o Podophyllum consists of the dried rhizome and roots of Podophyllum hexandrum (Indian podophyllum), or P. peltatum (American podophyllum) of the family Berberidaceae. o Podophyllum hexandrum is found in India, China, and the Himalayas, and yields Indian podophyllum, whilst Podophyllum peltatum (May apple or American mandrake) comes from North America and is the source of American. o Podophyllum. Plants are collected from the wild. Both plants are large-leafed perennial herbs with edible fruits, though other parts of the plant are

toxic D R . ALGAMAR 2 CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS

• The roots contain cytotoxic lignans and their glucosides; P. hexandrum containing about 5% and P. peltatum containing about 1%. • A concentrated form of the active principles is obtained by pouring an ethanolic extract of the root into water, and drying the precipitated podophyllum or podophyllin. • Indian podophyllum yield is 6-12% of resin containing 50-60% lignans, with podophyllum (about 4%) and 4-demethtylpodophyllotoxone, desoxypodophyllotoxin (about 0.45%) being the chief components. • American podophyllum yield is 2-8% of resin containing 14-18% lignans, with the chief components being β-peltatin (about 0.33%), α-peltatin (about 0.25%) and podophyllotoxin (about 0.25%). • The lignan constituents of the two roots are the same, but the proportions are markedly different.

DR. ALGAMAR 3 CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS

• Other constituents of the lignans found in both plants include podophyllotoxone, desoxypodophyllotoxin, and the glucosides of podophyllotoxin, 4- demethylpodophyllotoxin and the peltatins. • The discovery of the cytotoxic properties of podophyllotoxin and related compounds has now made podophyllum a commercially important drug.

DR. ALGAMAR 4 USES

• Podophyllum resin has long been used as a drastic but slow acting purgative. • Preparations of Indian podophyllum resin are effective treatments for warts, and pure podophyllotoxin is available as a for venereal warts, a condition which can be sexually transmitted. • Etoposide which is a lignan derivative obtained semi-synthetically from podophyllotoxin is used in the treatment of small-cell lung cancer and testicular cancer as well as lymohomas and leukaemias. • The water-soluble pro-drug etopophos (etoposide 4-phosphate) is also available; this is efficiently converted into etoposide by phosphatase enzymes and is preferred for routine clinical use. • Teniposide has similar anticancer properties and, though not as widely used as etoposide, has value in pediatrics neuroblastoma.

DR. ALGAMAR 5 DR. ALGAMAR 6 This is the oleoresin obtained by the cup and gutter method, or other similar processes, from trunks of Pinus species of the family Pinaceae e.g. Pinus palustris…etc. Turpentine yields depend on the treatment and the size of the tree. If skillfully worked, trees yield for 15 to 20 years. The oleoresin is secreted in ducts located directly beneath the cambium in the sapwood. 7 D R . ALGAMAR PREPRATION

• The bark is chipped (rounded chip) during spring followed by spraying the freshly cut surface with 50% solution of sulphuric acid. • The acid treatment helps to collapse the thin- walled parenchymal cells that line the resin ducts and this allow a more rapid of flow of oleoresin and reduction of the chances of hardened secretions (the acid does not stimulate greater production of oleoresin). • On steam distillation turpentine yields from 15 to 30% of volatile oil known as turpentine oil. • The hot filtered residue left after distillation constitutes, the colophony resin known also as .

DR. ALGAMAR 8 CHEMICAL CONSTIUTES

• About 40 terpens are reported in turpentine oil and the major components include (+) and (-)-β-pinene (5-10%), and camphene. • Rosin contains from 80-90% of the anhydrides of abietic acid, sylvic acid, sapinic acid, and other acids and resenes.

DR. ALGAMAR 9 USES

• Turpentine oil is chiefly used externally as a counter- irritant and rubefacient in the form of liniments. It is also a weak antiseptic and expectorant. It used in the treatment of chronic bronchitis. Industrially, it is used in the manufacture of synthetic oil, disinfectants, denaturants, insecticides, and . • Rosin is used as a stiffening agent in cerates, plasters and ointments. Industrially its major application is in , paper, printing inks, paints, adhesives, and in rubber industries.

DR. ALGAMAR 10 Colophony is a solid residue left after distilling off the volatile oil from the oleoresin obtained from Pinus palustris (long leaf pine) and other species of Pinus such as P. pinaster, P. halepensis, P. massoniana, P. tabuliformis, P. carribacea var., belonging to family Pinaceae

DR. ALGAMAR 11 CHARACTERS & CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS

• Colophony occurs as translucent, hard, shiny, sharp, pale yellow to fragments, fracture brittle at ordinary temperature, burns with smoky flame, slight turpentine-like odour and taste, melts readily on heating. • It is insoluble in water but freely soluble in , benzene, ether, glacial acetic acid, oils, carbon disulphide, and alkali solutions. • Colophony contains resin acids (about 90%), resenes, and fatty acid . Of the resin acids about 90% are isomeric α-, β-, and γ-abietic acids; the other 10% is a mixture of dihydroabietic acid and dehydroabietic acid.

DR. ALGAMAR 12 CHEMICAL TESTS

1. To a solution of powdered resin (0.1 g) in acetic acid (10 ml) one drop of conc. Sulphuric acid is added in a dry test tube. A purple colour, readily changing to violet, is formed. 2. To a petroleum ether solution of powdered Colophony twice its volume of dilute solution of copper acetate is shaken. The colour of the petroleum ether layer changes to emerald-green due to formation of copper salt of abietic acid. 3. To alcoholic solution of Colophony sufficient water is added. It becomes milky white due to precipitation of chemical compounds.! 4. Alcoholic solution of Colophony turns blue litmus to red due to the presence of diterpenic acids.

DR. ALGAMAR 13 • Ginger is the scraped or uscraped rhizome of Zingiber officinale of the family Zingiberaceae. • It is said to be native to South East Asia, but is cultivated in West Indies, Africa, and Australia. More than 35% of the world’s production is from India. Official ginger (BP) is kn0wn in commerce as “unbleached ginger”. • Ginger contains about 1 to 2% volatile oil and 5 to 8% of resinous matter, more than 50% starch, and mucilage.

DR. ALGAMAR 14 CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS

• Ginger owes its characteristic aroma to its volatile oil content which is known as oil of ginger. Oil of ginger contains a mixture of over 50 constituents consisting of: . Monoterpens e.g. β-phellandene, (+)-camphene, cineole, citral and borneole. . Sesquiterpen hydrocarbones e.g. zingiberene, β-bisabolene, α-farnesene, β- sesquiphellandrene and curcumene. . Sesquiterpene alcohol e.g. zingiberol. • The characteristic pungency of the drug is attributed to ginger oleo-resin, known also as gengrin. Gengrin contains approximately 18 to 35% of volatile oil. It contains also pungent, as well as, non-pungent principles.

DR. ALGAMAR 15 CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS

• Fresh samples of gingerin may contain 30% of gingerol (the main pungent principle of ginger), shogaol, and zingerone. Gingerol is an oily liquid consisting of homologous phenols with [6]-gingerol being the principle one. • Zingerone, like gingerol, is also pungent, but processes in addition a sweet odour. Shogoals were thought to be not present in the fresh rhizome, but they are formed by loss of water from gingerols. • The pungency of gingerols is destroyed by prolonged contact with sodium hydroxide.

DR. ALGAMAR 16 USES

• Ginger is used as stomachic, a carminative, stimulant and flavoring agent. • Oleo-resin of ginger is mainly used as flavor for carbonated beverages, in spices and condiments. Studies also indicate that: . Powdered ginger may be a more effective antiemetic than Dramamine. . Ginger ameliorates the effects of motion sickness in the gastrointestinal tract itself more better than antihistamines which act centrally. . Ginger is effective in the control of excessive and uncontrolled vomiting occurring in the first trimester of pregnancy. . Ginger might provide a cheap antiemetic adjunct to cancer therapy.

DR. ALGAMAR 17 USES

. Sore throat, hoarseness, and loss of voice are benefited by chewing a piece of ginger. . Gingerols show potent inhibitory actions against prostaglandin synthetase indicating their anti-inflammatory and anti-platelet aggregation properties. . Gigerols together with [6]-shogaol produce enhanced gastrointestinal activity with effects on bile secretion. . The sesquiterpene hydrocarbons have also been associated with the antiulcer activity of ginger. . A strong antibacterial and antifungal actions have been demonstrated for a number of the rhizome constituents.

DR. ALGAMAR 18 • Capsicum which belongs to the family Solanaceae, consist of the dried ripe fruit of: . Capsicum frutescens (African chillies). . C. annuum variety conoides (Tabasco pepper). . C. annuum variety longum(Louisiana long pepper). • Capsicum frutescens is indigenous to Tropical America and cultivated in almost all tropical countries. East Africa, West Africa and India are regions producing the drug on commercial scale. DR. ALGAMAR 19 CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS

• Capsicum contains up to 1.5% of a colorless, crystalline and pungent principle known as which is volatile above 65% C. It also contains about 1.5% of a volatile oil, a fixed oil about 4-16% ascorbic acid 0.1-0.5%, thiamine, red such as capsanthin and capsorubin. • The pungency of capsicum is not destroyed by the treatment with alkalies, but is destroyed by oxidation with potassium dichromate or permanganate. • Capsaicin is present to the maximum extent in the longitudinal dissepiments of the fruit.

DR. ALGAMAR 20 METHOD OF PREPARATION OF CAPSICUM OLEO-RESIN

.It is prepared by extracting the crushed capsicum with either hot alcohol or hot by percolation. .The solvent is evaporated and the residue is extracted again with successive quantities of cold alcohol or acetone until the marc is free from pungency. It contains not less than 8% of capsaicin. .Capsaicin imparts a distinctly pungent taste to water, even when diluted to 1 part in 11 million part of water.

DR. ALGAMAR 21 Uses

• The medicinal value of capsicum as a counterirritant or rubefacient depend on its pungency (the more tropical the climate, the more pungent is the fruit). • Capsicum is used as a carminative, an appetizer, stomachic and as a spice. • Capsaicin-based creams are used to relieve pain associated with osteoarthritis, neuralgia caused by herpes infections, and diabetic neuropathy. • Capsicum oleoresin is a powerful irritant and carminative. It is an ingredient of capsicum plaster, capsicum cotton wool and capsicum ointment.

DR. ALGAMAR 22 DR. ALGAMAR 23