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Broadening the Scope of Cultural Neuroscience Meghan L Psychological Inquiry, 24: 47–52, 2013 Copyright C Taylor & Francis Group, LLC ! ISSN: 1047-840X print / 1532-7965 online DOI: 10.1080/1047840X.2013.764815 Broadening the Scope of Cultural Neuroscience Meghan L. Meyer Psychology Department, University of California, Los Angeles, California Baldwin M. Way Psychology Department and Institute for Behavioral Medicine Research, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio Naomi I. Eisenberger Psychology Department, University of California, Los Angeles, California Chiao, Cheon, Pornpattananangkul, Mrazek, and sociated with collectivism when in-group/out-group Blizinsky offer a comprehensive review of cultural distinctions are based on personal relationships (e.g., neuroscience research. For such a young field, cul- kin, friends, community vs. strangers; see Brewer & tural neuroscience has made great strides in the effort Yuki, 2007, for a review). The underlying idea here to understand the neural and genetic mechanisms un- is that preferential association with in-group mem- derlying cultural differences in psychology. Here, we bers and avoidance of out-group members is impor- pose a set of questions that, if addressed in the fu- tant for minimizing the spread of infection from novel ture, may help develop the field. First, can cultural pathogens. To date, support for this theory and its link neuroscientists more deeply probe how environmental to cultural differences in psychology has been cor- factors, such as pathogen threats, may have influenced relational. Studies associate infectious disease preva- genetic selection and, in turn, cultural differences in lence, as well as pathogen prevalence, across global psychology (i.e., the culture–gene coevolutionary the- regions and nations to greater collectivism (vs. individ- ory)? Second, can cultural neuroscientists help unravel ualism; Fincher, Thornhill, Murray, & Schaller, 2008; whether and how aspects of cultural psychology are Gangestad, Haselton, & Buss, 2006) and conformity susceptible to change? Third, what can a cultural neu- (Murray, Trudeau, & Schaller, 2011). In addition, re- roscience perspective give back to other, related disci- gions of the world with more pathogens also have more plines such as social cognitive neuroscience, genetics, individuals carrying alleles that have been associated and psychology more broadly? with collectivism (Chiao & Blizinsky, 2010; Way & Lieberman, 2010). Although the mechanism underlying the relation- Can Cultural Neuroscience Test the ship between pathogen prevalence and collectivism is Culture-Gene Coevolutionary Theory? not yet clear, some studies suggest that it may be me- diated, in part, by inflammatory processes—the im- Downloaded by [Meghan L. Meyer] at 09:28 19 March 2013 As Chiao et al. mention, the guiding biologi- mune system’s first line of defense against pathogens, cal theory of why differences in psychology persist which may increase sensitivity to social cues. As across cultures is that through the course of evolu- evidence for this possibility, exposing human sub- tion, different psychological phenotypes may have bet- jects to a low-dose bacterial endotoxin, known to ter ensured survival in different geographic regions. increase inflammatory activity in a safe and time- Although provocative, to our knowledge, this theory limited manner (Andreasen et al., 2008; Suffredini, tends to be used as a framework to understand ob- Hochstein, & McMahon, 1999), has been shown to served differences in psychology across cultures. The increase sensitivity to negative social cues relevant next step is to empirically test models of how cultural to in-group status and out-group avoidance, two pro- differences in psychology may have emerged from cesses associated with collectivism. For instance, indi- genetic selection. To this end, neuroscience methods viduals who showed a greater inflammatory response may allow a closer examination of the ideas behind to endotoxin showed greater pain-related neural ac- culture–gene coevolution. tivity (dorsal anterior cingulate cortex [dACC], an- For example, under the umbrella of culture–gene terior insula [AI]) to social exclusion (Eisenberger, coevolutionary theory is the parasite–stress theory of Inagaki, Rameson, Mashal, & Irwin, 2009), which sociality, which suggests that the threat of infectious may reflect increased sensitivity to threats to in-group and parasitic diseases led to psychological traits that status, which is heightened among individuals from prioritize connection to in-group members and avoid- collectivistic cultures (Markus & Kitayama, 1991). ance of out-group members, two characteristics as- Similarly, individuals exposed to bacterial endotoxin 47 COMMENTARIES versus placebo showed increased threat-related neu- to protect against infection (Fredericks et al., 2010). ral (amygdala) sensitivity to threatening images of Given that 98% of human serotonin is located outside strangers (Inagaki, Muscatell, Irwin, Cole, & Eisen- of the central nervous system (Cooper, Bloom, & Roth, berger, 2011), which may support increased avoidance 2003) and is critically involved in immunity (Mossner¨ of out-group members. Finally, some data suggest that & Lesch, 1998), it makes sense that some of the rela- not only does direct exposure to a pathogen increase in- tionships between the serotonin transporter gene and flammatory activity but that simply viewing diseased- collectivism may be mediated through inflammatory looking people increases inflammatory activity as well processes. Paradigms that test relationships between (Schaller, Miller, Gervais, Yager, & Chen, 2010). Thus, infection and collectivism could therefore also test heightened inflammatory activity in response to the whether, within the same individuals, carrying specific presence or mere possibility of pathogens may increase alleles alters the inflammatory response to infection neural and behavioral sensitivity to threatening social (perhaps in response to endotoxin) as well as psycho- cues and hence may be involved in promoting some logical states associated with collectivism. aspects of collectivistic cultures, particularly those as- sociated with in-group and out-group biases. Indeed, cultural neuroscientists are well positioned Can Cultural Neuroscientists Help Unravel to unpack some of the causal relationships between the Whether and How Aspects of Cultural microbial world and cultural differences in psychol- Psychology Are Susceptible to Change? ogy. For example, do threats of and/or actual infection momentarily increase psychological states associ- In the previous section we suggested ways in which ated with collectivism such as interdependent self- cultural neuroscientists may begin to empirically test construal, power–distance, and tightness–looseness? the biological mechanisms through which ancient envi- And is this relationship bidirectional (e.g., Can prim- ronmental factors may have shaped cultural differences ing interdependent self-construal increase sensitivity in psychology observable today. However, a crucial as- to cues of infectious threats?)? Building on the stud- pect of culture that is often overlooked in cultural neu- ies mentioned earlier, cultural neuroscientists could roscience is that cultural values and the psychology of examine whether low-dose endotoxin (vs. placebo) cultural participants can change. By focusing on the enhances psychological states associated with collec- predictors of cultural differences (rather than just the tivism as well as the neural mechanisms underpinning consequences), might we be able to understand shifts such effects. For example, in addition to showing that in cultural psychology? inflammatory activity increases threat-related neural For example, as cultures become able, through mod- sensitivity to threatening images of strangers (Inagaki ern medicine, to reduce the risk of pathogens, do cul- et al., 2011), it would also be interesting to examine tural differences in psychology change? This idea can whether inflammatory activity also increases reward- be illustrated by research on attraction, which finds that related neural sensitivity to close others, which may heterosexual women show different biases in attraction compose the neural basis of an increased preference for to men across their menstrual cycle (e.g., increased in-group members. Similarly, building on the findings preferences for indicators of male genetic quality dur- that viewing diseased others can increase inflammatory ing ovulation; e.g., Gangestad & Thornhill, 2008); Downloaded by [Meghan L. Meyer] at 09:28 19 March 2013 activity (Schaller et al., 2010), it would be worth exam- however, women taking contraceptive pills that pre- ining whether viewing diseased others also leads to in- vent ovulation show reductions in these biases (see group preference and out-group avoidance. Such stud- Alvergne & Lummaa, 2010, for a review). Hence, ies would provide important experimental evidence to modern manipulations of biological systems may have further understand the relationships between pathogen downstream consequences for psychology. In the con- prevalence and collectivism. text of reduced pathogens, as regions of the world, In fact, if threat of infection gave way to psycholog- which have historically experienced pathogen threats, ical traits that prioritize connection to in-group mem- reduce these threats through modern medicine and bers through culture–gene coevolution, then it stands technology (e.g., water purification, antibiotic use, to reason that individuals with genes associated
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