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1990 Menorah Review (No. 18, Winter, 1990)

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REVIEW • THE JUDAIC 'STUDIES PROGRAM OF VIRGINIA COMMONWEALTH UNIVERSITY • NUMBER 18 • WINTER 1990

For the Enrichment of Jewish Thought

that while there were substantial dif­ justice; 7. Americaness as a virtue. ferences concerning halakah, all Jews He also discusses the myths sup­ accepted philanthrophy as an impor­ ported by the faithful, emphasizing tant religious precept. It was, of the importance of the primary myth, course, true that through the early from "Holocaust to Rebirth." years of this century some American Devotion to the Jewish state is a Jews, the earlier German immigrants, central factor in the American Jewish were giving and others, the later civil religion. Israel's 1967 Six Day Eastern European arrivals, were re­ War strengthened the American com­ ceiving. At the same time, until the mitment. According to Woocher, as a A Review essay by period of World War II, inside the result of fear that the beseiged Jewish Miriam Joyce Haron charitable establishment there was state would be destroyed, then eu­ division about the ultimate goal of phoria after Israel's victory, "civil Ju­ Although the title gives no indica­ the community, division between as­ daism came of age as a force in the tion, the focus of sociologist Jonathan similationists and survivalists. Both American Jewish religious conscious­ Woocher's interesting book is Feder­ groups pressed for full integration ness." The Six Day War, however, ation Judaism, that faith which is ob­ into American life, but while survi­ was not the only factor that resulted served by those involved in the work valists wanted to retain their cultural, in an intensification of American Jew­ of the United Jewish Appeal and Jew­ as well as their religious identity, as­ ish activity. Woocher points to the ish federations throughout the coun­ similationists wanted to retain only climate of social activism and the try. the latter. growing ethnic consciousness of According to Woocher, at the be­ How, then, did the charitable es­ many groups. ginning of the twentieth century tablishment create a specifically How, then, does the federation American Jewry created an American American Jewish civil religion? The community practice civil religion? It Jewish polity, "a matrix of voluntary Holocaust and establishment of Israel adapts traditional religious concepts, organizations and associations, so influenced American Jewry that in including shabbath rituals and grace which carry out functions of com­ the postwar period local federations after meals. Through selective adap­ munitywide concern." This polity were able to bring together the entire tation, it offers "a modern faith gradually developed a common faith community and to promote a Jewish rooted in popular Jewish sentiment, that was not connected with any par­ civil religion with its own articles of yet resonant with Jewish tradition." ticular synagogue movement, but faith and its own myths. Woocher It organizes missions to Israel and to was instead a "civil Judaism." For the describes seven articles of the faith: other countries-carefully orches­ term civil Judaism, Woocher is in­ 1. The unity of the Jewish people; 2. trated group trips "to increase the debted to Robert Bellah, who in his mutual responsibility; 3. Jewish sur­ participants' knowledge, concern, 1967 seminal essay explained that vival in a threatening world; 4. the and commitment." It also sets up civil religion points to the rituals, centrality of the state of Israel; 5. the fund-raising dinners and a variety of symbols, and myths that compose enduring value of Jewish tradition; 6. meetings for the faithful. Woocher what is considered the universal reli­ Tzedakah: philanthropy and social noted that the General Assembly of gion of the nation, the shared faith, the Council of Jewish Federations has beyond particular church, that uni­ been transformed into a major civil fies all groups. IN THIS ISSUE religious ceremony. Every important American Jews did not set out to Jewish organization is represented. • Civil 'Ien$ions in the American develop a basis for unity in the midst /eWfllh Community "The crowd of participants produces of their diversity by deliberately con­ the impression that one is at the cen­ • 'Ihlllsmitting Our Memes structing a civil religion. Woocher be­ ter of a vast and important Jewish • ]ewisltH istoriography gins his examination with a brief his­ world." The major issues of Jewish tory of the institutional development life are addressed. "Here the priests • B1llWII Lecture of the community and of American and prophets of civil Judaism carry • BookBriefings Jewish philanthropy. He underlines out their offices before the assembled congregation of Israel." All these ac- 2

tivities take place under the United can jews in their thirties, of course, American jewry has ignored theol­ jewish Appeal campaign slogan, do not participate in such leadership ogy. which goes to the heart of the matter, activities; but it is likely that their Certainly, Woocher will disturb, "We are one." All jews, everywhere, attitudes are similar to those of the perhaps even offend, some readers. are responsible for each other. participants who were their college Nevertheless, in this provocative Because civil religion attempts to classmates and are now their subur­ book he has given us an excellent include all American jews--Ortho­ ban neighbors sharing similar con­ history as well as considerable mate­ dox, Conservative, Reform, Recon­ cerns and a similar lifestyle. rial for discussion and debate. structionist, Atheist, and Agnostic­ After describing the results of his its leaders have carefully selected rit­ careful research, Woocher put for­ Dr. Miriam joyce Haron teaches in the De­ uals that are acceptable to all and do ward his own blueprint for the fu­ partment of History at Northwestern Univer­ nothing that will offend any segment ture. He considers it evident that the sity. of the community. According to synagogue and the rabbinate have Woocher "Civil judaism focuses on been eclipsed by the federation and TRANSMITTING OUR the unobjectionable primary ethical, the American jewish polity. Using a MEMES dimensions of the tradition." There term coined by scholar Daniel Elazar, is, however, one heresy that Woocher neo-Sadducean judaism, Woocher Ethical Wills: A Modern Jewish noted, which "subjects the perpetra­ suggests a new movement saying, Treasury tor to immediate excommunication: "Neo-sadducean judaism places at By Jack Riemer denial of support to the State of Is­ the center of its world not To rah, but New York: Schocken Books rael." Israel is seen as both the focus the jewish people, and makes the of jewish spiritual energy and the maintenance and expression of jew­ A Review essay by John D. Rayner "beleaguered exemplar of the jewish ish peoplehood its primary religious condition of insecurity in the modern obligation." It is a sad reflection on the materi­ world." Centrality of Israel is the cor­ According to Woocher post-World alism of our age that the word "will," nerstone of the faith. War II development has produced a as in "last will and testament," is Woocher does not, however, touch jewish community in which the syn­ understood to refer only to the post­ upon how the civil religion deals with agogue "has proven unable to retain humous disposition of our material those who support Israel but are clear primacy precisely at a time possessions. Not that it is not praise­ seriously dissatisfied with Israeli when most active American jews worthy for the living to leave instruc­ policy. On this matter there are nu­ have endorsed the preservation of re­ tions as to what is to be done with merous questions that remain unan­ ligious tradition as a major commu­ their property when they are dead. It swered. Do American jews who vo­ nal goal." How should the syna­ relieves their families of uncertainties cally object to Israeli policy maintain gogue respond? Woocher explains which, during their time of bereave­ their place within the civil religious that many rabbis are prepared to ac­ ment, they can well do without. To community? Can American Friends cept civic judaism "as an important that extent, and in so far as provision of Peace Now or members of the New ideological framework" for mobiliz­ is made for charities to be among the jewish Agenda fully participate? ing the community, but are con­ beneficiaries, there is even an ethical How does the civil religion view the cerned about its narrow system of dimension to the making of such a New Israel Fund? Did the War in Leb­ belief and behavior. He suggests that will. Certainly there is no lack of leg­ anon have any sort of effect? (It the synagogue become the co-spon­ islation on the subject in the Hala­ would be helpful to see a future essay sor of jewish civil religion, making chah. In particular, there is strong on this subject, one that might also civil religion's symbols and values emphasis on the duty to carry out the include the impact of the present up­ "central to its mission and message." wishes of the deceased (mitzvah rising in the occupied territories.) Woocher also calls for creation of a /'kayyem divrey ha-mel, so Rabbi Meir, Using data obtained in studies of civil jewish theology that will "give Ta 'anit 21a). participants in federation and United substance to the rhetoric, the mythic But the same word, tzavva'ah, liter­ jewish Appeal sponsored leadership allusions and symbols, which are ally "command," which denotes a development programs, Woocher central to the civil religion." In this financial will, also describes in Jewish presents a portrait of civil jewish ac­ connection he briefly discusses the tradition another kind of will in tivists in their thirties. The study con­ work of five potential contributors to which the testator exhorts his chil­ firmed that the participants accepted such a jewish theology, including dren to be faithful to the spiritual and the tenants of the civil religious faith. Mordecai Kaplan, Martin Buber, Emil moral traditions, values, and ideals In addition, a majority agreed that Fackenheim, Eugene Borowitz, and he has cherished during his life. Such there was a power in the universe Irving Greenberg. But as Woocher's a document is known as an "ethical greater than themselves and that the own research has illustrated, federa­ will." The prototype is the 49th chap­ jews are the chosen people. These tion jews are not interested, a lack of ter of Genesis, where Jacob, sensing young leaders, however, gave low interest that is firmly rooted in the the approach of his death, summons priority to support for jewish reli­ history of the American jewish com­ his twelve sons and tells them what gious activities and institutions. In munity. As Leon A. jick underlined he expects of them, though it has to addition, they were ambivalent about in The Americanization of the Syna­ be said that the "expectations" are a questions of theology. Most Ameri- gogue, 1820-1870, from the outset 3

mixture of pious hopes and less­ diet of the Epilogue may be endorsed: gratitude for the joy of life.... " than-complimentary characteriza­ We have seen wills in which peo­ Most of them, as one would expect tions and predictions. That story, in ple show great sensitivity and from the antecedent Ethical Wills lit­ turn, served as a model for one of the concern and we have seen some erature, are exhortations to moral finest books of the Pseudepigrapha, in which people express the re­ conduct, sometimes with a marked The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, sentments that they feel. But ascetic slant ("Never set foot into which includes such gems as this: none was petty or mundane. theaters," "Never seek after luxu­ "And now, my children, I exhort Somehow when a person has ries," and the like), sometimes in you, love each one his brother, and only one more message left to broad and positive terms. In most of put away hatred from your hearts; give, he or she rises above the the wills, there is explicit or implicit love one another in deed, and in trivial and attains a level of sig­ emphasis on loyalty to Judaism, ei­ word, and in the inclination of the nificance. ther for the contribution it has to soul" ('Testament of Gad', 6:11). A few major themes strikingly re­ make to the amelioration of human In talmudic and medieval times cur. In the wills from the Holocaust society, or simply as a debt of honor. and beyond, the writing of such eth­ there is, for instance (perhaps regret­ The chief impulse behind the writ­ ical wills became a common practice tably but, Heaven knows, under­ ing of ethical wills can perhaps be on the part of the learned and pious, standably), a repeated demand for encapsulated in the title of Ernest and an anthology of them was pub­ vengeance, as when Zippora Birman, Becker's book The Denial of Death. Hu­ lished in 1926 by the jewish Publica­ a resistance fighter in the Bialystok man beings crave immortality, be­ tion Society of America, in a two­ ghetto, wrote: cause the proposition that death is volume Hebrew-and-English edition, Cursed is he who reads this, the unmitigated end is intolerably ab­ selected and translated by Israel mournfully sighs, and returns to surd and tragic. Besides, even quite Abrahams, under the Hebrew title his daily tasks. It is not mourn­ apart from metaphysical concepts of Tzavva'ot Ge'onei Yisrael and the En­ ing that we demand of you! We an after-life, it is manifestly untrue. glish title Hebrew Ethical Wills. The did not even mourn our own Something of every individual lives authors represented in this collection parents, but speechless and si­ on in his children and children's chil­ range from Yochanan ben Zakkai lent we viewed the heaped dren; and it does so in two ways: through Nachmanides to the Vilna corpses of our loved ones who through genetic and cultural trans­ Gaon, a span of 1,800 years. were shot like dogs. We call miSSion. It was the appearance of this work upon you: Vengeance, ven­ Cultural transmission, which is which, more than anything else, es­ geance .. what concerns us, is attested even in tablished Ethical Wills as a recog­ Much more frequent, though, are animals, a subject of special interest nized, distinctive genre of jewish lit­ appeals for forgiveness from any per­ to Dr. Richard Dawkins, lecturer in erature. No doubt the genre is sons the writer may have wronged animal behavior at the University of represented in other literatures; but during his lifetime. Typical of several Oxford, who, in discussing the field only in judaism has it had such a is the earnest request of Rabbi Ber­ work of a fellow zoologist on the long, uninterrupted history. That be­ nard L. Levinthal of Philadelphia singing habits of a New Zealand bird, ing the case, one might wonder (1865-1952): proposed the term "meme" (from a whether it has continued into the At the time of the funeral ... the Greek word meaning "to imitate") present. That question can now be elder among the rabbis present for an individual item of cultural answered in the affirmative, thanks . shall three times, in my transmission, to correspond to the to the work of jack Riemer who col­ name, make announcement of "genes" of genetic transmission (New laborated in the compilation of a my request for forgiveness by all Scientist, 28 October 1976). handsomely produced volume enti­ those whom I may have caused, In human terms, memes would be tled Ethical Wills: A Modern Jewish Trea­ God forbid, some financial loss such things as beliefs, laws, customs, sunr . as well as by those whom I books, songs, concepts, expressions, The volume covers the eighteenth may have pained by words ut­ mannerisms. They are transmitted to to twentieth centuries and includes tered or otherwise harmed, us in great abundance throughout famous as well as unknown names. knowingly or unknowingly. our lives and with greatest impact It is divided into four parts: "Tradi­ Some passages read like epitaphs, when we are young. Some of them tional Wills," "Wills from the Holo­ like the words found chalked on a we reject and proceed to forget or caust," "Wills from the Land of Is­ board in the Warsaw Ghetto: "We neglect. Others we affirm and make rael," and "W ills of Modern and lived, we loved each other, we our own, sometimes even reinterpret Contemporary American jews." fought, and believed in the God of or reshape to our liking. They are the Some of the selected passages are Israel"; and the jotting of a young memes we consciously or uncon­ disappointingly slight and ethically soldier in Israel's War of Indepen­ sciously commend to our children unremarkable, but many of them are dence, "Do not eulogize me; I did my and hope they will keep alive when eloquent testimonies to the greatness duty!" Some are retrospective we are gone. of the human spirit, and specifically thanksgivings, as when Rabbi David This urge to transmit one's heri­ of the jewish spirit, even in situations De Sola Pool of New York (1885-1970) tage from generation to generation is of unspeakable degradation and ter­ wrote: "There has been no day in particularly marked in the case of mi- ror. On the whole, therefore, the ver- which my heart has not leaped with 4 nority groups, which have preserved former times and the sense of noblesse identity are rooted in some view of their heritage for many centuries and oblige loyalty to the Jewish people Jewish history, Meyer shares with us against heavy odds and all the more have largely evaporated. Why that the problems of the historian, both so if they believe it to embody in­ has happened is a question beyond the philosophical ("How can the past sights and values essential for the the scope of this article. That it has be known when it is not present to redemption of humanity-hence the happened is beyond doubt. Perhaps our senses?") and the historiograph­ deep-seated wish of most Jews to feel the fact will lead to even greater pro­ ical (or methodological) relating to sure that Judaism will be perpetuated ductivity in the writing of Jewish eth­ causality and judgments upon the by their offspring. ical wills, but in a more pleading, less past. Another problem for the histo­ Of course, the word "Judaism" is confident tone than hitherto. That re­ rian is periodization. However, the imprecise, but using Richard Daw­ mains to be seen. need to locate natural divisions in the kins' terminology we may define it as And yet the contrast between past Jewish past is complicated by the fact the collective meme pool of the Jew­ and present must not be overdrawn. that Jews lived simultaneously under ish people, from which the individ­ Jewish parents have always worried a variety of political, economic, and ual Jew receives only a proportion, whether their children would carry social conditions. depending on the intensity of his on the Tradition. Just that is the Equally difficult is the attempt to Jewish upbringing and education, theme of a recurring Midrash (Sifrei find a common bond uniting Jews in and then makes his own selection, Deut. to Deut. 6:4 and parallels) their several differing cultural and which becomes his private Jewish about the patriarch Jacob, who has historical experiences leading to vari­ meme pool. In this last sense, at worried all his life that he may have ations in Jewish self-definition-an least, every Jew must wish Judaism unworthy offspring (pesolet, literally unresolved problem to this very day. to continue after his lifetime, a desire "rubbish"). But at his death-bed his Meyer observes that the attempt to he makes known to his children, de­ children reassure him by saying: find "the spatial connection" (his liberately or in spite of himself, in "Hear, 0 Israel (that is, Hear, 0 Jacob term) led some historians to search innumerable ways. The ethical will is our father), the Lord is our God, the behind the events of the Jewish past a final summation and reinforcement Lord alone"; and Jacob, deeply re­ and discover certain religious, or of that life-long yearning, all the lieved, thanks God, saying, "Blessed moral or national, ideals consistently more effective because of the emo­ be the Lord, whose glorious kingdom present and unfailingly preserved. tional context of sorrow in which his is for ever and ever," and dies in Meyer then proceeds to list the ma­ children will be made cognizant of it. peace. jor contributions to Jewish historiog­ In addition, Jewish ethical wills In every Jewish parent's mind raphy and does a critical evaluation have in the past derived much of their there must be at least a particle of of their attempts to deal with the effectiveness from Judaism's extreme doubt whether their children, or their special problems of their craft. Begin­ emphasis on the duty of filial piety, children's children, will recite the ning with the writers of the historical so solemnly enjoined in the Fifth Shema. There are no guarantees, at sections of the Bible, Meyer observes Commandment, as well as the un­ least not this side of the age in which that in their efforts to develop a phi­ questioning acceptance of that obli­ the prophet Elijah will turn the hearts losophy of history, they broke with gation as traditionally defined. That of parents to their children, and the the historiographers of the ancient is why Jewish fathers felt able to hearts of children to their parents Middle East even as they influenced "command" their children to behave (1vlalachi 3:24). Meanwhile the hope the later historians of the We st. Un­ in specified ways, with a good deal that the Jewish memes we have cher­ like the scribes of ancient Mesopota­ of confidence that the command ished will live on in our children is mia and Egypt who were employed would be obeyed. only a hope; and the Jewish Ethical by emperors to write about their mil­ But that is where-except in circles Will is its literary expression. itary exploits, the biblical writers in­ virtually untouched by modernity-a terpreted history as the record of great change has taken place, and it John D. Rayner is Senior Rabbi of Liberal God's special relationship with Israel is reflected in the phraseology of one Jewish Synagogue in London, England. which he rewards for its obedience of the modern American wills in­ and punishes for its sins. Uninter­ cluded in the Riemer-Stampfer Trea­ ested in historical events as impor­ sury, when Abraham M. Ellis (1880- .J)iWISH HISTOIUOGRAPHY tant in themselves, the biblical wri­ 1960), a Philadelphia businessman ldetls of Jewish History ters were more concerned with and philanthropist, concludes, "I re­ By Michael Meyer interpreting the record of history as spectfully recommend to you, my Detroit: Wayne State Oniwrsity evidence of God's presence in world children, that at least four times an­ Press affairs. History, thereby, became a nually you reread this ethical will and witness pointing to the truth of God's try to follow its recommendations." actions and therefore became a re­ A Review essay by Leon J. The modern Jewish parent does not quirement in the life of Israel, God's Weinberger "command": he "respectfully recom­ people. mends"-and is tormented with anx­ Michael Meyer has edited a first­ With the writing of 1 Maccabees, iety as to whether his children will rate textbook for a course in Jewish the first post-biblical work of Jewish follow his recommendations. For, historiography. After pointing out history, the influence of Greek secu­ both the unquestioning filial piety of that contemporary forms of Jewish lar historiography is seen. God is dis- 5

tant from the political and military most part, historical considerations the Sefer ha-Qabbalah, (ed. G. Cohen, events connected with the Maccab­ remained inessential to the rabbinic p. 263). The Karaite polemics not­ bean uprising and is never men­ view of the world." withstanding, there is a new polemi­ tioned by name. Rather than focus In the Talmudic period the author cal tone in the closing chapters of Ibn on faith and miracles, the writer of 1 Seder Olam sought to establish for the Daud's work. It is, in the words of G. Maccabbees gives a matter-of-fact first time a chronology according to Cohen, the effort to proclaim "the summary of events which spurred the creation of the world; and in the almost exclusive dominion of the An­ the revolt of Mattathias followed by a Middle Ages, Moses Maimonides, dalusian rabbinate over all the other description of the resistance carried following the model of the Ethics of various branches of Jewish knowl­ on by his sons. II Maccabbees ap­ the Fathers, traced the unbroken chain edge." peals both to secular Greek and tra­ of halakha from Moses to his own day. Tenth-century Italy produced three ditional Jewish readerships. The In this effort he was probably moti­ works of historical interest. fosippon, writer there records God's direct and vated by a desire to stem the tide of a book written in Hebrew by an miraculous intervention on behalf of Karaite polemics and not by a con­ anonymous author, presents an ac­ Israel, his people in the manner of cern with historical studies, which count of the second Temple from the biblical historian, even as he he, like Aristotle, considered a waste "collected stories from the book of strives to educate and entertain his of time. Even Judah ha-Levi, who val­ Joseph b. Gorion [Josephus Flavius]." readers after the model of Greek his­ ued God's presence in history at Its great popularity in both its short toriography. Sinai as the most compelling evi­ Mantua edition and long Constanti­ In Josephus Flavius, the first cen­ dence of Israel's faith, merely fol­ nople edition-it was even translated tury C. E. Jewish historian, several in­ lowed the model of the biblical histo­ into Arabic by Zecharia ben Said el­ fluences are at work. Like the Meso­ rians. Although differing from his Jemeni-attests to a greater interest potamian and Egyptian scribes of the contemporaries who sought a philo­ in post-biblical jewish history, as Bronze and Iron Ages, he strove to sophical basis for religious truth, Hal­ Meyer observes. The Chronicle of Ahi­ flatter his patrons, the Flavian emper­ evi valued history not for its own maaz by Ahimaaz ben Pal tiel gives an ors, by espousing their victorious sake but as the preeminent founda­ account of the author's family and cause over his Judean countrymen. tion of that truth. their achievements in southern Italy. And following the Graeco-Roman The ninth and tenth centuries pro­ Rounding out the trio is the Chroni­ models, he seeks to establish histori­ duced two works of historical interest cle of Nathan ha-Bavli, preserved cal truth for its own sake, even designed to counter the Karaite ef­ only in fragments, giving an account though he is at times self-serving in forts to delegitimize the Rabbanites of institutional life among tenth-cen­ his attempt to vindicate himself and and the Oral Torah. These include the tury Babylonian Jews. Franco-Ger­ justify the wars of Rome against its Seder Tannaim ve-Amoraim from the man jewry in the tenth-twelfth cen­ enemies. Nevertheless, Josephus fails year 885 or 887 and the Iggeret (not turies was not given to historical to rise to the highest standards of lgeret as in Meyer's text) Ray Sherira writings, and only genealogies of Graeco-Roman historiography. Gaon written in 987. In his introduc­ scholars and martyrologies following Following the destruction of the tion Meyer lumps Abraham Ibn the First and Second Crusades have second Temple and the end of the Daud's Sefer ha-Qabbalah of 1160-1161 been preserved. Not mentioned by Judean commonwealth, Jewish inter­ with the other two and dismisses it Meyer among the historical writings est in history was confined to the with one sentence (p. 16). In the from this period is the Sefer ha-Yashar biblical period, which became an ide­ body of the book he does include a probably written in Spain in the alized and ritually repeated heilsges­ short extract from Ibn Daud's work twelfth century (d. M. Steinschnei­ chichte through which the community under the headings "The Reliability der, Jewish Literature, p. 78). renewed itself. In support of his view of the Rabbinic Transmission" and From the sixteenth century several that the Rabbis "possessed no con­ "The Unbroken Chain." This bit of notable works in jewish historiogra­ ception of the development of ideas literary gerrymandering is probably phy have been preserved. The need or institutions," Meyer offers in evi­ designed to support Meyer's thesis to record for posterity the fate of dence the fact that the latter insisted that basic to Ibn Daud's work is "the Spanish jewry expelled from their that the Oral Law as well as the writ­ underlying polemic against the Ka­ homes in 1492 led Joseph ha-Kohen ten Torah had its origin at Sinai. One raites" (p. 79). to compose his Vale of Tears in Hebrew wonders if this is a fair indictment of Meyer's thesis here is debatable in 1558 and Samuel Usque his Conso­ the Rabbis. Can it not be said that given Ibn Daud's expanded treat­ lation for the Tribulations of Israel in having been traumatized by the loss ment of the history of Spanish Jewry Portugese in 1553. Both authors fol­ of the Temple and the Judean state, (which Meyer acknowledges on p. low the traditional biblical model and they were more concerned with pre­ 79) and his attempt to promote the attribute Israel's suffering to her sins. serving the integrity of the halakha, authority of the Spanish rabbis as the A departure from this religious cau­ "the Jew's City of God" (in Meyer's legitimate successors of the Babylo­ sality is Solomon Ibn Verga's Shevet words) than in historical studies, nian academies. It is much more Yehuda written in the 1520s. Probing which, like astronomy and geome­ likely that the latter was Ibn Daud's the causes for jewish suffering Ibn try, they would have considered pe­ main concern given the lavish atten­ Verga advances--for the first time in ripheral to wisdom (d. the Ethics of tion he devotes to the Andalusian jewish historiography-secular con­ the Fathers, 3.23)? More to the point is courtier-rabbis in the concluding siderations ("their pretentious, envy Meyer's observation that "for the Chapter VII and in the Epilogue of inspiring behaviors") that may have 6

accounted for their plight. Meyer cor­ gue that Judaism was not of limited "Graetz's conception of Jewish his­ rectly observes that this new compo­ importance having passed its prime tory represents an intermediate stage nent in Jewish historiography may with the advent of Christianity, C>ut a between the earlier view, which paid have come from the influence of the force that continues to be "an impor­ little regard to the people that Italian Renaissance with its emphasis tant and influencial factor in the de­ brought forth and developed the Jew­ on the human factors at work in his­ velopment of the human spirit" (I. ish idea, and the national historiog­ toric events. In line with the new Wolf, "On the Concept of a Science raphy of Simon Dubnow who follows humanism coming out of Italy, Jew­ of Judaism," quoted in Meyer, p. him." Like most nineteenth-century ish writers showed an increased in­ 150). One wonders to what degree, if historians, Graetz was not without terest in the histories of the lands in any, political concerns played a role his biases. Among these was his lim­ which they lived, resulting in the his­ in the efforts of these historians. Cer­ ited interest in east European Jewry, tories of Venice and the Ottoman Em­ tainly they were of prime importance the Ostjuden, with their bizarre Has­ pire by the Cretan Elijah Capsali, the to Leopold Zunz (a fact that Meyer idism and their "mongrel tongue," histories of the rulers of France and ignores, see pp. 156-157) who was Yiddish. Turkey by Joseph ha-Cohen, and Da­ persuaded that a familiarity with the Dubnow, a native of eastern Eu­ vid Gans' world history. Comment­ religious heritage of Jewry will lead rope, devotes much of his historical ing on these developments, Meyer enlightened statesmen to grant the writings to Jewish life in Russia and notes that "because the histories of Jews the same civil rights as the rest Poland-including a history of Has­ other nations could be viewed with of the German nation enjoys (cf. idism-even as he rejects Graetz' the­ less theological presupposition than N.N. Glatzer: L. Zunz, EJ). sis that the historical continuity of that of Israel, increased awareness of Other historians like I.M. Jost, who Jewish life over four millenia is re­ them must have played a role in the sensed the polemical nature of the lated to their self-image as the bear­ eventual secularization of Jewish his­ idealist, began his History of the Isra­ ers of ethical monotheism to the tory as well." elites: "It is time to close the files on world. For Dubnow, the agnostic, Is­ The secular temper of the Italian the value or lack of value of the Jews rael's survival and creative life over Renaissance is most notable in the and Judaism and to begin with an the centuries is an expression of its work of the 16th Azariah dei Rossi analysis of the phenomenon itself, its national awareness as a special peo­ who applies critical and analytical origin and development." Meyer ple. Dubnow had little sympathy for methods in evaluating rabbinic leg­ pays tribute to Jost's "objectivity and the post-Mendelssohn Germanizers ends, albeit he does not produce a good historical sense," which ex­ whom he viewed as traitors "to the connected historical narrative. It is ceeded those of the historians who national cause." only in the nineteenth century that followed him, such as Graetz and However, Dubnow's avowed "so­ integrated and comprehensive histo­ Dubnow, although his work did not ciological" approach to Jewish his­ ries of the Jews begin to appear in the gain the popularity of theirs. In as­ tory is pitted with flaws not unlike wake of the European Romantic sessing the east-European philoso­ Graetz's Leidens und Gelehrtenges­ movement, which sanctioned the pher Nachman Krochmal, Meyer ac­ chichte. Committed to the indivisible search for historic roots of people and knowledges his pioneering efforts in unity of the Jewish people, he fails to cultures. Coupled with the Wissen­ developing the first systematic phi­ expose the conflicts of social and ec­ schaft with its insistence on nonjudg­ losophy of Jewish history, although onomic interests and regional ten­ mental textual studies, this century in subordinating the history of indi­ sions in Jewish life, even as he ne­ produced the seminal historical writ­ viduals and institutions to the history glects to pay due attention to the ings of Leopold Zunz, Imm;•nuel of ideas-after the manner of Imman­ external influences of the creativity of Wolf, Abraham Geiger, Nachman uel Wolf-he tends to ignore the ma­ the jews. Although not a Zionist, Krochmal, and Heinrich Graetz. terial components in the history of Dubnow's influence is seen in the Meyer observes that the third ele­ the Jews. works of the Zionist historians Ben ment in the mix that produced a syn­ As expected, Meyer devotes more Zion Dinur and Raphael Mahler, thetic conception of Jewish history space to Heinrich Graetz and Simon both of whom found the desire for was the "system of historically Dubnow than to the historians pre­ national redemption and a return to grounded metaphysical idealism." ceding and following them. In his the Land the catalyst for Jewish sur­ From Herder and Hegel, Jewish his­ attempt to answer the question, vival. Even a cursory perusal of the torians proposed that a single unique "What is Judaism?" by focusing on synagogue liturgy recited by Jews idea was at the center of the Jewish its historical development, Graetz ad­ daily as well as on Sabbaths and Fes­ experience, giving it purpose and vocates the role of the historian over tivals reveals the ever present plea for continuity in its disparate historical the philosopher for whom the his­ national restoration in the Land. and geographic settings. For Imman­ tory of an idea precedes its historical Meyer correctly assesses Yehezkel uel Wolf this idea was the unity of effects. Although Graetz did not pre­ Kaufmann as a unique Zionist histo­ God; for Abraham Geiger it was ethi­ sume that the philosophical idea­ rian who perceives the love of the cal monotheism. There were polemi­ the Jewish "folk-soul"--<:ould exist in Land as part of a larger self-aware­ cal considerations in the position a vacuum separate from Israel's his­ ness that made for Jewish survival. taken by the historically grounded toric life, he was equally certain that According to Kaufmann, "religion metaphysical idealists, who could ar- Jewish history was more than its na­ was the sole source of the [Jewish] tional existence. In Meyer's words, . national will." Meyer concludes 7

his survey of Jewish historiography rians (Philadelphia, 1964), pp. 276ff.). The f=s in America: Four Centuries of with selections from the work of the However, these are matters of judg­ an Uneasy Encounter. By Arthur American historians Salo Baron and ment about which one can argue. In Hertzberg. New York: Simon and Ellis Rivkin and from Leo Baeck's es­ the final analysis, Michael Meyer has Schuster. The author has written a say This People Israel written, in part, filled a major void in the study of challenging revisionist history of the in a concentration camp. Meyer finds Jewish historiography by presenting American Jewish experience. He ar­ that although Baron's sociological ap­ us with a volume that should become gues that America's Jews, in their proach to Jewish history, described the standard introduction to this sub­ struggle to assimilate, have denied as the continuing relationship be­ ject. We are in his debt. themselves a usable past. Describing tween Judaism as religion and culture the Jews who came to this country as and the Jewish people, has added Leon f. Weinberger is University Research poor and uncultured, concerned much to our knowledge of the Professor in the Religious Studies Department more with material success than reli­ themes he has chosen, his method­ of the University of Alabama and author of gious freedom, Hertzberg portrays Early Synagogue Poets in the Balkans. ology does not help reveal "the their descendants as a community es­ dynamics of Jewish history and the sentially at war with itself and in a connections among its diverse ele­ BOOK BRIEFINGS quandary about its values and its fu­ ments." In this Meyer echoes the ob­ ture. American Jews must redefine servations made by other critics of Inclusion of a book in "Briefings" does themselves in terms of the traditions Baron who find that his work lacks a not preclude its being revitmJed in a future of Judaism they have neglected in conceptual framework that would issue of Menorah Review. recent generations. This volume is a help explain the continuity of Jewish guide to the past and an enlightening The Encyclopedia of Judaism. Edited by history. vision of the future. Geoffrey Wigoder. New York: Mac­ In line with this effort to discover a millan Publishing Co. This new one­ The "Shabbes Goy": A Study in Halakhic conceptual framework is the "unity volume encyclopedia is a landmark Flexibilty. By Jacob Katz. Philadel­ concept" of Jewish history proposed in Judaic publishing. It contains over phia: The Jewish Publication Society. by Ellis Rivkin. Rivkin's thesis is that 1,000 articles written by more than 70 From the Babylonian period to the Jews throughout their historical ca­ rabbis and scholars in a wide variety twentieth century, strictly observant reer held a unified perception of the of disciplines, covering all aspects of Jews have depended on a non-Jew or universe, whether religious, as in the Jewish life, culture, history, and reli­ "shabbes goy" to perform work that past, or secular, as at present, and gion. The work is beautifully illus­ was forbidden on the jewish Sabbath. that this "trans-historical principle" trated with approximately 300 color The author traces the role of the enabled them to blend creatively into and black-and-white photographs. "shabbes goy" through the centuries their several environments while pre­ There is extensive cross-referencing and accords him a central role in this serving their unique identity. How­ throughout the book as well as an fascinating study on the larger ques­ ever, Meyer rightly argues that a met­ index and glossary. It is the best one­ tion of the adaptability of Halachah aphysical "trans-historical principle" volume reference work on Judaism to the ever-changing circumstances is not provable, and he questions the now available. of Jewish life. accuracy of the "unity principle" given the diversity of views among modern Jews regarding the world in r------Mw£ comruwn�s------which they live. In Baeck's essay we w hear a voice reflecting the Holocaust H you would like to contribute to the Menorah RevitmJ, please complete experience and his efforts to come to and mail this form to Menorah RevitmJ, Virginia Commonwealth Univer­ terms with it. The Holocaust and the sity, Box 2025, Richmond, VA 23284-2025. establishment of the state of Israel Please enter me (us) as a donor to Menorah RevitmJ. I (we) am (are) pleased pose new problems for the student of to enclose the following funds toward the annual costs of publishing and Jewish historiography, which added distributing the newsletter: to the already existing ones make for an exciting and challenging disci­ D Donor at Cost $15 pline. Donor at Support Level Regrettably, Meyer does not men­ D $30 tion Levi Herzfeld, the first Jewish D Donor at Contribution Level $50 and more economic historian, considered by no less a figure than Theodor Mommsen D Sponsoring Grant $2,500 to be "the foremost and most reliable Make tax-deductible checks payable to the VCU Judaic Studies Program. of all Jewish historians" (d. G. Kar­ Thank you. peles, Handelsgeschichte der fuden des

Altentwns [Brunswick, 1894], p. xx); Name ______and he completely ignores the semi­ nal contributions of Moritz Stein­ Address ______schneider to Jewish historiography City ------State ______Zip Code ____ (d. S. Baron, History and !=ish Histo- 8

The Pen and The Sword: Israeli Intellec­ tuals and the Making of the Nation-State. THE SELMA AND JACOB BROWNANNUAL LECfURE By Michael Keren. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. This is the largely Sponsored by the Judaic Culture AdvisoryCommittee and the Judaic Studies untold story of Jewish intellectuals in Program ofVirginia Commonwerdth University Israel who committed themselves to Speaker: Dr. Marc Lee Raphael the goals of Jewish nationalism and College of William and Mary yet strived to maintain their role as intellectuals. From the roots of ro­ lbpic: "Rabbi Abba Hillel Silver and mantic Zionism in the nineteenth American Zionism: The Crucial Years, century and the settling in Palestine, 1943-1947" to the founding of the state and the Time and Place: Thesday, March 20,8 pm crisis of war, their relationship to Is­ James Branch Cabell Library raeli culture has been crucial to the 901 Park Avenue, Fourth Floor building of the nation. But, the au­ thor argues, it has also made prob­ lematic the development of a critical relationship from a philosophical and Jews and Ukrainians. The authors humanist stance in that culture. theological viewpoint. Drawing on document 40 years of willful Cana­ Jewish classical sources, the author dian government inaction against Jewish-Christian Dialogue: A Jewish Jus­ argues that there is actual justifica­ Nazi war criminals and collaborators tification. By David Novak. New York: tion for the new relationship between who found haven in Canada after Oxford University Press. Most stud­ Judaism and Christianity from within World War II. The book recalls the ies written about the Jewish-Chris­ Jewish religious tradition. efforts by Canadian Jewry to focus tian relationship are primarily histor­ national attention on these Nazis, ical overviews that focus on the Old Wounds: Jews, Ukrainians and the many of whom were alleged to be of Jewish background of Christianity, Hunt for Nazi War Criminals in Canada. eastern European origin, and ex­ the separation of Christianity from By Harold Troper and Morton Wein­ plores the tensions this effort gener­ Judaism, or the medieval disputa­ feld. Chapel Hill: University of North ated between the two ethnic groups. tions between the two faiths. This is Carolina Press. History has compli­ one of the first books to examine the cated the relations between Canadian

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Menorah Review is published by the Judaic Studies Program and the Judaic Culture Advisory Committee of Virginia Commonwealth University. Unsolicited manuscripts are welcome. Address all correspondence to Judaic Studies Program, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23284-2025.

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