Mizoram University Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences (A National Refereed Bi-Annual Journal) Vol III Issue 1, June 2017 ISSN: 2395-7352

Human Sacrifice among the Khonds of Orissa C.1836-1861: A Study

Lalrameng K Gangte*

Abstract The Khonds of Orissa, who lived in the mountainous terrains independently with practically no contact with the outside world, practised human sacrifices to their deity, the Earth-Goddess since time immemorial. After its discovery by the British in 1836, attempts using various measures including a agency specifically meant to suppress the rite resulted in the substitution of the rite with animals. Contact with the British and the Christian missionaries exposed the Khonds to a larger society with socio-economic consequences. Keywords: Orissa, Khonds, , Meriah, Christian Missionaries Sacrifice is a religious rite in which thousands of victims annually in the Aztec an object is offered to a divinity. According and Nahua Calendrical maize (corn) ritual. to Sir Edward Burnett Tylor, a British The Inca confined wholesale sacrifices to Anthropologist, it was a gift to the gods the occasion of the accession of a ruler. to secure their favour or minimise their Among the African Asante, the victim hostility (Edward B. Tylor, 1871). A gift sacrificed as first fruit offerings during the of sacrifice could be an offering of food, Festival of New Yams were usually objects or even the life of animals. Human criminals, though slaves also were killed sacrifice is the offering of the life of a (Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, human being to a deity. Basic to both 2018). The occurrence of human sacrifice, animal and human sacrifice is the thus, appears to have been widespread and recognition of blood as the sacred life its intentions various ranging from force in man and beast. The sacrificing of communion with a god and participation a human being is part of an attempt to in his divine life to expiation and the commune with a God and to participate promotion of the earth’s fertility. in divine life. Human sacrifices were made for a variety of reasons which have been This paper is an attempt to look into well attested in the past. In what is now such kind of human sacrifices prevalent Mexico, the belief that the sun needed among the tribal Khonds of Orissa since human nourishment led to the sacrifice of time immemorial until they were

* Lalrameng K Gangte is Assistant Professor, Department of History, Pachhunga University College, Aizawl. 114 Human Sacrifice among the Khonds of Orissa c.1836-1861: A study discovered by the British and suppressed. The Khonds: Their habitat and Society The period 1836-1861 covers the duration when the British discovered the existence The Khonds or the Khands are a of the rite in 1836 and 1861 saw the Dravidian tribe who lived predominantly abolition of the Meriah agency which was in the hills of Orissa and neighbouring instituted by the British to abolish the districts. The Oriyas called them Kandhs human sacrifice marking the successful and the Telugu people gonds or Kods. suppression. Contact with the British and Both the words are derived from the Christian missionaries changed the Telugu word ‘Konds’ which means hill outlook of the Khonds and propel them (G.A. Grierson, 1967). Their habitat was towards socio-economic progress. the hills separating the districts of Ganjam and Vizagapatnam in the then Madras Orissa has the second concentration Presidency and continuing northwards of tribals with a population of 59, 15,067 into the Orissa tributary States of Baud, (according to 1981 census). The tribal Daspalla, and Nayagarh, and crossing the population constituting about 23% of the Mahanadi, into Angul and the Khondmals total population of the state is distributed (G.A. Grierson, 1967). among 62 tribes unevenly habited in all districts of the state. Of all these tribes, The Khonds are a hardy, war-like the most numerous are the Khonds, the race of men, well accustomed to jungle Santal, the Saora, the , the life. They were also bold and fitfully Bhuniya and the smallest tribes are the laborious mountain peasantry of dignified Berhor, the Bonda, the Didaya, the manners, proud of their positions as Mankidia etc. According to numbers landowners; and tenacious of their rights quoted by the Census Commissioner of (E. Thurston, 2001). With only the Assam in 1965, the Khonds are the seven slightest contact with the plains, the largest of the 293 major tribal groups in Khonds preserved their independence as (Barbara M. Boal, 1973). Little is a distinct nationality but they remained known of their origin beyond the fact that conservative and backward. Their vices they are descendants of the ancient were the indulgences in revenge, and Dravidian inhabitants of India. occasionally of brutal passion. Drunkenness was universal (W.W. Hunter, The British knew very little of the 1877). Khonds of Orissa before 1836, although some references to this tribe was made by sytem is absent among the Khonds and they have no caste prejudices the first resident of Ganjam in 1767. They were an interesting wild race who became unlike the plains of India(John Campbell, known to the public due to the efforts of 1861). Tattooing was largely practised and government and the Christian missionaries the Khonds used tattoo all over their (Orissa District Gazeteers, 1945). bodies with artistic designs. The males

115 Lalrameng K Gangte wore long hairs which were tied with a unknown haunted the khonds which they piece of red cloth and decorated with began to attribute to the deities, dead bright feathers of a peacock or other ancestors and sorcery causing natural favourite bird. Both men and women wore calamities and epidemics. To escape from minimal garments. Since the thick jungles these misfortunes they developed magico- surrounding their habitat were infested by religious rites administered by the priests, wild beasts like bears, panthers, tigers, named as Jani. Being agriculturists, the panthers etc., they sheltered together with earth was worshipped as mother goddess their cattle and thereby lived in a very to reap a good harvest. They developed a unhygienic environment which very often strange method of worshipping Tari Pennu led to epidemics. They knew nothing (Earth Goddess) with the purpose of about money and they detested trade of fertilising the earth by blood and saving every sort (W.W. Hunter, 1877). They were the crops from random havoc by natural ruled by headman or ‘Mallika’ in each calamities (The Calcutta Review, 1842). village ‘Mutha’. Theoritically, each tribe So, human sacrifice among the Khonds sprung from a common father and it is was both a social institution and a religious governed by a patriarch who represents rite which underlay a close identity the common ancestor. The Patriarch was between the ecclesiatical and temporal also the head priest who could explain the interests of the tribesmen. It was a means cause of natural calamity and prescribed of propitiating the earth goddess whose Meriah sacrifice to propitiate the earth favours were needed to maintain the Goddess to protect the community from fertility of the soil. It was also a form of her wrath manifested through war and public expiation to the anger of the natural calamities (John Cambell, 1986). goddess to avert droughts, epidemics and other natural calamities (Home The Khonds lived on agriculture, Department). The khonds believed that the forest produce and hunting. Their wants blood of the victims caused the redness were very few and locally met. They of the turmeric, an important crop of the produced crops like turmeric, oilseed, tribal tract, and his tears brought the rains ginger, herbs, honey and mouhya flowers (Dr. Kanchanmoy Mojumdar, 1980). (Macpherson Report, 1842). The origin of the human sacrifices Belief System of the Khonds among the khonds can be traced in their The belief system of the Khonds legendary accounts. The earth, the khonds took shape with the development of their believed, was originally a crude and cultivation process in course of their time unstable mass unfit for the comfortable as they came in contact with the Hindu habitation of man. It was not conducive socio-economic system based on the to cultivation too. Then the Earth-God agrarian economy. The fear of the ordered to split human blood before him

116 Human Sacrifice among the Khonds of Orissa c.1836-1861: A study and the khonds complied with this demand the Khonds who nurtured them till at least by sacrificing a child. Then the soil they were seven years old (S.P. Carey, became firm and productive herewith and 1936). The cost of Meriah varied from the deity ordered man to repeat the rite place to place and from time to time and live (W.W. Hunter, 1877). In course ranging from fifteen to two hundred of time it became a deep seated religious rupees (Nihar Ranjan Patnaik, 1992). The faith. Association in human sacrifice price was paid in livestock, brass vessels, formed as an indispensable nexus of union corn and even land. among the Khonds and it helped in the maintenance of the community spirit in The human sacrifices were classified the tribesmen. as public and private. While public sacrifice was offered by a tribe or a village Meriah as an entity, private sacrifices were offered by individuals (W.W. Hunter, 1877). The The victims of human sacrifices public sacrifice of the Earth Goddess was were called Meriah in Oriya although the done twice a year-at the time of sowing khonds called them Toki or Keddi (John and at the harvest time- where they Cambell, 1986). The victims could be a sprinkled blood in their fields. They did male or female and could be from any this in their belief that the process of caste except Brahmins and Khonds. fertilization would be facilitated by Though adult males were preferred and drenching the sterile soil with blood (Nihar they are the costliest, victims of any age Ranjan Patnaik, 1992). A Human victim was accepted. Female Meriah were became equally necessary when the allowed to marry to Khond males and the terrible Earth Goddess sent pestilence children of that union automatically upon the people. Private sacrifices were became a Meriah but they were never done by families whenever sickness or sacrificed in the village in which they were great distress came upon them. born but instead exchanged with a Meriah from other villages. The victim ‘must be The mode of sacrifice differed from bought with a price’ otherwise they were place to place. But the most common considered not acceptable to the Earth practice was that the Priest, the Jani, would Goddess (W.W. Hunter, 1877). They were first wound the Meriah with his axe after always purchased from the Panos, one of which the crowd would rush to the victim the low who were attached to every and stripped the flesh from his bones Khond villages. The victims were keeping the head and intestines untouched procured often by kidnapping them in the (Herbert Risley, 1915). They would then plains. But usually every year they moved rush to their respective fields and bury into the plains, and purchased a number them believing that this would fertilize of small boys and girls from the poorer their fields. sections of the Hindus and sold them to

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Discovery of Human sacrifice among outer world knew nothing (S.P. Carey, the Khonds by the British: 1936). It was in 1836 that Meriah sacrifice Difficulties involved in suppression and among the Khonds was discovered by the establishment of Meriah Agency: British. In 1835, the Chief of Ghumsar Estate rebelled against the British After the discovery of the human government and he took refuge among the sacrifices practised by the Khonds, the Khonds. Ghumsar was then a feudal Britsh didn’t and couldn’t immediately possession, tributary to the British. In make an attempt to stop it. The diffulties 1835-36, the British started their in implementing any measures were many operations against the Chief with -fold. Firstly, the Khonds had practised G.E.Russell, the Senior Member of the this rite since time immemorial and how Board of Revenue of the Madras could you make a tribe give up a practice Presidency, as the Leader. For the first which they felt was ‘essential for the very time, they ascended the Ghats which lay existence of mankind and the continuance at the back of the district of Ganjam. This of their own species’ as it used to provide is how they made their first acquaintance productive powers to nature? Especially with the Khonds and their country (J.W. when they believed that God had Jaye, 1966). It was only then that positively ordained them to perform the G.E.Russell discovered the existence of rite. Further, the rite had been sanctioned human sacrifice and brought it to the by the Rajas who had jurisdiction over notice of the Government in his first them even though they exercised little Report of August 12 of 1836 submitted control over them. Secondly, the British on the affairs of Ghumsar. Subsequently knew very little about the Khonds, their Lieutenant Samuel Charters Macpherson country, language and culture and any of the Madras Army who was employed policies to counter them would antagonise during the Ghumsar rebellion to survey a a tribe who had a strong feeling of part of the country at the foot of the hills, clanship. Thirdly, the Khond-inhabited brought the existence of such sacrifices areas being very hilly terrain with no roads to the notice of the British Government in and infested with wild beasts, it was not 1836. Two years later, Lieutenant Hill of conducive for a rash operation. Besides, the Survey Department also reported the Khonds being illiterate and having no about the prevalence of Meriah sacrifices contact with the outside world live in a among the Khonds in Jepypore, Bastar, very unhygienic environment living Chinna Kimedy, Ghumsar, Baud, Sonepur together with their cattle, goats and fowls and Daspalla. In fact this practice had been where pestilence very commonly there for through centuries in the whole occurred. In such a condition, the British range of Khondistan, about which the felt that officials would find it difficult in implementing any policy which would

118 Human Sacrifice among the Khonds of Orissa c.1836-1861: A study require them to live among the tribes. Thereafter the efforts became ‘combined, Lastly, the Khonds were zealously proud sustained, continuous and systematic’ (Dr. of their never conquered independence Kanchanmoy Mojumdar, 1980). Thus, and the British backed off from any kind even though the British knew the existence of action which could involve them in a of human sacrifices among the Khonds in prolonged and disastrous war (S.P. Carey, 1836, it was only after 1845 that effective 1936). So the British instead decided to measure could be taken with the formulate a slow and steady policy which establishment of the Meriah Agency. An would ultimately let the tribe give up this Act XXI, of 1841 was passed and it practice voluntarily. created an agent to the Governor General of India whose main duty was to suppress The British formulated various human sacrifice and female infanticide policies like making the Khonds integral (which was also prevalent among the and progressive members of the British Khonds). He was commonly known as the Indian Empire, making an attempt to Meriah Agent or the Hill agent. The discover the real cause of the practice in Meriah Agency was given the authority order to be able to end it, using moral over the entire tribal tract which was then influence and persuasion, helping the divided under the administrative tribes in calamities, convincing them that jurisdiction of the Governments of Bengal fertility and prosperity could be achieved and Madras. John Macpherson was made without human sacrifice and inducing the first Agent for the suppression of the them to have intercourse with other tribes. Meriah sacrifices. British officer like John Macpherson, who was actively involved in the suppression Arduous efforts were made by the of the rite, made various recommendations Agency officers in their attempt to stop like exerting personal influence, trying to the human sacrifices among the Khonds. win over the Khond Priests who were Officers like G.E.Russell, Captain William chiefly associated with the rite and Macpherson, Captain Frye, John winning over those Zamindars who Cadenhead, Lt.Colonel Campbell,Lt. Hill managed to have direct influences over the and Mc. Neill were appointed and Khonds by awarding them honorary gifts entrusted to take steps regarding the and privileges etc. Since the British were suppression of the Meriah sacrifice. An keen to suppress the rite, their policy also attitude of firmness without resorting to passed through several phases of force was their guideline of action. experimentation, of trial and error. It Macpherson spent his energy in therefore, took time to adopt an effective familiaring himself with the Khonds, policy to do so. Generally speaking, the conversing with them freely, giving Government’s efforts until 1845 were presents of cloth, tobacco and even money ‘partial, unconnected and unsustained’. to purchase liquor. He distributed beads

119 Lalrameng K Gangte to the Khond women at every station, went to break down the prejudices of the hunting with the Khond Chiefs, smoked Khonds and bring them within the pale of with them, gave them presents and was civilization. Captain Frye, one of kind to their children when all the while Lt.Campbell’s staff was a university man they were told that favours given to them and a born linguist. He gave the Kui would depend on their exertion towards tongue (the language of the Khonds) its the abolition of the sacrifice . The majority first written form using the Oriya script. of them promised to work towards this end He brought back with him from his but often some Chiefs broke their promise. furlough a lithographic press. Using this Hundreds of Meriahs were rescued before press, the alphabet in Kui was printed for they were sacrificed. From 1837 to 1845, the first time. With the Kui-Oriya the Madras authorities took steps in dictionary in hand, a considerable number rescuing the Meriahs in their jurisdiction of school books were prepared in Kui and their officers by following the policy language. Village schools were of persuasion and repression, saved many established. Its progress was, however, victims. Campbell rescued one hundred slow as the Khond Chiefs feared that and twenty five victims (Dasarathi Swaro, calamities would occur if schools were 1990). S.C.Macpherson in 1843-44, opened. With the government assurance rescued two hundred and fifty five victims of not using violence or imposing British from being sacrificed to the Earth ideas on them, the Khonds began to send Goddess. By April 1853, twelve hundred their children to schools (John Cambell, and sixty victims had been rescued in all 1986). By 1860-61, the progress of the years. From 1837 to 1854, as many as schools was reported to be very fifteen hundred and four Meriahs were satisfactory with 521 students in them (Dr. rescued by the government. Dr.John Kanchanmoy Mojumdar, 1980). The Buckley, a missionary of Orissa, estimated Missionaries had also started Mission that government rescued seventeen schools by this time. hundred victims from the horrible rite (S.P. Carey, 1936). Medical Aid: Other measures adopted for the To improve the health of the regularly suppression of Meriah sacrifice infested Khond hills with diseases like cholera and small pox, the British took the The British government also measure of supplying medical aid as a adopted various other measures to bring necessary step to bring home the prejudices about the suppression of the rite. of the Khonds that diseases were caused by the wrath of the deities and hence to be Promotion of Education: propitiated. Medical officers were, The British Government considered therefore, appointed in the Meriah Agency promoting education as a necessary tool and hospitals were opened.

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Construction of Roads: was in the year 1861 and in the same year the Meriah agency was abolished marking Construction of roads in the heart of the successful suppression of human the Khond Hills was yet another step to sacrifices among the Khonds. It is civilize the Khonds to give up the Meriah pertinent to add here that the British didn’t sacrifice. The construction of roads was totally suppressed the rite but all it wanted deemed necessary to make the exploration was the substitution of human beings by of the Khond area more accessible (John buffaloes and goats and thereafter Cambell, 1986). Some of the rescued sacrifices to the Earth Goddess was Meriahs were employed in the work of continued with animals. road construction. With regard to the rehabilitation of Fairs: the Meriahs, close cooperation existed Macpherson in his report suggested between the government officials and the that opening of fairs would promote missionaries (Barbara M. Boal, 1963). The intercourse between the Khonds and the rehabilitation of the Meriah children were surrounding Hindu population whereby entrusted to the Orissa missionaries and they would develop a friendly and familiar the task was done by them. contact with the outside world. This, he Activities of the Christian Missionaries hoped, would indirectly help them in among the Khonds abandoning the human sacrifice (Macpherson Report, 1842). So fairs were The Christian Missonaries came soon regularly set up which subsequently after the occupation of Orissa by the improved the socio-economic conditions British in 1803. The most prominent of the Khonds. missionary society in Orissa, the General Baptist Missionary Society (GBMS), was The Meriah officers also formulated established as early as 1816 (James Peggs, an alternative option of sacrificing human 1846) and various Mission Stations were being in the Khonds’ religious rites. They established by the Society in Orissa. W. adopted a policy of explaining the virtues Brown, a GBMS missionary made an of substituting buffaloes and goats for extensive tour of Khondistan in 1837 to human beings (S.P. Carey, 1936). ascertain about the people, their language The constant and consistent efforts of and culture and to see whether ‘this the Meriah or Hill Agents by applying unknown region might be brought within these various measures and policies the operation of their mission’ (Mr. W. ultimately bore fruit and between 1855 Brown, 1837). Later on missionaries like and 1861 hardly a dozen victims had been Amos Sutton, Isaac Stubbins and John killed (Nihar Rahjan Hota, 1960). The last Buckley proposed the setting up of a Meriah to have been recorded sacrificed mission station in the Khond territory.

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They appealed to the public regarding the was made to reach the Khonds by the proposal of the same through various GBMS until the early part of the 20th newspapers and journals (Mr. W. Brown, Century (Barbara M. Boal, 1963). It was 1837). not until 1914 and 1920 that the first baptism and the first church building was By 1845, Sutton proposed to start a achieved among the khonds. So in the mission work among them for the reason period concerned, the activities of the that the mission had taken care of many Missionaries was more successful in terms meriahs who knew the Khond language of rehabilitation of the rescued Meriahs and he was hopeful that these rescued and spreading Christianity among them if Meriahs would help the missionaries in one talks in terms of conversions to preaching Christianity among the Khonds. Christianity. This is not to say, however, The GBMS issued circulars to different that the impact of the Christianity was not parts of India to establish a mission felt at all. station. However, inspite of the proposal of the GBMS Committee, no permanent The Government adopted a very station was established in the Khond tract. considerate attitude to the rescued Meriahs John Orissa Goadby, the first European and most of them were entrusted to the to go to India whose purpose was to give care of the missionaries. The missionaries his life to the Khonds, was stationed in opened orphanages and asylums for these Russelkonda (the headquarters of the Meriahs and they were reared up in Meriah Agency in the hill-tracts of Orissa Cuttack, Berhampur and Balasore for the suppression of the Meriah orphanages. The asylums established by scarifices and female infanticide named the missionaries provided education to after G.E.Russell who discovered the these Meriahs as well as to the children practice) which was already a Mission of native Christians. The purpose of the station from which he would worked for education was to make them useful the Khonds (S.P. Carey, 1936). Goadby members of the society. Thus, students, toured the Khond lands during 1862-63 after completion of six hours of study, had and made reports on the land, the language to attend three hours of manual work. The and faith of its people. Again in three object of the missionaries was to make extensive tours in 1865, he explored the them sensible, moral, industrious and various gateways into the Khond hills. pious young men and women. The Goadby learnt to speak in Kui, the missionaries also aimed to make the language of the Khonds. He and his wife women good housewives for the native served the Khonds till 1867 when he was Christians (Amos Sutton, 1839). transferred to Pipli to serve the famine orphans. He died in 1868 at the young age In order to preach Christianity of 38. After his death, no further attempt among the Khonds, the missionaries had to learn both Kui and Oriya languages. The

122 Human Sacrifice among the Khonds of Orissa c.1836-1861: A study missionaries marked that the Khonds Khonds, earnest efforts were made by both generally took interest to know about the British government and the Christian Christianity as they had no such prejudices Missionaries to ‘civilize’ them through like the Hindus and managed to convert various measures like education, medical to Christianity. They brought almost all aid, setting up fairs, preaching, distributing the Meriahs to the fold of Christianity tracts and trying to Christianise them. (Amos Sutton, 1839). These measures were over and above the policies directly adopted to suppress the In order to enable the Khonds to human sacrifices. Human sacrifice was a learn the scriptures, the missionaries religious rite followed by the Khonds over distributed tracts and scripture portions centuries and which has become a part of written either in Kui or Oriya and their their culture and tradition. By criticising efforts resulted in translations to the this culture and aiming to supplant it, the Khond language. They, thus, not only colonial ideology of an ‘orientalist’ enriched the Khond literature but through representation of India is clearly visible. their missionary operation in the Khond The British promoted the idea of the tracts, they managed to create a great superiority of modern western civilization impact in the traditional tribal society. and they try to establish cultural They changed the outlook of the converts hegemony. At the same time, the Christian in various ways. With the contact of the missionaries considered the Khonds’ missionaries and especially those who religious and social and religious life as became Christians, they practically ‘culturally inferior, intellectually disallowed the tattooing of their arms and backward and religiously superstitious’ faces, which the Khonds practiced on a and sought to ‘civilize’ them by trying to large scale. They started minimising their convert them to Christianity. The question, habit of drinking with the advice of the here, is the impact which the contact with missionaries or the native converts. Those the British and the Christian missionaries who became Christians left the traditional and the suppression of human sacrifice pattern of worship. Some of the rescued had on the Khond society. British contact meriahs also played an important role in with the Khonds caught the latter between changing the outlook of the Khonds in compulsions of tradition and forces of various ways. Thus, though the missionary change and exposed them to a larger activities among the Khonds did not yield society and new economic forces. Their a good number of converts yet their sources of income tended to get diversified contact changed their outlook in the long with the establishment of fairs and frontier run (Barbara M. Boal, 1963). markets. They began to work as labourers Conclusion to make roads, some became small traders After the British discovery of the while others worked in government practice of human sacrifices by the offices. By suppressing the Meriah

123 Lalrameng K Gangte sacrifice, the government prevented the who embraced Christianity left their Khonds from an unprofitable investment, traditional pattern of worship. Literature for every Meriah had to be bought with a developed as a result of missionary price. Treatment of diseases and education activities. Thus, in spite of the colonial to a large extend dispel the belief of the ideology of the ‘orientalist’ attitude of the Khonds in super natural causes. Contact British towards the Khonds, the influence with the missionaries changed their of the British and Christian missionaries outlook and they began to reduce their heralded changes towards a wider society practice of tattooing and drinking. Those among the Khonds.

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