Chapter 07

Interest Groups & Political Parties

In This Chapter 7.1 Interest Groups in American Politics 7.2 Perspectives on Interest Groups 7.3 Political Parties 7.4 Basic Characteristics of the American Party System 7.5 American Political Parties: Past, Present, and Future Introduction to American Government (Shutterstock) This chapter . second part of the chapter which focuses on parties, interest differ from groups in that political parties run candidates for public office. By members elect to trying to partiespolitical that in office. run public for candidates the party chan- serves variety a for example, office, of important political functions, and training political leaders, neling and clarifying political consensus and conflict, organizing elections and government. American is parties a system that form organized two-party system, The a loosely These hold for them? does the future What the partiesAre in trouble? in transition. in this chapter considered questions are Chapter Objectives also as groups. as individuals but politics not just in get involved People groups kinds of groups—interest and important two examines the uniquely that role The first part of the chapter American political system. political parties—play in the in their behind differences and the reasons their activities, groups, focuses on interest of some of the major for an examination This discussion sets the stage effectiveness. of the role and an evaluation American political scene today groupsinterest on the groups interest play. that The Introduction to American Government 192 and religious groups and religious ofracial,wide variety ethnic, as thecomingtogether ofa of America Characterization melting pot cooperation conflict and manage group task ofgovernment isto theprincipal and inwhich and economicgroups, different social, political, the interactionofmany interests protected through andhavepeople rule their the A systeminwhich pluralist democracy what government does work togethertoinfluence hold commonviews andwho Associations ofpeoplewho interest groups AFL-CIO headquartersinWashington,D.C.(WikimediaCommons) of Americaasa the basicbuildingblocksof Americanpoliticallife.Perhapsthedominantview is As notedin“PoliticsandIdeas:PluralismElitism,” manyseethesegroupsas have focused on interest groups as a uniquely important element of American life. surprising, therefore,thatscholarsstudyingtheAmerican socialandpoliticalsystem problems ismorecommonintheUnitedStatesthan otherdemocracies.Itisnot in groupactivitiesandthatjoiningworkingthrough groupstosolvecommunity that roughly30percentofAmericans(communalistsand completeactivists)engage larly prominentroleinpoliticallife.Chapter5reportedVerbaandNie’sfinding divisions hesawasnaturallydevelopinginasociety: of anewconstitution in 1787,JamesMadisonwroteFederalistNo.10aboutthe earliest yearsoftheRepublic.Duringthickpublicdebateoveradoption trade, interestrates,andeducationthatpromotethewell-beingofitsmembers. government protects its unionizing activities and adopts policies on issues such as work togethertoinfluence what government does. Theirinterestisina Interest groups diverse groups—the “ Probably the best explanationisthatAmerica isthecomingtogether ofsomany ment is,therefore,oneofmanaging theinterplayofgroupinterests. groups, eachlookingtosecure itsmembers’interests.Theprincipaltaskofgovern - 7.1 Compared to other countries, interest groups in the United States play a particu - Interest groupshavebeenaprominentfeatureofAmericanpoliticssincethe Why Americansocietyand politicsshouldbesogroup-consciousishardtosay. faction in the necessary and ordinary operations andordinary ofgovernment.faction inthenecessary andinvolves and legislation taskofmodern party the principal spirit good. … interestsThe regulation forms andinterfering ofthesevarious disposed tovex otherthantocooperate andoppressforthecommon each inflamed them with mutual animosity, and rendered more them much and many otherpoints…have, inturn, dividedmankindintoparties, government,religion,A zealfordifferent opinionsconcerning Interest Groups in American Politics areassociationsofpeoplewhoholdcommonviewsand pluralist democracy melting pot ” ofdifferent races, nationalities, religions, cultures, : Americansocietyismade upofmanydifferent however, italsoexiststoensurethat companies employingitsmembers; favorable wageandjobbenefitsfrom in the nation, obviously seeks towin the largest groups of unionized labor Organizations (AFL-CIO),oneof of Labor and Congress of Industrial those goals.TheAmericanFederation opposing policies that work against that promotetheirgoalsandby interests bycampaigningforpolicies look outfortheirmembers’political and perhapsenlarge.Interestgroups tax laws)thattheywanttoprotect as favorabletreatmentunderthe position, benefit,oradvantage(such 193 Chapter 07 Interest Groups and Political Parties

belonging people movement An effortattain an end to an organized set of through actions and individuals simply by sharing a particular characteristic, such as women in the military. (Wikimedia Commons) Membership in some interest groups can be involuntary, with - , as in the civil rights movement, envi movement 1 African Americans and women African Americans and women Characteristics of Interest Groups of Interest Characteristics Interest groups vary in membership procedures. Some groups enroll members procedures. Some groups enroll members Interest groups vary in membership Groups also differ in how well they are organized, and the success of an of an Groups also differ in how well they are organized, and the success One of the most obvious characteristics is size. Interest groups vary dramatically Interest groups is size. characteristics most obvious One of the ronmental movement, feminist movement, or Tea Party movement. ronmental movement, feminist movement, workers to join and pay dues. Other groups formally, as when labor unions ask membership of notion informal more a on rest as in which people just think of themselves church but belonging. People may never go to Catholics. nevertheless think of themselves as can Even this informal sense of membership vary. Some groups evoke in their membership with the a very strong sense of identification group, whereas others do so only weakly. For still other groups, membership is not even a choice of the individual involved—people belong by the fact of having a particular characteristic. are often identified as important interest most African Americans and but most groups, women belong to no race- or gender-based organization. They may not even think of themselves as belonging to some large group. Rather, they are labeled as a member of the speaking, group simply because they possess a particular characteristic. Generally effective the stronger the bonds of the individual members to the group, the more the group will be. criteria. criteria. interest group in advancing its interests depends in some measure this one of power the amplify can control and communication of network strong A 7.1a and languages—that the variety itself constantly calls attention to the existence and existence to the attention calls itself constantly variety the and languages—that features identified universally of the most being one Beyond groups. of the activities controver - most the among also are groups interest society, and politics American of contributors important most the of one as praised been long have groups Interest sial. more visible, groups have become As interest of American democracy. to the success are now sometimes powerful, they tactics, and more in their more sophisticated American the of viability continuing the to threats greatest the of one as condemned to later. are concerns that we will return political system. These A stunning variety of organizations fit under the general definition of interest group. interest of definition general the under fit organizations of variety stunning A can have an impact on and features that interest groups assume The different forms a of effectiveness is absolute. Of course, no determinant group’s political effectiveness. groups with which it contends. must be measured relative to the A group’s influence and affect their influence. distinguish interest groups Several major characteristics the bigger the group, the more effective it is in size. All other things being equal, more members, raise more money to support likely to be. Large groups can mobilize more votes in an and swing candidates, favored political activities and lobbying being large is not an unequivocal advan- election. Although, as will be seen shortly, democracy’s reliance on plurality and majority tage for an interest group, given a better than being small. Sometimes, when decision-making, being large is generally of interest groups band together in a common an interest group is large or a number cause, the result is referred to as a Introduction to American Government 194 POLITICS &IDEAS major Americancontributorto promote democraticvalues.The the lotof less fortunate and to lent, usingtheirpowertoimprove tors portrayelitesasmorebenevo- the “masses.”Othercommenta- vantage ofthosewhomitrules, to itsown benefit and tothedisad- cising itspowerinwaysthatwork This “elite”isoftenseenasexer- of powerfulpeople,arulingclass. trated in the hands of a small group that powerinasocietyisconcen- it so sharply contrasts. Elitism holds the politicalperspectivewithwhich without understandingalittleabout contribution topoliticalthought to appreciatethisuniqueAmerican ideas ofAmericanpolitics.Itishard Pluralism isoneofthefundamental and Elitism Pluralism will saymore later,existsinmostcases solely forthepurposeofchanneling money exist solely to pursue political ends. A political action committee, about which we circumstances it stands completely aside from the political fray. Other interest groups undoubtedly inspireittotake upthecudgelsofpolitics.However,undernormal in thepoliticalarena.Legislation tooutlawbowlingasanimmoralpastimewould its potential to become politically active should its interests somehow bethreatened if itbecameembroiledinpartisan politicalstruggles.Itssignificancelies in has anything to do with politics. Indeed, it would probably suffer as an organization with politicalissues or involvedinpoliticalactivity. A town’s bowlingleaguerarely groups have little if any connection to politics. They are generally not concerned lack ofsupportifmembersfeelestrangedfromtheleadership. groups runbynarrowelitesmaybenefitfromsingleness ofpurposebutsuffer a however, thegroupmaysufferfromalackofcommon purpose.Conversely, tial consensus in the group. When a lack of consensus hinders decision-making, broad membershipparticipationengenders,aslong memberscanreachsubstan- one. Groups run democratically may benefit from the additional commitment that tionship betweenhowdemocraticagroupisanditseffectivenessanuncertain almost dictatorialcontroloverthegroup;othersareverydemocratic.Therela- they are.Somegroupsarerunasvirtualautocracieswiththeleadershipexerting efforts candissipate the influenceof another.Groups alsodifferinhowdemocratic group, whereaspoorinternalorganization and an inability to coordinate common How connectedagroupistopoliticscanalsoaffectits influence.Someinterest consensus amongthegroupsabout cult withoutareasonableamountof In anycase,collectiveactionisdiffi- ment, butothertimestheyarenot. these centers of power are in agree- industries, andthelike.Sometimes professional associations, veterans, up society:labororganizations, leaders ofvariousgroupsthatmake different centers of power,the power asdispersedamongmany and stablesociety. among themwasabeliefinstrong to hold similar values. Foremost another, andthereforetending positions, interactingwithone backgrounds, sometimestrading institutions ascomingfromsimilar Rather, he saw the leaders of these argue formalevolentconspiracy. and corporateleaders.Millsdidnot of the highest political, military, States asconcentratedinthehands He sawrealpowerintheUnited elitist theorywasC.WrightMills. Pluralism, incontrast,sees 1

1. movements fitintothisdiscussion? do therecentTeaPartyandOccupy How dotheyusetheirpower? What arethedominantgroups? of pluralisminAmericansociety? power? Whatevidencedoyousee is init?Towhatendsdoesituseits do you see in American society? Who unions, andpetroleumcompanies. manufacturers anddealers,labor health carespecialists,automobile many groups:environmentalists, but rather a compromise among not representa“perfect”solution by asinglesmallelite.Thelawsdo sions werenotimposedonthenation reduce harmfulautomobileemis- laws passedsincetheearly1970sto moderate andstable.Forexample, consensus compelspoliticstobe what shouldbedone.Thisneedfor University Press, 2000). The Power Elite(Oxford: Oxford What evidence of a power elite 195 Chapter 07 Interest Groups and Political Parties direct mail direct Method of contacting citizens than through rather mail, by personal contact or the mass media political action committee (PAC) set up organization Political to channel campaign money a groupfrom to political to the sympathetic candidates political views group’s

3 method, in which computers So, while per-candidate limits still So, while per-candidate limits still 2 direct mail . PACs are organizations devoted to channeling channeling . PACs are organizations devoted to PACs or What Interest Groups Do Groups What Interest Interest groups, of course, are involved in the electoral process through the in the electoral process through the Interest groups, of course, are involved Finally, groups differ in terms of their adherence to the essentially mainstream mainstream to the essentially of their adherence differ in terms Finally, groups to protect and advance the well- in a broad range of activities to protect and advance Interest groups engage influenceto attempt the is activities these among Foremost members. their of being try to create public support or sympathy for theirpublic opinion. Many interest groups accomplishing this is the mass media. When apolitical goals. The major channel for representatives of the group use the mediagroup’s political interests are threatened, on radio and television news broadcasts,to make the group’s views known. Interviews articles, letters to the editor, blog posts, andquotations in newspaper and magazine all tools of influence for interest groups. In recentessays for newspaper op-ed pages are mass)to opposed (as individual an of use the developed have groups interest years, This is the medium to influence public opinion. generate thousands of personally addressed letters soliciting support and financialgenerate thousands of personally addressed citizens. Even more recently, savvy interestcontributions from potentially sympathetic providing themgroups have begun direct email efforts—targeting potential donors, saving a stamp in the process. with a secure method of payment, and interest group members can work in votes their members cast. More important, In recent years, interest groups have the campaigns of their favored candidates. of political campaigns, usually through been deeply involved in the financing There is also no limit on how much PACs may raise or give in total. Nor is there is there There is also no limit on how much PACs may raise or give in total. Nor PACs. In any limit on the total amount that a candidate can accept from different spend as addition to making direct contributions to candidates, PACs may also political action committees 7.1b to political candidates sympathetic to the interests of the group. Between these two these Between of the group. interests to the sympathetic candidates to political lesser greater or to a in politics are involved that organizations many reside extremes - and organi issues, personalities, group is tied to political more closely a degree. The to be effective politically. more likely it is zations, the mainstream. outside the American pursue a course society. Some groups views of and the mainstream to the right of the leaned Nazi Party the American For example, in relation to the consensus to the left of it. Where a group stands Communist party it will be. The most has considerable effect on how influential of American politics will make little headway if interest group in the country passionate, best-organized American politics. Groups that that are far off the beaten track of it pursues policies are likely to make less elimination of income taxes, for example, argue for complete current system. that argue for modest reform in the headway than those exist, individuals can give money to as many different candidates and PACs as and PACs as exist, individuals can give money to as many different candidates they choose. One study estimated that this ruling could allow a single donor to cycle. contribute over $700,000 to candidates and parties in a single election held that limiting an individual’s overall contributions was a violation of First of First held that limiting an individual’s overall contributions was a violation Amendment freedom of speech guarantees. money from members of interest groups to political candidates sympathetic to the to the money from members of interest groups to political candidates sympathetic Election groups’ policy preferences. By law, PACs must register with the Federal to Commission (FEC), have at least fifty contributors, and make contributions PAC any one at least five candidates for federal office. No contributor can give more any one candidate give PAC can no year, and calendar than $5,000 per more their total than $5,000 per election. Until recently, individuals were limited in a two-year contributions to candidates, parties, and committees to $123,200 over campaign cycle. In 2014, however, the Supreme Court case McCutcheon v. FEC Introduction to American Government 196 candidates topolitical contributions of campaignfunds, andlimits disclosure ofsourcesanduses financing, full requiring Law that regulates campaign Campaign Act Federal Election

Number of PACs SOURCE: FederalElectionCommission,2016. preferred vehicleforchannelingmoneyfrominterestgroupmemberstopoliticalcandidates. The numberofpoliticalactioncommitteeshassoaredsincethepost-Watergatecampaignreformsmadethem Figure 7.1 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 0 1974

T Nonconnected Corporate

otal 1978 | Watergate reformshavenotbeenacurethatisworsethanthedisease. controversial issueinAmericanpolitics,withmanyquestioningwhetherthepost- by PACsrosefromabout$10milliontowellover$1billion.havebecomea to over4,600(seeFigure7.1).Duringthesameperiodamountofmoneyspent eration ofPACs.From1974to2016,thenumberPACsincreasedfromabout600 group contributions,madecontributionsmoreattractiveandledtoaprolif- the 1974 act, by setting limits of $1,000 on individual contributions and $5,000 on funds broughttolightintheWatergatescandal.AfewPACsexistedpreviously;but and amendedsignificantlyin1974anattempttopreventthemisuseofcampaign dates, usuallypurchasingadvertisinginthebroadcastorprintmedia. much moneyastheywantonindependentactivitiesinbehalfofoneormorecandi- imposed onwealthy candidatesisnotjustified byacompellinggovernment interest (2008), heldthatthisamendment wasunconstitutional.TheCourtfoundtheburden running againstwealthyopponents. TheSupremeCourt,inthecaseofDavisv.FEC “Millionaire’s Amendment” thatallowedincreasedcontributionlimitsforcandidates their approvalofradioand televisionadvertisementscreatedontheirbehalfand a this lawwereadisclaimerrulethat required candidatestoverballyacknowledge or theMcCain-FeingoldAct,afteritssponsors).Amongnotablefeaturesof Congress passedtheBipartisanCampaignReformActin2002(alsoknownas BCRA The Proliferation ofPACs, 1974–2016 PACs blossomed as a result of the In anefforttoreininwhatmanyperceivedasout-of-control campaignspending, 1982

1986 Labor Cooperative

1990

1994 Corporate WithoutStock T rade/Membership/Health 1998 Federal ElectionCampaignAct

2002

2006

2010

2014 , passed in 1971

2016 197 Chapter 07 Interest Groups and Political Parties Lab lobbying Attempting to influence legislation under particularly consideration, personal through contact by group representatives triangle iron of interest The combination group representatives, and committees, legislative administrators government influential seen as extremely in determining the outcome of political decisions BVT scores. your test Improve are Practice quizzes available at www.BVTLab.com. The National Association of Realtors building in Washington, The National Association of Realtors building the United States. D.C., houses one of the largest lobbying groups in (Wikimedia Commons) of American politics. that prohibiting corporations and labor that prohibiting corporations iron triangle provide provide Lobbyists this often led to super PACs far PACs super to led often this cycles, , the attempt to influence the shape of of , the attempt to influence the shape This decision has led to the rise of “super This decision has 4 Lobbying Efforts to regulate campaign spending were dealt a blow in 2010 when the when 2010 in blow dealt a were spending campaign regulate to Efforts The idea of lobbying extends beyond the corridors and offices of Capitol Hill. The The idea of lobbying extends beyond the corridors and offices of Capitol in lessening corruption. The most controversial feature of the BCRA has been its has been the BCRA of feature controversial The most corruption. in lessening some law closed the Although donations. money” (unregulated) “soft to control effort called because they organizations—so a rise of “527” for PACs, it spawned loopholes are organizations Revenue Code. These of the Internal by section 527 are defined attempt expressly or allowed to a candidate with any communication not permitted by the FEC, they are not regulated candidate; but since defeat a particular to elect or free from monetary influence politics them as a way to have used many contributors the effort for reform seems independent expenditures. Again, limitations by making political outcomes. by the desire to use money to influence to have been thwarted in Citizens United v. FEC Supreme Court held organizations from independently spending money independently spending money organizations from against candidates for federal office to advocate for or the First Amendment’s free speech was a violation of protections. legislation emanating from the U.S. Congress and other Congress and other legislation emanating from the U.S. has traditionally political decision-making bodies, activity. Lobbying been a mainstay of interest group legislators; with hobnobbing more than just involves source of reliable in many cases, lobbyists are a major legislature. the for information letters and testify published materials and advisory They sometimes before congressional committees. actual process of become deeply involved in the with members of writing legislation by collaborating Congress and their staffs on the drafting of bills or and pass amendments. In some cases, they may even draft legislation themselves Modern it on to a senator or representative willing to introduce it on the floor. the most lobbyists are a far cry from the shady figures of folklore. Some are among highly paid, respected, and influential figures in Washington. on how it is effect of a law depends not just on how the legislation is written but also watch on translated into action. Therefore, interest group representatives keep close - govern of branch executive the of agencies many the by set regulations and rules the interests ment and the various independent regulatory commissions. When group - appear to be threatened, representatives swing into action. They publicize the poten ask tial threat, mobilize group and public opinion, meet with agency officials, and with legislators sympathetic to the “true intent” of the original legislation to intercede with the erring bureaucrats. Interest group representatives are so closely involved policy that legislators and administrators in the making and implementation of public the threesome has come to be called the PACs”—organizations that are able to collect and spend that are able to collect and spend PACs”—organizations or regulation, as money with practically no limitation efforts directly long as they do not coordinate their In the 2014 and with political parties or candidates. campaign 2016 of individual outspending the campaign organizations candidates. By October 2016, about 1,200 super PACs were registered with the FEC. Introduction to American Government 198 contact their legislators orstate to home district citizens inthe encouraging by ofCongress members Attempting toinfluence grass roots lobbying withthecourt filing thisbrief make theirviews known by an interest initsoutcomecan a casebut nonethelesshave to thatgroups are notparties government agencies, or the court”—persons, Latin for of “friend amicus curiaebrief being sued orinstitution the person against than theirgrievance common interest other of individualswithoutany behalf ofalargenumber Legal actioninitiated on class actionsuit effect onNewOrleans.(WikimediaCommons) government diate issueorconcern,suchasprotestsabouthowthe Some specialinterestgroupsarea responded tothe2010BPoilspillandits response toanimme- types ofinterestgroupsandgivesexampleseachtypegroup. logical, orissuecategories.Table7.1summarizesthemajorconcernsofdifferent degrees ofsuccess.Majorgroupsusuallyfitintoeconomic,social,religious,ideo- more. Interestgroupscanbecategorizedbytheircharacteristics,goals,tactics,and formal groupsandthemultitudeofinformalgroups,therearetensthousands of GovernmentRelationsProfessionals.Takingintoaccountalltheuncounted state and local organizations. There is even a lobby for lobbyists:the Association formal organizations,lists over 24,000differentnational groupsandover 100,000 of morethanonegroup.TheEncyclopediaAssociations,whichconfinesitselfto Americans belongtoamyriadofinterestgroups.Asnoted,somearemembers in theNational AssociationofManufacturers. Avastarrayofindustry-wide trade special concerns. Largemanufacturingcompanies, forexample,have cometogether difficult forittotakestands thataresatisfactorytoallitsmembers. sometimes diminished,due tothefactthatbreadthofitsmembershipmakes it contact theirelectedofficials aboutissuesofconcern.However,itseffectiveness is “friendly” adviceabouthowtodecideacase. 7.1c in extensive States, whichpursueseffortstoinfluencegovernment onabroadfront.Itengages business’s mostprominentadvocateistheChamber ofCommercetheUnited hood leadtogreatdiversityinthearrayofgroupsthat form. unequal distributionofproperty.”Thevariouswaysin whichpeoplegaintheirliveli- wrote, “Themostcommonanddurablesourceoffactions hasbeenthevariousand Interest groupsfrequentlyformaroundeconomicissues.In Federalist No.10,Madison Economic Groups done byfilingan known tothecourts,evenincaseswhichtheyarenotthemselvesparties.Thisis Business interestscombine intoother,largerorganizationsbasedontheir Business groupsareamongthemostpowerfulofall interestgroups.Perhaps Major Interest Groups grass rootslobbying amicus curiae before thecourts,eitheraslitigantsthemselvesorin can playaroleinthejudicialprocessaspartiescasesbrought nominated forthehighcourtin1991.Second,interestgroups sexual harassmentlobbiedvigorouslyafterClarenceThomaswas groups andwomen’sangeredbyAnitaHill’schargesof Judiciary Committee.Forexample,pro-andantiabortionrights interest groupslineuptoexpresstheirviewstheSenate nominates acandidatetofillvacancyontheSupremeCourt, state andfederalbenches.Mostprominently,whenthepresident First, interest groups can affect the selection of judges who sit on are susceptibletotheinfluenceofinterestgroupsinseveralways. appraisal isthatthecourts,likeotherbranchesofgovernment, from external political pressures. However, a more realistic suits to doso.Fourth,interestgroupscanformallymaketheirviews and providethefinancial,legal,moralsupporttheyneed interest groupscanencourageindividualstobringlegalaction other thantheirsharingagrievanceagainstanotherparty.Third, of alargenumberindividualswithoutanyformalconnection Traditionally, theAmericanjudiciaryhasbeenseenasisolated . Class action suits allow litigation to be initiated on behalf (“friend ofthecourt”) byencouragingitsmembers acrossthecountryto brief , inwhichagroupoffers class action class action 199 Chapter 07 Interest Groups and Political Parties Examples National Association of Manufacturers; American National Association County, and Municipal Federation of State, Bar Association; American Employees; American Farm Bureau Federation for Women; National National Organization Advancement of Colored People; Association for the Legal Defense and Educational Mexican American of American Indians Fund; National Congress Council of U.S. Catholic Conference; National Mennonite Churches; American Jewish Committee; Central Committee for the Americans for Democratic Action; People MoveOn American Way; Heritage Foundation; Right to Life Environmental Defense Fund; National Action League Committee; National Abortion Rights Union; Common Cause; Public Citizen; Consumers Women Voters Equal Justice Foundation; League of Types of Major Interest Groups Interest Major of Types Concerns Business, labor, and professions agriculture, Gender, race, and ethnic Gender, race, and discrimination; economic advancement Religious freedom; values reflected in public policy Political impact of specific public policy Narrow agenda; limited political goals Broadly defined consumer and general welfare goals |

When people think of labor as an interest group, they usually think first of first think usually they group, interest an as labor of think people When associations, such as the American Iron and Steel Institute and the American Gas associations, such as the American of the spectrum At the other end interests. more particular represent Association, of thousands of small manufacturing concerns, are small businesses—the hundreds The National grocery stores. and pop” “mom shops, and TV repair neighborhood business–oriented the best-known small of is one Business Independent of Federation by important organizations such as the groups. Particular professions are represented the National of doctors), organization leading American Medical Association (the do not Association of Realtors, and the American Bar Association. Business groups pit one always speak with one voice, however, because political issues sometimes software business interest against another. For example, in the early 2000s, many latter the Microsoft when giant with industry at odds found themselves companies fought against federally imposed antitrust actions. themselves its more visible side, labor as organized into unions. Individual unions Teamsters, function as independent interest groups. The United Auto Workers, the a just are Employees Municipal and County, State, of Federation American the and an umbrella few of the many unions recognized as politically active. The AFL-CIO is million that organization of unions with a total membership of approximately 11 strategy spearheads political activity on behalf of organized labor. Disagreements over and form led several member unions to split from this parent organization in 2005 the Change their own umbrella organization of about 5.5 million workers called of the to Win federation. Organized labor was once seen as a monolithic mainstay primarily Democratic coalition; but in recent years its influence has diminished, in because the share of the labor force belonging to unions has dropped considerably Table 7.1 Table may be that a group note In addition, exist. groups that of of the thousands only a few includes The table social about statements make example, for groups, economic when occurs This type. one than more of questions. and ideological Type Economic Social Religious Ideological Single Issue Public Interest Introduction to American Government 200 (Wikimedia Commons) Clinton meetwithAfghan civilsocietyleadersatthePresidential PalaceinKabul,Afghanistan U.S. AmbassadortoAfghanistanRyan CrockerandU.S.SecretaryofStateHillaryRodham agriculture remainsasectorthatcannotbeignored. American AgricultureMovement.Theheydayofthefarmlobbyisover,but aggressive farmgroups,suchastheNationalFarmersOrganizationand to lessthan1percent.Suchpressureshavespawnedseveralmore-radicaland than 25percentofallAmericanslivedonfarms;todaythatnumberhasfallen conspired toreducethepoliticalpowerofagriculturalinterests.In1930,more tural subsidies.Dwindlingnumbersandhardeconomictimes,however,have ously asCongress,onceeveryfiveyears,revisestherulesgoverningagricul- American FarmBureauFederationandtheNationalGrange.Theylobbyfuri- agriculture isahugeindustry.Long-standingorganizedgroupsincludethe political representationareoftenlimitedtotheactionsoftheirindividualmembers. more organized counterparts advance some of their interests, their opportunities for nonunion workers’lackoforganizationlimitstheirpoliticalinfluence.Although unionized thanworkersintheoldsmokestackindustriestheyaresupplanting.The In fact, workers in thenew high-technology industries are much less likely to be ized contingent.ThemajorityofAmericanworkingpeopledonotbelongtounions. efforts inlightofthisdeclineunionmembership. the lastfiftyyears. ThecreationofChangetoWinindicatesaredirectionpolitical also strengthened ties. For many years the legitimacy of female involvement in politics also strengthened ties.For many years the legitimacyof female involvementin politics political issues. The increasing number of female candidates running for public office has strong inthefemalepopulationasawhole. Within suchagroup,thesenseofidentificationcanrunstrong,althoughitmaynotas five hundredthousandmembers,aboutoneoutofeverythreeAmericanwomen. equality National OrganizationforWomen(NOW),whichpresseseconomicandpolitical to politicallyrelevantwomen’sorganizations.Themostprominentorganizationisthe Slightly morethanhalfofthe American populationisfemale,butrelatively few belong women, composesoneofthepotentiallylargestinterestgroupsinUnitedStates. Birth, notchoice,determinesmembershipinsomeinterestgroups.Oneofthesegroups, Social Groups Farmers havelongbeenapotentforce in Americanpolitics.Eventoday, Labor has another side that is less visible but numerically larger than the union- The women’s movement is closely tied to politics in that many of its goals relate to The women’smovementiscloselytiedtopoliticsinthatmanyofitsgoalsrelate women and, particularly, freedom of choice on abortion. NOW has over for womenand,particularly,freedomofchoiceonabortion.NOWhasover and led to her position asakey contenderandledtoher came upjust short, butitsolidifiedher Party’s presidentialnomination in2008 Clinton’s (D–NY)bidforthe Democratic for vicepresident.Senator Hillary Ferraro wastheDemocratic candidate occurred in 1984, when Geraldine candidate forpresidentorvice nomination ofthefirstmajor-partyfemale the pastfortyyears(seeFigure7.2).The in who havebeenelectedtopublicoffice change isthegrowingnumberofwomen process. Perhapsthebestindicationof participants intheAmericanpolitical women areincreasinglyacceptedasequal woman’s place is in the home,” but today was impugned by the old saying that “a

201 Chapter 07 Interest Groups and Political Parties 2016 2014 2010 Latinos 2005 2000 1995 1999–2000; Pew Research Center, 2016; National Conference of StateConference of National 2016; Center, Research Pew 1999–2000; African Americans ed., th 1990 omen 1985 W Female, African American, and Latino NationalFemale, African American, Executives, 1975–2016 and State Legislators and 1980 |  1975 , 4 Politics, American on Statistics Vital 2014 0 Legislatures, 2016. The increasing numbers of women, African Americans, and Latinos elected to public offices such as the U.S. Senate U.S. the as such public offices to elected Latinos and Americans, African women, of numbers increasing The executive offices in the past forty years demonstrates how the political and House and state legislatures and to state groups. process has opened up to members of these 2012; Center for the American Woman and Politics, 2016; NALEO EducationalSOURCES: Statistical Abstract of the United States, Fund, Figure 7.2 Figure 500 Although the United States is far from total resolution of its racial problems, theAlthough the United States is far from total resolution of its racial problems, Certainly the most prominent of all biologically based interest groups in recent based interest of all biologically the most prominent Certainly 2,000 1,500 1,000 2,500 African American civil rights movement has, over the long term, met with considerableAfrican American civil rights movement has, over the long term, met with goals are notsuccess. This success is at least partly due to the fact that the movement’s traditionalan attack on fundamental values but rather a push for broader realization of haseffort a major recent years, economic equality. In and political, American social, In 2017, there were eighty-three women in the House of the House women in were eighty-three there In 2017, in 2016. nomination eventual state legislators of female percentage The the Senate. in and twenty-one Representatives was in 1971. five times what it percent in 2016, more than was 24.6 African Americans Whereas American population. history is the African American gain considerable population, they of the American only about 13 percent constitute ties and the close of group identification their strong sense from two sources: influence from the social and economic and the world of politics. Shut out between the group but to pursue advancement Americans had little recourse establishment, African their cause a special political system, which in itself has given through the political Martin LutherDr. such as American leaders, forceful African legitimacy. Further, to spur African Americans Jesse Jackson, have not hesitated King Jr. and the Reverend of Colored People The National Association for the Advancement to political action. interest organization. perhaps the most visible African American (NAACP) remains (less than 2 percent) belong to percentage of African Americans Although only a small American organization in most widely recognized formal African the NAACP, it is the three hundred thousand. America, with a membership of about Introduction to American Government 202 in thepoliticalprocess thatgroups involve themselves Conservative, Christian Right religion-based

to eligible Latinos);andthosewhoareregistereddonotalwaysvote(53percent,compared political identity.FewerLatinosareregisteredtovote(only52percentofthe24.8million Latinos lagineducationallevelandareonlynowdevelopingastrongsenseofcollective situation similar to what African Americansfaced forty yearsago. Like African Americans, Although LatinosintheUnitedStatescurrentlynumberabout55million,theyconfronta population—primarily Mexican Americans, Cuban Americans, and Puerto Ricans. 1981 toforty-sixin2017. number ofAfricanAmericansintheHouseRepresentativesrosefromseventeen House jumpedfromsixtothirty-fivebetween1981and2017. victory inapresidentialelection.Partlybecauseofthisfact,thenumberLatinos potential. Theyareconcentratedinanumberofpopulousstatesthatcanbecriticalto nized asasignificantpoliticalbloc.However,theLatinopeoplehaveconsiderable (see Figure7.2).OutsidetheSouthwestandafewbigcities,Latinosareseldomrecog- nization ontheorderofNAACP.Asaresult,therearefewerelectedLatinoleaders ballots do not necessarily vote for Latino candidates. Latinoslack a cohesive national orga- has more than nine thousand elected African American get moreAfrican Americans electedtopublicoffice. Alltold,theUnitedStatesnow been aimedatencouragingAfricanAmericanstousetheirhard-wonrightvoteand dered somecontroversy.The groups thatareactiveonawidevarietyofpoliticalissues.Thisinvolvementhasengen- freedom theConstitutionalsoguaranteesinevitablyresultsinexistenceofreligious Although Religious Groups even tolerate abortion. even tolerateabortion. Church wasits useofthethreatexcommunication againstCatholics whosupportor tions outsideabortionclinics. AparticularlydramaticexamplebytheRomanCatholic abortion a political issue through support of sympathetic candidates and demonstra- abortion. TheCatholicChurch andthe Christian Righthavebothworked hard to make Central America,amongothers. themselves incontroversiesoverarmscontrol,humanrights abroad,andU.S.policyin as theUnitedChurchofChrist—ineffectanemerging“ChristianLeft,”haveinvolved the Republicanpresidentialprimary.Othermoresocially liberaldenominationssuch conservatives madeformerArkansasGovernorMikeHuckabee aviablecandidatein and theelectionofPresident important rolebothintheelectionofaRepublicancongressional majorityin1994 Robertson’s ChristianCoalition.TheRight was creditedwithplayingan the mostprominentorganizationspearheadingthisactivity istelevisionevangelistPat have virtuallytakenovertheRepublicanPartyorganization inseveralstates.Perhaps diligently aroundthecountrytoelecttheiradherentsstateandlocaloffices Swaggart. Sincethen,though,conservativeChristianshavebeenworkingquietlybut financial misconductbysuchwell-knownfiguresasJimandTammyBakkerJimmy 1980s; however,itsvisibilityrecededinthelate1980safterrevelationsofsexualand but abstinenceinsexeducation. against lawsfavoringtherightsofwomenandhomosexualsteachinganything credits forprivateschooltuition,andtheteachingofcreationisminpublicschools, has worked for a constitutional amendment to allow prayer in the public schools, tax 68 percentforwhitesand63AfricanAmericansin2014). Another prominent ethnic group is the growing Latino segment of the American Another prominentethnicgroupisthegrowingLatinosegmentofAmerican No issue in recent years has drawn religious groups more into the political fray than The religiousrightloomedasamajorfactorinAmericanpoliticsthroughtheearly the Constitution provides for separation of church and state, the religious the Constitutionprovidesforseparationofchurchandstate,religious Christian Right in 2000 and 2004. In 2008, Christian George W.Bushin2000and2004.In2008,Christian , as fundamentalist groups are often called, , asfundamentalistgroupsareoftencalled, officials 5

(see Figure 7.2). The (see Figure 7.2). The 6 Those who cast Thosewhocast 203 Chapter 07 Interest Groups and Political Parties - Rush Limbaugh is a conservative political commen group.tator. Conservatism is an ideological political (Wikimedia Commons) Chipotle Mexican Grill closed forty-three restaurants in Washington and Oregon in Public interest groups November 2015. of E. coli in early initial outbreak response to the focus on issues of product safety and the effectiveness of government regulation of public utilities and industry. (Wikimedia Commons)

groups pursue an explicitly political agenda almost exclusively. When that When exclusively. almost agenda political an explicitly pursue groups Single-issue groups are a controversial political phenomenon. Advocates contend thatSingle-issue groups are a controversial and the effectiveness of government and the effectiveness of government of public utilities and regulation vying With so many interest groups vying for advantage in the political arena, sometimes seems that everybody’s it individual political interests get served, but not the public’s as a whole. Thus, organizations have formed to represent broad-based notions of the public’s interest. These groups focus on issues such as product safety Public Interest Groups Single-Issue Groups In contrast to the broad political agenda of ideological groups, and more limited polit- single-issue groups have narrower agendas all the narrow single-issue ical goals. One of the most visible of movement. right-to-life, or antiabortion, the been has groups Life Committee have been Groups such as the National Right to ban abortion. These groups regard the issue of single-minded in their attempts to contemporary politics—a so-called litmus test abortion as the overriding issue of supported. The uncompromising position of of whether a candidate should be similarly uncompromising reactions from antiabortion groups has spawned some these groups is The most prominent among abortion-rights groups. single-interest Rights Action League, which claims some the National Abortion and Reproductive 250,000 members. people should rightly pursue to the issues that moral there are indeed some overriding exclusion of everything else. Others see single-issue groups as a threat to democracy thatcompromise the refuse they because helps to make a democratic system work. Some Some groups typically ideological one. Such characterized as an broad, the group is agenda is policy proposals and evaluate public governmental action philosophy of have a clear Democratic Actionthe Americans for best example is terms. Perhaps the in those members that with about 65,000 relatively small group (ADA), a politics. Thus, on American a liberal perspective has long espoused an enemy to those on the American left and it has become a beacon ratings of The ADA is best known for the to those on the right. every publishes it Senate, which the and members of the House fidelity to attention to individual legislators’ year as a way of calling MoveOn election cycles, the organization liberal values. In recent by making role in supporting progressive causes has played a growing a network and electronic mailing lists to build use of the Internet politicalthe of end other the At contributors. and supporters of backed organizations around the country have spectrum, Tea Party candidates and causes, with aan array of conservative or libertarian budget deficits. particular focus on reducing taxes and Ideological Groups Groups Ideological Introduction to American Government 204 membership ofthegroup membership the interests ofthebroader own interests rather than in ways that promote their of interestmay groups act The ideathat theleaders interest group elitism polarization protected againstpolitical on alltheissuesandisthus lined uponoppositesides rarely findsthesamepeople with theresult that society individual toindividual, from membership group The overlapping ofinterest cleavage cross-cutting an essentialfactorinthesuccessofitsdemocratic society. Indeed,somescholarslaudthepluralisticcharacter ofAmericansocietyas interest groupsandcross-cuttingcleavages,contribute toanequitableandstable brake on polarizing conflict in society. These two elements, competition between different coalitions to form on different issues for parents with children in private schools. Political scientists call this tendency for two willprobablyagreeaboutpropertytaxesbutdisagreetuitiontaxcredits homemaker, whereasherneighborisawhite,Protestant,publicschoolteacher.The seldom runalongthesamelines.Toillustrate,onewomanmaybeawhite,Catholic representation ofindividualcitizensbytheleadersinterestgroups. through representation—notjustformalrepresentationviaelectedofficials,butalso her interestsprotectedwithouthavingtobepoliticallyactive.Democracyfunctions of groupsfromdominatingtheothers.Thus,everymembersocietyhashisor so manygroups,sheerforceofcompetition prevents anysinglegrouporhandful on behalfoftheir members to protect and advance their causes. Because there are well astoanumberofothergroups.Theleadersthesevariousinterestgroupsact States isapluralistsociety.MostAmericansbelongtoatleastoneformalgroupas of thisdisparity. is howAmerican democracy can continue to function, and even prosper, in the face As about politics,rationalintheirpoliticaljudgments,andactivetheprocess. Classical including thatofcampaignfinancing. styled “citizens’lobby”foundedin1970.Ithastakenonabroadrangeofissues, industry. PerhapsthemostprominentsuchgroupisCommonCause,self- in reality, turn out to be tions with nothing and emerge with something. Thus, interest grouphavetobargain? Itisveryhardforagrouptoenterintonegotia - and weak and can be dominated. After all, withwhat does a small and powerless society. Somegroupsare big andpowerfulcandominate;othersaresmall ocratic. Also,purecompetition cannotexistamongalltheinterestgroupsin a group members. In fact, the structure of some interest groups may be very undem- group; andgroupleadersdonotnecessarilyrepresent thebestinterestsofall politics. Noteverycitizenbelongs,inanymeaningful way,toasignificantinterest 7.2a finding themtobeperpetualandinevitabledangersthecommongood. them asessentialelementsofasuccessfuldemocracy.Otherstakedimmerview, political experts.Somecitizensviewinterestgroupsinhighlypositiveterms,seeing it isnotsurprisingthattheyevokestrongreactionsfromboththegeneralpublicand Given thevisibilityandpervasivenessofinterestgroupsinAmericandemocracy, 7.2 Chapter 5madeclear,manypeoplefallshortoftheseexpectations.Thequestion Further, becausemostAmericansbelongtoseveralgroups,politicaldisputes Some observers see interest groups as the answer. As notedearlier, the United Not surprisingly,criticshavefoundflawsinthisflattering portraitofAmerican Interest Groups astheFoundationofDemocracy democratic theory demands that citizens be interestedin politics, informed Perspectives onInterest Groups interest group elitism cross-cutting cleavage . The elites within interestgroups system. 7 pluralist democracy may, and see it as a 205 Chapter 07 Interest Groups and Political Parties interest group gridlock. (Shutterstock) Interest group 9 arise. health-care bill was an example of The In 8 Interest Groups Versus the Public Interest Versus Groups Interest Interest Group Gridlock Group Interest analogous to the traffic gridlock Interest group obstructionism of the majority may seem indefensible until the majority may seem indefensible until Interest group obstructionism of are most widely reviled when they are seen as using the political as using the political they are seen widely reviled when are most Interest groups that resists regulation group objectives. A manufacturing achieve selfish process to that it is only defending Product Safety Commission may claim by the Consumer possible price. Instead, the buy whatever it wants at the lowest the public’s right to to make money by producing the group as demanding the right public may perceive one of the greatest frus- goods. This kind of spectacle is no doubt shoddy and unsafe people to favor tighter regu- government and has caused many trations of democratic What is the “common good”? and other interest group activities. lation of lobbying be impaired in the slightest, it? Should the common good never Who gets to define good exist, in fact, apart good for a small number? Does a common even to do a great it? of the democratic process that defines from the outcome that majority is about to trample. A person it is our own interests upon which quotas on automobiles make imported cars might protest loudly when import of domestic models. That same person would more expensive and push up prices assembly plant in a Detroit auto she worked or differently if he probably think quarrel of those who decry interest group or owned a Ford dealership. The real groups themselves but rather with the political activities may not be with interest majority and minority interests. processes that strike the balance between gridlock and demosclerosis may be stark warnings of the dangers of pluralism rungridlock and demosclerosis may be stark warnings of the dangers of pluralism officials andamok. The hope of democracy is that good “traffic regulation” by public a successfulinterest groups can help to smooth the way for the moderate diet for more development of public policy. 7.2c 7.2b pursue their own interests rather than their members’ interests; and the elite elite and the interests; their members’ than rather own interests their pursue at their interests groups—pursue most powerful and biggest groups—the interest powerless groups. of the small and the expense an analogy to the clogged arteries that threaten many people’s health, another commentator has characterized these stalemates as “demosclerosis”—a state in which the political process is so clogged by the piling up of numerous permanent commitments to interest groups that the that problems new with lacks the resources to deal government that often develops in large cities. Pluralist theory envisions a myriad of interests doing battle in the political arena and thePluralist theory envisions a myriad of although probably not ideal for any, are accept- government emerging with policies that, beable to all. What if no consensus could areached, however? Critics charge that pluralistic system could arrive at a virtual - state of paralysis, in which an overabun dance of interest groups develops, each - refusing to compromise. One commen tator has called this situation interest group gridlock, Introduction to American Government 206 to campaigns andelections elections, order helpto bring parties, by seekingtowin parties, theways inwhich With reference topolitical electoral functions public opinion voters intopoliticsandform elections, helptosocialize parties, by seekingtowin parties, the ways inwhich With reference topolitical socialization functions authority positions ofgovernmental placing itsown in members influence public policy by thatA group seeksto political party presidential campaign(WikimediaCommons) Green PartypresidentialcandidateJillSteinannouncingher2016 sufficient numbersofvoters.Indoingso,partiesaccomplish fourimportant therefore, mustputtogetherapackageofpositionson variety ofissuesthatwillattract interests, a single issue will probably not appeal to enough voters to win. The party, thus helptomaintainpoliticalandsocialstability. a changingpoliticalscene,partieshelppeoplekeeptheirbearingsand next, partiestendtopersist.Byprovidingrelativelyfixedreferencepointsin First, bymakingthemselvesvisibleactorsonthestageofpoliticsandtryingto that helptobring order to the electoral process and coherence to government. In the pursuit of elective office, parties can perform several important functions and opportunities todeveloptheirpolitical skills. and training political leaders. Parties provide many people with an entry into politics important gaps intheselectionprocess.Finally, partiesareaprimemeans ofrecruiting a partyincampaignandfor supportingthesecandidatesintheelection,parties fill choosing publicofficials. By settingupproceduresfordeterminingwhowillrepresent needed ontheballot.Third, thepartiescomplementlegallyestablishedprocess for views reflectedbyoneor the otherofcoalitioncandidates,fewercandidates are which voterscanpickissimplified.Becausesubstantial numbersofvotersfindtheir large numbersofvoterswillreceivetheirsupport.Second, thesetofalternativesfrom everything thateveryvoterseeks;however,candidates whosatisfyneedscommon to 7.3a A however, therearejusttwomajorparties,eachwithabroaderagenda. public office.Further,therearemanyinterestgroups,eachwithnarroweragendas; activities. Theydifferinthatinterestgroupsdonotruntheirowncandidatesfor share commonpoliticalviewsorobjectivesandmayengageincollective member totheoffice.Partiesandinterestgroupsarealikeinthattheirmembersmay fying thecandidateasamemberofthatparty,andthenworkingtoelectparty popular election,thismeansplacingapartymember’snameontheballot,identi- and other democratic nationswhere most important public officials arechosen by its ownmembersintopositionsofgovernmentalauthority.IntheUnitedStates functions 7.3 political party Winning elective office requires getting votes. Given the wide range of voters’ Winning electiveofficerequiresgettingvotes.Given thewiderangeofvoters’ What PartiesDo . The first is to integrate interests. It is unlikely that any one candidate will offer . Thefirstistointegrateinterests.Itunlikelythatany one candidatewilloffer Political Parties is an organization that seeks to influence public policy by putting and issuescomegofromoneelectiontothe should getinvolved.Finally,whereascandidates in politics,howitaffectsthem,andwhythey causes, partiestellvotersaboutwhatisgoingon action. Intheirattemptstoattractvoters about politicsandmobilizethemintopolitical world aroundthem.Partieseducatecitizens perceive andtrytomakesenseofthepolitical They provideimportantcuestocitizensasthey to structurepeople’sperceptionsofpolitics. into theworldofpolitics.Partiesalsohelp provide apsychologicalhookthatpullspeople tend toidentifywithpolitical parties, parties important gain public support, parties accomplish several socialization functions . Becausepeople electoral electoral 207 Chapter 07 Interest Groups and Political Parties $150,000+ . governmental functions to political reference With in which the ways parties, seeking to win by parties, help to organize elections, give the government, policy, to public coherence government and make to the people responsible $149,999 $100,000– Why is the Democratic PartyDemocratic the is Why number of the poorest people are people the poorest number of larger an even and Republicans, people are the wealthiest number of status economic Thus, Democrats. but party effect, has some choice in theon made not is States United the alone. basis of economic self-interest with the lesstraditionally associated Republican Partywell-off and the Why does partywith the better-off? more clearlyaffiliation not divide is, whyalong economic lines—that Republicansare some poorer people and some richer people Democrats? 10

$99,999 Republican $75,000– $74,999 $50,000– Independent $49,999 . First, they organize government and give $40,000– Democrat does this image square with current with square does this image - relation the 7A shows Figure reality? party and identification ship between a small number Interestingly, income. income level Americans every at of inde- as purely themselves identify the toward pendent—not leaning Apart or the Republicans. Democrats antici- the trends this fact, from the traditional image of the by pated of the more Far parties do appear. than Democrats are people poorest - the wealth of and more Republicans, than Republicans iest people are a significant However, Democrats. $39,999 $30,000– Party Identification by Income |

governmental functions $30,000 Less than

0 10 60 50 40 30 20

cent Figure 7A Figure SOURCE: Pew Research Center, “A Deep Dive into Party Affiliation,” April 7, 2015. Per Once a political party achieves electoral victory, it confronts the task of governing. This figure groups respondents who indicated they “leaned toward” a particular party party with that “leaned toward” they respondents who indicated This figure groups Traditional wisdom portrays the wisdom portrays Traditional as the partyDemocrats of the and the well-off less economically partythe as Republicans more of the well How successful. economically Economic Economic Status and Party Identification * coherence to governmental policy. Because the founders saw centralized politicalcoherence to governmental policy. Because the founders saw centralized to avoidpower as a threat to individual freedom, the Constitution dispersed power ofthe tyranny of the majority. Power was broken up by function in the separation however,powers in the federal system and by geography. Experience soon showed, and eventhat this fragmentation of power led to a lack of coordination, stagnation, in theparalysis in government. Political parties evolved as a new source of coordination dispersedpolitical system. With like-minded individuals pursuing common objectives and statethroughout the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of the national governments, coherence and coordination were restored to policy making. By trying to achieve what they have proposed during the campaign, parties accom- By trying to achieve what they have proposed during the campaign, parties plish two important POLITICS & ECONOMICS & POLITICS Introduction to American Government 208 clear-cut winner election hasnotproduced a otherwhenthe previouseach previous electionagainst leading candidates ofa An electionpittingthe run-off election one-half ofthevotes cast wins by gettingmore than acandidate Election inwhich majority election ofthevotesthan amajority candidate, even ifitisless more votes thanany other wins simply by getting acandidate Election inwhich plurality election votes thananybodyelse.Thisiscalled winning usuallyrequiressimplygettingmore or governorcongressionalrepresentative), one personwinsasingleofficesuchasmayor offices arecontestedonanindividualbasis(i.e., outside.” IntheAmericansystem,wheremost there aretwosidestoeveryoffice—insideand truth: “Therearetwopoliticalpartiesbecause two-party system.Manyofthemdonot. other countries, every country should have a political questionsintheUnitedStatesthan sides. Also,unlesstherearefewersidesto many politicalquestionshavemorethantwo question.” Thisexplanationsoundsgood,but saying that “there are two political parties because there are two sides to every overwhelming majorityhasfaltered,ortheoppositionpartyrebounded. the nationunchallenged;butminorpartieshavealwaysfaded,partywith have flourished.Atothertimes,somepeoplefearedthatonepartywouldrule Party fortunes,ofcourse,haveebbedandflowed.Atsometimes,minorparties been morethantwolargeandenduringpoliticalorganizationsatthesametime. From itsbeginnings,theUnitedStateshashadatwo-partysystem.Neverhavethere A and controloverwhatthegovernmentdoes. governmental action,partiesallowthepublictoexertsomedegreeofoversight not. Thus,eventhoughthepublicisnotinapositiontosuperviseeverydetailof reward apartythatdoesgoodjobofgoverningandpunish parties are stable features on the American political scene, the electorate can majority elections 7.4a electorate, andthepartyingovernment. components that make up the party: the formal party organization, the party in the and alooserelationshipbetweenthenational,state,localpartiesthree United States,theparty system ischaracterizedbyhaving just twomajor parties particular shape a party system assumes varies from onecountry to another. In the Political partiesexistunderalmosteveryformofgovernment.However,the election one “in”and ormore“outs.”Because theonlywayforanoutsider todisplace electoral contests intheUnitedStateshave asinglewinnerandoneor morelosers— candidates runandnonegets amajority.Withpluralityormajorityelections,most 7.4 run-off election Another old adage may come closer to the Why doesthispatternconsistentlyrecur?Onetheoryisbasedontheold Second, partieshelpmakegovernmentresponsibletothepeople.Because . Pluralityelectionscontrast with A Two-Party System American Party System Basic Characteristics ofthe , inwhichthevictormust receive morethanhalfofallthevotes. isrequired under asystem of majority elections if morethan two plurality B http://www.bvtlab.com/96WR7 platform Democratic http://www.bvtlab.com/QqM67 Republican platform websites. thebelow at platforms andRepublican Democratic You canfindthemost recent presidential electionyear. beliefs, calledplatforms, every draft statements of draft statements oth majorpoliticalparties 209 Chapter 07 Interest Groups and Political Parties

Lab proportional proportional representation seats A system for allocating in which body in a legislative a partythe number of seats gets out of the total is based on the percentage of votes the party in an that receives election party third American political In the a minor party that context, a small share only attracts and vote of the electorate’s is a party other than the major parties have two that politics through dominated American history most of BVT Visit www.BVTLab.com the student to explore available for resources this chapter. , whereby offices, , whereby proportional representation proportional actually outpolled one of the major parties in a actually outpolled one of the major third party by the Populists, Progressives, and Socialists laid the ground- the laid Socialists and Progressives, Populists, the by care health The plurality election system is not the only reason the United States has a two- system is not the only reason the The plurality election third that fact the obscure not should system two-party the of discussion This parties in the field has tipped the balance In a few cases, the presence of third In 1992, independent presidential candidate Ross Perot, running under the banner Ross Perot, running under the presidential candidate In 1992, independent An alternative electoral system is electoral system An alternative such as seats in a legislature, are awarded in proportion to the percentage of votes a votes of percentage the to proportion in awarded are legislature, a in seats as such more than of growth the encourage may representation Proportional receives. party and still win seats. fourth in an election may place third or because a party two parties it is more common the United States; is relatively rare in representation Proportional such as France and Italy. in other countries, predom- the including well, as in enter factors other Undoubtedly system. party history, and the absence of of opinion, the impact of inantly centrist distribution might lead to chronic political ethnic and religious divisions that consistently intense played a significant role the electoral system has certainly fragmentation. However, structure of the American party system. in shaping the basic As shown in Figure 7.3, place in the American political system. parties do have a time. Although most third parties have been third parties have existed for a long never- they issue, or candidate particular a for vehicles temporary than more little in influencing the actions of the major parties. theless have played an important role parties were eventually forced to address. For They have raised issues that the major the mid-nineteenth century forced slavery onto example, the abolitionist parties of Persistent advocacy of egalitarian ideas the agendas of the major political parties. regulation of big business, Social Security, and such as female suffrage, government low-cost of Woodrow Wilson, the New Deal of Franklin work for much of the New Freedom Lyndon Johnson. Roosevelt, and the Great Society of other. In 1912, in the middle of a long period from one of the major parties to the Theodore Roosevelt’s Bull Moose Party of Republican dominance, former President siphoning votes, electoral eighty-eight and vote popular the of percent 27 garnered incumbent William Howard Taft to give the off enough votes from the Republican (This was, by the way, the only time in Democrat Woodrow Wilson the victory. American history that a presidential election.) In 1968, American Independent candidate George Wallace candidate Independent American In 1968, election.) presidential drawing won 14 percent of the popular vote and forty-six electoral votes, probably Richard off enough votes from Democrat Hubert Humphrey to give Republican Nixon the victory. making of his United We Stand movement, garnered 19 percent of the popular vote, Because his the most successful third-party movement in recent American history. that Perot seemed to draw votes almost equally from Bush and Clinton, it is unlikely in the three he changed the outcome of the election. However, Perot participated economic presidential debates and was instrumental in making deficit reduction and managed to revival major issues in the campaign. Perot ran again in 1996, but only ran gain about half of the total vote that he had earned in 1992. In 2000, Pat Buchanan The two on the Reform Party ticket, and Ralph Nader ran as a Green Party candidate. Nader, who combined to garner over 3.3 million votes in a very tight election. Since some generated about 2.9 million of those votes, was a decidedly liberal candidate, overlook have suggested that he cost Gore the election. Such conclusions, however, system and the fact that many Nader voters were disenchanted with the two-party The might not have voted at all if Bush and Gore were the only choices available. an insider is to win more votes, the natural tendency is for political organizations to organizations political is for tendency the natural votes, win more is to an insider of power. those out and in power around those form Introduction to American Government 210 Second System System System System System System Fourth Party Party Party Party Party Party Thir Sixth Fifth First https://ballotpedia.org. Presidential GeneralElectionResults,”PressRelease,January14,1993;FederalCommission,http://www.fec.gov/;Ballotpedia, p. 224;CongressionalQuarterlyWeeklyReport,November5,1988,3184;FederalElectionCommission,“1992Official SOURCES: (Democrat), GaryJohnson(Libertarian),JillStein(Green),and more states,butonlyfivecandidateswereontheballotinovertenstates:DonaldTrump(Republican),HillaryClinton presidential candidates.Forexample,intheyear 2016, atleastadozenpartiesrancandidateforpresidentinoneor before theyrancandidatesinpresidentialelectionsandcontinuedtoexistatlocallevelsafterceasedrunning The The chartindicatestheyearsduringwhichpartieseitherranpresidentialcandidatesorheldnationalconventions. Figure 7.3 d life span for many political parties can onlybe approximated because parties existed at the state or local level 2016 2012 2008 2004 2000 1996 1992 1988 1986 1984 1980 1972 1968 1964 1960 1956 1952 1948 1944 1940 1936 1932 1928 1924 1920 1916 1912 1908 1904 1900 1896 1892 1888 1884 1880 1876 1872 1868 1864 1860 1856 1852 1848 1844 1840 1836 1832 1828 1824 1820 1816 1812 1808 1804 1800 1796 1792 1789 Congressional Quarterly’sGuidetotheU.S.Elections,2 Republicans Democratic Democrats Major Parties

| Republicans Republicans Federalists National Whigs American PoliticalPartiesSince1789 Independent (G. Wa (H. Wa Pr American (R. Per ogr Reform Pr Democrats (LaFollette) National Constitutional Union ogr essive llace) llace) essive ot) (Bull Moose) Pr ogr The Gr essive Party Union een Socialist W orkers Populist Liberal Republican Gr Populist eenback Communist Darrell Castle(Constitution). Natural Law Liberty Communist nd Congressional Quarterly, 1985), ed.(Washington,DC:CongressionalQuarterly,1985), Socialist Souther Thir American (KnowNothing) Socialist d Parties n DemocratPr Anti-mason Libertarian ohibition Fr ee Soil States’ Rights National Unity Pr Democrats ogr essive Constitution Socialist Labor Labor U.S. W W orkers orld Justice Party Citizens Families W orking 211 Chapter 07 Interest Groups and Political Parties formal party organization components One of the three sectorsor distinguishable of the official a political party; structure of a political party and includes people who elected belong to it, officially and and appointed officers, committees national convention meeting of The quadrennial American political party an focuses on the upcoming that election presidential platform of the statement A broad and program philosophy under which a party’s runcandidates for election

11 In August 2016, LIbertarian candidate GaryIn August 2016, LIbertarian approachto began numbers poll Johnson’s the 15 percent threshold necessary to make him the first third-party candidate since Ross Perot in 1992 to participate in broadcast presidential debates. Ultimately, Johnson’s numbers fell short, and he was excluded from the fall debates. (Wikimedia Commons) (a statement government. percent 1 platform In 2016, faced with a choice In 2016, faced with political party. It consists of the people the of consists It party. political the is the party narrowly construed and that which most , which meets prior to the presidential election every four A Complex Party Structure national convention formal party organization formal The formal structure of American parties parallels the structure of federalism. is not a single organization but rather a broada rather but organization single a not is party political American An and informal groupings. It is complex,family of related formal organizations to understand, but in that it is madenot in the sense that it is particularly hard the most useful way to think about allup of many different parts. Perhaps them is to imagine the party as being dividedthese parts and the relationships between corresponding to the levels of governmentalong two dimensions: a vertical dimension dimension corresponding to the different compo- in the United States and a horizontal nents that make up a party. Parties and Their Components: Formal, Electoral, and Governmental organiza- Even at any one level of government, a political party is not just a single the formal tion. Rather, it has at least three distinguishable sectors or components: the in party and the electorate, in the party the organization, party Because party organizations tend to develop and operate around institutions of govern- Because party organizations tend to develop tends to parallel that of government. One ofment, it is only natural that their structure in the United States is the federal system.the most important divisions of government into national, state, and local institutions,Just as the American government is divided state, and local organizations and groupings. Asso also are parties divided into national, the levels is not a strictly hierarchical one;in the government, the relationship among each level retains some level of independence and autonomy from the others. The Parties and the Levels of Government: National, State, and Local Parties and the Levels of Government: between two very unpopular major party candidates, about 5 percent of unpopular major party candidates, between two very Gary Johnson led minor party candidates. Libertarian the vote went to Party candidate 3.3 percent of the vote, and Green the way with about other minor parties about 1 percent, with write-ins and Jill Stein received making up the remainder. 7.4b of the popular vote went to minor party candidates in 2004. This trend in 2004. minor party candidates vote went to of the popular the between contrasts many the Given 2012. and 2008 into continued Democratic and voters largely stuck with the two major party candidates, percent than 1 more providing 2012, not in 2008 and choices Republican third-party candidate. of the vote for any lesson Americans took away from that election, though, may have been may have though, that election, away from took Americans lesson presidential a close during party candidate a minor vote for is risky to that it president Republican backed the incumbent Pat Buchanan race. In 2004, to go Nader, choosing to nominate Ralph Party refused and the Green where the only in states vowed to campaign a candidate who instead with than less Ultimately, close. be to expected not was outcome people would think of if asked to define to asked if of think would people volunteers, or professionals followers, or leaders as party the for work actually who and members of committees or attendees of meetings. lies with thePower is vested at both the national and state levels. Ultimate authority party’s years. Because political parties exist to contest elections, most of what the conventionyears. Because political parties exist to contest elections, most of what the does is related to the upcoming presidential campaign: writing a of the party’s proposed program) and selecting the party’s candidates for president andof the party’s proposed program) and selecting the party’s candidates for president vice president. These activities are discussed in more detail in Chapter 8. Introduction to American Government 212 identify with apoliticalparty throughout who thecountry The individualcitizens party intheelectorate ongoing basis organization onan party guiding astate political The body responsible for state committee its opponents anddeny themto supporters (jobs, contracts, etc.) toits togivebenefits authority use ofitsgovernmental through the membership andcontrols its recruits Political organization that political machine basis organization onan ongoing guiding politicalparty The body responsible for national committee [voting] recordofpartysupport.” ment toaparty,”independent of“legalrecognitionorevenwithoutaconsistent is partyidentification,“apsychologicalidentification” or“senseofindividualattach- individual level,thedefiningcomponentofconnection ofanindividualtoaparty shows howthe distributionofpartyidentification hasvariedoverthe lastfiftyyears. by people who claim to think of themselves as belonging to the party. questions aboutstrengthof feeling.Thus,thepartyinelectorateisreallydefined selves asRepublicans,Democrats, Independents,andsoon,followingupwith has typicallybeenmeasured simplybyaskingpeoplewhethertheythinkofthem - often duetotheinfluenceofstateandlocal“politicalmachines.”A Party. Afterthe2016election,PresidentTrumpnamedPriebushischiefofstaff. was led by Reince Priebus, an attorney and former chair of the Wisconsin Republican temporarily byDonnaBrazile,aformercampaignmanager.TheRepublicanParty neutral untiltheparty’svotershavedecidedontheircandidate.Schultzwasreplaced attempted todiscreditBernieSanders’campaign.Apartychair’sroleisremain support forcandidateHillaryClintonand emails indicatedthatshehadactivelysought Democrats’ nationalconventionafterleaked from Florida. Wasserman Schultz,amemberofCongress Democratic PartychairpersonwasDebbie From 2011 until the end of July 2016, the recent years, for reasonstobeseenshortly. a rolethathasbecomemoresignificantin supervises theworkofheadquarterstaff, committee, in turn, formally elects the party chairperson. The national chairperson usually pickedbystatepartyorganizationsinconventionsorprimaries.Thenational affairs onanongoingbasis.Eachstate’smembersthenationalcommitteeare designates the The convention is the ultimate authority in setting the party’s rules; and it formally the nationalpartieswithstatepartyconventions and municipalities andsomestates. although theuseofpublicpowertoperpetuatepartisandominancelivesoninmany urban politicalmachines,inlargepart,havefadedfromtheAmericanscene, the machinebyvotingforitscandidatesandcampaigningmachine.Thegreat jobs, governmentcontracts,and“favors.”Togainbenefits,peoplehadtosupport from itsopponents.Thispatronageincludesbenefitssuchasobtaininggovernment of itsgovernmentalauthoritytobestowbenefitsonsupportersandwithholdthem is a political organization that recruits and controls its membership through the use support it.This in anyformalsensebutpsychologicallyandsocially,the citizensintheelectoratewho structure ismoribund,withmanyofthepositionsnot evenfilled. locales thisorganizationconstitutesaformidablepolitical force,whileelsewherethe county, city, ward(or district), and precinct committees and chairpersons. In some ations oftheparty.Underlyingstatewideparty organization isahierarchyof party typicallyelectsastatechairperson,whoisinchargeoftheday-to-dayoper- made upofrepresentativesfromthestate’scountiesorcongressionaldistricts.The For years,stateandlocalpartieswerethebedrockofAmericanpartysystem, Some oftheconvention’sactivitieshaveamorestrictlyorganizationalslant. The structureofthestateandlocalpartiesis,inmanyrespects,similartothat There ismoretoapartythanjustitsformalorganization. Apartyincludes,not Schultz resignedjustprior to the national committee party intheelectorate 12 , thepermanentbodythatoverseesparty’s Appropriatetothedefinition, partyidentification canbeviewedintwodifferentways.Atthe W http://www.bvtlab.com/BH8T9 this question. starting pointforanswering Group’s websiteisagood The PublicInterestResearch state committees public inyourstate? issuesaffectthehat political machine thatareusually Figure 7.4

213 Chapter 07 Interest Groups and Political Parties

2016 2012

the party as embodied 2008

coalition A subgroup of a party, based on common social, and religious economic, characteristics party in the government components One of the three or sectors of a political party: in those of its members been elected or who have office, appointed to public they the organizations and the leaders establish, choosethey to help them carry out their work

4

0 20

.

0 200 coalition

Republican 1996

2 99

1 1988

Independent 1984

. Once a party’s candidates are

1980

1976 Democrat

2 197

Party Identification of the American Party Identification Electorate, 1960–2016 1968 party in the government |

1964

13

0 196

0 40 30 20 10 60 50

cent Per Figure 7.4 Figure in party identification from the 1960s into the 1970s, but Republican The Democratic Party held a substantial edge that edge. Today, Democrats maintain the advantage over Republicans, resurgence beginning in the 1980s eroded than with either party. but more Americans identify as Independents The Gallup Organization, 2016. SOURCE: American National Election Studies, 2006; Finally, there is the Individuals who identify with a party relate to it, not just as individuals, but also but also as individuals, just to it, not relate a party with identify who Individuals elected, the elected officials (at least in theory) need to organize themselves and work elected, the elected officials (at least in theory) need to organize themselves Thus, together to implement the policies on the basis of which they campaigned. party—president, a of candidates elected the of consists government in party the city council governors, mayors, senators, members of the House, state legislators, leaders they members—as well as the organizations these officials establish and the the legisla- designate to help carry out their work. The most visible of these are as the tive party meetings (caucuses, as the Democrats call them, and conferences, and the majority campaign committees, call them), the congressional Republicans however, and minority leaders and whips. The party in government also includes, the less visible and informal executive party created by the president and governors and who tend to appoint members of their own party to administrative positions, even the shadowy judicial party suggested by patterns of party-oriented bloc voting in some courts. as members of the various groups to which they belong. Parties, in other words, can words, in other Parties, they belong. to which groups various the of as members groups. religious and regional, economic, social, various of the coalitions seen as be the working class, as the party of the traditionally seen Party was The Democratic has Party whereas the Republican and Catholics, southern constituents, rural and Protestants. These big businesses, and upper classes, as the party of the been seen have reshaped as new political battles in recent years have changed relationships to large appeal on their must rely parties that both remains fact the lines, but party the party in the electorate to maintain their appeal. Thus, groups of the electorate to the party’s groups that are thought of as belonging also includes these Introduction to American Government 214 reasonably stable political issuesremains setofimportant particular basedona political parties for ofsupport pattern the Period which during party system the worldtoday.(iStock) Founded inthemid-1820s,U.S.DemocraticPartyisstillactive,making ittheoldestin Andrew Jackson,asdepictedontheU.S.$20bill,wasfounderofDemocraticParty. existed ever since. American history up through 1968 can be divided into six major Political parties emerged early in the history of the American republic and have party systems 7.5a the historyofAmericanpartysystem. party systemandwhatitsfuturemaybe,itisnecessarytounderstandalittleabout ical subjectsoverthepastfiftyyears.TounderstandcurrentstateofAmerican The healthoftheAmericanpartysystemhasbeenonemosttalked-aboutpolit- protection ofcommon people’sinterests. fostered progressiveandpopulist sentimentformoreregulationofbigbusinessand Republicans for the favor of business. The pro-business tilt of the the Democratsreemerged on thenationalscenetocompetevigorouslywith the Confederacy duringtheCivil War.Afterthewarandrestorationofunion, of governmentasapromoter ofcommerce.TheDemocraticPartyrecededinto the form thenewRepublicanParty,builtonoppositionto slaveryandalsoontheidea the DemocraticParty,whichcontinuesasanactivepartytoday,makingitoldest to fallapart.AndrewJacksonemergedfromthisfactionalconflictasthefounderof 1815 and1825,calledtheEraofGoodFeelings. to governthroughaperiodofcomparativelylittlenationalpoliticalconflictbetween the Democratic Republicans, as theAntifederalists came tobecalled, continued on democratic (the Antifederalistview). The Federalist Party fadedaway after 1800;but should be relatively centralized and elite (the Federalist view) or decentralized and Antifederalists. Thetwopartiesdisagreedprimarilyonwhetherthenewgovernment the period(conservativeToriesandprogressiveWhigs),pittedFederalistsagainst from thepre-Revolutionary alignment ofpartiesparallelingtheBritishsystem 7.5 By themid-1820s,weakframeworkofDemocraticRepublicanPartybegan Parties Past Past, Present, andFuture American Political Parties: (seeFigure7.3).Thefirstpartysystem(1789–1824),whichdeveloped remnants of the northern Democrats to remnants ofthenorthernDemocratsto Illinois, combinedwithsomeprogressive Whigs, ledbyAbrahamLincolnof party system(1860–1896),former tear apartthenationaswell. branches overtheissuethatwouldsoon parties splitintonorthernandsouthern alignment; throughthe1850s,both destroyed theWhig-Democraticparty business and political reform. Slavery whereas theWhigswerepartyof and old-fashionedmachinepolitics, class ruralandurban“workingpeople” Democrats werethepartyoflower- second partysystem(1824–1860).The confronted anewWhigpartyinthe party intheworld.TheDemocrats Beginning in1860,underthethird- system third-party system 215 Chapter 07 Interest Groups and Political Parties realignment A major change in the pattern of support for political parties and the important issues on which patternthat of support is based dealignment duringPeriod which the partisan ties of the public diminish and the party down system breaks

. Why do realignments system, andsystem, third-party dealign occurs when a reasonably stable pattern of party support, based on a occurs when a reasonably stable pattern in the mid-1960s, the fifth party system began to falter. This was most in the mid-1960s, the fifth party system began to falter. This was most Parties Present That exception alone set political analysts abuzz. Dealignment was clearly Dealignment was analysts abuzz. That exception alone set political Certainly, beginning in the 1960s, both parties were beset by signs of deterioration. These sentiments, fired by a series of disastrous recessions and depressions, came came and depressions, recessions of disastrous by a series fired sentiments, These the result of the lack of Great Depression in 1929, in part The onset of the and 1932—a new party system evolvedIn each of these years—1824, 1860, 1896, Beginning began Party, whose long-standing dominance Democratic in the woes of the evident thirty-six to unravel. Consistent with the pattern of a major partisan shift every election years, the Democratic Party, which had won the White House in every of nine over the thirty-six years from 1932 to 1968 except 1952 and 1956—seven win only elections—lost the 1968 election; and over the next twenty years it would manage, did they that was Democrats the for spot bright only The more. five of one the period; mostly, to hold on to their majorities in the House and Senate throughout to 1987, the one exception being the Republican’s majority in the Senate from 1981 which primarily was a result of Ronald Reagan’s victory in 1980. in the underway. While some saw realignment into a new Republican majority more funda- offing, others worried that the party system was confronting an even mental crisis—the possibility of complete collapse. and theAt the national level, the national party headquarters, the national chairperson, politicsnational committee seemed increasingly irrelevant to the course of American 7.5b Realignment of 1896, when the populist Democrat William William Democrat the populist when of 1896, election presidential in the to a head Republican business establishment, the candidate of the Bryan challenged Jennings of beginning the marked challenge of the populist failure The McKinley. William dominated the Republicans which throughout (1896–1932), system party fourth the rein. Only when capitalist system free and allowed the political scene the national split Moose Party progressive Bull Roosevelt’s Teddy President former Republican candidate, Woodrow Wilson, the Democrats able to put their Republican ranks were from 1912 to 1920. into the White House Republican President Herbert the free enterprise system, drove restraint placed on into the White House in 1932 swept Franklin Delano Roosevelt Hoover from office. bold effort to use the power of national discontent and despair. In a on a flood tide of prosperity, he to end the Depression and restore economic the federal government economic affairs and govern- era of governmental involvement in ushered in a new FDR also initiated a for ensuring the people’s basic well-being. ment responsibility constituted the fifth party system (1932–1968). period of Democratic dominance that period of turmoil and change called realignment. from an old one in a relatively short particular set of important political issues, is replaced by a new pattern of party supportparty of a new pattern by replaced is issues, political important of set particular realignments are such landmark events in thebased on a new set of issues. Because and devoted much effort to determining when American party system, scholars have a number of significant changes that seem why they occur. They have identified to of which is the period before each realignmentaccompany realignment, most notable to fall apart, or in which the old party structure seems occur? As the preceding discussion suggests, the single most important factor may beoccur? As the preceding discussion suggests, cuts across the existing party lines and dividesthe emergence of some new issue that the in slavery example, way—for new some in electorate the federal government in the economy in the fifththe Great Depression and the role of the have tended to come at approximatelyparty system. Also, quite clearly, realignments thirty-six-year intervals. Introduction to American Government 216 disappear and may, perhaps, eventually are collapsing political parties The ideathat the American decline Ronald Reagan’spresidentialinauguration,1981(WikimediaCommons) were oftenatoddsonlegislation. legislative branchsufferedaspresidentsandmembers of theirownpartyinCongress were, thus,less abletomarshalpolitical support. under civilservice,politicians foundthemselveswithfewer“goodies”togiveoutand pushed for the establishment of a system of civil service. As more public jobs fell power ofthebossesandincreasing thecompetenceandintegrityofpublicemployees bargaining chipstouseinthe gameofpolitics,butreformersintentonreducing the one of the traditional reservoirs of party strength. It provided party leaders with of Americanpoliticalpartiessincethemid-1960s.As notedearlier,patronagewas and socialization changes seem to have contributed to the deteriorating condition interest groupsdictated. help ingettingreelectedincreasinglybrokepartyranks whenlocalneedsorspecial pline seemedtosagintheCongress,asmembersless dependentonthepartyfor and 1980saspartydisciplinecoordinationseemed todeteriorate.Partydisci- too smalltohavemuchofafutureaswinningcoalitionfortheparty. looking moreandlikethepartyofliberalsAfricanAmericans—twogroups Southerners were drawn away in the Reagan landslide and left the Democratic Party tion fellintodisarray,asworking-classpeople,CatholicsandsomeJews,white the suburbs.Clearlythrough1970sandpeakingin1980,Democraticcoali- Party wasleftasthepartyofupperclass,bigbusiness,andpeopleresidingin South, Catholics,Jews,andliberals,butalsoAfricanAmericans.TheRepublican Deal coalitionoftheworkingclass,unions,poor,urbanresidents,citizens slide, theDemocratic Party hadexpandedtoencompassnotjusttheRoosevelt New Democratic coalition,seemedtobecomingapart.AtitspeakintheJohnsonland- party coalitions.Thecoalitions that had supported the majorparties, particularly the according totheirpartyidentification. parties, voterswerealsolesslikelytoseethepartiesinfavorabletermsandvote said theywereIndependents.Notonlypeoplelesslikelytoidentifywiththe only about60percentsaidthattheyidentifiedwithaparty,andmorethanthird What causedthepartiestogointo The partiesingovernmentalsosufferedtheirowndifficultiesthroughthe1970s Trouble loomed,aswell,fortheotheraspectofpartyinelectorate, 15 Partycoordinationbetweentheexecutivebranchand the decline weaken substantially. By the late 1970s 1964, attachmentstopartiesstarted as Independents.Beginningabout than 25percentdescribedthemselves or theotherof the partiesandless identified stronglyorweaklywithone of theAmericanpeoplesaidthatthey the early1960s,morethan75percent showed signs of weakening. Through mass baseofthepoliticalparties,also The NationalPartyCommittees.” up theirplight,“PoliticsWithoutPower: study publishedin1964seemedtosum once every four years. The title of a organize thenational party convention Their principalfunctionseemedtobe and topoliticalcampaigns,specifically. ? Anumberofgovernmental,electoral, The party in the electorate, the 14 217 Chapter 07 Interest Groups and Political Parties caucus A meeting of members of a political party or the members of a party in a legislature—also referred in some to as a party caucus; used to select delegates states conventions, to the national which presidential nominate candidates Delegates at the Republican National Convention in Cleveland, on July 21, 2016. Delegates at the Republican National Convention in Cleveland, on July 21, 2016. (Wikimedia Commons) (meetings) or conventions Party leaders got together in caucuses Another governmental change that hurt the parties was the rise of the public the public rise of was the the parties that hurt change governmental Another parties, as well. In earlier an important part in hurting the Electoral changes played important sources of campaign funds forTraditionally, parties have also been Parties long existed as standinglong existed Parties welfare system. The parties of earlier years built support by serving as a kind of as a by serving support built earlier years of The parties system. welfare member in financial A faithful party their supporters. welfare system for informal - from the neighbor food, or shelter the form of money, seek help in trouble could rise of the modern the party. With the came to owe organization. People hood party of a minimal level began to ensure itself formally the government welfare system, role as a source party lost its exclusive Consequently, the among citizens. well-being to put people in its debt. of help and its ability apparatus of the United were an essential part of the electoral years, political parties an army of workers to fan to the electorate, a candidate needed States. To get a message on doors, handing out passersby, knocking out over the constituency—buttonholing provides less labor-intensive twisting arms. Modern technology party literature, and andprograms news television on appearances of string a with Nowadays, alternatives. frequent and seemingly more a candidate can make more in campaign advertisements, army of party workers on thewith far more voters than could an “personal” contact and emailing techniques and smart use of socialstreets. Computerized direct mailing yield large sums of money, which can be used tomedia like Facebook and Twitter can more mail, which can generate more money,buy more television time and send out longer need to rely as much on parties and partyand so on. Simply put, candidates no with the public.workers to serve as their intermediaries of Congress benefit from the support oftheir candidates. Today, however, members can rely on public financing. Access to thesethe PACs, and presidential candidates less dependent on parties for help andnew sources of money has made candidates era,earlier an Also, in parties. of the weakening the to contributed has, consequently, byparties tightly controlled the process werewhich candidates for public office selected. party to pick the party’s candidates. However, uppolitical reformers fought to open athe nomination process to represent broader cross section of the population, leading to selection of convention orconventions open by delegates primary elections. armies of campaign workers, ready to step into political battle on behalf of the party candidates. Now, more and more candidates are relying not on the party machinery but on their own personal to capitalizeorganizations for campaign assistance. Although candidates obviously want in office,on their party’s name, many run without the aid of the party machinery. Once also pose athey are likely to feel little obligation to help the party. Single-issue groups off precious campaignsiphon to threatening party system by existing to the challenge prominentresources and public support. The antiabortion movement is perhaps the most recent example. Introduction to American Government 218 strength electoral, andgovernmental gaining inorganizational, now makingacomeback, 1960s totheearly 1980s, are ofdeclinefrom the period political parties, following a The ideathat American resurgence of dividedgovernment—Republican domination ofthepresidency andDemocratic Democratic dominance towhatseemed tobeasixthpartysystem startingin1968 sort of realignment took place in the transition from the fifth party system’s clear in the 1992 presidential election did not make the task any easier. Certainly some American partysystemisnow,muchlesswhere itisgoing.TheDemocrats’victory Realignment, dealignment, andresurgence—itishardenoughtosaywhere the so theysharepollingresultsandsocialmediastrategies andtechnologies. campaigns. Theyknowthatcandidateswanttousepolling resultsandsocialmedia, candidates with the training and production services that they need to conduct such how candidatesmustrelyonamodernmediacampaign andhavemovedtoprovide of politicalmoney,ineffectnotfightingthePACsbut joiningthem.Theyhaveseen more onmoneyandthemedia.Thus,theyhavemoved tobecomeamajorsource campaigns dependlessonarmiesofpartyvolunteerstramping fromdoortoand their activitiesaccordingly.Forexample,theyhaverecognized thatmodernpolitical recognized thechangingenvironmentofAmericanpoliticalsystemandadjusted on thesidelinesandallowingthemselvestobekeptoutofgame,haveatlast Party hasgainedsubstantiallyamongworking-classwhitesandintheSouth. a newconstituencyinfemaleandracialethnicminorityvoters.TheRepublican white Southandsomeworking-classCatholicunionsupport,butithasgained somewhat differentlines.TheDemocraticPartyhassufferedfromthelossof reversed. Thereisalsosomeevidencethatthepartycoalitionsarereformingalong parties, the trend against them has at least been arrested, perhaps even slightly conduct directmailandemailcampaigns,raisemoney. These staffemploymoderndatatechnologytogatherandanalyzepollingresults, a day-to-daybasisbyanincreasinglyprofessional,sophisticated,andwell-paidstaff. national partyheadquarterssupervisedbythechairpersonandoperatedon party organizationshasbeenwithinthenationalorganizations,particularly evidence ofthepartiesin Persistence of theTwo-Party System in the a comeback.LedbyXandraKaydenandEddieMaheJr.’sThePartyGoesOn: currency, anewgroupofcommentatorsrosetoarguethatthepartiesweremaking happen ifthepartieswerenotaroundtoperformthem. Think of all the valuable functions parties perform, and then think about what might pearance ofpoliticalpartiesmightimpairthefunctioningourdemocraticsystem. ment leadingtowardcollapse.Thedeeperconcernwasthattheweakeningordisap- whether whatwasoccurringdealignmentleadingtowardrealignmentordealign- dwindled andtheranksofIndependentsswelled. ment inthenext.Thus,itisnothardtounderstandwhyranksofpartyfaithful cult Carteryears.Partydisenchantmentinonegenerationsowspartydisenchant- Watergate scandal, and the Democratic Party suffered from the economically diffi- the VietnamWartarnishedbothparties,RepublicanPartywasscarredby adopting thesamepartyastheirparentsdroppedbyabout15percent.Expansionof in recentyears.Betweenthe1950sand1970s,percentageofyoungpeople tion by their parents, but that process of transmission has appeared to break down 7.5c The primaryreasonforpartyresurgenceisthattheparties,insteadofstanding Although theAmericanpublichasnotfloodedbacktoembracepolitical Just astheideathatpartiesweredeadordyingbegantogainwidespread Many ofthesechangeswereviewedwithconcern;analystsnotclear Finally, most people acquire their sense of party identification through socializa- Parties Future resurgence . Themajorcenterofrevitalizationintheformal United States, 16 a number of new studies found 219 Chapter 07 Interest Groups and Political Parties

Lab www.BVTLab.com. BVT available are Flashcards atfor this chapter the 2004 Is this “party” more like a political 17 The 2008 campaign was another important moment for the two political parties.The 2008 campaign was another important and partly in reaction to “big government”Partly as a result of the 2008 election, At first, the 2000 election looked to be another opportunity for realignment as election looked to be another opportunity At first, the 2000 party, or more like an interest group? Thus far, they have campaigned on behalf of (or of behalf on campaigned have they far, Thus group? interest an like more or party, Officially,against) particular candidates, but have not sought recognition on the ballot. the Tea Party remains nonpartisan, but whether it will emerge as a third party in the helped thefuture remains to be seen. In any event, the movement’s priorities likely movementThe 2010. in Representatives majority in the House of Republicans gain a was not well-represented by either candidate in the 2012 presidential election—where play a rolePresident Obama handily defeated Mitt Romney. Tea Party adherents did some of thein securing some Republican seats in the 2014 midterm elections, but that likelyRepublican primary candidates they supported held extreme positions worked to the advantage of the Democrats in other districts. Those losses were the beginning of the end for what turned out to be a fairly short-lived movement. election was seen by many as a potential turning point. Republican victory would solidifyelection was seen by many as a potential while a Democratic victory in the presidential racearguments for the party’s resurgence, Although the campaign was neck and neckcould spell a return to divided government. emerged victorious, winning the presidency andup to the very end, the Republican Party and Senate. The year 2006 spelled a reversalstrengthening majorities in both the House regaining the majority in both the Houseof fortune for the Republicans with Democrats years. The Democratic victory created anotherand the Senate for the first time in a dozen calling into question the future direction andperiod of divided government, once again momentum of American political parties. a wave of dissatisfac- rode to victory on Party the Democratic Barack Obama and support from new voters and younger voters,tion with a faltering economy. Gaining in four decades; and the Democrats gained seatsturnout was the highest it had been as claiming a decisive victory in the presidentialin both the House and Senate, as well success was in maintaining at least fortyrace. The Republican Party’s only modest make a viable filibuster threat. Senate seats—the number required to “teaproposals to stimulate a stalled economy, a movement adopting the moniker Patriotsparty” emerged in 2009. By mid-2010, an organization called the Tea Party memberscould boast of hundreds of local chapters and over one hundred thousand consti- as fiscal responsibility, its core values identifies organization The nationwide. tutionally limited government, and free markets. domination of Congress. Was 1992 a return to Democratic dominance? Events since Events dominance? to Democratic a return Was 1992 Congress. of domination very much were still we in 1992, victory Bill Clinton’s that, despite suggest 1992 until only lasted governance Democratic United government. divided of era the in the in both Party won majorities when the Republican midterm elections the 1994 were years in office 1996; his last six won reelection in Senate. Clinton House and although this government pattern, era’s divided of the dealignment a continuation Congress. and Republican a Democratic president time with for the first time since the unified control of the government the Republicans gained to lead a united Congress, George W. Bush’s opportunity Eisenhower administration. After the election, the Senate shorter-lived than Clinton’s had been. however, was even The Republicans main- with fifty Democrats and fifty Republicans. stood evenly divided, Cheney, in his role as president majority because Vice President Dick tained a procedural third-term a Jeffords, Jim however, 2001, May In votes. tie any break could Senate, the of . This action left the Republican Party and became an independent senator from Vermont, returned the nation to divided with a fifty to forty-nine majority and provided Democrats in 2002, so party government. The Republicans reestablished their majority Introduction to American Government 220 National ConventiononPhiladelphia,July25,2016(Shutterstock) Bernie SanderssupportersonthestreetsofPhiladelphiaduringfirstdayDemocratic today, butpartiesnevertheless—willadaptagain. past experience,however,suggeststhatparties—perhaps not exactly asweknowthem circumstances hardlyenvisionedinthischaptermayoccurandlaythepartieslowagain; fully, buteventuallyandsufficiently.Unforeseensocial andpoliticalchangesinvolving to adaptchangingcircumstances—notalwaysquickly, notalwaysentirelysuccess- is usefulwhencontemplatingtheirfuture:Theparties havedemonstratedanability episode ofdecline and resurgence, though, doesteachussomething aboutparties that change andaffecttheparties,eitherstrengtheningor weakeningthem.Therecent is nosignthatsuchchangesareontheimmediatehorizon. wither awayonlyifthemediaandmoneysomehowbecamelessimportant,butthere campaign money.Itwouldmakesensetothinkthattheorganizationsagain in response to the rise of the modern media campaign and the increased demand for in theoffing.Similarly,resurgenceofnationalpartyorganizationsoccurred toward decentralizationunlessthegovernmentdoes—andthatdoesnotappeartobe central partyorganizations.Itmakeslittlesensetothinkthatpartieswillmoveagain parties, althoughslowtoreact,havenowadaptedthatnewrealitywithstronger United Stateswasdecentralized.Politicalpowerhasbecomemorecentralized;and of American history, political parties were decentralized because political power in the comeback probablyrepresentsabroaderandmorepermanentchange.Throughmuch VT)—who had spent years as an independent and identified as a socialist—pointed to a VT)—who hadspentyearsasanindependentandidentifiedasocialist—pointedto Democratic side,thenearlysuccessfulprimarycampaignofSenatorBernieSanders(I– seemed toepitomizethepowerofindividualcandidatesinaweakpartysystem.On ties tothepartyanditsplatform—insecuringRepublicanpresidentialnomination years tocome.ThesuccessofDonaldTrump—apoliticaloutsiderwhohadveryweak Of course, this analysis does not take into account the many other factors that might Of course,thisanalysisdoesnottakeintoaccountthemanyotherfactorsthatmight The impact of the 2016 elections on both political parties will likely be debated for The impactofthe2016electionsonbothpoliticalpartieswilllikelybedebatedfor on its last and thatthetwo-partysystemisreally system? Somecriticsthinkthatitis parties justthelastgaspofadying party apparatustosupportthem. charge, buttheyneedawell-organized backed him.Individualsmayleadthe of Republicansintheelectoratehadnot party structure and a large percentage emerged the victor if the Republican the WhiteHouse,hewouldnothave called theshotsduringhiscampaignfor necessity ofparty.ThoughTrumpclearly power of individual candidates and the victory servedtohighlightboththe similar partyweakness.DonaldTrump’s Is the recent resurgence of the Is therecentresurgenceof legs; 18 however, the parties’ however, the parties’ 221 Chapter 07 Interest Groups and Political Parties The role that interest groups play in a demo- in a groups play interest that The role pervasive. as it is as controversial society is cratic groups theoryPluralistic working interest as sees citizens of individual the deficiencies to overcome and to perpetuate a functioning democracy. groups failingas see interest Other perspectives the public interests, members’ to serve their own both. or interest, parties political try to influence In a democracy, backing policy memberspublic by as candidates In the course of offices. in elections to public getting their members office, elected to public political partiesperform a number of impor- tant functions for the system of government: pulling together the diverse socializing citizens, simplifying the contending in a society, interests structuring the voters, alternatives confronting recruiting and training campaigns and elections, coordinating and organizing and leaders, political government. American party system is a two-party The due primarily to the plurality probably system, Unitedthe in used commonly system election centrist and the generally distribution ofStates partiesThe char are - America. in beliefs political among loose relationship acterized a relatively by their component parts—divided into national, into formal and party one level and local at state, and the the party in the electorate, organization, party level. another at in the government 4. 5. 6. Groups are an essential element in the functioning an essential are Groups group’s A American system. democratic of the the size, depends on its effectiveness political - prox its identification, of its members’ strength and its its internal organization, imity to politics, societal consensus. closeness to the broader of politically groups in a wide array Interest engage on their their views press They activities. relevant and the polit- public, the general membership, own judicialand executive, legislative, the of elites ical of One of their most potent weapons branches. action committee (PAC). has been the political late Some of the major group participants in the on different American based are political process such as the based groups, economically interests: and States Chamber of Commerce of the United such as the based groups, socially AFL-CIO; the and (NOW) Women for Organization National of Advancement for the Association the National ideological groups, (NAACP); People Colored Americans for Democratic such as the liberal such right-the as groups, single-issue Action; and public to-life and pro-choice movements; the such as Common Cause, groups, interest lobby.” “citizens’ IEW REV ER APT CH 1. 2. 3. Introduction to American Government 222 Key Terms melting pot election majority lobbying triangle iron groups interest elitism group interest lobbying roots grass . functions governmental organization party formal Act Campaign Election Federal functions electoral mail direct decline dealignment cleavage cross-cutting coalition suit action class Right Christian caucus curiaeamicus brief ...... 192 208 197 197 192 204 198 207 211 196 206 195 216 215 204 213 198 202 217 198 third party third committee state . functions socialization election run-off resurgence realignment representation proportional political party machine political (PAC) committee action political election plurality democracy pluralist platform system party government in the party . in electorate the party national convention committee national movement ...... 209 212 206 208 218 215 209 206 212 195 208 192 211 214 213 212 211 212 193 223 Chapter 07 Interest Groups and Political Parties - - (New Routledge, (Lanham, MD: Rowman ed. (New York: (New York: ed. th Marjorie Randon Hershey’s ed. th 7 ,16 , the most recent party the recent most groupand interest ed. (New York: Longman, 2009). (New Theodore York: ed. UnderstandingAmerican Parties Political nd , 2 York: Routledge, 2012) provides a contemporary look look contemporary a provides 2012) Routledge, York: theirat strategic choices. the of changing Good overviews American of role eds., parties are and John Daniel Green Coffey, C. J. Parties The the State of Political Parties Matter: Realign Matter: Parties Political Jeffrey M. Stonecash’s (Boulder, CO: CO: (Boulder, Return the ment Voting and Partisan of 2005) a offers LynneRienner, historicalperspective theon parties, realignment, centering of the on notion andhis & Littlefield, 2014), and America in Politics Party J. Lowi and Joseph Romance debate the fundamentals Lowi debate Romance J. and Joseph a two-partyof (Lanham, Parties? in of system A Republic MD:1998). Rowman Littlefield, & 2014). WilliamsonTheda and Skocpol Vanessa an give a account of phenomenon Repub Remakingof the and Party in The Tea (New York: Oxford, 2013). Oxford, (New Conservatism York: lican the account of futureA good political of parties is LarryJust Sabato and Bruce J. Larson, The Party’s Begun

- ? - - ed. ed. th th 9 , 5 , ). Public Policy Press, Public Policy for Further Study Further for Interest Group Politics Group Interest No. 10 remains 10 mandatory No. Berkeley, CA: (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, Yale CT: (New Haven, ed. nd (New York: Crowell, 1964). Crowell, (New York: reading for anyone interested in of interested exploring thereading role anyone for ingroups American political life. study is classic, The yet modern, A more Govern ( mental Process Truman. David by 1993) in are groups important theInterest pluralist elements A. DahlRobert American on perspective democracy. in Who clearly that most sets perspective out Governs 2 s ing ad Re Federalist James Madison’s (Washington, CQ Press, 2015 DC: As a central American feature of parties politics, are the written-about all of most of one American political a classic descrip provides Jr. Key O. institutions. V. thatparties thein of tion role the play American polit Groups Pressure and Parties, ical in system Politics, 2005). Another important is and Allan work Cigler J. Burdett A. Loomis, eds., Introduction to American Government 224 10. 9. 8. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. Notes

V. O. Key Jr., (September 5, 1992): 1998–2003. Rauch,Jonathan “Demosclerosis,” Journal J.Robert Samuelson, “Interest Group Gridlock,” National (New Haven,CT:YaleUniversityPress,1961). Dahl. See,forexample,hisclassicbookWhoGoverns? The leadingadvocateofthispointviewisRobertA. thedataweb.rm.census.gov/ (July 5, 2016). U.S. CensusBureau, Statistical Abstract oftheUnitedStates, 2012. Citizens Unitedv. FEC, 558U.S. 50(2010). for Over $700,000,” December28, 2015. NPR.org, “How ClintonCould Hillary Ask aSingleDonor 572 U.S. ___(2014). 1960), pp. 295–332. Voter American and DonaldE. Stokes, The in Angus Campbell, PhilipE. Converse, Warren E. Miller, from influencesinpolitics theseminaldiscussionofgroup The ideasinthissectionandthenextare drawn inpart York: Crowell, 1964), p. 656. (September 25, 1982): 1642.

Politics, Parties, andPressure Groups,5 “Voting andRegistration,” http:// (New York:Wiley, National Journal th ed. (New 11. 18. 17. 16. 15. 14. 13. 12.

Beck, system. See, forexample, FrankJ. SoraufandPaul Allen been widely adoptedby studentsofthe party American nated inhisPolitics, Parties, andPressure Groups. ofV.This distinctionisanotherlegacy O. Key Jr.,- origi Magazine Theodore Lowi, Times NewYork Crasher,”“The Party The aspx (June14, 2010). Values,” http://www.teapartypatriots.org/Mission. Tea Patriots, Party “Mission Statement and Core New York: BasicBooks, 1985. 326–345. House ofRepresentatives,” Journal ofPolitics(1976): 38 Voting: The Effectsofthe1960son Voting inthe Patterns Sinclair Deckard, “Political Upheaval andCongressional (Hinsdale, MN: Press, Dryden 1976), pp. 139–140; Barbara William J. Keefe, Parties, Politics, andPublic Policy in America Atherton, 1964). P.Cornelius C. CotterandBernard Hennessy(New York: Sorauf andBeck, Party Politics in ,America pp. 396–446. Voter American Campbell,, etal., pp. The 121–122. Foresman, 1988). Party Politics in , 6 America (August 23, 1992): 28–33. th ed. (Glenview, IL: Scott, (It has now ANSWERS: 1. iron triangle 2. melting pot 3. cross-cutting cleavage 4. socialization 5. Republican 6. T 7. T 8. F 9. F

10. F 11. A 12. C 13. B 14. A 15. C

political action committees action political D)

opinion leaders opinion C)

direct mail direct B)

anarchy D) the mass media mass the A)

realignment C) goals is/are ______. is/are goals

dealignment B) create public support or sympathy for their political political their for sympathy or support public create

The major means by which interest groups try to to try groups interest which by means major The 11. factionalization A)

change called ______. called change F T coalitions. new on based parties

a relatively short period of political turmoil and and turmoil political of period short relatively a groups has contributed to the resurgence of political political of resurgence the to contributed has groups

Each party system evolved from its predecessor in in predecessor its from evolved system party Each 15. The increase in the number of single-issue interest interest single-issue of number the in increase The 10.

cleavage D) F T system. political American

Third parties have had very little influence on the the on influence little very had have parties Third 9. elitism C)

anarchy B) F T Constitution. the of 4 Section

Political parties are formally sanctioned in Article III, III, Article in sanctioned formally are parties Political 8. gridlock A)

this is known as interest group ______. group interest as known is this F T 1980s. late the in ically

too many interest groups refusing to compromise, compromise, to refusing groups interest many too - dramat declined Right Christian the of influence The 7.

When a pluralistic system becomes paralyzed from from paralyzed becomes system pluralistic a When 14.

F T Commission.

poverty D) Most PACs are registered with the Federal Election Election Federal the with registered are PACs Most 6.

school prayer school C) Party.

abortion B) primarily benefited the ______the benefited primarily

The increase in party identification since 1978 has has 1978 since identification party in increase The 5. the Middle East conflict East Middle the A)

concerning religious groups has been ______. been has groups religious concerning political action. political

In recent years the most important political issue issue political important most the years recent In 13. parties is to educate citizens and mobilize them into into them mobilize and citizens educate to is parties

One of the ______functions of of functions ______the of One 4. ical candidates ical

- polit and PACs, representatives, group interest D) ______.

______called is issues different __ administrators

The tendency for different coalitions to form on on form to coalitions different for tendency The 3. interest group representatives, legislators, and and legislators, representatives, group interest C)

people of all races and nationalities. and races all of people Court

______society because it consists of of consists it because society ______Congress, the presidency, and the Supreme Supreme the and presidency, the Congress, B)

America has been known as the ______the as known been has America 2. judges

interest group representatives, legislators, and and legislators, representatives, group interest A) ______of American politics. American of ______

are sometimes called the ______the called sometimes are which of the following? the of which

Interest groups, legislators, and administrators administrators and legislators, groups, Interest 1. The iron triangle of American politics consists of of consists politics American of triangle iron The 12.

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