contributions to household wealth between the dry and rainy season.

Table 17: Seasonal Calendar

Occupation Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Fishing Most Least Medium Most Rice cultivation Rice cultivation Processing Most Least Medium Most Fish trading Most Least Medium Most Livestock rearing Livestock rearing

Rice cultivation takes place for six months in the year, with preparations beginning in the first month of the rainy season and harvesting taking place in November and December. The prime season for fishing is from October until February when the water temperature is lower than in the summer. This condition attracts fish, crabs and shrimp in shallower areas and seagrass beds. From June until the end of September, fishing is disrupted due to weather conditions, as the water is more turbid and there is a higher chance of heavier rains and more frequent storms. From March until May, the catch of fish is low. Due to the increased water temperature, marine fauna migrate further towards the open sea. Unsurprisingly, the processing and trading of fishing products fluctuates along with the fishing season.

5.3 Dependence on seagrass

5.3.1 Fishing practices

Fishing was the primary occupation of 90 household heads and the secondary occupation of one household. This means that out of all of the households surveyed, 100% are dependent on fishing.

Fishing strategies of the respondents differed in terms of gear choice, number of hours spent fishing per day, and the number of days per month spent fishing. In total, the respondents own 104 fishing gears, with 76% owning only one type of gear, 19% owning two gears, and two respondents have a total of three gears. There were only three people who had no fishing gear at all, but they worked on boats for a fixed fee or for a fixed percentage of the catch. In total, there were nine different types of gears that were recorded. The most popular gears were gillnet, hand-push net, different traps and surround net.

The gillnets that were recorded targeted different species; with mackerel gillnet (10) being the most prominent, followed by shrimp gillnet (8). Other types of gillnet that were recorded included that for needlefish, rabbitfish and crab gillnets. Out of the recorded traps, the crab trap was the most popular (14), while other traps targeted shrimp and squid. The popularity of hand push nets also shows the relatively low availability of capital in the villages, as these are possibly the cheapest fishing gear with a low catch per unit effort.

Table 18: Types of fishing gears

Gear Type Frequency Frequency

Gillnet 39 38% Hand-push net 27 26% Traps 17 16%

Surround net 10 10% Octopus line 4 4% Trawler net 4 4% Hook 1 1% Stationary bagnet 1 1% Snorkel 1 1% Total 104 100%

The respondents were also asked why they had chosen to fish with the gear they were using. The most common reason was the cost of the gear, which was mentioned 38 times. A close second was the skill and experience with the gear, mentioned 36 times. Other important characteristics were the ease with which to operate the gear and the amount of catch achievable.

Sixty four respondents out of 91 had a boat, and three people had two trawlers giving a total count of 67 boats. Long tail boats were the most popular, with the majority also having a motor, allowing the fishermen to obtain their catch further from the shore.

Figure 5: A fisherman showing his hand-push net in Trapeang Sangke village

Table 19: Types of boats

Average Horse Distance from Type of boat Frequency length (m) Power shore (km) Long tail boat with motor 43 9.9 9.8 9.5 Long tail boat no motor 16 5.7 - 2.0 Trawler boat 8 9.5 23.6 9.0 No boat 27 - - -

There was some variation in the villages, with the most boats being recorded in Chang Houn Village. This is partly due to the fact that this village is located directly by the sea and there is quick and easy access using boats with less costs for fuel. In Trapeang Sangke Village, which is located in an estuary, a different pattern emerged, where one person would own a boat and others would pay the boat owner between US$ 0.50-0.75 for a ride to the sea.

Furthermore, 49% of the fishermen reported that they employed labour to operate their fishing gear In 58% of the cases, the payment system was a fixed percentage between 10-20% of the total catch. This can be seen as a mechanism to share the risk of the economic impact of low catch between the owner of the fishing equipment and his employees. In 27% of the cases, the fishermen would pay their employees a fixed sum, on an average of US$ 5 per day. Only 16% of the fishermen used family members as labourers.

Most of the respondents fished all year around, with no exceptions between seasons. Out of 91 people interviewed, 92% fished all year around. The remaining seven fishermen would venture out to the sea between 7-11 months per year. The average days per month spent fishing varied a little between peak and low season. During the peak season, the average fishermen would go out to the sea for 23 days out of the month, while during the low season 20 days were spent fishing on an average. The average time per fishing trip was nine hours, but there was a high variation between different gears used.

Table 20: Hours per day spent fishing

Gear Type Respondents Hours per trip Gillnet 39 7 Hand push net 27 8 Traps 17 13 Surround net 10 10 Octopus line 4 7 Trawler net 4 12 Hook 1 2 Stationary bag net 1 3 Snorkel 1 17

Figure 6: Long tail boats in Trapeang Sangke village

5.3.2 Fishing grounds by importance

The fishermen in Kampot Province fish relatively close to the shore; at an average distance of 9 km from the coastline. The table below shows the importance of different fishing grounds such as seagrasses, coral reefs, open fishing grounds, mangroves and the river.

Table 21: Importance of fishing grounds

Of the 91 respondents, 64% rated seagrasses as ‘very important’ and an additional 11% rated them as ‘important’. The second most highly regarded area was the open fishing ground, with 34% of the total respondents regarding it as ‘very important’. Two fishermen specialized in river

fishing. Coral reefs and mangroves were regarded as ‘not important’ by a large majority of the respondents. The overall opinions reveal a high importance of seagrasses for local fishermen.

5.3.3 Main income generating species

Most fishermen were very specialized in terms of the target species they would catch, especially fishermen owning octopus lines and traps; gears which have a low amount of by-catch. The most targeted species were blue-swimming crabs and different species of shrimp, due to their high market value. A total of 54% of the 91 respondents were catching crabs and 42% of the respondents were catching different species of shrimp. The total number of respondents catching each species is recorded in Table 22 (on the following page).

Table 22 also indicates if the species is related to the seagrass. For example, studies on the relation of seagrass coverage and crab (Portunidae) abundance clearly show a significant correlation. Higher seagrass coverage, density and species composition results in an increased crab population (Tuntiprapas et al., 2008). The most popular species that are fished after the blue swimming crabs and shrimps are rabbitfish, octopus, needlefish and mullet. These preferences can be seen in terms of the relatively high market value of these species. Mud crabs are measured in numbers, not kilograms, as they are only caught in Trapeang Sangke Village as juveniles, and are mostly sold to supply aquaculture farms in Viet Nam. According to the villagers, seahorses are not targeted specifically, but they are mainly collected as by-catch, despite their high market value of US$ 2.50 per piece.

However, it should be noted that it is most probable that the fishermen who were survey respondents reported only the most important income-generating species they were catching, as a catch monitoring study done by the Regional Fisheries and Livelihoods Programme showed that over 100 species were reported by only 26 fishermen in a period of eight months, including income-generating species and by-catch (Ngor & Heng, 2012).

Table 22: Main species caught by fishermen

Average Price Income/ Association Common Frequ- kg/ /kg month to sea- Family name ency month (US$) (US$) grasses Reference Penaeidae Shrimp 49 73 3.58 260.21 Yes Coles (1993) Blue Swimming Portunidae crab 38 155 3.41 527.30 Yes Fortes (1990) Siganidae Rabbitfish 31 112 2.16 240.90 Yes Fortes (1990) Cephalopda Octopus 30 93 3.00 278.57 Yes Fortes (1990) Belonidae Needlefish 20 162 1.52 245.32 Yes Fortes (1990) Mugilidae Mullet 15 35 1.99 70.41 Yes Fortes (1990) Scombridae Mackerel 14 643 0.51 327.37 N/A N/A Chacunda Gizzard Clupeidae Shad 10 416 0.40 164.12 Yes Fortes (1990) Leiognathidae Pony fish 7 192 0.23 43.91 Yes Fortes (1990) Sphyranidae Barracuda 7 49 2.23 108.87 Yes Fortes (1990) Lutjanidae Snapper 6 40 3.38 134.83 Yes Fortes (1990) 878 Yes Arshad et al. Portunidae Mud Crab 6 (heads) 0.07 60.36 (2006) Yes Gilman et al. Polynemidae Threadfin 4 25 1.94 48.92 (2006) Striped Plotosidae eel catfish 2 155 1.81 281.62 Yes Fortes (1990) Sea Yes Arshad et al. Ariidae catfish 2 34 3.23 108.84 (2006) 9000 N/A Oyster 1 (heads) 0.09 787.50 N/A N/A 50 Hippocampinae Seahorse 1 (heads) 2.50 125.00 Yes Fortes (1990) Engraulidae Anchovy 1 94 0.33 30.47 Yes Fortes (1990) Sillaginidae Sillago 1 288 1.75 504.00 Yes Fortes (1990) N/A Mixed fish 20 95 0.88 83.86 N/A N/A N/A Trash fish 17 129 0.33 41.78 N/A N/A

Source: Compiled by author

What is striking, though, is the percentage of the economically important species which are in some form dependent on seagrasses in their life cycle. Out of all the species recorded, 17 have a relation to seagrasses and in only two cases, mackerel (Scombridae) and oysters, a scientific reference could not be found to document a species-to-seagrass relationship.

Table 23: Seagrass related species

5.3.4 Perceptions of the value of seagrass

Not only are seagrasses regarded as significant fishing grounds supporting the most important income generating species, but the respondents also seemed to have a good understanding of other benefits that they may provide. The two main perceived values were that seagrasses provide food for marine fauna and serve as nursery grounds. Overall, it seems that the ecosystem services provided by seagrasses were understood, to some extent, by the respondents. Only 5% of the surveyed households were not able to assign any indirect values.

Table 24: Perceptions of indirect values of seagrass

Value judgment Frequency Percentage of total population Food for fish 63 69% Nursery grounds 58 64% Protection against waves 15 16% Habitat 14 15% Fertilizer 5 5% Don´t know 5 5%

Despite the fact that most people were able to assign a functional value to seagrasses, there were indications that the spill-over effect resulting from the nursery ground value were not understood. When asked what will be the condition of seagrass beds in the future, then regardless of how the conditions were perceived, the fishermen who did not fish inside the seagrass beds mentioned that this will not affect them, as they do not directly use the seagrass areas for fishing.

5.4 State and changes in fishery resources

Estimating the status of fish stocks in Kampot Province is not an easy endeavor. The last estimates were made nearly 15 years ago in the late 1990s, and new studies are needed to give more accurate information on the current status of fisheries resources. Kampot Province does not have an official fish landing site, which makes consistent and accurate data collection all the more difficult. Volumes from low catch gears such as hand-push nets are not included in the calculations of the annual marine production of the province. In addition to this, catches sold illegally to adjacent countries and catches harvested illegally by boats from neighbouring countries are also not recorded, and there are no mechanisms in place to make these estimations. Overall, it should be noted that the official statistical data should be treated carefully, as the reported figures vary substantially and errors in recording are highly likely (UNEP, 2007 a). However, the FiA quarterly data on fish landings can be indicative of overall trends.

Table 25: Total marine catch in Kampot Province

The latest data obtained shows increasing pressure on the coastal resources. However, since 2009, the total catch has experienced an upward trend. Further exploration of the data also shows an increase in grade 1 fish—high valued large fish species such as snapper and grouper—which could be an indication of an increase in the overall fishing effort targeting these species in the short-term, that will not be sustainable over the longer-term; or it could be due to the increased availability of these species to Cambodian fishermen as a result of successful conservation measures; and/or a reduction in illegal fishing pressure from neighbouring fleets.

However, the catch of trash-fish has also shown an upward trend, which may be suggestive of increased fishing pressure, or it could be a response to market conditions in which trash-fish has an increased value and is no longer discarded in the sea. It would take much more detailed long-term research to fully understand these trends.

In contrast to the upward trend in official statistics, the results collected from the conducted household survey show that majority of the respondents perceive that they are catching less fish

than 5-10 years ago. Despite the overall catch in the province increasing, individual fishermen are apparently catching less.

Table 26: Perceptions of fish catch

Amount of catch Frequency Percentage Less 75 82% Same 6 7% More 9 10%

Don’t know 1 1% Total 91 100%

There was considerable variation in estimating if the size of fish had changed in the past five years. Around 49 of the total respondents indicated that the size of the fish was smaller, whereas 34 respondents suggested that the size of fish had not changed, and only four said the size of fish had become bigger.

Table 27: Perceptions of size of fish

Size of fish Frequency Percentage Smaller 49 54%

Same 34 37% Bigger 4 4% Don´t know 4 4% Total 91 100%

An explanation for this variation may be that the respondents estimated the size of the produce based on their particular target species. The data obtained from FiA regarding fishing gears between 2009-2012 shows a significant jump in the numbers of crab and shrimp gillnets and traps. This could be seen as a response to market conditions, where shrimp and crab are highly in demand and are also highly valued. Furthermore, analysis of the FGDs show that the fish stocks have been perceived as being relatively abundant over the past 18 years. However, the crab population is perceived to be under considerable pressure, leading to decreasing stocks and an increasing catch of smaller sized crabs.

Figure 5: Middlemen waiting to buy blue-swimming crabs in an unofficial landing site

5.5 Drivers of change and proposed solutions

There are noticeable trends in both fisheries resources and the coastal habitats. The annual catch data from FiA (2003-2012) shows increasing fishing efforts, while the fishermen themselves reported catching less and less fish per person. The size of the commercially most demanded species is also seen to be declining. All of this is an indication that unsustainable fishing practices have been dominant. Furthermore, Kampot Province is increasingly targeted by large scale development projects, which are putting the health of coastal ecosystems at considerable risk. The Problem Matrix and Solution exercise in all the villages revealed the main issues of concern and the best potential solutions seen from the perspective of the villagers. From the data analysis, six main themes emerged which are discussed in detail below.

5.5.1 Development activities, loss and degradation of habitat

The main concern in three out of the four villages is coastal development. Sand mining and landfilling of seagrass beds is seen as the predominant driver of degradation of coastal habitats. Sand mining for export purposes is still clearly visible, despite the complete ban on it which was enforced in 2009 (MFF, 2013). The International Port Development and the Kampot Special Economic Zone will be developed on reclaimed land

Figure 6: Map indicating location of port development Source: Fisheries Administration Cantonment (2010)

Figure 4 clearly shows that the international port is planned directly on the most extensive seagrass patch; covering an area of a little over 23,000 ha. According to the EIA published in 2010, 1,449 ha of seagrasses will be lost due to land-filling and 587 ha will be lost due to dredging the navigational waterways. A total of 2,036 ha of seagrasses will be lost due to this project. In addition, other areas of natural seagrass near the project site will be impacted indirectly due to deterioration in water quality. The reasons for this project to be planned and built directly on one of the most productive ecosystems in the world are unclear.

Another problematic issue is the encroachment into mangrove areas due to the expansion of salt farms. Production of salt in Cambodian coastal areas covers 4,000 ha, with 85% of this lying in Kampot Province (Khim, 2010). This is also inducing another problem of salt intrusion into agricultural lands, thereby decreasing the productivity of that scarce resource in the coastal areas.

The main solution proposed for these issues was a call for coastal zoning, with the establishment of more legally recognized conservation areas, while at the same time empowering local communities to manage and protect them. Furthermore, it was suggested that local authorities should keep a close eye on development projects to ensure proper mitigation of their negative effects on natural resources.

5.5.2 Disputes over fishing areas

Disputes mainly occur due to incompatibility of different types of fishing devices used in the same locations. However, in the case of Chang Houn Village, these have escalated to an international level. Cambodia’s Exclusive Economic Zone legally overlaps with those of its neighbours Viet Nam and Thailand (Seng et al., 2005). Further complicating this issue is the notoriously disputed island of Phú Quốc (Koh Trol) belonging to Viet Nam, which is merely 10 km away from the coast of Cambodia.

The overall solution proposed was a clear demarcation of fishing areas based on gears used and the clarification of fishing domains between Cambodia and Viet Nam.

5.5.3 Use of illegal fishing devices

The use of illegal fishing devices was also a major issue which was brought up in all the villages during the study. In addition to the results of the FGDs, 49% of household respondents also found that illegal fishing was contributing to lower fish catch. The use of pair trawlers, small mesh-sized nets, and motorized push nets in shallow waters are regarded as problematic issues leading to the degradation of habitat and small-aquatic resource collection. The persistence of illegal activities is seen to be the result of a lack of knowledge regarding the effects of such practices.

Further complicating the issue are the offences of foreign boats operating illegally in Cambodian waters. Contributing to this problem is the fact that the laws in Viet Nam and Cambodia regarding legal vessels are different. For example, pair trawling is completely prohibited in Cambodia and is punishable as an offence with a prison sentence. The same vessels are legal in Viet Nam if used in the deep sea, and are considered illegal offences that are punishable with a fine. In Kampot, illegal offences by Vietnamese operators are most common due to the proximity to the border between the two countries and Phú Quốc Island. However, there is collaboration amongst the FiA in Cambodia and the FiA in Viet Nam to ensure mutual learning and cooperation in order to crack down on any such illegal activities.

The solutions for the use of illegal fishing devices were suggested as increased patrolling efforts, strengthening the capacity of existing teams, and increasing cooperation and collaboration with local authorities in suppressing these illegal activities. Furthermore, it was suggested that outreach and education programmes would be beneficial to disseminate knowledge on the impacts of illegal fishing gears and the collection of juvenile marine resources.

5.5.4 Increase in fishermen

Another issue that emerged from the FGDs is the large number of fishermen, which is regarded as problematic due to the increase in the overall fishing pressure, leading to lower catch of fish by individuals. Furthermore, 58% of respondents in the household survey found that an increase in fishermen was a reason for lower fish catch. Alternative livelihood options in rural areas are

seen to be scarce, as there is lack of land for agriculture. Fishing provides a fast daily income and is often more lucrative than wage labour.

Alternative livelihood development was seen to be the main solution for reducing the pressure of the growing number of fishermen. Suggestions made were to train communities in marine product processing techniques, marine aquaculture, integrated farming systems, and eco- tourism.

5.5.5 Low capital and increasing costs

Despite the fact that half of the respondents have loans, access to adequate capital to invest in fishing equipment is still seen as an issue. Another perceived problem is the middlemen-based selling structure, which results in lower prices for marine products. In addition, gasoline prices have increased, resulting in higher cost inputs without the return of higher outputs.

The solutions put forth were to establish a savings group in the village to increase capital availability at low interest rates. The establishment of a cooperative was also supported as a possible way to increase the price of marine catch.

5.5.6 Climate change

The increase in storms and natural disasters is also seen as a significant problem. Severe weather conditions affect income levels, as there are fewer days during which fishermen can go out to sea. The rise in sea temperature could also have a severe impact, as with higher temperatures marine resources migrate seawards, which in turn affects the large group of fishermen using gears suitable only for fishing near the coast.

The solutions proposed by respondents during the FGDs to offset the increase in the destructive capacity of storms were seen in replanting and conserving the existing forests, especially mangroves. It was also suggested to set up an early warning system to ensure the timely dissemination of information about the occurrence of storms.

5.6 Future outlook

The future outlook of the region is discussed based on data compiled from the household survey, analysis of the FGDs, and interviews with relevant stakeholders. The possible future directions for the four villages are different due their location and proximity to coastal development projects. Rolous Village, in particular, has already experienced an occupational transition from fishing towards alternative livelihoods. Their CFi was abolished due to the overlapping interests of the conservation of fishing grounds and port development. The PRA data in that particular village also shows that solutions are seen in terms of adapting to the situation by changing fishing locations and engaging in alternative livelihoods.

The opening of the port has been delayed for more than three years, with no clear estimate of the future date of its completion. According to the EIA, there should be a social fund of US$

250,000 per year over 10 years that should be allocated for vocational training of community members. However, none of this money has as yet been received by affected communities. As the FiA Chief pointed out, the communities have unfortunately lost their fishing grounds, while no new jobs have been currently created due to the delay in port construction.

Overall, the interviewed government officials agreed that the benefits from port development are higher than the losses. They believe that the jobs created and the monetary contribution to Kampot Province will result in a general positive effect. What exactly will happen to the economy of Kampot is unclear, but it is most probable that port development will bring in benefits to the trade and processing industry of marine products. Currently, processing is only done on a small scale, with the only commercial scale company for frozen shrimp operating in Sihanoukville (UNEP, 2007a). It can be expected that national and foreign investment will flow in to establish manufacturing due to the increased possibility for export. Furthermore, it is most probable that an official landing site will be created, which will benefit local trading.

These developments, however, do not come without costs as the pollution from the port may be hazardous to the marine habitat and fauna. The discharge of ballast and the use of anti-fouling paints for ships which cause reproductive disorders in marine organisms can disrupt the local ecological balance (UNEP, 2007a). That said, according to the EIA, in addition to the social funds, an extra US$ 250,000 per year over 10 years will be allocated toward ecosystem rehabilitation; including mangrove and seagrass replanting. Currently, none of this money has been received and it is unclear when the payments will start. Furthermore, it is questionable if the estimated economic loss of US$ 2-4 million/year due to the loss of 2036 hectares of seagrass can be offset by this amount. Seagrass recovery and replanting techniques are still in a developmental stage and can be very expensive (Ganassin & Gibbs, 2008).

Despite the increasing pressure on coastal resources, the PRA data shows another trend emerging in Chang Houn, Trapeang Sangke and Koh Kreusna villages. Due to the establishment of CFis and conservation areas, an increase in the health of seagrasses has been reported over the past three years. The CFis in general seem to have a considerable influence in the villages, as 90% of the household survey respondents in these three villages were members of a community fishery. The benefit of the CFis are seen by these respondents in the protection of fishing grounds (52%); establishment of conservation areas (23%); education and awareness-raising (12%); and reporting illegal activities (11%). Hence, to a large extent, CFis seem to be working as the critical response system to the main issues seen to be threatening the habitat and sustainability of fishing. Other studies have also indicated that the expectations from CFis are high in Kampot Province, as they are seen as legal management mechanisms empowering local communities and helping to facilitate external support from government programmes and development organizations (The Learning Institute, 2010).

The interviews conducted with CFi chiefs also indicated that since the establishment of new management practices, the seagrass and mangrove areas are protected; awareness of the need for conservation of resources amongst fishermen is higher; and collaboration with governmental institutions such as the FiA is stronger.

This relatively recent change in management practices of coastal resources can also be seen in the variations of perceived future conditions of the seagrass habitat amongst individual respondents.

Table 28: Condition of seagrass in the future

Condition of seagrass in the future All villages Percentage Better 34 37% Same 6 7% Worse 41 45% Don’t know 10 11% Total 91 100%

Although the majority of fishermen (45%) see the condition of the ecosystem as being in a state of deterioration, many (37%) respondents expect the condition of the seagrass beds to improve in the future. These respondents see their incomes rising in the following years due to the increase in marine catch.

Table 29: Perceptions of the sustainability of a career in fishing

Fishing in the future Frequency Percentage Yes 63 69% No 9 10% Undecided 19 21% Total 91 100%

A large majority of the households interviewed also see themselves as continuing with a career in fishing. The main reason given for this choice was that this was the only skill that they have, and the only occupation with that they can sustain themselves with. Around 21% of the respondents were undecided about whether they will continue fishing in the future. This group explained that they will remain fishermen, provided they can generate sufficient income and the marine catch does not decline.

VI. Findings

The main objective of this study was to assess the extent of dependence of coastal fishermen on the seagrass ecosystem. It is clearly visible from the data that dependency is high:

 Around 89% of the income generating species caught by fishermen are in some way dependent on the seagrass ecosystem.  Fishing is providing economic and food security to a large segment of the population in Kampot Province. No formal statistics are as yet available, but it can be estimated that the number of people dependent on marine fishing is high. There are 3,054 members in the currently registered CFis in Kampot Province. The actual number of fishermen may

be twice as high, because not all fishery villages have a CFi and not all fishermen are members.

A conclusion of these two key findings is that any changes in the health, composition and coverage of the seagrass beds will result in a decline of marine fauna, which will severely affect the economic and food security in Koh Kong Province.

Another topic explored was the state of inshore fishery resources. It can be concluded that currently there is still a large and productive seagrass area in Kampot Province, but that it is exhibiting signs of increasing pressure.

 Statistics from FiA between 2003 and 2012 show an increasing trend in overall volumes of marine catch in Kampot Province.  Around 82% of the household survey respondents perceive that they are catching less marine products than 5-10 years ago.  Qualitative data from the FDGs shows that the most important income-generating aquatic species group, crab, has been declining in both size and numbers.

Increasing volumes of overall catch, but decreasing volumes and size of the higher value marine products, are indicative of the escalating pressure on coastal ecosystems.

The exploration of the drivers of change in seagrass health and fishery resources revealed that there are numerous demands from multiple stakeholders on the coastal area of Kampot Province. Pressure is exerted on coastal resources via:

 Population growth and increase in fishermen;  Lack of skills and shortage of alternative livelihood options;  Illegal gear usage and foreign vessels operating illegally in Cambodian waters;  Coastal development projects;  Climate change.

It is expected that as a result of these pressures, the coastal area of Kampot Province will experience considerable changes in the patterns of resource usage. The Council for Development of Cambodia (CDC) sees two industries with a high potential for growth in Kampot Province - tourism and marine products. The role of the Kampot SEZ is to act as a hub for manufacturing, while the international port is intended to invigorate tourism and increase the export of marine products (CDC, 2013).

Effects of these development projects will be manifold. While creating new jobs and industries, these projects will also threaten the health of the ecosystem and the economic security of subsistence fishermen. These consequences are already being felt by communities adjacent to the coastal development, as they have reported a decline in marine produce and income resulting in many being forced to change their occupations. These findings highlight the importance of mitigating negative effects of such development activities to ensure that both the integrity of the ecosystem remains intact and that the affected communities are given adequate training to be able to transition to alternative livelihoods.

Possible effects of climate change on the seagrasses are highly unclear (Morgan, 2011). Increase in the frequency and severity of storms is already noticed by fishermen, but how the

ecosystem will respond to higher water temperatures and CO2 levels is under researched by the scientific community.

The last objective of the present study was to explore the management of coastal resources. Decentralization of natural resource management in Cambodia has proven to be successful in Kampot Province:

 Qualitative data from the FDGs shows an increase in the health and distribution of seagrass in villages with a CFi.  CFis have a considerable influence in the villages and 90% of the respondents were CFi members.  CFis are reported to be integral in protecting fishing grounds, establishing conservation areas, providing education and awareness, and reporting illegal activities.

The results of the present study show that Community Fisheries are highly regarded by their members and are reported to be effective in sustainably managing their fishery areas through knowledge dissemination and law enforcement.

Overall, it is evident that there are significant pressures on coastal resources of Kampot Province. However, if supported and strengthened, there are also management mechanisms which could be effective in combating some of these negative effects. Most importantly, what needs to be central to all future coastal development plans and activities is the recognition that the seagrass ecosystem is providing food and economic security to thousands of households, while also acting as a significant revenue stream for the province.

VII. Recommendations

 The completion of the Coastal Zoning Plan for Kampot Province designating appropriate areas for development, fishing and conservation in close cooperation with existing CFis. This is currently in the initial phases of planning, and will be supported until the end of the BCR project in 2014.  An increase in conservation areas, in close cooperation with the existing CFis, by strengthening their knowledge and capacity for coastal resource management.  Scientific analysis comparing the productivity of the area with a CFi and an area without a CFi to assess the ecological benefits of community management.  Scientific assessment of the value of seagrasses, including an estimation of both ecosystem goods (e.g., marine fauna) and services (e.g., carbon sequestration) to be able to measure the true benefit of seagrasses to Kampot Province, as a means of securing long-term financing for improved seagrass management. As Cambodia is now a full member of MFF, some grants could possibly be allocated to support these activities.

VIII. References

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