INFORMATION TO USERS
This manuscript has been reproduced from the microfilm master. UMI films the text directly from the original or copy submitted. Thus, some thesis and dissertation copies are in typewriter face, while others may be from any type of computer printer.
The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleedthrough, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely afreet reproduction.
In the unlikely event that the author did not send UMI a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion.
Oversize materials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are reproduced by sectioning the original, beginning at the upper left-hand corner and continuing from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. Each original is also photographed in one exposure and is included in reduced form at the back of the book.
Photographs included in the original manuscript have been reproduced xerographically in this copy. Higher quality 6" x 9” black and white photographic prints are available for any photographs or illustrations appearing in this copy for an additional charge. Contact UMI directly to order.
UMI University Microfilms International A Belt & Howell Information Company 300 Nortfi Zeeb Road. Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 USA 313/761-4700 800/521-0600
Order Number 9227404
A history of the American involvement in the development of modern physical education and sport in the Republic of Korea
Yeo, In-Sung, Ph.D.
The Ohio State University, 1992
UMI 300 N. Zeeb Rd. Ann Arbor, MI 48106
A HISTORY OF THE AMERICAN INVOLVEMENT IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT IN THE REPUBLIC OF KOREA
DISSERTATION
Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
the Degree Doctor of Philosophy In the Graduate
School of The Ohio State University
By
In-Sung Yeo, B.S., M.A.
*****
The Ohio State University
1992
Dissertation Committee: Approved
Dr. Seymour Kleinman
Dr. Melvin Adelman AdvTger Dr. Philip L. Smith School of Hea/th, Physical Education, and Recreation Copyright by In-Sung Yeo 1992 To My Parents
11 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to express my deepest gratitude to Dr.
Seymour Kleinman for his unlimited guidance and encouragement as well as his sincere and careful corrections of my English.
Without his kind guidance this study could not have been completed. I would like also to thank the other members of my committee, Dr. Melvin Adelman, and Dr. Philip Smith for their insightful suggestions and comments. My special appreciation is also extended to the professors at Yonsei University in
Korea who encouraged me during study in the United States.
Finally, I would like to acknowledge the encouragement and assistance of my parents.
Ill VITA
June 21, 1959 ------Born - Chuncheon, Kwangwondo, Korea.
1979 --1983 ------B.S., Yonsei University Seoul, Korea.
1985 --1987 ------M.A., Yonsei University Seoul, Korea.
1985 --1987 ------Graduate Teaching Associate, Department of Physical Education, Yonsei University, Seoul, Korea.
1987 - 1988 ------Instructor, Yonsei University Seoul, Korea.
1989 - 1992 ------Graduate Teaching Associate, School of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, The Ohio State University
FIELD OF STUDY
Major Field: School of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation
Studies in Philosophy of Physical Education, Movement Arts, and Somatics Professor Seymour Kleinman
Studies in Sport History. Professor Melvin Adelman
Studies in Social and Educational Philosophy. Professor Philip Smith
Studies in Eastern Philosophy Professor Richard T. Garner
IV TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION...... Ü
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS...... i ü
VITA ...... iv
LIST OF TABLES ...... vii
CHAPTER PAGE
I. INTRODUCTION...... 1
II. PHILOSOPHICAL AND CULTURAL FOUNDATIONS OF TRADITIONAL KOREAN PHYSICAL EDUCATION THOUGHT .... 6
Introduction ...... 6 Philosophical and cultural Background ...... 8 Buddhism and its characteristics of the mind-body concept ...... 11 Eastern martial arts and culture and its view of mind and b o d y ...... 22 S u m m a r y ...... 27
III. THE HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF KOREAN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT ...... 34
Introduction ...... 34 Feudalistic Periods prior to 1894...... 35 Attempts at Modernization: from the Gobo Reforms in 1894 to 19 1 0 ...... 46 Colonial Period from 1910 to 1945 ...... 52 The Independence Period from 1945 to the P r e s e n t ...... 58 S u m m a r y ...... 67
V CHAPTER PAGE
IV. THE MODERNIZATION OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT IN KOREA: THE AMERICAN I N F L U E N C E...... 74
Introduction ...... 74 The historical perspective ...... 76 The influence of Christianity and the American missionary ...... 78 The value of the Protestant Work Ethic . . 78 The public education in the new Christianity e r a ...... 83 The influence of the United States Army Military Government in Korea (USAMGIK) ...... 87 The New Education Movement ...... 88 Educational Reform ...... 94 The influence of Korean scholars who studied in the United States ...... 107 S u m m a r y ...... 118
V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS...... 126
S u m m a r y ...... 126 Conclusions...... 13 6
APPENDIX: QUESTIONNAIRE ...... 142
BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 145
VI LIST OF TABLES
TABLE PAGE
1. Class Hours and Content of Physical Education in Elementary Schools ...... 49
2. Class Hours and Content of Physical Education in Secondary Schools ...... 49
3. Class Hours and Content of Physical Education in Colleges of Education ...... 49
4. Introduction of Modern Sports into Korea ...... 51
5. The Sport Events by the Korean Sport Association...... 56
6. The Activity of the YMCA in 1 9 1 4 ...... 57
7. The Establishment of the Department of Physical Education in Colleges and Universities .. . 61
8. The Curriculum of Physical Education of Ewha University in 1948 ...... 62
9. The Events of the National Youth Sport To u r n a m e n t...... 64
10. Revised Korean Educational System...... 98
11. Enrollments and Faculties of Korean Schools (1945-1947)...... 99
12. Curriculum for the Secondary School (October, 1945) ...... 100
13. The Elementary School Curriculum by the NCEP .... 102
14. The Secondary School Curriculum by the NCEP .... 103
15. Curriculum for the Elementary School (1946-1947)...... 104
vii 16. Curriculum for the Junior Middle School (1946-1947) ...... , 105
17. Curriculum for the Senior Middle School (1946-1947) . 106
18. Response for the Questionnaire's question No. 1 . . .108
19. Response for the Questionnaire's question No. 2 . . .109
20. Response for the Questionnaire's question No. 3 . . .110
21. Response for the Questionnaire's question No. 4 . . .111
22. Response for the Questionnaire's question No. 5 . . .112
23. Response for the Questionnaire's question No. 6 . . .113
24. Response for the Questionnaire's question No. 7 . . .114
25. Response for the Questionnaire's question No. 8 . . .115
26. Response for the Questionnaire's question No. 9 . . .116
27. Response for the Questionnaire's question No. 10 . . 117
Vlll CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
I n ,t£,QdU .Ç.t.iQQ
Koreans have been involved with physical education and
sports from the outset of their history. The earliest evidence
of physical and sporting activities in Korea can be found in wall paintings dated back to the period of the Three Kingdoms
(from 57 B.C. to 668 A.D),^ a time in which Horsemanship,
Archery, See-Rum (Korean Wrestling), Soo-Bak (a form of martial arts), and Sword and Priest Dances were practiced. Before the end of the nineteenth century, Korean physical education and sports were mainly practiced for the purpose of military strength, with emphasis on their ritual, ceremonial and religious functions. Though Koreans also enjoyed many folk games and recreational sporting activities, physical education and sports were excluded in school programs due to the strong influence of Confucian tradition and ethics.
By the end of the nineteenth century, Christianity and modernization had an important effect on the development of physical education and sports. After World War II, in particular, Korean physical education and sports were greatly impacted by the United States occupation, through modern industrialization, and through the influence of Korean scholars 1 2 who studied in the United States. Today, school authorities
consider physical education a legitimate part of the school program, and sports have become entrenched in Korean society,
flourishing more today than ever in the past, now part of the
larger consumer culture.
Several scholars have already examined the Japanese and
Chinese influence on Korean physical education and sports.
Hyung-Sung Ra^ and Young-Gap Kim^ studied the development of physical education and sports during Korea's Feudalistic
Period, emphasizing the influence of China. Hak-Rae Lee^ and
Sam-Hyun JeongS explored Japan's impact in schools during the
Colonial Period in Korea, while Yeo-Tak Youn^ focused on ideological perspectives of the Japanese influence.
Despite its significance in this area, however, no one has studied the influence of the United States. I intend to support my position that America has been a major factor in the development of physical education and sports in Korea. To understand how the United States has affected Korean education, one must first understand the traditional Eastern philosophy of mind and body. In Chapter II, I will describe this philosophy, and why an understanding of the traditional Eastern belief that the mind and body are one is crucial for understanding how
Korean physical education and sports were effected by the influence of the United States.
In Chapter III, I will examine the many historical changes in Korean physical education and sports, particularly 3
the various Korean dynasties and the Japanese occupation. From
the Feudalistic Period to the present, the physical education
system has changed drastically, from no physical education to
military training and religious ceremony, to a more modern
social development training. Chapter IV will discuss
significant American ideas and influences on Korean curriculum,
teaching technique, and ideology, based on John Dewey's
pragmatic educational thought, which, I assert, caused the most
dramatic change in the history of Korean physical education and
sports.
I have used a historical method of investigation for this
descriptive and inferential study. Information for this study was obtained through primary and secondary sources, including professional journals, historical texts, Korean newspapers.
United States military documents, questionnaires, and Korean dissertations and articles. Data was collected through questionnaires sent to Korean educators who have studied in the
United States and are now in positions of influence in the departments of education and physical education in Korea. The questionnaires were distributed, on October 10, 1991, to 50 potential respondents. A total of 40 (80 %) of the questionnaires were suitably completed and returned, their results compiled and translated by this writer.
Using this information, I intend to show how the United
States, particularly in the following areas, has contributed to the development of Korean physical education and sports: 4
a) the influence of the new ideas in Christianity,
b) the role of the American missionary,
c) the influence of the American Military Government
in Korea (1945-1948), with emphasis on the
educational reforms,
d) the influence of Korean scholars who studied in
the United States.
Examination of these American ideas and events will prove that new ideas of Christianity did indeed greatly influence the traditional Korean attitude based on Confucian culture and ethics, shifting it toward a greater emphasis on physical education and recreational activity. American missionaries contributed to the modernization of Korean physical education and sports by introducing Western sports. They also established a physical education in public school curriculum.
The American military government advanced Korean physical education by educational reforms. Korean scholars who studied in the United States brought back American teaching method and worked toward changing traditional attitudes of Korean physical educators. This study will provide the first comprehensive view of the American influence on Korean physical education and sports. FOOTNOTES
1 Bong-Youn Choy, Korea; A History. Rutland: Charles E. Tuttle Company, Inc., 1971, p.21,
2 Hyung-Sung Ra, The History of Korean Physical Education. Seoul: Chung Won Chool Pan Sa, 1963.
3. Young-Gap Kim, The History of Korean Physical Education and Sports. Seoul: Kyo Hak Sa, 1985.
4. Hak-Rae Lee, The History of Modern Physical Education and Snorts in Korea. Seoul: Ji Sik Sanup Sa, 1990.
5. Sam-Hyun Jeong, A Study of Korean Physical Education and Sports during the Colonial Period. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. The Han Yang University, 1990.
6. Yeo-Tak Youn, A Study of Korean Physical Education Thought under Japanese occupation: 1910-1945. Unpublished master's thesis, The Yonsei University, 1984. CHAPTER II
PHILOSOPHICAL AND CULTURAL FOUNDATIONS OF TRADITIONAL KOREAN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT
Introduction
To understand the development of a nation's physical
education system and its sports, it is necessary to examine the
traditions that characterize that nation. One must look at the
philosophical, social, political and cultural backgrounds that
influenced physical education and sports throughout the
nation's history. John R. Fairs asserts in his article "The
influence of Plato and Platonism on the development of Physical
Education in Western Culture," " . . . the history of physical
education may be understood as the history of man’s concept of
the body . . . ."^ In essence, the philosophical and cultural perception of the relationship between mind and body is an
indispensable factor in understanding physical education in
terms of the theoretical and practical perspectives.
Regardless of Eastern and Western cultural differences,
the mind-body problem is one of the oldest and most fundamental
issues of philosophy. It has been a focus of study in a variety of fields, including religion, anthropology, psychology, and education, and has influenced various aspects of human life. Physical education is one of the fields which
6 7
has been significantly influenced by the concept of mind and
body. That is to say, the status and role of physical
education and sports in society has been effected by that
society's interpretation of the body-mind concept. For
example, Greek people believed that the mind can not be
separated from the body, and that the body can not be separated
from the soul. Man is regarded as a unification of mind and
body. The philosophers of ancient Greece did not separate
physical education from intellectual education. Aristotle
thought that since "the education of the body must precede that
of the intellect, it clearly follows that we must surrender our
children in the first instance to gymnastic and the art of the
trainer."2 As a result, physical education and sports held a
more important place among the ancient Greeks than in any other
society, emphasized for their role in developing a "whole man,"
in harmony of mind and body.^ On the contrary, in Medieval
Europe, the Christians were concerned about the soul, not the
body. Asceticism was the highest ideal of Medieval
Christianity. Most people gave the human soul the highest value in life. As a result, physical education and sporting
activities had no value, and only intellectual activities were
emphasized, indeed physical education and sports were prohibited by the Christians. This period is often called the
"Dark Ages" in physical education and sports.4 8
The problem of the relationship of the mind to the body
has been discussed among many physical education scholars.
Kleinman commented on the problem of body and mind as follows :
Today, in our society, although we claim in theory to reject a dualistic conception of the person (that is, we value ideas and objects, contemplation and creation), we continue the practice of treating minds and bodies as separate and distinct entities. The discrepancy between theory and practice has created a great deal of confusion.5
Just as Western physical education has been influenced by
Plato’s view and the Cartesian dichotomy, so has Korean physical education been significantly affected by Buddhism, the spirit of martial arts, and particularly their view of mind and body. Therefore, an understanding of traditional Korean views will aid in tracing the impact of American philosophy and religion has had on the modernization of Korean physical education and sports.
This chapter will deal with Buddhism and its view of the mind-body relationship, and the spirit and discipline of martial arts and Eastern culture. They will be described briefly, with emphasis on the relationship between the mind and the body, and their theoretical and practical relevance for physical education and sports.
Philosophical and Cultural Background
The history of Korean people has been marked by the influence of China, Japan and the Western powers. Due to 9
Korea's geographic location, traditional Korean society and
culture have been particularly influenced for centuries by
Chinese philosophy, literature, arts, science and technology.
Consequently, Korea has achieved a remarkable synthesis of its
own culture and that of China, explained by Donald Stone
Macdonald as follows:
The Korean culture has been strongly influenced over the centuries by China and the philosophy of Confucius, somewhat as the culture of the United States has been strongly influenced by Greece, Rome, and Europe; but Korean culture is no more identical with Chinese culture than U.S. culture is with that of England, France, or Germany.®
It is important to look at how both Confucianism and
Buddhism provide the foundation of Korean philosophical
thought. Throughout Korea's Feudal Period (from 57 B.C. to
1910 A.D), Buddhism and Confucianism were adopted as the
national ideology and religion. For example, during the Koryo
Dynasty (936-1391), after the Three Kingdoms, Buddhism reached
its peak of maturity and highest glory. At that time,
thousands of priests and monks achieved significant stature.
Monasteries played a major role in education and the arts,
becoming the nucleus of the culture and a central part of
Korean life.?
During the Yi Dynasty (1392-1910), Confucianism prevailed
in Korea. It was adopted as not only the official state
ideology, but as the official doctrine of the government as well. Confucianism provided a major reference system for 10
Korea, As the country became organized upon Confucian
principles, from private affairs to the governmental concerns,
almost nothing could be considered without relationship to
Confucian principles of philosophy and ethics.
Confucianism can be interpreted as a form of idealism.
Confucius stressed the necessity for a form of universal
education, its curriculum concerned principally with abstract
philosophical and ethical principles, and mental or cognitive
subject matter. Technical and scientific knowledge were
largely ignored, and disciplines such as literature, history,
ethics and philosophy were promoted as the principal subjects
of study in school programs. As a result, these "scholarly
prejudices" gave rise to impractical attitudes in all aspects
of life. Its stubborn attachment to antiquity resulted in a
reactionary frame of mind among the educated. Its disregard
for manual labor and industry caused intense economic hardship
among the Korean people. As a result, the Korean kingdom was
completely isolated from Western science and technology, and
eventually fell victim to Japan in the nineteenth century.
Today, the ideology and discipline of Confucianism and
Buddhism are still used as a guide for Korean social ethics,
culture, politics and education. Perhaps more than in any
other field, Korean education recognizes the significance of
Buddhism and Confucianism. But, in the premodern times, prior
to the importation of Buddhism, Korea had its own indigenous philosophical ideas and religious practices. These included 11 the primitive practice of Shamanism, spirit-worship and ancestral-worship, the latter partly influenced by Confucianist practices and ideas. These indigenous Korean customs still influence Korean society, as seen in the increasing number of ritual and ceremonial festivals and folk games today.
Buddhism and Its Characteristics of the Mind-Bodv Concept.
Buddhism originated in India in sixth century B. C. and spread over the vast area of Asia.® Today, one of the three major religion of the world. Buddhism is mainly found in
Ceylon, Burma, Thailand, Tibet, China, Japan, Korea, and the
United States. An estimated one-third to one-fifth of the world population follows some aspect of this religious philosophy, which strives to incorporate all mankind within the scope of its universal message of salvation.9
Along with other aspects of Chinese culture. Buddhism was introduced in Korea by Chinese priests in 372 A. D. Korean priests and scholars also traveled to India and China to learn the teaching and practice of Buddhism. This new religion was accepted by the Three Kingdoms of the Korea and remained until the Koryo Dynasty as the national religion. The effect of
Buddhism upon Korean life was comparable to the influence of
Christianity upon the Western countries. While Confucianism was enjoyed by a small group of the elite. Buddhism penetrated all classes of society. Maintaining its hold over ten centuries as an essential part of the nation's culture, the new 12
creed not only altered the religious system of the country, but
affected Korean politics, society, art and education,
familiarizing Korean people with Indian philosophies and
religions as well.
There are many diverse minor schools which teach the
religious and philosophical doctrines of Buddhism with their
own beliefs and practices. Buddhism has also modified its
characteristics and disciplines as it has moved from one
environment to another. Though altered variously through
geographical moves. Buddhism still retains the essential
structures and central ideas centered on the teachings of
Buddha. This study will examine the Buddhist conception of
mind and body based on the general characteristics and beliefs
of Buddhism.
The Basic Characteristics and Teachings of Buddhism
Buddhism has had little of the imperiousness which
characterized such missionary religion and philosophy as
Christianity and Islam. While most religions are God-centered,
Buddhism, based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama is man-
centered. Buddhism allows for the discovery of one's self and
allows peace and happiness to flow through the body.^° On the
other hand. Buddhism stresses the virtue of the Way of Buddha--
the Middle Path--avoiding the extremes of the pursuit of worldly desires or of severe ascetic disciplines. 13
Garner, in his article "Hemispheric Imperialism,"
explains the character of Buddhism as follows:
Originally, Buddhism was little more than a non religious way to end suffering, a spiritual therapy drawing on a centuries long tradition of concentration and meditation.il
Buddha taught that man has the potential and the will to
attain Enlightenment without God. The mind is the creative
center of the universe, and has infinite capacity for change
and growth.12 In Buddhism, there is no personal God who
created the universe. Traditionally Buddhism is not interested
in who created the universe; rather its main concern is to
release the being from suffering.
Buddha was primarily concerned with the human
predicament. The teaching of Buddha, closely connected with
the awakening, offers the way to liberation from human
suffering. In other words, Buddha’s primary concern was to
point the way to liberation from the deep-rooted attachment to
a delusive self. This delusive self is the source of all passion and desires which lead to all pains and frustrations.i^
Therefore, Buddha constantly emphasized the necessity to face
suffering and to free oneself of it through the realization of
the interpenetration of all existence.14
The characteristics and beliefs in Buddhism can be found in the Four Noble Truths, Buddha's specific diagnosis of the problem of the human condition and the way of salvation.15 in 14
Buddhism; A Historical Introduction to Buddhist Values and the
Social and Political Forms They Have Assumed in.Asia. Peter A.
Pardue describes the role of the Four Noble Truths in terms of
human liberation:
When men are afraid, they often seek refuge in the spirits of the hills, woods, gardens, trees and shrines . But this refuge offers no security . . . Whoever seeks refuge in the Noble Truths, and with wisdom sees the truths of sorrows, its origin, its cessation, and the noble eightfold path that leads to victory, only such a man is set free.iG
The Four Noble Truths are as follows:
1) All life (existence) is suffering (Dukkha), 2) Desire (possessiveness, greedy, craving, egocentrism) is the cause of suffering, 3) The cessation of suffering is possible by suppressing the desire, 4) The Way to the cessation of suffering is the Noble Eight-fold Path consisting of right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration.
In the first and second Noble Truth, Buddha points to the ubiquity of suffering, concluding that the basic conditions of a human being's life is inescapable suffering, caused by the
impermanence of the world.According to Buddha, "all creaturely existence is marked by suffering, sorrow, pain, and an agonized bondage to the meaningless cycle of birth and death amid a transitory flux which is momentary, impermanent (anicca) and without essential being (anatta)."^® Here, the anicca is regarded as a basic characteristic of existence which man either does not see or wishes not to see. Although man knows 15
that all life is transient and impermanent, the average man has
not consciously assimilated this disturbing r e a l i t y . ^0 Man
continuously craves eternal or permanent happiness which is
essentially impossible. As a result, man suffers. Buddha
taught that all things are essentially impermanent, and human
inability to recognize the inalienable laws of anicca is the
immediate cause of suffering. If one accepts anicca
completely, then there is no form of unhappiness, discontent,
or uneasiness.21
The third Noble Truth offers the remedy for the disease
of suffering brought about by desire. In his Deer Park sermon,
Buddha went on to say:
What then is the Holy Truth of the Stopping of 111? It is the complete stopping of that craving, the withdrawal from it, the renouncing of it, throwing it back, liberation from it, nonattachment to it.22
Buddha compared desire to a fire, which requires fuel.
As fuel is taken away, the fire inevitably dies down. We can arrive at the end of desire through the elimination of the fuel
to the fire of desire. In other words, the elimination of
ignorance about the illusory nature of phenomenal things and the extirpation of egregious craving for them will break the causal sequence and so precipitate final salvation.23
Suffering can be overcome by removing selfish desire or craving. One can achieve liberation. 16
The Eightfold Path of the Fourth Noble Truth is an integral combination of ethical and meditational disciplines which jointly purify the motivations and the mind.24 Focusing one's awareness on something other than objects of desire, the
Eightfold Path leads to cessation of suffering and to Nirvana.
These were the basic precepts of the Way. After Buddha made the initial great decision to "beat the drum of Dharma
(truth) in the darkness of the world, "^5 he preached the Way for forty-five years of active ministry. The Four Noble Truths go deep into the psychological analysis behind the Middle Way, and the process to attain perfect totality. Based in intuitive experience, and not in scientific and rational concepts,
Buddha's teachings are not on the intellectual, but on the experiential level. 17
The Conception of Mind and Body in Buddhism
The philosophical conception of body and mind in Buddhism is fundamentally different from the traditional Western viewpoint of body and mind. Basic distinctions concerning the mind-body problem that exist between Eastern and Western theorists. Yuasa Yasuo characterizes the difference in his book The Bodv: Toward an Eastern Mind-Bodv Theory:
One of the characteristics of Eastern body-mind theories is the priority given to the questions, "How does the relationship between the mind and the body come to be (through cultivation)?" or "What does it become?" The traditional issue in Western philosophy, on the other hand, is "What is the relationship between mind and body?" On other hand, in modality changes through the training of the mind and body by means of cultivation or training. Only after assuming this experiential ground does one ask what the mind-body relation is. That is, the mind-body issue is not simply a theoretical speculation but it is originally a practical, lived experience, involving the mustering of one's whole mind and body. The theoretical is only a reflection on this lived experience.2G
The dominant tradition of Western thought has viewed the human being in a dualistic framework. The Buddhist's viewpoint generally sees the entire human being as a single entity as well as an integrated unity. Although the mind and body in
Buddhism may, at times, be conceptually distinguishable from some perspectives, they are not assumed to be ontologically distinct. It is a harmonic nondualism in which there is no distinction between man and universe, between subject and object. This philosophy has played an important role in establishing a theoretical basis for traditional Korean 18 physical education. A number of physical theorists have been
concerned about the Buddhist's ways of experiential, practical,
and cultivative education.
A dominant characteristic of Buddhist philosophy is wholistic insight. Buddha rejected the idea of a mind-body
dichotomy, discarding belief in an independent or separately existing world. According to him, the external world and one's internal world are only two sides of the same f a b r i c . 2?
Shifting from a dualistic to a wholistic paradigm based on a wholistic notion of the world, Buddhists refuse to recognize the distinction between mind and body, and self and world.
This wholistic approach to mind and body can be found in the spiritual and physical practices of Zen Buddhists. Zen masters have always tried to discover the stream of pure experience prior to the separation between subject and o b j e c t . 28 They cultivate the mind and body to attain the Enlightenment by taking up meditation, and practicing yoga or martial arts. All three of these practices are founded in wholistic theory.
Later in this chapter, the Buddhist's wholistic notion will be explained in relationship to the theory and practice of the martial arts.
Buddhists value the body and the mind equally, evidenced in the process of Buddha's attained Enlightenment. Influenced by the Four Passing Sights, Siddhartha renounced his family and became an ascetic in order to discover the cause of human suffering and its cure. Searching for an answer, he met with 19
several famous religious sages, including Uddaka Ramaputra and
Alara Kalama, the foremost Hindu masters of the day. Their
doctrines were found in the teacher's meditative experience.
Siddhartha studied and followed their systems and methods,
submitting himself to rigorous ascetic practices.29 He
undertook meditation and strict austerities focusing his mind
on the intention of his original questions. In spite of
achieving the meditative plane of nothingness, Siddhartha could
not find any deep inner satisfaction in what he was being
taught. He realized that the traditional yogis' teaching did
not lead to dispassion, the fading of desire, and awakening,
but led only to the meditative plane of nothingness.
Asceticism proved equally dissatisfying. The practice of
body mortification, popular among yogis at the time, involved
the belief that the body interfered with purification of the mind. Failing to attain Enlightenment through ascetic practices, Siddhartha rejected prevailing doctrines of
speculative philosophy, and mystical trance which lead to
severe bodily self-modifications.30 He abandoned all
traditional methods, but continued to cultivate the awareness of mental and physical states under the Bo tree. At the age of
35, Siddhartha attained Enlightenment and emerged as Buddha.
Buddha's meditation was based on immediate experience and clear perception of the mediator's own body, feelings, state of mind and mental contents. It required not only a power of concentration, but also a kind of mindfulness and self- 20
possession through which Buddha could see what was going on in
his mind and body.^i In this regard, the body is recognized as
an important entity not only because of its influence on the
mind but also its role as a transmitter for attainment of
Nirvana, the ultimate aim of Buddhism. The body is given
significant value and esteem; the mind can not be cultivated without the development of the body.
Attaining Enlightenment with one's body can also be found
in the practical and theoretical aspects of Zen Buddhism. Zen
emphasizes the direct perception of truth through meditation
and the personal experience of reality. Zen focuses the
attention on reality itself, instead of an intellectual and
emotional reaction to reality. These viewpoints of body and mind are similar to those of phenomenologist's conception of body and mind; Merleau-Ponty's "Body-Subject," Gabriel Marcel's
"I Am My Body," and Sartre's "Three Dimensions of the Body."
That is, the body is considered an essential entity as well as the source of experiencing the world and human self. According to Zen Buddhism, which is a form of Mahayana Buddhism, the search for enlightenment can not be carried out intellectually by rational thought, but through years of both mental and physical cultivation. Dozen, the founder of the Soto School of
Zen, in Japan, explains the way to enlightenment as follows: 21
So long as one hopes to grasp the Truth only through the mind, one will not attain it even in a thousand existences or in eons of time. Only when one lets go of the mind and ceases to seek an intellectual apprehension of the Truth is liberation attainable. Enlightenment of the mind through the sense of sight and comprehension of the Truth through the sense of hearing are truly bodily attainments. To do away with mental deliberation and cognition, and simply to go on sitting, is the method by which the Way is made an intimate part of our lives. Thus attainment of the Way becomes truly attainment through the b o d y . ^2
The most important practice of Zen Buddhism is thought to
be za-zen or "sitting meditation." Examined as a traditional
Eastern technique for integrating the physiological and psychological, Za-zen emphasizes correctness of posture and method of breathing. Zen Buddhists stress the importance of
"sitting meditation," since it helps us to guide ourselves into
the state of mindlessness. The trainee is encouraged to think with his body, not with his mind. In other words, meditation on breathing is a direct route by which the bright consciousness can contact the dark consciousness. In Eastern traditions, wisdom must be developed physically and intellectually through meditation, and the body plays an equally important role in reaching Enlightenment.
In the Buddhist approach to the study of the mind and the body, mind-body unity is not a theoretical possibility, but an achieved state actualized by exemplary individuals such as religious and artistic masters. In Buddhism, knowledge of the truth is a psychophysical awareness beyond mere intellect. 22
Thus, the priority is on the practical cultivation of the mind
and body rather than merely a theoretical or conceptual
description and analysis of the mind and body's function.
Mind-body theories focus on how a disciplined practice leads to
the attainment of mind-body unity. In other words, a
methodological aspect is emphasized more on analyzing a
phenomenon. The Zen master stresses direct experience over
intellectual and conceptual analysis of mind-body activities.
Thomas Hanna explains self-awareness in terms of the
relationship between Eastern thought and practice and of the
Eastern view of mind and body:
The ascetic disciplines and martial arts of Asia are exemplary in showing the extraordinary degree of internal control that humans can attain. Yogic control of autonomic bodily processes was a demonstrable fact thousands of years before biofeedback proved to occidental science that humans were not mindless bodies. And the incredible prowess of Asian martial artists has demonstrated that the upward limits of athletic performance are dramatically expanded when external performance is wedded with internal awareness.33
Based on the Buddhist view of mind and body, Korean physical education and sports have been developed for the cultivation of one's mental and physical strength, mainly through the martial arts.
Eastern Martial Arts and Culture and Its View of Mind and Body
The Eastern concept of mind-body is also demonstrated in the Eastern martial arts, originated in Buddhism. The first real sign of organized activities in Buddhism occurred sometime 23
after 520 A.D., when an Indian Buddhist, Bodhidharma, initiated
a program for conditioning his disciple's bodies--as well as
their minds--in his Shaolin t e m p l e . 3* Before his introduction
of Zen Buddhism, most Buddhists emphasized scriptural terms and
words. Bodhidharma criticized this one-sided, intellectualized
approach. He stressed the weakness of wisdom that does not
accompany practice, as well as the dangers of religious
practice that lacks wisdom; only through the combination of
study and contemplation could one attain Enlightenment.
Since that time, Buddhist monks have practiced such
physical activities as Judo, Karate, Aikido, Tai-Chi, and Yoga,
in order to help them attain enlightenment through disciplining
the mind and the body. Martial arts have also served as
systems of education for cultivating self-realization through
spiritual and physical t r a i n i n g . 35 They are methods of self-
cultivation that ultimately lead to self-perfection or
enlightenment in the zen s e n s e . 36 Aikido and Kendo, for
example, are two Japanese martial art forms considered
effective practice for the perfection of oneself. In Aikido, there are no rules, judges, and competitions. The practitioner only tries to attain enlightenment by fighting against his or her own ego. If one achieves the stage of enlightenment, there is a oneness of mind and body, and a harmony between self and other. The practitioner in this stage is able to recognize all human movements and situations by intuitive reasoning, rather than conscious thought. In Kendo, perfection of one's self and 24
self-realization through detachment from ego, are considered to
be main purposes of the practitioner. Shinobu Abe, a Japanese
physical educator, explains the relationship of between Kendo
and Zen as follows:
One comes to see that in ancient fights with real swords the swordsman could not win by technique alone. He had to overcome the fear of death and delusion. Obviously, in order to win a swordsman had to be trained in technique, but at the same time he needed to attain a state in which the self is forgotten. Herein lies the true meaning of oneness is the way of the sword and Zen.37
The training process of martial arts contains a multitude of activities that contribute to development of
spiritual education. The martial disciplines are deeply rooted
in human psychology and character development through self- actualization. The ascetic disciplines of the martial arts peculiar to the East are exemplary in showing the extraordinary degree of internal control that humans can attain. For example, in Judo, the emphasis is not on physical strength, competitive spirit or calculated moves, but on nonresistance or awareness without tension. Nancy Wilson Ross points out that judo's roots actually lie deeply within Zen philosophy for teaching the instinctive wisdom of the body. Takano Shigeyoshi asserts that in Kendo, if one's skill and desire for winning are emphasized deliberately, all should be l o s t . 38
With emphasis on martial arts. Yoga, which seeks the attainment of perfection through control of the physical and psychological elements of human nature,39 was also practiced as 25
a means of achieving enlightenment. Yogic control of autonomic
bodily processes was demonstrated for thousands of years before
biofeedback proved to Western science that humans were not
mindless bodies. It was thought that the body was trained to
purify the mind spiritually. For example, Hatha Yoga uses
discipline of the body and concentration as a means toward
higher consciousness. The essence of Yoga is the application
of the laws of consciousness in pursuing consciousness to its
highest levels. Yoga, therefore, is a system for training
consciousness, that is, it is a discipline of m i n d . 40
In the cultural sense, most Asians believe that there is
a physical resemblance between the universe and man, and they
try to adapt themselves to natural circumstances. This notion
of the relationship of human beings to nature is expressed in
the customs, art, and sport forms, and in the philosophy of
their lives. If we observe an oriental painting carefully, we become aware that natural elements such as mountains, rivers, trees, and animals are in clearer focus than a person in the picture. We can recognize that human beings are regarded as existing in nature in an Oriental painting. That is to say, human beings and nature are integrated. There is no distinction between the two. Nature is the human being and the human being is nature.
The Wu-Sui system and Yin-Yang theory are good examples of this sort of harmony between human life and nature. The ultimate aim of Wu-Shu is the achievement of unity of nature 26
and man. The earliest Chinese exercises for health and
fitness, the Five Animal Plays, are characterized by postures
and movements of the tiger, the deer, the bear, the ape, and
the bird; all for the benefit of the human body. People
exercise by imitating the bear climbing the tree and the bird
spreading its wings and stretching its legs. This is done in
order to achieve longevity. Tai-chi, a Chinese movement form,
may be regarded as the most representative martial art of the
Wu-Shu form in both practice and theory.
These examples reflect the attempt by Eastern
philosophies to find unification of body and mind through
harmony of human beings with nature. There is no distinction
between nature and the human being. Nor is there a separation
of mind and body. The other non-dualistic principle of all
Eastern religious and philosophical ideas is the theory of Yin-
Yang. It was developed as a practical way of describing and
classifying the universe. According to the Yin-Yang theory,
human beings and all living things are regarded as a part of
existence in nature, and can not exist apart from the natural
environment and the cosmic process. Yin exemplifies the
relationship of the Sun and the Moon, the principle of the dual
forces, or male and female. Yang indicates the five primary
substances; metal, wood, water, fire, and earth.41 The Yin-
Yang theory deals with the relationship and interconnection of natural environments and the life world of humans. Nothing can 27
exist apart from natural environments and the cosmic process,
which are regarded as a part of existence in nature.
The Yin-Yang theorists try to understand nature by
placing themselves in the midst of the cosmic process. When
Yin and Yang are united in their character, the weak and the
strong attain their substance.42 a unique sports training
method of Korean professional teams applies some principles of
Yin-Yang theory. This special training sessions is held during
extreme hot and cold weather. The general perseverance,
through pain and bruises, is thought to test and refine the
ability to concentrate one's physical and mental efforts.43
That experiences not only help to strengthen a player’s mental powers, but assist in attaining a higher degree of unity of mind and body.
Summary
Due to the geographic location of Korea, the
traditional Korean culture has been influenced by the Chinese.
At different times during the Feudal period, Buddhism and
Confucianism were adopted as the national ideology and religion. During the Koryo Dynasty (936 A.D.-1391 A.D.), after the Three Kingdoms, Buddhism reached its peak of maturity and highest glory, remaining the national religion of Korea until
1392. At that time, there were thousands of priests and monks.
Monasteries played a major role in education and the arts. 28
Based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, Buddhism is
not God-centered, like most religions, but man-centered,
avoiding extremes of worldly desire and severe ascetic
disciplines. According to Buddhist principles, man has the
ability to attain enlightenment without God, and its main
concern is with the way to liberation from the attachment to a
delusionary self, or the source of all passion and desires which lead to all pains and frustrations. Based on a philosophical conception of mind and body, fundamentally
different from the traditional Western view, Buddhists generally see the entire human being as a single entity as well as an integrated unity.
The Eastern philosophical and cultural view of the mind and body is founded in a harmonic nondualism. This nondualistic notion has played an important role in establishing a theoretical basis for traditional Korean physical education and sports. This wholistic approach to mind and body can be found in many traditional cultures that have influenced Korean thought. The spiritual and physical practices of Zen Buddhism, meditation, yoga, martial arts, and
Yin-Yang theory compliment the Buddhist recognition of the body as an important entity, not only because of its influence on the mind, but because of its role as a transmitter for attainment of enlightenment. That is, the body is the source of a subjective-being and the root of personal reality. 29
In 1392, the Yi E^nasty took over Korea, and its
government adopted Confucianism as the official state ideology,
organizing itself upon the Confucian principles of obedience
and reverence of one's superiors and paternal benevolence
toward one's inferiors. The Confucian emphasis on the
necessity for a form of universal education greatly influenced
largely the educational curriculum, promoting disciplines such
as literature, history, ethics and philosophy for principal
subjects of study in school programs. Its disregard for manual
labor and industry caused intense economic hardship among the
Korean people, and result in the complete isolation of the
Korean kingdom from the Western science and technology.
In the East, mind-body unity is not a theoretical possibility, but an achievement. The experiential and practical aspects of body-mind in physical education and sports were emphasized more than the body-mind theoretical aspects.
Therefore, the priority is on the practical cultivation of the mind and body rather than on the theoretical or conceptual description and analysis of the mind and body. The mind-body theories focus on how a disciplined practice allows one to attain mind-body unity. Many kinds of martial arts and experiential practices are good examples of this view of the mind and body.
An understanding of the development of Korean physical education and sports, and the influence from the West require 30 serious consideration of the influence of these two philosophies. 31
FOOTNOTES
1 John R. Fairs, The Influence of Plato and Platonism on thg Development of PhYsi.cal-Educfltion in„M.e5tern. Culture, in Earle F. Zeigler, ed., A History of Sport and Physical Education to 1900, Champaign, III: Stipes, 1973, p.157.
2 Emmett A. Rice, A Brief History of Physical Education. New York: The Ronald Press Company, 1958, p.35.
3 John R. Fairs, p.157.
4 Thomas H. Greer, A Brief History of Western Man. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc., 1977, p.151.
5 John R. Fairs, p.14.
6 Donald S. Macdonald, The Koreans : Contemporary Politics and Society. Boulder: westview Press, 1990, pp.11-12.
7 Takashi, Hatada, History of Korea. Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1951, p.80.
8 Willson R. Nancy, Buddhism: A Wav of Life and Thought. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1980, p.3.
9 Ibid.
10 Michael, Carrithers, The Buddha. New York: Oxford University Press, 1983, p.80.
11 Richard T. Garner, Hemispheric imperialism, in Mind and Body: East meets West., edited by Seymour Kleinman., Champaign, Illinois: Human Kinetics Pub., Inc., 1986, p.177.
12 Willson R. Nancy, p.177.
13 Ibid, p.28.
14 Ibid.
15 Peter A. Pardue, Buddhism: A historical introduction to Buddhist values and the social and political forms they have assumed in Asia. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1971, p. 9. 32
16 Ibid, p.11.
17 Ibid, p.9.
18 Richard T. Garner, Asian Philosophy. Philosophy 215, Winter 1990, p.24.
19 Peter A. Pardue, p.9.
20 Willson R. Nancy, Buddhism; A Wav of Life and Thought. New York; Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1980, p.30.
21 Richard T. Garner, Asian Philosophy. Philosophy 215, Winter 1990, p.24.
22 Robert S. Ellwood, Many Peoples. Many Faiths; An Introduction to the Religious Life of Humankind. Englewood Cliffs; Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1982, p.117.
23 Willson R, Nancy, Buddhism; A Way of Life and Thought. New York; Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1980, p.10.
24 Ibid.
25 Ibid, Buddhism; A Way of Life and Thought. New York; Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1980, p.25.
26 Yasuo, Yuasa, The Body; Toward an Eastern Mind-Body theory. Albany; State University of New York Press, 1987, p.18.
27 Michael K.Livingston, MENTAL DISCIPLINE-The Pursuit of Peak Performance. Champaign; Human Kinetics Books, 1988. p.197.
28 Yasuo, Yuasa, The Body; Toward an Eastern Mind-Bodv theory. Albany; State University of New York Press, 1987, p.17.
29 Walpola, Rahula, What The Buddha Taught. New York; Grove Press, Inc., 1959, p.XV.
30 Peter A. Pardue, p.7.
31 Michael, Carrithers, The Buddha. New York; Oxford University Press, 1983, p.50.
32 Seymour, Kleinman, Mind and Body; East meets West. Champaign; Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc., 1986, p.67.
33 Thomas, Hanna, Somatic Education: A Scenario of the Future. Vol. IV, No. 4, spring/summer 1984, p.7. 33
34 Bruce A. Haines, Karate's History and Traditions. Rutland, Vermont: Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1976, p.27.
35 Seymour, Kleinman, p.69.
36 Ibid, p.70.
37 Suzuki Yamahara, The History of Kendo. Tokyo: Tokyo University Press, 1988, p.58.
38 Seymour, Kleinman, p.70.
39 William A. Haper, Donna Mae Miller, Roberta J. Park, Elwood Craig Davis, The Philosophie Process in Physical Education. Philadelphia: LEA & FEBIGER, 1977. p.292.
40 Michael K. Livingston, MENTAL DISCIPLINE-The Pursuit of Peak Performance. Champaign: Human Kinetics Books, 1988. p.208.
41 Chan, Wing-Tsit, A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy. New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1963, p.249.
42 Ibid, pp.248-249.
43 Seymour, Kleinman, p.70. CHAPTER III
THE HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF KOREAN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORTS
Introduction
The history of Korean physical education and sports is as
long as Korean history itself. From Korea's beginning, its
people have participated in various kinds of recreational games
and sporting activities. Much of the recreational activity
followed the holidays of the Chinese lunar calendar, with games
and sports appropriate to certain holidays.1 Despite its long
history, however, the role and status of physical education and
sports in schools have been neglected. Anti-physical Confucian
attitudes strongly prevailed throughout the Feudalistic Period
of Korea, particularly during the period of the Yi dynasty.
Some of Confucian customs still survive in Korean society
today.
Since the establishment of modern schools and the
introduction of modern physical education and sports by
American missionary groups in the end of nineteenth century, however, physical education was adopted in school curriculums
for the first time in Korea's educational history, and modern
sporting events were organized and made available to the public. After World War II, during the period of American
34 35 military government in Korea, physical education was acknowledged as an integral part of school programs by the military government's reorganization of the education system.
With the establishment of the Third Republic in Korea, the modernization of physical education and sports was accelerated with the national government's support.
The development of physical education and sports can be divided into four stages: (1) The Feudalistic period, prior to
1894, (2) Attempts at modernization, from the Gabo reforms in
1894 to 1910, (3) The Colonial period, from 1910 to 1945, and
(4) The Independent period, from 1945 to the present.
The Feudalistic Period prior to 1894
According to archaeological evidence, Koreans are descendants of Mongol tribes that inhabited the Korean peninsula in the centuries before the Christian era. They possessed a Neolithic culture, and reached the stage of bronze and iron culture shortly before the opening of the Christian era. According to legend, Dang-goon, Son of God, formed the first primitive Korean community in 2333 B. C. Recorded Korean history begins, however, with the period of the Three Kingdoms, from 57 B. C. to 935 A. D.
Korea's Feudalistic period includes the Three Kingdoms, the Koryo dynasty and the Yi dynasty. The Three Kingdoms were known as Koguryu, Silla, and Paekjae. Three Kingdoms period occupied a very significant place in Korean history as the 36 starting point of Korea's written history.2 Buddhism was also introduced to the Three Kingdoms, followed shortly thereafter by Confucianism. The Silla Kingdom conquered the other two and unified the entire Korean peninsula in 668 A. D. With Silla's hegemony, Korea was, for the first time in its history, unified as a single nation.3 Unification marked the beginning of a long process of solidification of the Korean people as a distinct nation, and Koreans attained a high peak of cultural achievement.4 in 935 A. D., however, the unified Silla Kingdom perished due to decadence and strife of the ruling class at the end of the Silla Period, and a new dynasty, the Koryu was founded.
During the period of Koryo Dynasty, the administrative system was renovated, and educational facilities were greatly expanded.5 Buddhism became the main religion and played an important role in the culture, ideology and way of life of the people. Active foreign trade and communication stimulated a veritable flood of cultural development within the peninsula.®
In 1392, the Koryu Dynasty collapsed under government corruption, and the Yi Dynasty, the last dynasty in Korea before the Japanese occupation, was founded. The Yi Dynasty marked the beginning for the modern age of Korea,? adopting a bureaucratic government system and establishing a strong central state to administer to the eight provinces. The Yi
Dynasty introduced many reforms into the social system, and the
Yi monarchs vigorously suppressed Buddhism. Confucianism 37
became the most significant philosophy of the state and the
people, providing not only a foundation for national morality,
but also basic principles of government and education. During
the period of the Yi Dynasty, Koreans reached the highest peaks
in Korean history in various fields such as education, science,
and literature. In the latter part of Yi dynasty, Korean
society began to modernize through the introduction of Western
civilization. Koreans began to have religious belief in
Christian teachings.® As the Royal Decree in 1885 stated, the
government began to realize the importance of education for the
modernization of the nation. Education was conceived as major
vehicle for "the enlightenment of the people" and "the
foundation protecting and preserving the life of the nation."®
Emphasis was put on the practical aspects of education rather
than abstract and theoretical aspects of education. As a
result, with social, economical and political modernization,
traditional thinking based on Confucianism about physical
activity began to disappear.
Throughout most of the Feudalistic age, Korea had a close political and cultural relationship with China: governmental
education systems were closely modeled on those of the Chinese;
the Chinese language was used as Korea's national language; though Shamanism, the oldest spiritual belief of the people of
Korea, was deeply rooted in the minds of Koreans,Korean society was strongly influenced by Chinese philosophies of
Confucianism and Buddhism. 38
The Korean peninsula was a strategic focal point in
Northeast Asia, threatened by its powerful nearby countries of
China, Mongolia and Japan. Though a strong hierarchical status
system existed during the Feudalistic period, most Korean
people were mainly engaged in agriculture, their everyday
activities geared to the agricultural cycle. The development
of physical education and sports was consequently related to
military training, and also closely connected to religious and
farming affairs. It was believed that the spirits of the
ancestors would protect against the evil spirits who were the
cause of crop failure, sickness and death. These spirits also would give protection to warriors in war. These beliefs were
embodied in formal ceremonies, and play, games and recreational
activities were fashioned after events such as war, hunting,
agriculture and ritual ceremony. There were many religious
celebrations for worshipping ancestors. For example, annual
festivals were held by the Buddhists. A great religious
festival was celebrated in October, in which the people of the
state gathered to hold services for the Heaven God, giving thanks for the protection of their farms during the year. Men and women, young and old, shared good food, singing and dancing
for several days. 39
Physical Education in schools
Education, in its narrower sense of scholastic training,
was introduced Korea from China, along with the literature and
the religions of that land.n In feudalistic days, there were
no public schools. Education was a private affair and was
exclusively for the children of the aristocracy. Not until the
end of the nineteenth century did a public education and a
modern curriculum emerge. At this time, during the later years
of the Yi dynasty, concerned government agencies opened
institutes for foreign languages, medical science, fine arts,
law, and other areas.
During the Feudalistic period, education for girls was
not provided in any of the schools. The first public education
for girls began in 1890 at the Ewha School, which was
established by the American Appenzeller, missionaries.13
Before this time, Confucian influence neglected physical
education, determining that only intellectual and ethical
education would be emphasized in schools. Korea's hierarchical
class system contributed to the resistance of the development
of physical education in Korea as well. In general, the upper
classes had a distaste for physical activity and work,
believing that such exertion was only for people of the lower
class. Thus, unlike today, there was no formal physical
education in school programs, and the many folk games and
recreational activities were strictly for the people of the middle and lower classes in rural areas. 40
The first formal school systems in Korean history were
established during the period of the Three Kingdoms in 373 A.
D. "Taihak," a government college, was established in Kokuryu
for the youth of "nobles." "Kyungdang," private secondary
school opened in rural areas. In the Silla Kingdom, "Gookhak"
was the representative national school. After the period of
The Three Kingdoms, many schools modeled upon those of China,
were established by local governments and educators. The
principal subjects of these schools were Chinese philosophy,
ethics, history and literature. In local secondary schools,
archery and horsemanship were practiced for the purpose of
military training. In the Yi dynasty, with the official
adoption of Confucian philosophy and the examination system
called "gwaga," education became a major social activity.
State schools were established in the capital and the
provinces. The highest school was the "Songgyun*gwan," the
Confucian university.
It is noteworthy to mention that the Silla Kingdom had a
unique educational institution called "Hwarangdo," for its
noble youth. As a representative educational institution of
the Three Kingdoms period, the fundamental aims and objectives
of Hwarangdo were to train young men to serve the nation. Its purpose was to create, maintain and provide strong leadership while Silla was growing into a federation of tribal states based on the worship of a national deity.The spirit of 41
Hwarangdo and its basic rules of life were based on the
following principles;
1. To serve the King with loyalty 2. To serve one's parents with filial piety 3. To be faithful to one's friends 4. Not to retreat in battle 5. Not to kill indiscriminately^®
Hwarangdo became the source of national power and
contributed a great deal to the nation's development. It played an important role in Silla reaching its zenith of power
in the 7th century and had tremendous significance for Korean
education.17 Young people trained their minds and bodies,
improved their military skills, and learned various social
codes through the "Hwarangdo."1® Physical strength, military arts, morality, patriotism, aesthetic appreciation and chivalry constituted the major part of their training. Traveling throughout the mountainous parts of the country, and singing and dancing formed the most important parts of this curriculum.
This type of training bears a close resemblance to ancient
Greek education, which also emphasized the harmony of physical training, music and dance. 42
The Development of Sports
Even though the Yi dynasty disregarded physical education
and sport, physical education and sporting activities for
military training were enthusiastically promoted. Physical
education and sports were designed for training the body and
acquiring military skills. Sporting activities for military
training included archery, horsemanship, shooting cross bow,
lance training, use of a fowling piece, use of a lash, and
reading and explaining the seven military treatises.
Some folk game festivals during the feudalistic period
were related to the memorialization of war and the heroic
warriors. For example, festivals in honor of a warrior who had
achieved victory over intruders included dancing, a parade of
masked characters, horse racing, traditional wrestling, and
swing.19 Also, the "Kanggang suw'llae" dance, which is still
the most popular dance in Korea, originated in memorializing
Admiral Yi Sun-Sin's victory over the Japanese in the Yi
dynasty. This play is full of martial spirit. According to
tradition, the admiral used this dance to deceive the approaching enemy. When there were not enough men to rout the
Japanese, women dressed in soldiers' uniforms and took their positions on the hilltops beside the men. In the darkness the enemy mistook the circling movement of the dance for massive troop movements and was discouraged from attacking.20 Another military dance, the "Victory Dance of C h ’ungmu", also called
"Drum Dance,"21 is a group dance performed in formation, with 43
advance and retreat movements done to martial music. With a
drum in the center of the dance area, four dancers stand at the
compass points, and advance to hit the drum, singing and
circling around the drum throughout the dance. During the late
Yi dynasty the "Drum Dance" was performed in various ceremonies
held at army garrisons and in rites commemorating the birth and
death of Admiral Yi S u n - S i n . 2 2
Religious and ceremonial functions of physical and
sporting activities during the Feudalistic Period were also
significant. The Chinese have referred to Koreans as "the
people who loved singing and dancing."23 Many religious events
and festivals were generally celebrated by athletic contests,
dance, and music. Indeed, these celebrations were closely
associated with native religious practices intended to bring
harmony between man and the spirits of nature such as the
mountains and rivers, and other nature phenomena that had
direct impact on occupation such as agriculture and f i s h i n g . 24
During the "Lantern Festival," for example, in celebration of
Buddha's birthday, hundreds of lanterns were hung from long
strings strung across temple yards. A monk's dance was
performed on one side of the pagoda while people walked around
it singing and dancing.
Many of the seasonal festivals and ritual ceremonies
related to field work included recreational games and athletic
contests as well. "Paekchong Nori," originally a Buddhist ritual of confession on the 15th day of the seventh lunar 44
month, became a farmer's festival during the slack period
before h a r v e s t . ^5 Dances like the Flower Clown Dance, Fan
Dance, Harvest Dance, Monk's Dance, Angel Dance, and Salp'uri
Dance (a dance to exorcise evil spirits), were closely
associated with shaman rituals, and demanded a high degree of physical and spiritual expression.
There were also many popular traditional games and
recreational activities, some that are still enjoyed by Koreans
today, held to foster village unity. "War of Wagons" is the
New Year's season contest between two teams consisting of hundreds of people from the eastern and western parts of rural districts. The objective of the game is to keep the point of giant, wooden A-Frame high in the air; if it touches the ground, the team l o s e s . "Loop Fighting" is a variation of traditional tug of war. But while tug of war is a pulling match, the loop fight is a pushing contest to see which side can succeed in forcing the other's rope head to the g r o u n d . ^7
The contest takes place on the night of January fifteenth.
This is a ceremony combining all the participants and their supporters, and music and dancing continue far into the night.28 "Dancing Around the Pagoda" came to Korea with
Buddhism. This dance is performed annually in connection with ceremonies for the dead and on April eighth commemorating the birth of Buddha.29 "See-Rum," a form of Korean wrestling, is considered one of the most popular recreational folk games.
Held on the fifth day of the fifth lunar month, during the May 45
Festival, it is played mainly by men and boys throughout the
country. Today, the See-Rum contest is a professionalized
sport, as popular as such modern sports as baseball or
basketball.
There were many recreational games for young girls and
women as well. "Swing" and "See-Saw" were held during the May
Festival and the New Year's Day Festival. Young women enjoyed
swinging on ropes suspended from tall trees. In contrast to
the men's game of traditional wrestling, which is firmly
earthbound, the women's swinging is high into the air.30 These
games are still enjoyed by girls and women in rural areas.
"Soo-Bak," a kind of martial art, was practiced as a means of military training since the Three Kingdom era. Tae
Kwon Do developed from this martial art, and is Korea's national sport today. Tae Kwon Do is practiced all over the world, and may be adopted as an official Olympic Game. The New
York Times reports that "there are 7,000 martial arts clubs in the United States. There are two million to three million serious martial arts enthusiasts in the United States. Among them, Tae Kwon Do is considered one of the most popular martial arts. "31 "Archery" and "Sword" were also promoted for military training. "Kyuk-koo" (Korean field hockey) and "Tug-of-War" were played by the people of agricultural villages for group competitions. "Kite-flying" is still enjoyed in regional and national folk celebrations and in some agricultural villages.32 46
They are mainly played during the Harvest Moon Festival seasons and the May Festival.
Attempts at Modernization from 1894 to 1910
Many forces both domestic and foreign, have influenced the modernization of Korean physical education and sports. At the end of the Yi Dynasty the Korean tribute envoys that periodically went to China brought back new knowledge and books. They also brought new products of Western civilization like telescopes, clocks, maps, astronomical instruments and
Western style paintings to Korea.Meanwhile, the increasing number of converts to Catholicism since the eighteenth century, resulted in the importation of various documents on Western philosophy, theology and science. Christianity provided
Koreans with a new concept of freedom and equality for all mankinds. These new ideas and products of Western civilization had a significant effect on the lives and the way of thinking of Korean people. The impact of Western culture entering through China, gave further importance to pragmatic studies which called for socio-economic and educational reforms and readjustments. As a result, along with the influx of new books on scientific subjects and new knowledge from the West, some progressive scholars began to study revolutionary Western ideas.
Some young scholars, disgusted with the decaying
Confucian aristocracy, and turned their attention to studies of 47
a more practical nature which would have more bearing on the
welfare of the people. They advocated anti-Chinese political,
economic, and social r e f o r m , 34 criticizing all studies that
ended in mere contemplation or concentrated on abstract
morality, and ignored physical activity or practical learning.
They believed that the education values of schools in the past
were too bookish and physically and mentally debilitating.
Consequently, a series of reforms were promoted by the
government, which resulted in social, economic, political, and
educational modernization.
The Gabo reforms in 1894, were regarded as a historical
watershed distinguishing the modern and premodern periods in
the history of Korea. The Yi Dynasty, the last of Korean
feudalistic societies, was modernized through the influence of
the Gabo reforms, emphasizing the practical aspects of
education over theoretical, and adopted new economical, political and educational systems modeled upon those of the
West. Western sports were introduced to Korea by missionaries resulting in the establishment of many sports associations.
Through the Gabo reforms, Korean society emerged from the old-
fashioned feudal structure, accepting Western ideas and thought.
Phvsical Education in Schools
The Gabo reforms modernized Korean education from traditional Confucian education based on the Chinese classics 48
to new curricula based on Western educational philosophy. A
number of Koreans attempts to establish private schools. The
government also initiated an educational reform movement in
1894 which established the elementary and secondary educational
system, teacher training school and foreign language schools.
In the Educational Decree of 1895, King Gojong emphasized the
necessity of the new education, and stressed the importance of
physical e d u c a t i o n . 35 As a result, all levels of schools
provided physical education classes for students, and along
with the study of virtue and wisdom, physical education was
acknowledged as a significant factor for cultivating the whole
person. These physical education programs, however, were not
fully carried out during the beginning of this period due to
the lack of educational facilities and teachers.
In the elementary school, reading, composition,
calligraphy, Korean geography and history, recreation and
ordinary gymnastics were the main subjects. In the secondary
school, reading, writing, calligraphy, Korean geography and
history, foreign geography and history, science, and ordinary
and military gymnastics were t a u g h t . 36 Some Western sports
were introduced in schools through the teachers in the foreign
language school. The first athletic events in Korean history were held by the English language school in 1896. The athletic
events included 300, 600, 1350M running, ball throwing, high
jumping, broad jumping, and some traditional recreational
activities.37 During this period, physical education in 49 schools developed around gymnastics and recreation. The content and amount of physical education in the school are described in the following tables (Tables 1, 2, 3):
Table 1
Class Hours and Content of Physical Education in Elementary Schools^B
Grade Content Class hour & Proportion First & Second Year Recreation, Ordinary 3 hours (10.71%) gymnastics Third & Fourth Year Recreation, Ordinary 3 hours (10%) gymnastics
Table 2
Class hours and Content of Physical Education in Secondary Schools39
Grade Content Class hour & Proportion All grades (1-4) Ordinary and 3 hours (10%) Military gymnastics
Table 3
Class hours and Content of Physical Education in Colleges of Education^O
Grade Content Class hour & Proportion All grades (1-3) Ordinary gymnastics 3 hours (8.8%) Military gymnastics 50
Meanwhile, new and modern schools and social institutions
were built by various missionary groups, and modern educational
curricula from the West were adopted at all educational levels.
Combined with the foundation of other modern schools and
educational reforms, physical education and sports were
recognized as official subjects in modern schools. The
missionaries introduced such modern sports as gymnastics and
track and field, which became official subjects in the
curriculum of most school's physical education programs and
sport competitions. Many athletic competitions were held among
the schools. Further discussion of the role of missionaries in
establishing modern schools and their influence on the
development of Korean physical education will be discussed in
detail in Chapter IV.
The Development of Snorts
In the premodern period, sports curriculum consisted primarily of martial arts and traditional folk games such as
Tae Kwon Do, archery, horsemanship and See-Rum (Korean wrestling). The martial arts were pursued for spiritual and physical training and military readiness, not for relaxation or enjoyment.41 Since the end of the nineteenth century, however, modern sports introduced by missionaries, replaced the informal games (Table 4). In particular, various team sports such as soccer, introduced by the crew of a British warship, were brought to Korea by Europeans and Americans, and modern sports 51
were incorporated into the programs of the modern schools and
other institutions such as the YMCA.42
Table 4
Introduction of Modern Sports into Korea*^
Year Sports Year Sports 1895 Gymnastics 1905 Football, Baseball 1896 Sword (Kendo) 1906 Cycling, Judo Track and Field 1907 Basketball 1898 Swimming 1908 Skating, Softball Tennis 1904 Shooting 1909 Equestrian, Archery
Enthusiasm for modern sports grew quickly. The first
official competition in track and field was held in 1896 under
the guidance of Hutchison, a teacher of English. The first
baseball game, introduced into Korea by American missionary,
Gillett, was held in 1906. Softball Tennis became a very
popular game among Korean young people,44 leading to the
organization of the first softball tennis club, named "Haoe
dong," in 1908, and the first softball tennis event in 1909.45
The YMCA also contributed greatly to this movement. In Chapter
IV, the impact of missionaries on Korean physical education and
sport will be discussed in detail.
Other sporting organizations also emerged during the beginning of the twentieth century. The first sport institutions in Korea, the Korean Physical Education and Sports 52
Club, was organized in 1906, sponsoring various sporting
e v e n t s . 46 The Association of Christian Youth, or "Hwangsung",
was organized in 1906, and played an important role in the
popularization of such modern sports as baseball, basketball
and volleyball. In addition, the Association of Korean
People's Sports (1907), the Haoedong Sport Club (1908), the
Daedong Sport Club (1908), the Kwanghak Sport Club (1908), the
Archery Club (1909), the Association for the Study of
Gymnastics (1909) were established. The Association of Heavy
and Military gymnastics (1908) was considered the first Korean
soldier's sport organization, and the Kyungsung Sport Club, was
organized and established by Underwood and Davison in 1914.47
It also contributed to the introduction of recreation and
modern sports into Korea.
The Colonial Period - 1910 to 1945
In the latter part of the Yi Dynasty, the government
split into several domestic factions. Severe disputes erupted
among these factions, and corruption spread among government officials. China, Russia and Japan began to intervene in the domestic affairs of the Yi Dynasty for the benefit of their own countries, and finally, with Japan's defeat of the Chinese and
Russian forces, Japan secured a strong hold over Korea. At last, Japan forced Korea to sign the Annexation Treaty on
August 29, 1910. Korea lost her sovereignty to Japan, Koreans were deprived of their political rights, and the Colonial
Period began. 53
The impact of Japanese colonialism was bitter and
profound. Korea underwent extreme oppression and hardship as
Japan tried to wipe out Korean national and cultural identity,
and to rewrite Korean history.^® Korean national
characteristics, institutions, and traditions were rejected by
the Japanese, replaced by "equivalent" Japanese forms.*9 The
Korean language was banned, and Koreans were forced to speak
Japanese and bow to an image of Japan's Emperor. In 1939,
Koreans were even forced to take Japanese names.In 1940,
Japanese became the "national language" and Korean language
courses were abolished in the elementary and secondary school
levels.51 Strong pressure was even applied by the Japanese
authorities on Chungdo-kyo, Confucianism, Christianity and
Buddhism, and the entire population of Korea was forced to
participate in various observances of Japanese Shintoism.52
Japan did, however, make some contributions to Korea's
educational modernization. Several new and modern schools were
opened at all educational levels, and the opportunity for
education was expanded. For example, the Japanese authorities
extended primary education to "common schools" throughout the
country. Secondary schools were primarily for the children of
Japanese expatriates, but admitted some Korean students.53 The main effort was directed toward the "Japanization" of Korean people. However, under the Japanese educational administration, education was not for the benefit of the
Koreans, but to further Japan's imperialistic aims, and to turn 54
Korean children into loyal subjects of Japan. The Imperial
Ordinance No. 229, proclaimed on August 23, 1911, clearly
stipulates that "the essential principle of education in Chosen
(Korea) shall be the making of loyal and good subjects.
Under the slogan "Japan-Korean Unity," the Japanese
systematically used the educational system as an instrument for
their own imperialistic purposes. All school instruction was
centered around ideas of "the divinity of the Emperor, the
superiority of the Japanese people, and the sacredness of
Japanese soil."55 That is, the schools were more concerned with making good loyal subjects of Japan and obedient workers
for the expansion of the Japanese Empire, than they were with
educating Korean children.
Phvsical Education in Schools
At the beginning of the occupation, the Japanese allowed
Koreans to participate in a limited amount of physical education and sporting activities. They also acknowledged some
Korean sports organizations to appease Korean sentiment against the annexation. The Japanese government used physical education and sports as means of controlling the Korean people, but the Colonial government tried to obliterate the democratic and nationalistic characteristics of Korean physical education and sports. The curriculum of the school's physical education program was strictly regulated, prohibiting traditional Korean recreational games in schools. Japanese recreational games 55
were instituted in their place, along with Swedish gymnastics,
which, were practiced instead of military gymnastics. The
competitive modern sports introduced by the missionaries, and
other recreational activities, were p l a y e d . 56 Heavy gymnastics
were adopted as an official subject in curriculum of the high
schools.57
The Development of Snorts
Like the period of Korean modernization in the end of
nineteenth century, many modern sports were introduced into
Korea during the Colonial period. Volleyball was introduced by
Barnhart, an American missionary, in 1915, and the first
volleyball event was held at a YMCA gymnasium in March, 1917.
Table tennis was imported from England around 1918.58 Rowing,
boxing and skiing were also introduced in Korea during this period.
Meanwhile, under the Japanese oppression, some Korean
educators and political leaders tried to inspire patriotism in
Korean people through sports. Many sports organizations were
established to resist Japanese occupation. The Korean Sport
Federation, for example, was organized in 1910, and the Korean
Sport Association in 1920. The Korean Sport Association lasted until 193 8, when Japan forced it to disorganize, but it had already played a pivotal role in the development of Korean sports. Table 5 illustrates this development: 56
Table 5
The Sport Events by the Korean Sport Association^®
The Name of Sport Event The Date of Foundation The National Baseball Tournament 1920 The National Soccer Tournament 1921 The National Softball Tennis Tournament The National Track and Field Competition 1924 The National Korean Wrestling Tournament 1929 The National Swimming Competition 1930 The National Basketball Championship 1931 The National Amateur Boxing Tournament The National Marathon Tournament 1933
In addition, the Association of Korean Baseball Umpires
(1923), the Association of Korean Softball Tennis (1925), the
Association of Korean Basketball (1925), the Association of
Korean Wrestling (1927), the Association of Korean Track and
Field (1928), the Association of Korean Swimming (1931), the
Association of Korean Soccer (1933) and the National Federation of Korean Amateur Boxing (1934) were founded.G® Despite
Japanese oppression, the YMCA contributed continuously to the introduction and promotion of modern sports, greatly influencing the Korean's attitude toward sports. 57
Table 6
The Activity of the YMCA in 191461
Sport Events Participants Sport Events Participants
Soccer (41) 1,145 Baseball (75) 1,575
Basketball (27) 439 Volleyball (69) 1,871
Gymnastics (83) 4,312 Judo (196) 2,627
Many Koreans participated in sports events for the
purpose of increasing their strength and promoting a
nationalistic spirit. Although Korean athletes could not
represent Korea, they participated in many international and
Olympic games. Among the many records, Son Kee-Jung, a Korean marathon runner, took a gold medal at the 1936 Olympic g a m e s , 62
a great encouragement to Korean people during Japanese
occupation.
With the start of World War II, the Colonial government dissolved all Korean physical and sporting associations.
Instead, the Korean Sports Development Committee was established in order to use Korean physical education and sports for military purposes. In the schools, physical education was replaced with military training, and all modern sporting games were prohibited until 1945. 58
The Independence Period; 1945 to the Present
With an Allied victory at the end of World War II, Korea
was liberated from thirty-six years of Japanese domination.
The liberation and independence of Korea was based on a series
of international treaties, including the Cairo Conference and
the Potsdam Declaration.63 Before the plans for Korean
independence could be implemented, however, the country was
divided in two. North Korea was occupied by the Soviet Union
on August 10, 1945. The United States Army Forces occupied
South Korea on September 8, 1945.64 The military leaders of
the United States and Soviet Union had agreed that Soviet
troops would accept the Japanese surrender north of the 38th parallel and that American troops would accept the surrender
south of it. That is, the line of demarcation was intended to be a temporary device to fix responsibility between the United
States and the Soviet Union for carrying out the Japanese
surrender. The "temporary" line was arbitrarily interpreted by
the Soviet occupation authorities as a permanent delineation between two military z o n e s . 65
The United States Forces in Korea established the United
States Army Military Government in September, 1945, directly governing the nation until 1948. During this time, Korean political, economic, and social orders were radically re arranged; U.S. military authorities encouraged education and sought to introduce American educational principles to K o r e a . 66
A number of American educational advisors contributed to the 59
modernization of the Korean schools, implementing radical
educational reforms in the school system and in the curriculum.
The influence of the American Military Government on the
development of Korean physical education and sports will be
discussed in more detail in Chapter IV.
After three years, in 1948, the Republic of Korea was
founded in Korea. The government supplied technical and
financial assistance for the development of society, helping to
improve facilities for education, health, housing, and roads.
It improved or supplied electrification, communication, and
irrigation and flood-control projects.6? in particular,
considerable attention was given to the expansion and
improvement of the educational system, the new government
regarded education as an important means of improving the overall development of the nation.
After liberation from Japan, the population in Korea greatly increased. A large amount of the population gathered in cities such as Seoul and Pusan. From 1946 to 1948, about
2.3 million refugees returned to South Korea from North Korea,
Japan, Manchuria, Russia and other Pacific areas. South
Korea's population grew from 16. 6 million in 1944 to 20.2 million in 1948.68 Radical industrialization also created an influx of people to the cities. For instance, in the 1960's the rural population made up 70% of the total population, but the 1980's, it had decreased to 27%.69 Seoul became one of the largest cities in the world. 60
The development of cities played an important role in the
development of Korean economics and communication, and
transportation, and brought about changes in Korean society, as
well as changes in Korean physical education and sports. For
example, in Seoul, traditional Korean folk games gradually
disappeared, and many large sports gymnasiums were established.
The first professional sport, boxing, emerged in Seoul in 1962.
Since the establishment of the Third Republic of Korea in
1963, in particular, successful economic and industrial
development accompanied many social events and significant
changes of Korean society. Successful industrialization not
only improved the standard of living due to the rise in per
capita income, but it also reduced working hours, consequently,
creating greater amounts of leisure time for recreation and
sports. These trends were also responsible for effecting attitudes towards and the structure of sports. The government of the Third Republic stressed the importance of physical education and sport, adopting the slogan "physical strength is the foundation of national power." According to the Decree for the Promotion of National Physical Education and Sport, Sports
Days and Sports Weeks were designated by the Presidential ordinance, and were enacted by the Supreme Council for National
Reconstruction in 1962. The national government built and administered national athletic facilities that met international regulations. Organizations and industries of more than 500 employees had to establish at least one athletic 61 team and employ a coach for that team, who met national standards for coaching.
Phvsical Education in Schools
After liberation from Japan, the regular curriculum at all levels began to include physical education. Some newly established high schools emphasized physical education and sports, and several colleges established Departments of
Physical Education for the first time in Korean history (Table
7) .
Table 7
The Establishment of the Department of Physical Education in Universities70
The Name of College The Date of Foundation 4-Year Ewha University October, 1945 Univ. Seoul National University August, 1946 Kyungbuk National Univ. May, 1952 Chosun University March, 1953 Kyunghee University February, 1954
In college Physical Education Department, curriculums were designed mainly for the purpose of training physical education teachers in secondary schools. The sciences related to physical education were introduced, and modern sports were also emphasized in classes. The following demonstrates the early stages in the development of physical education (Table
8) . 62
Table 8
The Curriculum of Physical Education of Ewha University in 194871
Grade Subiects (Hours / a Week)
Botany (4), Track and Field (2), The First Basketball (2), Apparatus (2), Folk dance Year (4), Badminton (2), Camping (2)
Physiology (4), Ethics (4), Arts (4), The Second Practice (2), Folk dance (4), Tumbling (2) Year Folk dance (4), An optional subiect (1)
The Theory of Recreation (2), The Third The Physical Education (2) Year The Tests & measurements (2), Practice (1), The Principle of Health & Physical Education(2), Teaching Methods (2) First Aid Treatments (4) Adaptation of Activities to the Individual (2), Folk Dance (2), Soft Tennis (2), Recreation (2), Camping (2).
The Fourth Hygiene (2), Educational Psychology (3) An Introduction of Sociology (3) Year The Theory of Muscular Movements (2) Exercise Physiology (2), Practicum of Teaching(6), Practice (1), Folk Dance (6), Recreation (2)______
The period after the military revolution on May 16, 1961, may be regarded as the Golden Age in the history of Korean physical education in schools. The government enacted the 63 decree for the development of physical education and sports in
1962. The aims and objectives of physical education in school was set forth in the Charter of National Education by the government in 1968.72 According to the Charter, physical education was emphasized as a means of developing a sincere mind and strong body. Furthermore, through the participation of physical education and sports in schools, cooperation and the spirit of fairness were emphasized.
As a result, physical education based on democratic educational ideas became an integral part of the total educational program for the harmonious development of human beings. Gymnastics, sports, and recreational activities became major subjects in physical education classes. The government increased the credit for physical education in all levels of schools. The placement test for physical fitness and motor ability became a requirement for entrance into college.73 The examination included testing in track and field, ball throwing, chin-ups, sit-ups, and the long jump. Along with the inclusion of these tests, in 1972 the government established a new sporting event for the youth, the National Youth Sports
Tournament (Table 9): 64 Table 9
The Events of the National Youth Sport Tournament?*
Track & Field, Gymnastics, Swimming, Elementary School Soccer, Basketball, Volleyball, Events Table tennis. Badminton, Handball, Archery
Track Sc Field, Gymnastics, Swimming, Soccer, Baseball, Tennis, Softball tennis. Basketball, Table Middle School tennis. Handball, Rugby, Volleyball, Events Cycling, Wrestling, Ssirum (Korean wrestling), Judo, Kendo, Archery, Shooting, Hockey, Fencing, Badminton, Tae Kwon Do.
In addition, Ssirum (Korean wrestling) for students in
elementary school and boxing, weight lifting and modern pentathlon for those in middle school were offered as
exhibition events. With the establishment of The National
Youth Sports Tournament, many modern sports were introduced to elementary and secondary school students, and became major
subjects in the physical education classes.
The Development of Snorts
Since liberation from Japan, many organizations and institutions for physical education and sports have emerged. 65
The Korean Amateur Sports Association was reorganized in 1945
and became the governing body for all physical education and
sports. The Korean Olympic Committee, established in 1947,
the Korean Society of Sports and Physical Education, in 1953,
and the Korean School Sport Association in 1958, helped to
accelerate the development of sports science. In 1961, the
Korean Recreation Association was founded, and in 1982, the
Ministry of Sports and Youth was established as the national
administrative body for the development of physical education
and sports. These new sports associations played an important
role in promoting Korean physical education and sports.
Also during this period, numerous national and
international sports competitions and athletic contests were
held throughout the country. The National Sports Festival,
held each October in various major cities, recognizes twenty-
seven categories of s p o r t s . in 1960 the Asian Soccer Games
were held in Seoul. Hosting the 1986 Asian Games and 1988
Olympic Games undoubtedly contributed to the development of
physical education and sports on a national and international
level. The 1988 Olympic Games were generally regarded as the most successful in Olympic history because of the number of
sports events, participating delegations and athletes, and the
number of new world records.For example, 160 nations participated in the event. Over 39,000 participated in 1,030
events, including 13,300 athletes, officials, administrative personnel, and media representatives. Thirty-three world 66 records and 27 Olympic records were set. An estimated 2.5 billion people throughout the world watched the Games on television, and actual attendance totaled approximately a quarter of a million people.77
Throughout modern history, Korean athletes have contributed to national prestige through international events such as the Asian games, the Olympic games, and the World championships. At the 193 6 Olympics in Berlin, Son Ki-jung won a gold medal in track as a member of the Japanese t e a m . 78 in the 1948 Olympic Games, Korea participated as an independent nation for the first time, an epochmaking event in the history of Korean physical education and sports. Since that time,
Korea has steadily improved its showing, excelling primarily in archery, table tennis and contact sports such as boxing, wrestling, and judo. In 1952, the Korean Olympic Team participated in the Olympic Games despite the Korean War (1950-
1953). In the 1976 Olympic Games, Yang Jeong-Mo, a Korean wrestler, won Korea's first a gold medal, and in the 1988
Olympic Games, Korean athletes won 33 medals, 12 gold, 10 silver and 11 bronze, placing Korea on fourth after the Soviet
Union, East Germany, and the United States.
With the rapid growth of the economy, professional sports began to appear in the latter half of the twentieth century.
For example. Boxing became professional in 1962 and golf in
1968. In the 1980s, professional sports such as baseball, soccer, and Korean wrestling thrived. A number of skilled 67
amateur teams were also sponsored by Korean business
enterprises. The emergence of professional or semi-
professional sports impacted greatly on the development of
sports in Korea. Today, sports have become indispensable to
Korean life. A large number of people participate regularly in
several kinds of sporting activities, with many sports fans
attending professional sporting events, and newspapers, magazines and many various television shows reporting on
sporting events every day.
Summary
The development of physical education and sports in Korea can be divided into four stages: (1) The premodern period, prior to 1894, (2) The attempts at modernization, from the Gabo reforms in 1894 to 1910, (3) The colonial period, from 1910 to
1945, (4) The independent period, from 1945 to the present.
During the premodern period, physical and sporting activities were fashioned after hunting, agriculture, pottery making and other adult pursuits. They were also centered around military training with the emphasis on physical strength, military arts, morality, patriotism, aesthetic appreciation and chivalry. In the mountainous country, singing and dancing were integrated into sporting activities, resembling ancient Greek education in part, through concentration on the harmony of physical training, music and dance. Tae Kwon Do, Korea's national 68
sport, originated from this time, and maintain important place
in Korean sports today.
Religious ceremonies and annual folk festivals provided
the foundation for other physical and sporting activities.
During religious festivals, dance was integrated with
traditional games and recreational activities. See-Rum, Kyuk-
Koo, Tug-of-war, kite-flying. Swing and Jumping See-Sawing were
emerged from folk festivals, some of which are still played
today.
The introduction of Western culture and Christianity at
the end of the nineteenth century led government to reform
educational system and curriculums. New curriculums from the
West were adopted at all educational levels, and physical
education and sport were recognized as official subjects in
modern schools. Some Western sports, such as track and field,
became popular in Korea. Unfortunately, these reforms did not
have enough time to make significant changes in Korean society
because of the Japanese annexation. During the Japanese
occupation, traditional recreational games were prohibited, physical education curriculums were strictly regulated, and the
Japanese organized and controlled such sports associations as
the Korean Sports Federation, and the Korean Sports
Association. These organizations gave the Japanese control over all organized sports and sporting events, and with the
start of World War II, the Japanese government dissolved all
Korean sports associations, replacing physical education in 69
schools military training, prohibiting all sporting games until
1945.
The radical shift toward industrialization and the
increase in urban population following the three years of the
United States military government in Korea brought about
changes in physical education and sport. With more leisure
time, a rise in per capita income and the development of
transportation and communication systems, Koreans had more
opportunities for recreation and sport. Under the slogan
"Physical strength is the foundation of national power," the
government of the Third Republic also stressed the importance
of physical education and sport, promoting organized team
sports within industry. Based on the successful
industrialization and urbanization, the government promoted professionalization of sports. Professional sports such as
boxing, golf, baseball, soccer, and wrestling appeared in the
1960's and 1980's and have had a great impact on Korean sports
development. Today, sports have become an indispensable part
of Korean life. Most Korean participate regularly in several kinds of sporting activities. Most Korean sports fans go to professional sports events and the mass media report on them extensively. 70
FOOTNOTES
1 Korean Amateur Sport Association, The History of Korean Physical Education and Sports. Seoul: Korean Amateur Sport Association, 1965, p.108.
2 Hongkee Karl, KOREA: Her History and Culture, Seoul: Office of Public Information in Republic of Korea, 1954, p.18.
3 Ibid, p.23.
4 Ibid, p.27.
5 Ibid, p.29.
6 Ibid, p.53.
7 Ibid, p.56.
8 Ibid, p.65.
9 Woo-Keun Han, p.496.
10 Korean National Commission for Unesco, Traditional Performing Arts of Korea. Seoul: Kwangmyong Printing Co., 1975. p. 11.
11 Homer B. Hulbert, The Passing of Korea. Seoul: Yonsei University Press, 1969, p.335.
12 Hongkee Karl, A Handbook of Korea. Seoul: Office of Public Information in Republic of Korea, 1954, p.287.
13 Ibid, p.288.
14 Korean Amateur Sport Association, p.84.
15 Man-kyu Yi, History of Korean Education. Seoul: Ulyu Munhwasa, 1947, Vol. I, p.49.
16 Woo-Keun Han, The History of Korea, translated by Kyung-shik Lee (Seoul: The Eulyoo Publishing Company, 1970), p. 61.
17 Ibid. 71 18 Andrew C. Nahm, Reaction and the Response to the Opening of Korea: 1876-1884. in Korea's Response to the West, p.19.
19 Korean National Commission for Unesco, p.13.
20 Ibid.
21 Ibid, p.95.
22 Ibid.
23 Andrew C. Nahm, p.22.
24 Korean National Commission for Unesco, p.24.
25 Andrew C. Nahm, p.22.
26 Ibid, p.82.
27 Ibid, p.85.
28 Ibid, p.84.
29 Ibid, p.86.
30 Ibid, p.87.
31 The New York Times, Sunday, February 16, 1992. p. 10.
32 Korean Amateur Sport Association, p.110.
33 Hongkee Karl, p.72.
34 Andrew C. Nahm, p.147.
35 Young-Gap Kim & Young-Moo Lim, The History of Korean Physical Education and Snorts. Seoul: Kyo Hak Yeon Ku Sa, 1985, p.178.
36 Ibid, p.181.
37 Ibid, p.186.
38 Hak-Rae Lee, A History of Snorts and Physical Education in Modern Korea. Seoul: Ji Sik Sanup Sa, 1990, p.250.
39 Ibid.
40 Ibid, p.251.
41 Korean Amateur Sport Association, p.109. 72
42 Ibid, p.110.
43 Ibid, pp.36-61.
44 Hak-Rae Lee, p.104.
45 Young-Gap Kim & Young-Moo Lim , p.204.
46 Ibid, p.211.
47 Hak-Rae Lee , p.77.
48 Korean Affairs Institute, The Voice of Korea. August 29, 1944.
49 Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers, Education in the Japan. Tokyo: Civil Information and Education Section, 1948, p.33.
50 Woo-Keun Han, p.496.
51 Korean Affairs Institute, The Voice of Korea. August 29, 1944.
52 Hongkee Karl, KOREA: Her History and Culture, p. 89.
53 Donald S. Macdonald, The Koreans: Contemporary Politics and Society. Boulder: Westview Press Inc., 1990, p.85.
54 Governor-General of Chosen, Instructions. Regulations, and Remarks Concerning Private Schools. Seoul: Government-General Publication Co., 1915, p.1
55 Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers, p.33.
56 Hak-Rae Lee, p.94.
57 Ibid, p.92.
58 Young-Gap Kim & Young-Moo Lim, pp.241-242.
59 Ibid, p.247.
60 Ibid, pp.252-253.
61 Hak-Rae Lee, p.111.
62 Ibid, p . 1 9 2 .
63 Hongkee Karl, p.102. 73 64 Ibid.
65 Ibid, p.103.
66 Korean Amateur Sport Association, p.85.
67 Ibid.
68 Neil L. Kennedy, Dream Your Wav to Success; the Storv of Dr. Yonaai Cho and Korea (Plainfield: Logos International, 1980), p.73.
69 Jae-Hoon Shim, Phenomenon of the Cross. Far Eastern Economic Review, April 19, 1984, p.45.
70 Hyun-Sung Ra, The History of Korean Physical Education. Seoul: Mun Cheon Sa, 1975, p.295.
71 Chung-ryang Jeong, The History of Ewha University. Seoul: Ewha University Publishing Co., 1976, pp.315-316.
72 Donald S. Macdonald, p.85.
73 Hak-Rae Lee, p.223.
74 Ibid, p.228.
75 Donald S. Macdonald, p.111.
76 Ibid.
77 Ibid, p.112.
78 Ibid, p.111. CHAPTER IV
THE MODERNIZATION OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT IN KOREA: THE AMERICAN INFLUENCE
Introduction
Since the nineteenth century, during the modernization of
Korean society, America has had a significant influence on
Korean politics, economics, culture, and education. This
influence has been as important to the nation as was the
Chinese influence during Korea's premodern period.
At the end of the nineteenth century, as mentioned in
Chapter III, a practical learning movement emerged with the
Gabo Reforms. Progressive scholars and leaders believed that
education was the best way to reform the culture and society, which was in sharp contrast to traditional Korean educational philosophy. Efforts were made to reform the feudalistic culture and society by introducing the society to Western ideas, and American Christian missionaries played an important role in this modernization.
Christian ideas were a factor in the change from a premodern to a modern culture. Christianity brought modern social value and led Koreans to recognize the superiority of
Western science and technology. For example, the principles of equality and individualism, based on the direct relationship 74 75
between man and God in Christianity, had an impact on the
relationship between king and subject, the relationship between
father and son, which is the basis of Confucian ethics, the
caste system, Confucian philosophical and educational thought.
In particular, the value placed upon work in Protestant
missionary groups influenced traditional Korean attitudes, which had emphasized intellectual activity over physical
activity, thus encouraging physical activity and recreation.
The increasing number of missionary groups gradually planted the seeds of social change,l introducing American
Christian thought and life styles. They also brought modern
knowledge and methods of instruction for religious and
educational purposes.% However, because of the Japanese annexation in 1910, the social and educational reforms,
including those in physical education, could not be fully developed. During the period of Japanese occupation (1910-
1945), Christian activity was prohibited.
Since 1945, America has caused many changes in Korean society and education. The America military occupation was aimed at not only the independence of Korea, but also forming a bulwark against communism.^ The United States Army Military
Government in Korea (USAMGIK) was established to help Koreans create an independent and democratic nation; it reorganized the
Korean political, social, economic, and educational structures and systems, modeling itself on the structure and system of the
United States. For example, a democratic form of government 76 and a capitalistic economic system were introduced, and
American educational and philosophical thought was implemented by educators affiliated with the American military government.
Korean scholars, who had studied in, and made field trips to, the United States, also brought the American educational philosophy, system, and curriculum back with them. To improve the quality of the educational system, they applied progressive democratic American educational thought to Korean educational aims and objectives. Physical education in the schools developed within the New Education Movement, which was based on
John Dewey's pragmatic educational thought.
The United States Armed Forces Television Network, radio broadcasts, and American motion pictures contributed to
Korea's reception of American democratic thought and culture.4
These mediums showed American society to Korea, resulting in the popularizing of such Western sports as football, basketball, and baseball in Korea. Consequently, the history of modern Korean physical education and sports cannot be understood without looking at the impact America has had on
Korean society and education.
The Historical Perspective
In 1882, Korea made a treaty of amity and commerce with the United States, opening Korea to the West.5 The American government encouraged the Korean government to establish close relations with Western powers, and it supported Korean 77
independence from several imperialistic countries' aggressive
policies during the nineteenth century.® American missionaries
built the Korean churches, and Western-style hospitals, schools
and YMCAs. For example, Horace N. Allen, an American
Presbyterian, established the first clinic called the
"Kwanghyewon" in 1885.? It was the predecessor of Severance
Hospital, which was the first, and is the finest, modern
hospital in Korea.
During the colonial period, American missionaries
continued to support Korea's independence, even though they
were severely persecuted by the Japanese. After the Japanese
surrender on August 15, 1945, Korea was liberated from Japanese
colonial domination; but. Because of power politics between the
United States and the Soviet Union, the Peninsula of Korea was
divided into north and south. The northern part was occupied by Russian troops, and the United States Army Military
Government directly governed South Korea for three years.
During the period of the United States Army Military Government
in South Korea, from 1945 to 1948, Americans contributed enormously to the modernization of Korean society, and on
August 15, 1948, the Republic of Korea was established.
However, even though Korea was liberated, Korean society was still under the influence of Japanese Colonialism; Korean culture was still basically shaped by traditional
Confucianism.8 78
The Influence of Christianity and the American missionary
The first Christian missionary arrived in Korea, through
China, in the late eighteenth century.9 Before the arrival of
Christian missionaries in Korea, it is believed that some
Korean people already had contact with them. It is believed
that they had contact because of the annual Korean tributary
mission to Peking, China. For example. Ho Kyun, a member of
the Korean tributary mission to China, introduced a number of
Western books, including theological works and religious books,
in 1603.10 However, it was not until the latter part of the nineteenth century that many Christian missionary groups rushed
into Korea. Since then, Christianity has grown steadily and rapidly. Now, there are over 1.5 million Catholics and 5.3 million Protestants, nearly a fifth of the South Korean population.11
A number of Christian new ideas had an important effect on the development of physical education, changing Korean attitudes toward physical and recreational activity. Among these ideas, the value of work and the emphasis on public education directly impacted the development of physical education in Korea.
The Value of the Protestant Work Ethic
The "Protestant Work Ethic" was important to the modernization of Korean society,12 contributing to Korean economic development, and to the development of physical 79
education. As mentioned in previous chapters, Confucianism, as
a state religion, was a strong cultural, philosophical,
educational, and social principle whose ideas governed Korean
lives. For five-hundred years, Confucianism's anti-labor
sentiments were the basis for morality in Korean feudalistic
society.13 Under the Confucian principles, Korean people were
ashamed of manual labor; it was deemed as beneath the dignity
of the scholar and only befitting the "inferior man."1^ Social
caste was justified by the Mencius's tenet: "One who performs mental labor shall be the ruler while those who perform physical labor shall be the r u l e d . "15 physical work, such as
farming, commerce, manufacturing, and even the medical profession was disregarded and subjected to the lower class.
This attitude toward work resulted in contempt for physical activity. Consequently, abstract morality, ethics and
intellectual activity, rather than practical learning and physical activity, were emphasized in education. Physical education and recreational play were excluded; they were substituted by mental and cognitive subjects, such as philosophy and ethics.
A fundamentally different work ethic was brought into
Korea by the Protestant missionaries, who worked to overcome the Confucianist's low opinion of labor. According to the principles of Protestant Christianity, work of all sorts is regarded as a service rendered to God. Common activities achieved a religious significance under Christian beliefs, and 80
were regarded equally with purely religious activities.^® With
their emphasis on work, the Protestants also tried to encourage
physical activities and recreation, which was done as a means
of preserving the essential vigor of the body to glorify God.
Even though the Protestant work ethic was introduced to
Korean society, it could not have a significant effect at first
because of the deep-rooted influence of the Confucian culture.
A good example of how the upper class felt about physical
activity is revealed by a story about a missionary playing
tennis. As the story goes, an upper-class citizen asked a
missionary why he was playing tennis. This citizen felt the
missionary should have his servant play the game, because it
was obviously too strenuous for a scholar to play. This story
shows the difference between Christian and Confucian thought,
and also shows the anti-labor feelings expressed by the upper-
class. Because Confucianism had been around for five-hundred
years and the upper-class controlled the government,
Christianity could not change Korean society. Even though
several modern sports were introduced by missionaries at the
end of the nineteenth century, they could not prevail.
Christianity was, however, supported by the middle and
lower classes. Christian organizations, both Protestant and
Catholic, worked to improve the laborer's status. In particular, Christianity's denial of both class distinctions and the oppressive hierarchical Confucian social system became a plea for the liberation of the oppressed. This idea caused a 81
rapid increase in the number of converts among the lower
classes. As a result, Christianity won the confidence,
interest, and faith of the Korean people.
Because the middle and lower classes began to believe in
Christianity, they also began to accept Western ideas. One of
these ideas was the Protestant work ethic. Koreans realized
the benefits of this work ethic and began to participate in
trade and commerce, eventually gaining the prosperity that gave
them the ability to buy nobility status. With this new found
prosperity, they became a new power in society. With the
emergence of this new power, the Protestant work ethic
gradually began to affect Korean attitudes toward physical
work, and to change attitudes towards physical activities such
as play, games, and physical education in schools.
However, it was not until the 1960's that the Protestant
work ethic began to spread through Korean society. It was
emphasized by President Jeong-Hee Park, who was determined to
make labor an important part of society, so the economy could
grow. He believed that it was the Protestant work ethic that
helped the Puritans succeed in opening up the New World.
According to Park, the Confucian educational and caste system were directly responsible for the lack of a work ethic and an
enterprising spirit among Koreans. He stressed the Protestant work ethic, for the development of economic growth, under the name of the New Community Movement. He asserted that "at any
time and in any society, labor has been m a n ’s primordial 82
instrument of life. It still remains the most effective weapon
against want and poverty. The civilization and culture that
man today enjoys are fruits of such labor. No society that
despises labor can expect to develop itself.As a result,
the Protestant work ethic played an important role in the rapid
economic development and industrialization of Korea. The Gross
National Product (GNP) grew about 8.3% per year during the
first five-year plan (1962-1966), 10.5% annually during the
second five-year plan (1967-1971), and 11.2% annually during
the third five-year plan (1972-1976).Because of rapid
industrialization and the increase in the per capita income of
Koreans, the life style of the Korean people changed. As mentioned in Chapter III, Korean attitudes and recognition of
recreational activities and sports also changed.
The national government emphasized the Protestant work
ethic, diligence and frugality, creating changes in the Korean
lifestyle. Before the Protestant work ethic, most people were
idle, spending their leisure time sleeping, drinking, and gambling, but because of this work ethic, they began to have an
interest in their physical well-being. The national government also encouraged the idea of physical well-being by promoting extracurricular activities, because it believed that it would increase the diligence of the people. For example, students were encouraged to participate in morning exercises, including gymnastics, soccer, volleyball, and folk dance. The national government supported athletic tournament and encouraged people 83
to participate in sports clubs. To insure the success of the
New Community Movement, the government appointed community
leaders. There were two main requirements for this position:
one must be patriotic and one must also be physically fit, of
sound mind, and strong body. Many sports and recreational
activities gained popularity among Koreans and physical
education became an integral part of the educational
curriculum.
The Public Education in the new Christianity era
Although the main purpose of missionary groups in Korea was to Christianize Koreans, the missionaries greatly
influenced educational modernization. The idea of public
education in the new Christian era not only contributed to the development of education, but also laid the foundation for modern physical education and sports in Korea.
During the nineteenth century, Korea was still governed by an autocratic king, a strong caste system existed, and
Confucian ethics were emphasized. Under the Confucian tradition, education was for the nobles and upper class; not only were the ordinary people oppressed, but they were not given any educational opportunities. Furthermore, women and humbly born children were completely deprived of any educational opportunities.
Christianity ignored Confucian tradition and ethics, and advocated equality and human rights based on the relationship 84
between man and God. The Western idea of democracy, which was
promoted by Christianity, oppressed the established deep-rooted
Confucian caste system. American Protestant missionaries
criticized the old and narrow Confucian educational system that
trained only the privileged noble class.19 They asserted that
education should be extended to all people regardless of class
distinction. Protestants believed that everyone had the right
to read and interpret the Scriptures for themselves, and
believed that the ideal education was the development of a high
Christian moral standard, as well as the cultivation of good
citizens.20 They accomplished this by printing the scriptures
and religious tracts in H a n g u l , 21 which was the language of
commoners while the Chinese scripture was that of the ruling
aristocracy. The translation of the Bible into the Hangul
alphabet contributed greatly to the development of Korean
education, and helped raise the level of education for the
common people.22
American missionaries helped progressive Korean scholars
and leaders reform the traditional Confucian educational school
system and curriculum by introducing American democratic and
educational thought to Korean scholars. While emphasizing public education, American missionaries also paid attention to physical education. During the Age of the Reformation, Martin
Luther advocated the cultivation of good health to enable an
individual to devote energy to labor as well as to Christian service;23 consequently, missionaries recognized good health. 85
and vigor of body, as a means of glorifying God. These
Christian beliefs resulted in the establishment of many modern
public schools in the nineteenth century.
The establishment of modern schools, in the late
nineteenth and twentieth centuries by American Protestant
missionaries, provided the great impetus for the modernization
of Korean education. For example, the Royal English School,
which opened in 1886, was the first government-sponsored school
to study the West. It hired three American teachers to teach
mathematics, science, political science, and history. The
teachers, Delzell A. Bunker, George W. Gilmore, and Homer B.
Hulbert, were theology students from the Union Theological
Seminary of New Y o r k . 24 Henry G. Appenzeller, an American
Methodist, established the first missionary high school, the
Paejae Middle School, in 1885. The school's new educational
philosophy and modern curriculum truly pioneered modern
education in K o r e a . 25 Mary F . Scranton built a public school
for girls, the Ewha Haktang, in 1886, which was the first
girls' school in Korea, and became the largest women's
university in A s i a . 26 soon thereafter, in 1897, the Kyungsin
School and the Chongsin Girls School were founded by a
Presbyterian group. In 1899 the Sungsil High school for boys was established in Pyongyang, and in 1904, Wanamaker, working with both Presbyterians and Methodists, established the YMCA in
S e o u l . 27 As for higher education, Yonhui College, the predecessor of Yonsei University, was founded by Presbyterians 86
and Methodists in 1905. It is the largest Christian university
in Korea. Sungsil College was established by Presbyterians in
1906.28 These institutions were open to anyone with the
requisite ability.29
These missionary schools brought to Korea a new
educational system, a new method of instruction, and
enlightened views toward physical education. As a result, new
curriculums and teaching methods, based on a democratic
philosophy, were introduced. Equal educational opportunities
for women were also emphasized, and as a result females were
able to be educated. In the modern schools, missionaries
taught new subjects such as English, mathematics, natural
science, western history, geography, astronomy, handicrafts,
the Bible, and physical education.20 Physical education was
also adopted as a regular subject in some Christian school
programs.
With the introduction of modern education, the democratic
and progressive thought of the American missionaries gradually
changed traditional Korean attitudes toward physical education
and sports. With the establishment of modern schools, physical
education began to be considered a significant subject in
school curriculums. At the end of nineteenth century, many
Western sports for boys and girls were also introduced by
American missionaries. For example, track and field was
introduced by Hutchison, a teacher of English, in 1896; baseball and basketball were introduced by Gillet in 1905 and 87
1907, respectively, and, volleyball was imported by Barnhart in
1916.31 However, in the first modern schools, physical
education classes were very different from those of today. As
mentioned in Chapter III, even though physical education was
included in the school curriculum, the classes were not
successfully carried out due to the lack of teachers and
educational facilities. Gymnastics and military marching
drills were the major subjects.
The Influence of the United States Military Government in
Korea(1945-1948)
The period of American military rule was a transitional period in which political, economic, social, and educational
systems and structures were radically re-arranged. The
American military government established and implemented various new programs and policies that affected every aspect of
Korean life. It was a time of abrupt change in social structure, from a closed society to an open one. There was also a change in the national ideology, from imperialistic authoritarianism to democracy; the economic structure changed from a colonial economy to a liberal-capitalistic economy; and, in addition to public education, the status of women, labor, and public health were also changed.
In the historical development of Korean education, there have been many domestic and foreign forces which helped to shape educational theory as well as practice, among them the 88
Korean New Education Movement and education reforms were
modeled after those of the United States. They were landmark
movements in the history of Korean education. The Korean New
Education Movement contributed greatly to the qualitative
development of physical education, as well as education as a whole.
The Korean New Education Movement
After liberation from Japan, Korean political leaders and
educators tried to establish an independent democratic government in Korea. They reformed the political and social
structure, which had been under the influence of Confucianism and Japanese militarism. With a serious campaign for de-
Japanization, the Korean New Education Movement was initiated to promote progressive educational theories. Korean educators who had studied in the United States led the New Education
Movement, by participating directly in the affairs of the
Bureau of Education.32 The basis of the New Education Movement was derived from the American educational system in which
Dewey's educational philosophy had d o m i n a t e d . 33 The movement became the philosophical and educational background of Korean education and of physical education.
Dewey’s educational philosophy was mainly introduced by
Korean scholars, such as Lee-wook Chang, Hung-chae Kim, and
Chun-suk Auh who studied at Columbia University under him in the 1920's. During the period of the Japanese occupation, they 89
were unable to implement the democratic educational ideals,
because the Japanese educational system was based on
imperialism and colonialism. After the liberation in 1945 to
1948, they worked in the Department of Education, and had the
opportunity to implement their educational ideals. They
introduced American educational thought to Koreans, with the
help of American educational advisers.
Dewey's theories were also introduced by those who read
Dewey's book. Democracy and Education, translated into Korean
by the Korean educational officer of the Department of
Education. The translated book was used as a main textbook for
preservice and inservice teacher education. Korean teachers
began to understand American democratic education through this
Korean translation. Chun-suk Auh describes the situation as
follows:
On August 15, we were emancipated from Japan by the victory of the allied forces. We could have democracy instead of autocracy. It was true that officials in charge of Korean education among U. S. Army Forces in Korea who occupied South Korea had the theory of democratic education. In addition to this, Korean educators who studied in the United States and then acted in limited field tried to participate in democratic education. Educators who indirectly learned Dewey's educational thought in Japan in the nineteen-thirties and a few elementary school teachers who liked Dewey's educational thought participated in the democratization of Korean education.34
According to Dewey's philosophy of education began influencing Korean education, because leading Korean scholars believed that it was the best model of democratic e d u c a t i o n . 35 90
Dewey's educational theories and thought also had an influence
on Korean students. The Korean Federation of Education
Associations (KFEA), established in 1947, contributed greatly
to the New Education Movement. In 1948, the Association of New
Education was established by Korean leaders such as Kon-yong
Chong, Hyun-bai Choi, Man-kyo Park, Byon-uk Cho, and Chun-suk
A u h , 36 in order to support the Movement.
The Application of New Education to Korean Physical Education
As previously stated, physical education was relatively
disregarded for a long time in Korean society. Even though
physical education was adopted as a regular subject in school
at the end of nineteenth century, it was treated as a marginal
part of general education. Although there was a period when
physical education was emphasized, it was not used for the same
purposes as today; instead, it was emphasized for military and political purposes. Korean people also overlooked the
importance of physical education. It is believed that the
contempt for physical education was caused by Confucian
educational thought.
After the liberation of Korea, physical education was greatly influenced by the newly changed political, social, and educational systems and structures. Under the name of New
Physical Education, many changes were made in the field of physical education. Korean physical educators, who were influenced by the New Education Movement, worked to eradicate 91
the influence of Confucianism and Japanese militarism; they
tried to apply American democratic educational thought to
Korean physical education. It is true that there were some
conflicts due to the difference between the cultural and
educational backgrounds of Koreans and Americans. However,
some progressive Korean educators worked to change Korean
prejudice concerning physical education. The new democratic
physical educational thoughts, contrasted greatly with the
traditional Korean physical education thought, was based on
John Dewey's philosophy and played an important role in the
development of physical education. The impact of Dewey's
pragmatism on Korean physical education can be summarized as
follows :
1. The concept of harmonious mind and body 2. Student centered physical education 3 . Social development through physical education
Dewey's concept of harmony between body and mind played an important role in the foundation of physical education in
Korea. The viewpoint of "education through the physical" coincided with the emergence of the pragmatic philosophy in the
United States. Ellen W. Gerber explains the traditional conception of body and mind contrasted with Dewey's view of a mind-body unity as follows: 92
Although there were exceptions, one of the characteristic features of philosophical thought prior to the twentieth century was its willingness to consider the world and its occupants in terms of dichotomies. For example, there was God and man, idea and matter, society and government, thought and action, school and real life, the practical and the theoretical, the natural and the supernatural, man and animal, work and play, and mind and body. In this century there has been a movement within all disciplines to regard the world as a unified whole with seeming disparities on either end of a single continuum. As an educator John Dewey helped develop the latter trend when he evolved a philosophy of unity, of interrelationship, where action demanded thought and individuals and society were indistinguishable; school days were real life for the child; the mind and the body could under no conditions be expected to act separately. Dewey fashioned a theory wherein all artificial distinctions between things were replaced by focusing on their unity.37
Dewey's concept of mind-body unity, the mind can not be
separated from the body. Man is regarded as a unification of
body and mind. As a result, the body also has significant
value and esteem. Physical education is harmoniously joined
with intellectual education for the fullest development of
man's unique capacities and potentialities. Under the Korean
new education movement, the traditional Confucian and Japanese
colonial educational thoughts began to be substituted by
Dewey's pragmatic educational thought. With the famous Dewey's
saying, "In so far as a physical activity has to be learned, it
is not merely physical, but is mental, intellectual in quality,"38 physical education was adopted as an required
subject in elementary and secondary schools. In colleges, physical education was adopted as an optional subject. That 93
is, a number of Korean educators began to acknowledge the
values and disciplines of physical education, offering new
possibilities for integrating physical education and general
education.
Another significant change in physical education classes
concerned the relationship between teacher and student. The
previous teacher-centered physical education began to
disappear, and was replaced by student-centered physical
education. Under the Confucian and Japanese school systems,
the relationship between teacher and student was based on
inequality. For example, in the Feudalistic Period, the
position of teacher was as high as a king, and during the
Japanese colonial period, Japanese teachers wore swords in
order to display their dignity. Teachers could exercise
absolute power in class. Under new physical education,
however, the role of the students was emphasized. The role of
the teacher was not dictatorial, but one of advisor. Attempts
were made to recognize a student's individuality, and group
methods of learning replaced teacher-centered lectures. The
characteristics of the new instructional methods were the
recognition of individuality and the utilization of direct
experience.39 As a result, physical education was centered
around various games, sports, and recreational activities,
rather than in gymnastics and military drills.
The fundamental purpose of physical education, before it was changed, was not the development of organic fitness, or 94
emotional and social development, through physical activity,
but with the new education movement, physical education began
to be acknowledged as an aspect of the total educational
process. Dewey emphasized play because he believed that it
contributed to a child's social development. Physical
education in elementary and secondary schools was considered
closely related to the cultivation of a student's social
nature. As a result, Korean elementary physical education
programs emphasized natural activities, such as play and games,
and in secondary school, a varied program of physical
activities, such as sports, folk dancing, camping, and
recreation, were stressed, rather than formal gymnastics, marching, and physical fitness alone.
Education Reform
The period of U. S. military rule was the educational bridge between Japanese imperialism and American democracy, and
served as a bridge between traditional Korean and American democratic educational thought. The military government
initiated radical educational reforms, including changes in the curriculum. Under the American military government, elementary and secondary schools were opened by General Order No. 6, dated on September 17, 1945.^0 Because of this order, the number of schools and educational opportunities increased tremendously.
For example, the number of schools increased nearly 70 percent; and, while at the time of the Japanese capitulation, there were 95
only one and a half million Korean students on all school
levels, by September of 1948 the number of students increased
to almost three and a half million.The number of teachers
also increased, 55%, 569%, and 268% at the elementary, middle,
and secondary levels respectively.42
The Objectives of Education
When American authorities arrived in Korea, the Korean
people did not have a democratic tradition. The curriculum of
all levels of the school system was filled with Japanese
imperialist and militarist ideologies and practices.43 For
example, approximately 45 percent of the curriculum on the
elementary level was devoted to the "Japanization" of the
c h i l d r e n . 44 Thus, the United States authorities realized that
the most important thing was to democratize and modernize
Korea.
General John R. Hodge, Commanding General of the United
States Army Forces in Korea(USAFIK), addressed Proclamation No.
1, "To the People of Korea," on September 8, 1945.
Having in mind the long enslavement of the people of Korea and the determination that in due course Korea shall become free and independent, the Korean people are assured that the purpose of the occupation is to them in their personal and religious rights. In giving effect to these purposes, your active aid and compliance is required.45
It is true that there were some conflicts in applying
American educational thought to Korean educational settings. 96
for the Confucian tradition and Japanese Colonialism were
contradictory to the principles of American democracy.
However, the strong desire of the military government, and
Koreans, for educational reform gradually changed the pre
existing undemocratic system. As manifested in the broad aim
of occupation policy, the fundamental educational policy of the
military government was to " eradicate the previous Japanese
educational system and replace it with an American system .
In order to accomplish its aims in Korean education, the
military government planned and executed various reform
policies including curricular reform for elementary and
secondary schools.
America wished all Korean institutions were democratized
and modernized. It believed that the democratization of the
education system would be the best way to build a democratic
nation. First, U. S. military personnel tried to change the
Japanese educational system into a new democratic one,
replacing Japanese imperialism with democracy. American
advisers established Korean education programs based on
American educational models, in order to improve Korean
educational objectives and to introduce American democratic
education. They advised Koreans to form an education policy
and system which would be as effective and democratic as p o s s i b l e . 47 Korean educators began to advocate a democratic
education, and attempted to change educational ideals, systems,
contents, and methods. For example, the Teacher Training 97
Center, which introduced democratic and scientific methods to inservice teacher trainees, was one of the representative institutions in Korea that applied American educational methods. The basis of these reforms was primarily derived from progressive American educational philosophy. The education reform should be considered one of the most outstanding achievements of the American occupation. Among numerous reforms, the establishment of a national curriculum for primary and secondary schools, and a plan for compulsory primary education, were recognized as significant factors. These reforms, consequently, influenced the development of physical education and sport.
Reorganization of Educational System
The reorganization of the educational system was considered one of the most important American activities during the USAMGIK era. The military government organized the
National Committee on Education Planning (NCEP) in March of
1946,48 and it played a significant role in planning and implementing a number of education reform policies. It also contributed to the continuous improvement of teaching and learning methods in Korean schools. As a result, the Korean school system was completely reorganized. A simplified system was set up with a common primary program for all children, the
6-3-3-4 system, which was the same as that of America (Table
10) . 98
Table 10
Revised Korean Educational Systèmes
Schools Names Years Preschool Kindergarten 1-2 Elementary School National School 6 Secondary School Junior Middle School 3 Senior Middle School 3 College & University Great School 4
Hyong-Jin Yoo states that the 6-3-3-4 plan was based on
democratic American principles of education, and the plan
resulted in an increased school population.
The introduction of the American school system, 6-3-3-4, into Korean education is directly responsible for the expansion of school population. No one could be in doubt regarding the merits and contributions of the American school system in increasing the school population and in furthering the democratic ethos in Korea.
The military government made great efforts to provide equal educational opportunities for all. Primary education became compulsory and free to all students. The establishment of compulsory education for all children of grade school age was also a landmark in the history of Korea. The period of
U.S. military rule in Korea was a time of tremendous growth in the numbers of students and teachers (Table 11). 99
Table 11
Enrollments & Faculties of Korean Schools^i 1945-1947
Elementary School Secondary School Higher School Students Students Students 1945 1,372,883 79,846 7,110 1946 2,159,330 111,934 10,315 1947 2,493,462 227,447 25.813 Elementary School Secondary School Higher School Teachers Teachers Teachers 1945 23,474 1,186 753 1946 28,338 4,866 1,170 1947 36,382 7,933 2,775
Reforms of School Curriculum
The curricular reform was one of the more radical efforts
to eradicate the ideology of the Japanized school system and
create a new democratic one. It provided a cornerstone for the
development of Korean e d u c a t i o n . 52 As Auh (1959) says in
retrospect, the curricular reforms of the American military
government brought "a great hope for a new era in Korean
education in which freedom of the individual is respected,
individual differences are recognized, and living education prevailed." 53 Science was emphasized throughout the primary
and secondary school curricula, and vocational subjects were also included in the secondary school curricula. However, in
the beginning of the American military occupation, the governmental officers did not have any appreciable 100
understanding of the historical and philosophical background of
Korea. They also had no specific idea about what to teach in
schools. Without thinking about these considerations, the
temporary curricula for the elementary and secondary schools
were prescribed (Table 12).
Table 12
Curriculum for the Secondary School (October, 1945)54
Grade Subject ]Hours/week Subject Hours/week
1 Civil Ed. 2 Korean 7 History & Geography 3 Mathematics 4 Basic Sciences 4 English 5 Music 1 Writing 1 Drawing 1 * Physical Training 3 Vocational Ed. 1
2 Civil Ed. 2 Korean 7 History & Geography 3 Mathematics 4 Basic Sciences 4 English 5 Music 1 Writing 1 Drawing 1 * Physical Training 3 Vocational Ed. 1
3 Civil Ed, 2 Korean 6 History & Geography 4 Mathematics 4 Basic Sciences 5 English 5 Music 2 Writing - Drawing 1 * Physical Training 3 Vocational Ed. 2
4 Civil Ed. 2 Korean 7 History & Geography 3 Mathematics 4 Basic Sciences 4 English 5 Music 1 Writing 1 Drawing 1 * Physical Training 3 Vocational Ed. 3
The military government replaced the Japanese language with the Korean language, and Japanese history with Korean 101 history. Physical education also was adopted as a regular subject in school. However, there was no change in the name.
The name physical training was still used.
The National Committee on Educational Planning (NCEP) was composed of Korean educators and American Army officers. After it was created, the military government initiated an over-all reform of the Korean education system. The NCEP established the basic principles and major objectives of Korean education as follows:
It will be the fundamental idea of Korean education to cultivate, the "man of benevolence" as the aim of the establishment of the State, a citizen of a democratic nation whose character and spirit are perfect and patriotic."55
Based on the educational reforms by NCEP, sub-committees on Elementary and Secondary Education engaged in a curriculum reform for the elementary and secondary schools (Table 13, 14) 102 Table 13
The Elementary School Curriculum by the NCEP 56
Subjects 1 2 3 4 5 6 Civics 170 170 170 170 170 170 Korean Language 320 320 340 340 320 320 History 40 40 80 Geography 80 80 Arithmetic 200 200 200 200 200 200 Science 80 120 120 120 * Health Sc 320 320 240 240 240 240 Music 80 80 80 80 Writing 40 40 40 80 80 80 Fine Arts 80 80 B80 B80 B80 B80 G40 G40 G40 G40 Handwork 200 200 200 B80 B80 B80 G40 G40 G40 Labor 160 160 160 Sewing & Cooking G80 G80 G80
Note: B(Boy), G (Girl) 103
Table 14
The Secondary School Curriculum by the NCEP
Courses Grades 7 8 9 10 11 12A 12B 12C Required Subjects Morality 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 History and Geography 4 4 3 3 3 6 3 Mathematics 4 4 4 4 4 6 3 Chemistry and Physics 4 4 4 5 5 6 3 Biology 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 Korean Language 4 4 5 4 4 8 4 Chinese 2 2 2 English 4 4 5 5 5 7 7 7 * Health 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Drawing 1 1 1 Music 1 1 1 Vocational Training 2-6 2-6 2-6 Penmanship 1 1 1 Optional Subjects 6 6 6 6 Foreign Language 4 Music 2 Arts 2 Law and Economics 2 Vocational Training 4 Sociology 2 Psychology 2 Philosophy 2 Life Discipline 2
As the principles and objectives of other educational subjects were established, the principles of physical education also were established to bring the above mentioned idea to perfection:
Cultivation of a spirit of persistent enterprise by elevating the physical standard of the p e o p l e . 58 104
It is worthy to note that the name "Physical Training,"
which was used during the Japanese Colonial period, was changed
to "Health." Health and Music were grouped into the same
subject. With the installation of the 6-3-3-4 school system in
September 1946, the curriculum for the elementary and secondary
schools was revised. The revised curriculum was intended to
impart democratic knowledge and attitudes through new teaching
methods (Tables 15, 16, 17).
Table 15
Curriculum for the Elementary School(1946-1947) 59
Courses Grades 1 2 3 4 5 6 Language Arts 360 360 360 360 320 320 Social Studies 160 160 200 160 160 160 Science 200 B240 B240 Sc G200 G200 Arithmetic 160 160 200 200 200 200 * Health 200 200 200 200 200 200 Music 80 80 80 80 80 80 Art Sc Handicraft 160 160 160 160 B160 B160 G120 G120 Cooking & Sewing G80 G80 Total 1120 1120 1120 1360 1360 1360
Note: In minutes. B: Boys, G: Girls 105
Table 16
Curriculum for the Junior Middle School (1946 -47)60
Courses Grades 7 8 9 Required Subjects Social Studies 5 5 5 Mathematics 5 5 - General Science 5 5 5 Korean Language 5 5 5 * Physical Ed. & Health 5 5 5 Vocational Subjects 2 2 2 Music 2 2 2 Optional Subjects Music 2 2 2 Fine Arts 2 2 2 Crafts 2 2 2 Mathematics - - 5 Foreign Language 5 5 5 Vocational Subjects 0-10 0-10 0-10 Special Courses Science 1 1 1 Korean 1 1 1
Note: In class hours per week 106
Table 17
Curriculum for the Senior Middle School (1946-47],61
Courses Grades 10 11 12 Required Subjects Social Studies 5 5 5 Mathematics 5 - - Science 5 5 - Korean Language 3 3 3 * Physical Education Sc Health 3-5 3-5 3-5 Foreign Language 0-3 0-3 0-3
Optional Subjects Korean Language 2 2 2 Social Studies (5) (5) (5) Science -- 5 Mathematics - 5 5 Foreign Language 5 5 5 Music 3 3 3 Arts 3 3 3 Psychology -- 5 Vocational Subjects 5-18 5-20 5-25
Note: classes per week
In the new curriculum, a six-year secondary school course
of study was offered. Physical education and health were
adopted as important requirements in school. Even though physical education was adopted as an integral subject of the
school curriculum, there were no textbooks for physical education. Some books, such as Korean history. Civics, and
Mathematics, were prepared by the Koreans. The textbooks for
foreign languages, and physical education, were prepared by
Americans, because of the limited number of trained Korean authors and e d i t o r s . 62 in particular, there were no Korean teachers who had knowledge of physical and health education 107
beyond calisthenics and military drills. The military
government tried to get American textbooks to guide the work of
editors, by providing American physical education textbooks to
Koreans and by introducing American physical education and
sports into Korean physical education textbooks. It is
believed that textbooks for Korean physical education, in the
initial stages of the military government, were modeled on of
American textbooks.
The Influence of Korean Scholars who Studied in the United States after the establishment of the Republic of Korea
After the liberation of Korea, many Korean students went
to the United States to study. From 1945-1965, 8,000 students went to the United States; of these, 700 received Ph. D.'s. In
1980, 18,864 students went overseas; 82% (or 15,338) went to the United States.Like the influence of Christianity and the American military government, the impact of the Korean scholars who studied physical education and sports in the
United States, have contributed greatly to the modernization of
Korean educational system.
In the following information, all respondents are presently teaching in Korea and were educated in the United
States. I asked them to answer the questions with one of the following: (1) Strongly Agree, (2) Agree, (3) Neutral, (4)
Disagree, or (5) Strongly Disagree. If they responded with
Strongly Agree or Agree, I asked them to indicate specific changes which have taken place. These are their responses. 108
Question No. 1
Your experience in the United States has affected your teaching of education or physical education in Korea.
Scholars in the Department of Education SA A N DSD
17 (85%) 3 (15%) - --
SAA N D SD 16 (80%) 3 (15%) 1 (5%) --
Discussion;
Thirty-nine out of the forty respondents felt that their experience in the United States had effected their teaching.
Most respondents referred to many problems related to established teaching methods in Korea, among them, skipping a lecture without a proper reason, failure to complete the material in the syllabus, the autocratic attitude of the teacher in class, a cramming system of education, and teacher- centered teaching. The respondents, in contrast to tradition, emphasized student-centered teaching environments and democratic teaching methods, which stressed the development of a student's social and emotional character. 109
Question No. 2
Your experience with education or physical education in the U. S. has affected the education or physical education curriculum in your institution.
Scholars in the Department of Education SAA ND SD 5 (25%) 14 (70%) 1 (5%) - -
Scholars in the Department of Physical Education SAA ND SD 14 (70%) 5 (25%) 1 (5%) --
Discussion;
Ninety-five percent of each group felt that their
education in the United States has had an affect on the
curriculum in their respective institutions. As shown above,
twenty-five percent of the scholars in the Department of
Education felt strongly that their experience in the United
States has had an affect on the curriculum. Whereas, seventy percent of the scholars in the Physical Education Department strongly agreed.
Physical educators greatly influenced the previous Korean physical education curriculum, by introducing American physical education curricula in Korea. For example. Dr. Young-Hwan Kim, a professor at Yonsei University, established Sport Philosophy in the curriculum as a required subject. Dr. In-Seong Hwang, also a professor at Yonsei University, established Sport
Biomechanics into the curriculum as a requirement. 110
Question No. 3
Your educational experience in the U. S. has affected the organization and the administration of education or physical education in your institution.
Scholars in the Department of Education SAAN DSD 1 (5%) 4 (20%) 13 (65%) 2 (10%) -
Scholars in the Department of Physical Education SA AN DSD 1 (5%) 2 (10%) 12 (50%) 5 (25%) -
Bi.Sg.U§.S.i.Q.n.L
The majority of the scholars in both departments
indicated that reform of educational organization and
administration is not within their power, due to deep-rooted
traditional beliefs Koreans have about education. Traditional practices also are maintained for political reasons. For
example, the position of the president of the Korean Amateur
Sport Association has been held by either a politician or a business man, not a physical educator or athlete; in fact, of
the thirty presidents, from 1920 to the present, only one has been a former athlete. A respondent, who works in the
Institution of Korean Youth Development, complained of the political overtones that clouded the establishment of that institution. Ill
Question No. 4
Your philosophy of education or physical education has been affected by your experience in the U. S.
Scholars in the Department of Education SAA N DSD 3 (15%) 14 (70%) 2 (10%) 1 (5%) -
Scholars in the Department of Physical Education SAA N DSD 1 (5%) 16 (80%) 2 (10%) 1 (5%)
Discussion;
Only two respondents, one from each department, felt that their experience in the United States had no effect on their philosophy of education or physical education. Two from each department did not feel strongly one way or the other, but most of the scholars agreed that their experience has had some affect on their philosophy.
Many respondents in the department of physical education criticized the previous national involvement in physical education and sport for political objectives and nationalism.
They maintained that physical education should be valued for its intrinsic worth instead of for its extrinsic goals.
Meanwhile, Dr. In-Seong Hwang, who studied Sport Biomechanics at Washington State University, emphasized the professional aspects of physical education through the application of science to physical activity and human movement. 112
Question No. 5
Your experience in the U. S. has been helpful in solving problems facing education or physical education in Korea.
Scholars in the Department of Education SAAN DSD 4 (20%) 13 (65%) 2 (10%) 1 (5%) -
Scholars in the Department of Physical Education SAA N DSD 7 (35%) 11 (55%) 1 (5%) 1 (5%) -
Discussion;
Many respondents, both in the department of education and
physical education, acknowledged that their experience in the
United States played an important role in solving some problems
related to the modernization of Korean education and physical
education. A respondent (Ph.D. Pennsylvania State University)
said, "It is a fact that the American educational system and
curriculum has influenced the Korean educational reform. This
tendency will go on. My experience, studying in both Korea and
in the United States, will contribute to avoiding some
contradictions in applying American educational thought and
curriculum ideas to Korean educational settings." He also pointed out many difficulties encountered in this process,
including cultural orientations between Korea and America and the lack of facilities. 113
Question No. 6
Your experience of education and physical education in the U. S. has affected the traditional Korean attitudes toward education and physical education in the schools and universities.
Scholars in the Department of Education SAA N DSD - 3 (15%) 13 (65%) 3 (15%) 1 (5%)
Scholars in the Department of Physical Education SA A N D SD - 5 (25%) 8 (40%) 6 (30%) 1 (5%)
Discussion:
Only eight scholars responded positively to this question. Most respondents offered a negative answer to this question, saying that they are often depressed when their new ideas and opinions are rejected because of the traditional conservative and autocratic administrative power structure in schools. In particular, respondents from the department of physical education acknowledged that the influence of
Confucianist values concerning intellectual activity still exists in Korean society. However, they believed that their experience and effort are effective in changing Korean attitudes about the value of physical education. 114
Question No. 7
Your experience in the U. S. has affected the quality and quantity of education and physical education research in Korea.
Scholars in the Department of Education SAAN D SD 18 (90%) 2 (10%) - - -
Scholars in the Department of Physical Education SAAN D SD 17 (85%) 3 (15%) -- -
Discussion:
All of the scholars responded positively to this statement. They all felt that their experience has affected both the quality and the quantity of research in Korea today.
They introduced many American research journals, and publications related to physical education and sports, to students and coaches. Some physical educators introduced scientific methods for the improvement of athletic performance.
They played an important role in the establishment of the
National Institute of Physical Education and Sport Science.
They published physical education and sport journals. While others established research laboratories in their own universities. For example, the Research Laboratory of Sport
Biomechanics, operated by Dr. In-Seong Hwang (Ph.D. Washington
State University) and Dr. Sung-Cheol Lee (Ph.D. University of
Minnesota), at Yonsei University played an important role in the improvement of research in Sport Biomechanics. Dr. Young-
Hwan Kim (Ph.D. Kent State University) established the Korea 115
Society of the Philosophy of Sport and Dance. As a result,
there has been an increasing amount of research and scholarship
in Korea.
Question No. 8
Your experience in the U. S. has contributed to international recognition of Korean education and physical education.
Scholars in the Department of Education SA A ND SD 3 (15%) 12 (60%) 4 (20%) 1 (5%) -
Scholars in the Department of Physical Education SA A N DSD 7 (35%) 11 (55%) 2 (10%) - -
Discussion;
Most of the scholars felt that their experience has
contributed to the international recognition of Korean
education and physical education. Their knowledge of English
and international experience, contributes greatly to their
influence and status. Many Korean scholars participate in
international seminars and conventions, while some physical
education scholars are members of international institutions
for physical education and sports. For example. Dr. In-Seong
Hwang is a member of the ISB, the ISBS, and the IOC
Biomechanics Subcommission. His activities in these
institutions have contributed to the recognition of Korean
Sport Biomechanics around the world. Korean scholars also host many international seminars and conventions related to their 116
respective fields. Prime examples are the Seoul Olympic
Scientific Congress in 1988 and the Asian Scientific Congress
in 1986.
Question No. 9
Your experience in the U. S. has affected education and physical education teacher preparation programs in Korea.
Scholars in the Department of Education SAA N D SD 2 (10%) 12 (60%) 5 (25%) 1 (5%) -
Scholars in the Department of Physical Education SA AN D SD 2 (10%) 15 (75%) 3 (15%) - -
Discussion;
Most of the respondents indicated that their experience has affected the teacher preparation programs, in their respective fields, in Korea. Both respondent groups agreed about the importance of teacher preparation programs, and paid particular attention to the quality of these programs. They believed their experiences contribute directly to improving the quality of Korean teaching. In addition, most physical education respondents maintained that improving the quality of physical education teaching is a very important matter facing them today; they believed it will change the traditional
Confucian prejudice against physical education. 117
Question No. 10
Your experience in the U. S. has affected faculty-student relationships in Korea.
Scholars in the Department of Education SAA N DSD 2 (10%) 15 (75%) 2 (10%) 1 (5%) -
Scholars in the Department of Physical Education SAA N DSD 5 (25%) 14 (70%) 1 (5%) --
Discussion;
Most of the scholars felt that their experience in the
United States has had some affect on faculty-student
relationships in Korea. Traditionally, in Korean culture,
teachers or elders are not to be argued with. Because of the
teacher's dignity, discussions of opposing opinions are not considered respectful. According to tradition, the student could not step in the teacher's shadow, because that is the required attitude of the student to show his respect. Many respondents believed in a democratic relationship between teacher and student. They treat students, especially graduate students, with respect, realizing that these students would be their future colleagues. Dr. Hae-Kyung Seo (Ph.D. The Ohio
State University), professor at Kwangju University, criticized the traditional teacher's attitude toward students, which originated in Confucianism. She supports a democratic relationship between teacher and student. She asserts that the traditional relationship between teacher and student should be 118
changed, so that the student may voice an opinion without being
disrespectful.
Another respondent, who graduated from Pennsylvania State
University, stressed that there should be a definite
distinction between the private relationship of the teacher and
student, and the professional relationship. She asserted that
the professional relationship should take precedence over the
private relationship in school. In Korea, sometimes, it is
believed that the private relationship between teacher and
student is more important than the professional one;
Consequently, a student may get better grades because of this
belief.
Summarv
Since the nineteenth century, America had been a
significant influence on Korean culture, politics, economics,
and education. Through the work of Christian missionaries, many new ideas were introduced, transforming Korean culture.
Originally, Korean culture was based on Confucian beliefs, but the ideas the missionaries brought to Korea made some progressive scholars and leaders question these beliefs.
They recognized the superiority of Western science and technology, and they realized that Christianity was the foundation of Western civilization, so they promoted
Christianity. They also instigated reforms to modernize 119
society, believing the best way to modernize was through
education.
In the Confucian society, only the upper class was
afforded educational opportunities. The Confucian education
system emphasized abstract morality, ethics, and the
intellectual activity of man, while physical activity was
frowned upon.
When Christianity came to Korea, it brought Western
morals and values, such as the "work ethic." This idea
contributed to the economic development of Korea, and was the
motivating force behind the development of physical education.
As a result, physical education became an official subject,
along with vocational and intellectual subjects, in school
curricula. Christianity also brought about the idea of public
education, by advocating equality and human rights. These
ideas translated into education for children of all classes, and education for women as well. Christians promoted these
ideas by printing the Bible in Hangul, which was the script of
the commoners, instead of Chinese script, which was used by the ruling class. By printing the Bible in Hangul, the missionaries made it accessible to all Koreans, thus promoting equal opportunity education.
The missionaries also built schools and hospitals, taught
Koreans modern methods of instruction, and brought modern subjects from the West. They worked to reform the educational system, and physical education was introduced, emphasizing 120
play, games, and modern sports. Modern sports, such as track
and field, baseball, basketball, volleyball, gymnastics,
swimming, and soccer, were introduced to Korea between 1896 and
1916. Unfortunately, during the colonial period, these reforms
were interrupted.
After the liberation of Korea in 1945, the United States
Army Military Government in Korea strove to create a bulwark
against communism. They did this by establishing new orders
and policies for every aspect of Korean life, making
everything, including the education system, liberal,
capitalistic, and democratic.
The United States Army Military Government in Korea
increased educational opportunities by opening more schools.
This initiative increased the student population, which in turn
increased the teacher population. The American school system was used as an example of how Korean schools should be run.
The educational thought of John Dewey also was adopted, and his book. Democracy and Education, was used to teach Korean instructors.
Dewey emphasized play because he believed it contributed to a child's social development. Because of this emphasis, physical education became a requirement in elementary and secondary schools, and it became an optional course in colleges. Significant changes were made in the relationship between teacher and student through recognition of the individuality of the students. 121
Since the liberation of Korea, many Koreans have come to
the United States to study. They have had as great an impact
on the Korean education system as Christianity and the American
military government had. Several Korean educators, who were
educated in the United States, emphasize a student-centered
form of teaching and believe in a democratic teaching method.
Although they believe in a democratic teaching method, most
referred to problems in the existing teaching method in Korea.
Many indicated that they were not in the position to change the
system because of deep-rooted traditional Korean educational
thought and political pressures. In fact, many criticized the
previous national involvement in physical education and sports
for nationalist and political purpose,
Confucianist values, which place intellectual activity
over physical activity, still exist in Korean society. These values conflict with new ideas; consequently, scholars are
often depressed when their ideas and opinions are rejected, without proper reason, by traditional, conservative and autocratic administrators. Even though they are depressed by
the slow speed at which their country is changing, these scholars still believe their experience and effort are gradually changing attitudes and increasing recognition of physical education in school. 122
FOOTNOTES
1 Donald S. Macdonald, The Koreans; Contemporary Politics and Society. Boulder: Westview Press Inc., 1990. p.85.
2 Lak-Geoon Paik, The history of Protestant missions in Korea. 1832-1910, Seoul: Yonsei University Press, 1970. p.37.
3 Edward G . Meade, American Military Government in Korea. New York: King's Crown Press and Columbia University, 1951. p.52.
4 Report of the Educational and Informational Survey Mission to Korea. Declassified per Executive Order 12356, Section 3. 3, No. 785083, June 20, 1947. p.17.
5 Hongkee Karl, KOREA: Her History and Culture. Seoul: Office of Public Information in Republic of Korea, 1954. p.75.
6 Ibid.
7 Spencer J. Palmer, Korea and Christianity, the Problem of Identification with Tradition. Seoul: Hollym, 1976, p.67.
8 Donald S. Macdonald p.43.
9 Ibid. p.42.
10 Hong-ryol Ryu, The Acceptance of Western Culture in Korea in Korea's Response to the West, edited by Yung-Hwan Jo (Kalamazoo: The Korea Research and Publications, Inc., 1971), p. 30.
11 Donald S. Macdonald, p.100.
12 Chung-Hee Park, Korea Reborn. A Model for Development. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1979. p.32-33.
13 Ibid. p.77-78.
14 Chung-Hee Park, The Country, the Revolution and I. Seoul, 1962. p.78.
15 Ibid. p.45. 123 16 Erich, Goldbach, Protestantism-Capitalism-Sports. Marburg: Philipps University, Journal of Sport History, Vol. 4, No. 3, 1977. p.286.
17 Chung-Hee Park, Korea Reborn. A Model for Development. pp.77-78.
18 Young C. Kim, Manor Achievements and Problems of the South Koreans Economy. Seoul: Daedong Publishing Co., 1974, p. 61.
19 Paek L. George, The History of Protestant Missions in Korea. 1832-1910. Seoul: Yonsei University Press, 1979, pp.161- 162.
20 Deobold B. Van Dalen & Bruce L. Bennett, A World History of Physical Education. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1971. p.144.
21 Harry A. Rhodes, The Fiftieth Anniversary Celebration of the Korean Mission. Seoul: YMCA Press, 1934, p.22.
22 Ibid.
23 Deobold B. Van Dalen & Bruce L. Bennett, p.145.
24 Seong-Rae Park, Introduction of Western Science in Korea. 1876-1910, Korea Journal, May 1981, p.33.
25 In-Soo Son, The History of Korean Modern Education: 1885-1945. Seoul: Yonsei University Publishing Co., 1971, pp.20-29.
26 Spencer J. Palmer, p.75.
27 Hong-ryol Ryu, p.39.
28 In-Soo Son, p.24.
29 Donald S. Macdonald, p.85.
30 Ibid.
31 Hong-ryol Ryu, p.29.
32 Chun-Suk Auh, Toward A Democratic Education. Seoul: Eulyumunhwasa, 1960, p.145.
33 Research Institute for Korean Educational Problems, The History of the Ministry of Education. Seoul: Chungang University Publishing Co., 1974, p.9. 124
34 Chun-Suk Auh, p.145.
35 Hyong-Jin Yoo, Centennial History of Korean-American Educational Interchange. Seoul: Korean Educational Development Institute, 1982, p.10.
3 6 Ibid.
37 Ellen W. Gerber, Innovators and Institutions in Phvsical Education. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, 1971. p.107.
38 Ibid. p.109.
39 The Korean newspaper, Choson Ilbo, November 8, 1946.
40 Ordinance 6, HQ, USAMGIK, Office of the Military Governor, September 29, 1945.
41 Robert Oliver, Korean Report: 1948-1952. Washington, B.C.: Korean Pacific Press, 1952, p.29.
42 Edward S. Mason, The Economic and Social Modernization of the Republic of Korea. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1980. p.171.
43 Captain Earl N. Lockard, History of Bureau of Education from 11 September 1945 to 28 February 1946. Mimeograph, no date, p.20.
44 USAMGIM, Summation, June 1946, p.13.
45 Proclamation No. 1, To the People of Korea. September 7, 1945, Foreign Relations of the United States 1945, pp.1043- 44.
46 Edward G . Meade, p.193.
47 Lieutenant Paul Ehret, Press Conference. HQ, USAMGIK, Department of Education, November 28, 1945. p.2.
48 USAMGIK, Summation, June 1946, p.56.
49 Earl N. Lockard, p.22.
50 Ki-On Han, Education After Liberation. Seoul: Kyoyukchulpansa, 1981, p.60. 125 51 Richard Werth, Educational Developments Under the South Korea Interim Government (SKIG). School and Society, Vol.69, April 30, 1949, p.30.
52 Hyung-Chan Kim, American influence on Korean Education. Educational Perspectives 21:4, Winter 1982, pp.30- 31.
53 Chun-Suk Auh, Reaffirming conviction in the educational reorganization. Seoul: Korean Federation of Education Association, 1959, pp.6-7.
54 The Ministry of Education, The Introduction of Curriculum in the Elementary and Secondary Schools (1946-1981). Seoul: Daehan Kyogaseo Co., 1983. p.22.
55 Purpose and Objective of Korean Education, HQ, USAMGIK, Department of Education, February 13, 1946.
56 Earl N. Lockard, p.20.
57 Captain Glenn S. Kieffer, Report on Education in South Korea. HQ, USAMGIK, Department of Education, December 3, 1946, p.13.
58 Purpose and Objective of Korean Education. HQ, USAMGIK, Department of Education, February 13, 1946.
59 Glenn S. Kieffer, p.13.
60 Ibid.
61 SCAP, Summation of the Non-Militarv Activities in Korea. No. 12, September 1946, p. 69.
62 Kwang-Rin Lee, Progressive Views of Protestantism (I), Korea Journal, February 197 6, p.19.
63 Korea Herald, June 25, 1981, p.8. CHAPTER V
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Summary
Evidence suggests that the Korean people participated in physical and sporting activities from the outset of their history. Many significant historical and philosophical changes
of Korean society influenced Korean physical education and
sport. Many forces, both domestic and foreign, helped to shape physical education theory and practice. Among them, the United
States has contributed greatly to the modernization of Korean physical education and sports. Since the diplomatic relations between Korea and America were established in 1882, there have been an indissoluble connection between the two countries.
During the end of the nineteenth century, American missionaries established many modern schools that introduced new educational thoughts to Koreans. In particular, America has effected the process of modernization of Korean society since 1945, the period of the American military presence in Korea.
The major objective of this study is to show how the United
States contributed to the development of Korean physical education and sports. I will describe the significant American events, ideas and its influences comprising the history of
126 127
physical education and sporting practices and traditions in
Korea.
The earliest evidence of physical and sporting activities
in Korea can be seen in wall paintings during the period of
Three Kingdoms (from 57 B.C. to 935 A.D.). In this period.
Horsemanship, Archery, See-Rum (Korean Wrestling), Soo-Bak (a
form of martial arts), and Sword and Priest dances were
practiced. Korean physical education and sport were greatly
evident from the Feudalistic Period to the present.
Due to the geographic location of Korea, traditional
Korean culture was significantly influenced by the Chinese in
the Feudalistic Period. Just as Western physical education has
been influenced by Plato's views and Cartesian dichotomy, so
too has Korean physical education been effected by Buddhism and
Confucianism, and their views on the mind and body. The
Buddhist view of the mind and body, based on harmonic
nondualism, has played an important role in establishing a
theoretical basis for traditional Korean physical education and
sports. The Buddhist holistic approach to the mind and body played a significant role in establishing a practical basis for
the spiritual and physical practices. These Buddhist
experiential and practical aspects of body-mind concept can be
seen throughout Korea’s history, especially in its physical education and sports.
The history of Korean physical education and sport can be divided into four stages: 1) The premodern period, prior to 128
1894, 2) The attempts at modernization, from the Gabo reforms
in 1894 to 1910, 3) The Colonial Period, from the 1910 to 1945,
and 4) The independent period, from 1945 to the present.
During the premodern period, physical education and
sporting events consisted mainly of horsemanship, archery, and
swordsmanship for improving military strength. The ritual,
ceremonial and religious functions in sporting activities were
also emphasized. Many of the religious events and festivals
were generally celebrated by athletic contests, dance, and
music. They were closely associated with native religious
practices intended to bring harmony between man and the spirits
of nature such as the mountains and rivers. Various seasonal
festivals and folk activities such as the "Lantern festival"
for celebrating of Buddha's birthday and the "Palgwanhoe"
ceremony for the spirits of heaven. The latter was held after planting or harvesting in order to honor heaven. Koreans of
this time also enjoyed folk games, such as wrestling matches,
swing contests, and a game similar to field hockey.
On the other hand, there was a tendency to value intellectual activity over physical activity. This was strongly due to the influence of Confucianism on traditional
Korean culture and customs. For Koreans in the Feudalistic
Period, practical or technical knowledge was considered inferior to theoretical knowledge. As a result, discussions of literature, history, ethics and philosophy were privileged to the higher class, all the practical matters belonged to the 129
lower classes. This conception of knowledge prevailed
throughout the Feudalistic Period of Korea. This school of
thought has contributed to the resistance to modernize physical
education and sports in Korea.
At the end of the nineteenth century, however, the Yi
Dynasty (1392-1910), Korea's last feudalistic dynasty, had come
into contact with the Western civilization. Due to this
contact, severe criticism by some progressive Koreans began to
be directed at the traditional ideas of Confucianism. These
criticisms resulted in the Gabo Reforms in 1894. With the rise
of modern intellectualism and the decline of the traditional
social class-oriented society, most of the feudalistic systems
and structures in the fields of politics, economics, and
education came to an end. New political and educational
institutions were modeled upon those of the West. Korean
society began to modernize from an old-fashioned feudal
structure as a result of the influence of the Gabo Reforms.
Some progressive Korean scholars made efforts to modernize
their old traditional society according to the Western pattern.
At this time, Christianity and American missionaries
contributed to the introduction of Western culture to Korea.
As the Royal Decree in 1885 stated, the government
realized the importance of education for the modernization of
the nation. Education was conceived as the major vehicle for
"the enlightenment of the people" and "the foundation protecting and preserving the life of the nation." Emphasis 130 was put on practical aspects of education rather than abstract and theoretical ones. As a result, with social, economic and political modernization, traditional thinking about physical activity based on Confucianism began to disappear. The
Protestant work ethic, in particular, influenced the Korean attitude toward physical education and sporting activity. It was the motivating force behind the development of physical education. With the establishment of modern schools by
American missionaries, physical education and sport in schools was increasingly emphasized as a major part of education. Many new physical education and sporting associations emerged, and different sporting institutions were organized. Many Western sports were introduced into Korea by American missionaries.
For example, contemporary activities such as gymnastics, track and field, basketball, volleyball, baseball, soccer, and tennis began to be practiced. In particular, it is worthy to note that, with the development of the modern school system by
American missionaries, women were permitted to participate in sporting activities for the first time.
There were political and social upheavals in Korean society at the onset of twentieth century. In 1910, Japan occupied Korean territory, and forced the Korean government to sign the Treaty of Annexation which sought to suppress traditional Korean culture and customs. The object of colonial education, designed to serve Japan, restricted educational opportunities for Koreans. During the Japanese occupation. 131 traditional recreational games were prohibited. Physical education curriculums were strictly regulated. The Japanese government utilized physical education and sport as a means of ruling the Korean people. The contemporary Korean associations and institutions for physical education and sporting events dissolved. Modern athletic games and meetings were interrupted, and only a few games for military purposes were allowed. With the start of World War II, in particular, physical education was replaced by military training in schools and all sporting games were prohibited until 1945. The
Colonial Period was the dark age in the history of Korean physical education and sports.
A new era in Korean physical education and sports began on August 15, 1945, with the liberation of Korea from Japanese occupation. After post-war liberation from Japan, a series of international treaties divided Korea in two. North Korea became a communist country, while South Korea was occupied by the United States Armed Forces. During the period of the
American Military Government (1945-1948), the Korean people tried to eliminate the vestiges of Japanese colonialism.
America provided basic structures for Korean politics, society, economics and education.
A democratic form of government was introduced into
Korea. The Korean government adopted a capitalistic economic system. The traditional structures of agricultural economic establishments were reorganized, and land reform was 132
introduced. These new political and economic structures
profoundly effected all aspects of Korea’s development and on
its people. Korean society changed dramatically from its
rural, agricultural, small-town way of life, to the urban,
manufacturing city style of today. This transition played a
pivotal role in the expansion of sporting activities and the
modernization of physical education.
In the social sphere, Korea's hierarchical class system
based on Confucian culture and tradition, which had existed as yanban (ruling people), chungin (middle people), sangmin
(common people) and ch’onmin (low-born people), was discouraged
during the period of United States of military government in
Korea. The interactions between parents and their children,
teachers and their students, and the older and younger people were gradually being democratized. Korean women obtained new opportunities to enter professional occupations, especially in the non-traditional fields such as science, law and medicine.
On the other hand, a dualism based Western culture and philosophy emerged. The new values and ethics based on dualism, not only threatened to uproot all traditional ones, but also brought complex value systems into physical education and sports. For example, the Western dualistic view of mind and body greatly influenced the martial arts. The original nature and character of the martial arts was significantly different from those of today. The martial arts and its ways have served as systems of education for cultivating, in the 133
practitioner, self-realization through spiritual and physical
training that ultimately led to self-perfection and
enlightenment. However, there has been a tendency for the
martial arts to change in terms of its character, due to the
introduction of Western dualistic culture. That is to say, in
the Westernized martial arts, physical strength, technique, and
competitive spirit are more important than self-perfection
through the cultivation of mind and body.
There were many significant changes in education. The
concept of educational democracy was formally accepted during
this period. The Korean educational system and curriculum was
reformed, based on the American model. For instance, the
school system was changed from a complicated multiple system to
a single system, 6-3-3-4. Realization of democratic education
was represented by equal opportunities and educational
meritocracy. The democratic educational ideas of John Dewey,
with emphasis on progressivism, were greatly emphasized.
American pragmatic educational thought changed Koreans’
traditional emphasis on liberal education toward more
scientific and technical areas. It also contributed greatly to
the development of physical education in schools. Because of
Dewey's emphasis on play itself, physical education became a requirement in elementary and secondary school levels. As a result, today, Korea’s educational system is highly regarded and up-to-date. The introduction of this American approach has resulted in a much higher national literacy rate. Higher 134 education has contributed to economic and social growth as well, during the past decades.
Since the establishment of the Korean government in 1948,
Korean society has developed within these basic structures.
With the help of the United States, these developments in the fields of politics, economics, communications, and education have brought changes in the people's attitudes toward, and practice of, physical education and sports. In addition, there is also the influence of United States Armed Forces Television
Network, which was established in 1957. It opened the period of television in Korea, which introduced and played an important role in popularizing American sports.
After the establishment of the Republic in 1948, Korea developed into an industrialized nation. Korean society was in a state of rapid change, stimulated by industrialization and urbanization. The Korean lifestyle was rapidly transformed by the new scientific and technological improvements of modern industry. The modernization of physical education and sporting events were accelerated, mainly as a result of the support of the national government. Since the beginning of the Third
Republic in 1962, the government has stressed the importance of physical education and sports. Under the slogan "physical strength is the foundation of national power," the new government supplied technical and financial support for the promotion of physical education and sports, considered a means of improving the overall development of the nation. Successful 135 industrialization and the rapid development of sport science in the 1960's also contributed to this growth. School authorities generally accepted physical education and sport as legitimate parts of the school program. In the beginning of the 1980s, many professional sports such as baseball and soccer began to prosper. Sports became entrenched in Korean society as never before, and became a part of the larger consumer culture. In particular, the successful holding of the 1986 Asian Games and
1988 Olympic Games, hosted by Korea, played a significant role in these advances. The Games are regarded as a major cause of the international recognition of Korean sports and physical education. Today, Korean physical education and sports are recognized and respected throughout the world. It is no exaggeration to say that Korean physical education and sports, like the economic and industrial fields, are flourishing more today than ever in its past. 136
Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to show how America has
influenced Korean physical education and sports. Four
significant American influences on the modernization of
physical education and sports in Korea emerged from this study:
Christianity, American missionaries, the United States Military
Government in Korea, and the impact made by Korean physical
educators who have studied in the United States.
The modernization and democratization of physical
education and sports in Korea would not have occurred without
certain American influences. Christian missionaries brought
with them Western morals and values that questioned the
hierarchical social structure, and the Confucian bias against physical labor and recreational activity. Christian advocacy
of equality and human rights led to the opening of public
schools, and the missionaries' respect for the health benefits
of sports and recreation ensured a physical education
curriculum within these schools. Christianity was the initial
American influence on physical education and sport in Korea.
It introduced the Protestant Work Ethic and the idea of public education for all.
In contrast to the anti-labor philosophy of Confucianism, the Protestant Work Ethic stated that any type of physical labor or activity was a way to glorify God. The idea of
Christianity in Korean society gradually changed traditional 137
Korean thought that valued intellectual activity over physical
activity. With the establishment of the modern school system
by American missionaries, physical education made its way into
most school curricula. In the Confucian tradition, education
was for the noble and upper classes. Christianity stressed the
idea of public education for all. With this belief in hand,
the missionaries began to establish public educational
institutions, and for the first time in its history, physical
education was established as a subject and not as a means of
military training.
In the 1960*s. President Jeong-hee Park further promoted
the Protestant work ethic to improve Korean society, and the
Korean people began to take interest in their physical well
being. The government promoted extracurricular activities.
Students were encouraged to participate in morning exercises at
school, and adults were encouraged to participate in various
sports clubs. The popularity of sports and recreational
activities grew, making physical education an integral part of
education.
The United States Army Military Government furthered
educational opportunities among the Korean people. John
Dewey's influential Democracy and Education helped make physical education a requirement in elementary and secondary
schools. Under the American Military Government in Korea, many reforms were initiated, such as the Korean New Education and the New Physical Education Movement. Through the New Physical 138
Education Movement, based on Dewey's philosophy, physical educators worked to eradicate the influence of Confucianism and
Japanese militarism. They not only tried to change the Korean prejudice concerning physical education, but also contributed to the improvement of teaching methods and equipment.
Another way America has influenced Korean physical education is through Korean scholars who have studied in the
United States. These scholars have worked to change teaching methods and to adopt American student-oriented approaches to physical education. Though Korean scholars must work against political pressures and within conservative administrations, most are optimistic about the future. By focusing on the education of future physical education teachers and instructors, working to change traditional attitudes and emphasizing the value of physical education, they insure a bright future for Korean physical education.
As stated in Chapter IV, many Korean students went to the
United States to study after the liberation in 1945. As a part of this study, I questioned forty such scholars and found a consensus among them that their teaching methods have been affected by their experience in the United States. They believed in a student-centered teaching environment, and in a democratic teaching method, which involves teacher evaluations.
Scholars from the departments of Physical Education believe in the idea that physical education helps in the development of a student's social and emotional character. 139
These scholars stated that their experience in the United
States has influenced teacher preparation programs in their
respective fields. They believed that they must pay more
attention to the quality of the educators, because they have no
control over the quality of the facilities. They also said
that they were impressed with the American professors'
dedication to research, and to helping their students. These
scholars are presently involved in showing the importance of
this dedication to future Korean educators.
Many respondents also felt positive about the effect
their experience in the United States has had on research in
education and physical education in Korea. Some physical
educators have founded research laboratories in their own
universities, and others have introduced scientific procedures
in improving athletic performance.
Most of the scholars said that their experience has
contributed to the international recognition of Korean
education and physical education. Many of the scholars participate in international seminars and conventions related
to their fields. Because they lived in the United States,
their English skills have helped them communicate at these conventions and seminars.
Although the respondents were very positive about their experience in the United States, they saw many problems which still exist in the Korean educational system. While Korean physical education has received more recognition in the past 140 few years, many of the facilities remain poor. Many Korean physical educators struggle to show the importance of improved facilities and better educated instructors. Reforms have come slowly, yet these scholars remain optimistic about an improved future.
The development of Korean Physical education has occurred over centuries. Since its beginning, in 57 B.C., to the present, there have been many significant changes. Throughout this study I have examined the major impact of the American influence on Korean Education through the ideas associated with
Christianity, American Missionaries, the American Military
Government and Korean Scholars who have studied in the United
States. I firmly believe that without these factors Korean
Physical Education would not be at the level it is today.
Several scholars have studied the Japanese and Chinese influence on Korean physical education and sport, however, I feel that America has also been an important factor in Korea's educational development. By providing the first comprehensive view of the American influence on Korean physical education and sport I hope to encourage further study in this important field. Examples of additional studies may include:
1) Exploring the American influence on specific populations, such as physical education for the handicapped and the role of women in sport in Korea,
2) The changing role of Korean women in sport as a result of the influence of the West, 141
3) The cross cultural effects of Eastern and Western philosophies of education on physical education and sport.
Studies such as these will provide further insight into the increasingly intimate relationship between East and West. APPENDIX
OUESTIONAIRE
1. Your experience in the United States has affected your teaching of physical education in Korea.
SA ( ) A ( ) N ( ) D ( ) SD ( )
If you indicate Strongly Agree or Agree indicate specific changes which have taken place.
I) II) III)
2. Your experience with physical education in the U. S. has affected the physical education curriculum in your institution.
SA ( ) A { ) N ( ) D ( ) SD { )
If you indicate Strongly Agree or Agree indicate specific changes which have taken place.
I) II) III)
3. Your educational experience in the U. S. has affected organization and the administration of physical education in your institution.
SA ( ) A ( ) N ( ) D ( ) SD { )
If you indicate Strongly Agree or Agree indicate specific changes which have taken place.
I) II) III)
142 143
4. Your philosophy of physical education has been affected by your experience in the U. S.
SA { ) A ( ) N ( ) D ( ) SD ( )
If you indicate Stronalv Agree or Agree indicate specific changes which have taken place.
I) II) III)
5. Your experience in the U. S. has been helpful in solving problems facing physical education in Korea.
SA ( ) A ( ) N ( ) D ( ) SD ( )
If you indicate Strongly Agree or Agree indicate specific changes which have taken place.
I) II) III)
6. Your experience of physical education in the U. S. has affected the traditional Korean attitudes toward physical education in the schools and university.
SA ( ) A ( ) N ( ) D { ) SD ( )
If you indicate Strongly Agree or Agree indicate specific changes which have taken place.
I) II) III)
7. Your experience in the U. S. has affected the quality and quantity of physical education research in Korea.
SA ( ) A ( ) N ( ) D ( ) SD ( )
If you indicate Strongly Agree or Agree indicate specific changes which have taken place.
I) II) III) 144
8. Your experience in the U. S. has contributed to international recognition of Korean physical education.
SA ( ) A ( ) N ( ) D ( ) SD ( )
If you indicate Stronalv Agree or Agree indicate specific changes which have taken place.
I) II) III)
9. Your experience in the U. S. has affected physical education teacher preparation programs in Korea.
SA ( ) A ( ) N ( ) D ( ) SD ( )
If you indicate Stronalv Agree or Agree indicate specific changes which have taken place.
I) II) III)
10. Your experience in the U. S. has affected faculty-student relationships in Korea.
SA ( ) A ( ) N ( ) D ( ) SD ( )
If you indicate Stronalv Agree or Agree indicate specific changes which have taken place.
I) II) III) BIBLIOGRAPHY
Books
Adelman, Melvin L. A Sporting Time; New York Citv and the Rise of Modern Athletics (1820-70). Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1986.
Auh, Chun-Suk. Reaffirming conviction in the educational reorganization. Seoul: Korean Federation of Education Association, 1959.
______. Toward A Democratic Education. Seoul: Eulyumunhwasa, 1960.
.. A Historv of New Education in Korea. Seoul: Modern Education Library Co., 1964.
Ban, Sung-Hwan. Rural Development. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1980.
Berger, K. The Korean Knot: A military and political historv. University of Pennsylvania Press, 1977.
Caldwell, J. The Korean story. Chicago: Henry Regnery Co., 1952.
Carrithers, Michael. The Buddha. New York: Oxford University Press, 1983.
Celeste, Ulrich. The Social Matrix of Physical Education. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1968.
Celeste, Ulrich. The Social Matrix of Physical Education. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1968.
Chai, Doon-Sun. Modernization in Korean Society. Seoul: Sanwangsa, 1961.
Cho, Soon-Sung. Korea in world politics. 1940-1950: An evaluation of American responsibility. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967.
145 146 Cowell, Charles C. and France, Wellman L. Philosophical and Principles c>£ Phv.s icgl .„Edvica.tloa.New jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1963.
Dobbs, C . The unwanted symbol: American foreign policy, the cold war, and Korea, 1945-1950. The Kent State University Press, 1981.
Dewey, John. Democracy and Education; An Introduction to the Philosophy of Education. New York: The MacMillan Company, 1925.
Ellwood, Robert S. Many Peoples. Many Faiths: An Introduction to the Religious Life of Humankind. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1982.
Fairs, John R. "The Influence of Plato and Platonism on the Development of Physical Education in Western Culture." in Earle F. Zeigler, ed., A History of Sport and Physical Education to 1900. Champaign, III: Stipes, 1973.
Friedrich, C. American experiences in military government in World War II. New York: Rinehart and Co., 1948
Gale, James S. Korea in Transition. New York: Eaton and Mains, 1909.
Garner, Richard T. "Hemispheric imperialism." in Mind and Body: East meets West, edited by Seymour Kleinman, Champaign, Illinois: Human Kinetics Pub., Inc., 1986.
Garner, Richard T. Asian Philosophy. Philosophy 215, Winter 1990.
George, Paek L. The Historv of Protestant Missions in Korea. 1832-1910. Seoul: Yonsei University Press, 1979.
Gerber, Ellen W. Innovators and Institutions in Physical Education. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, 1971.
Grant, Meade E. American Military Government In Korea. New York: King's Crown Press, 1951.
Greer, Thomas H. A Brief Historv of Western Man. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc., 1977. 147
Haines, Bruce A. Karate's Historv and Traditions. Rutland, Vermont: Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1976,
Han, Ki-On. Education After Liberation. Seoul: Kyoyukchulpansa, 1981.
Han, Woo-keun. The Historv of Korea, translated by Kyung- shik Lee, Seoul: The Eulyoo Publishing Company, 1970.
Haper, William A. , Miller Donna Mae, Park, Roberta J., Davis Elwood Craig. The Philosophic Process in Physical Education. Philadelphia: LEA & FEBIGER, 1977.
Hatada Takashi. Historv of Korea. Tokyo : Iwanami Shoten, 1951.
Hulbert, Homer B. The Passing of Korea. Seoul: Yonsei University Press, 1969.
Jeong, Chung-Ryang. The History of Ewha University. Seoul: Ewha University Publishing Co., 1976.
Karl, Hong-Kee. KOREA: Her Historv and Culture. Seoul: Office of Public Information in Republic of Korea, 1954.
Karl, Hong-Kee. A Handbook of Korea. Seoul: Office of Public Information in Republic of Korea, 1954.
Kennedy, Neil L. Dream Your Wav to Success. The Story of Dr. Yonggi Cho and Korea. Plainfield: Logos International, 1980.
Kim, Ick Dal. Korea: Its People and Culture. Seoul: Hakwon-Sa, Ltd., 1970.
Kim, Jong-Bum. Korean reality before and after the liberation. Seoul: Chosen Political-Economy Research Co., 1945.
Kim, Young C. Maior Achievements and Problems of the South Koreans Economy. Seoul: Daedong Publishing Co., 1974.
Kim, Young-Gap & Lim Young-Moo. The Historv of Korean Physical Education and Sports. Seoul: Kyo Hak Yeon Ku Sa, 1985. 148 Kleinman, Seymour. Mind and Body; East meets West. Champaign: Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc., 1986.
Lee, Hak-Lae. A Historv of Sports and Physical Education in Modern Korea. Seoul: Ji Sik Sanup Sa, 1990.
Lee, Man Kyu. A historv of education in Korea, Seoul: Ul Yu Mun Wha Sa, 1949.
Livingston, Michael K. MENTAL DISCIPLINE-The Pursuit of Peak Performance. Champaign: Human Kinetics Books, 1988.
Longford, Joseph H. The Storv of Korea. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1911.
Macdonald, Donald Stone. The Koreans: Contemporary Politics and Society. Boulder: Westview Press, 1990.
Mason, Edward S. The Economic and Social Modernization of the Republic of Korea. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1980.
Meade, Edward G. American Military Government in Korea. New York: King's Crown Press and Columbia University, 1951.
Nahm, Andrew C. A Panorama of 5000 Years: Korean Historv. Elizabeth, New Jersey: Hollym Corporation, 1983.
Nancy, Willson Ross. Buddhism: A Wav of Life and Thought. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1980
Ncginn, N. P., Snodgrass, D. K., Kim, Y. B., Kim, S. B., and Kim, Q. Y. Education and Development in Korea (1945- 75). Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1980
Oliver, Robert. Korean Report: 1948-1952. Washington, D.C.: Korean Pacific Press, 1952.
Paik, Lak-Geoon. The historv of Protestant missions in Korea 1832-1910. Seoul: Yonsei University Press, 1970.
Palmer, Spencer J. Korea and Christianity, the Problem of Identification with Tradition. Seoul: Hollym, 1976.
Pardue, Peter A. Buddhism: A historical introduction to Buddhist values and the social and political forms thev 149 have assumed in Asia. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1971.
Park, Chung-Hee. Korea Reborn. A Model for Development. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1979.
______. The Country. the Revolution and I. Seoul, 1962.
Ra, Hyung-Sung. Historv of Korean Phvsical Education. Seoul: Chung Won Chool Pan Sa, 1963.
. Historv of Korean School Phvsical Education. Svstem. Seoul: Doh Su Chool Pan Kyo Yuk Won, 1970.
______. Studv of Korean Phvsical Education Historv. Seoul: Seoul University Press, 1968.
. The Historv of Korean Phvsical Education. Seoul: Mun Cheon Sa, 1975.
Rahula, Walpola. What The Buddha Taught. New York: Grove Press, Inc., 1959.
Rhodes, Harry A. The Fiftieth Anniversary Celebration of the Korean Mission. Seoul: YMCA Press, 1934.
Rice, Emmett A. A Brief Historv of Phvsical Education. New York: The Ronald Press Company, 1958.
Sohn Pow-key., Kim Chol-choon., and Hong Yi-sup. The Historv of Korea. Seoul: Korean National Commission for Unesco, 1982.
Son, In-Soo. The Historv of Korean Modern Education: 1885- 1945. Seoul: Yonsei University Publishing Co., 1971.
Underwood, H. Modern education in Korea. New York: International Press, 1926.
Van Dalen, Deobold B. & Bennett, Bruce L. A World Historv of Phvsical Education. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1971.
Weems, Clarence N. Hulbert*s Historv of Korea. Vol II., New York: Hillary House Publishers Ltd., 1962.
Williams, J. F. The Principle of Phvsical Education. 8th ed., Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1964. 150 Chan Wing-Tsit. A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy. New Jersey; Princeton University Press, 1963.
Yi, Mankyu, Historv of Korean Education. Seoul: Ulyu Munhwasa, 1947, Vol. I.
Yoo, Hyong-Jin. Centennial Historv of Korean-American Educational Interchange. Seoul: Korean Educational Development Institute, 1982.
Yuasa, Yasuo. The Bodv: Toward an Eastern Mind-Bodv theory. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1987.
Periodicals
[Newspaper]
Choson Ilbo, November 8, 1946.
Korea Herald, June 25, 1981,
The New York Times, Sunday, February 16, 1992.
[Government Documents]
Anderson, Paul S. Textbook Situation in South Korea. HQ, USAMGIK, Department of Education, August 18, 1947.
Ehret, Lieutenant Paul. Press Conference. HQ, USAMGIK, Department of Education, November 28, 1945.
Governor-General of Chosen. Instructions. Regulations, and Remarks Concerning Private Schools. Seoul: Government-General Publication Co., 1915.
USAMGIK. Historv of Bureau of Education. Declassified Per Executive Order 12356.
______. Office of the Military Governor, Ordinance No. 6, September 29, 1945.
. Summation. Non-military Activities in Japan and Korea, No. 1-5, September 1945 to February, 1946.
. Summation, No. 6-11, March to August, 1946.
. Summation, No. 12, September, 1946. 151 Summation, No. 13-19, October, 1946 to April, 1947.
Kieffar, Glenn S. Report on Education in South Korea. HQ, USAMGIK, Department of Education, December 3, 1946.
Korean Amateur Sport Association. The Historv of Korean Phvsical Education and Sports. Seoul: Korean Amateur Sport Association, 1965.
Korean National Commission for Unesco. Traditional Performing Arts of Korea. Seoul: Kwangmyong Printing Co., 1975.
Proclamation No. 1. To the People of Korea. September 7, 1945, Foreign Relations of the United States 1945.
Report of the Educational and Informational Survey Mission to Korea. Declassified per Executive Order 12356, Section 3. 3, No. 785083, June 20, 1947.
Research Institute for Korean Educational Problems. The Historv of the Ministry of Education. Seoul: Chungang University Publishing Co., 1974.
The Ministry of Education. The Introduction of Curriculum in the Elementary and Secondary Schools (1946-1981). Seoul: Daehan Kyogaseo Co., 1983.
[Journal]
The Korean Journal. August 8, 1968.
Korean Affairs Institute. The Voice of Korea. August 29, 1944.
Park, Seong-Rae. "Introduction of Western Science in Korea, 1876-1910." Korea Journal (May 1981).
Clark, Donald N. "The Missionary Impact." Korean Culture (July 1982).
Hanna, Thomas. Somatic Education: A Scenario of the Future. Vol. IV, No. 4, spring/summer 1984.
Goldbach, Erich. Protestantism-Caoitalism-Sports. Marburg: Philipps University, Journal of Sport History, Vol. 4, No. 3, 1977. 152 Henderson, Gregory. "Chong Ta-san, A Study in Korea's Intellectual History." The Journal of Asian Studies. May, 1957.
Hoh, Gun-Sun. "Athletic Development in Asia and Its Influence upon Asian People." Phvsical Education Todav, IX , March, 1962.
Kim, Dae Shik. "Physical Education in Korea." The Phvsical Educator, XXVI, May, 1969.
. and J. C. Kim. "Philosophy of Physical Education." The Korean Journal of Phvsical Education. VIII. December, 1973.
______. and Robert T. Bowen. "Physical Education in Korea." Phvsical Education Around the World. Monograph 4. Edited by William Johnson. Indianapolis: Phi Epsilon Kappa, 1970.
Kim, Hyung-Chan. American influence on Korean Education. Educational Perspectives 21:4, Winter 1982.
Lee, Kwang-Rin. "Progressive Views of Protestantism, vol II, Korea Journal. March, 1976.
______. "Western Korea and Protestantism in the Enlightenment Period." Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities. June 1975.
Lauterback, R. "Hodge's Korea. The Virginia Quarterly Review. Summer 1947.
Shim, Jae-Hoon. Phenomenon of the Cross. Far Eastern Economic Review, April 19, 1984.
Werth, Richard. Educational Developments Under the South Korea Interim Government (SKIG). School and Society, Vol.69, April 30, 1949.
Chung, Chai-Sik. "Christianity as Heterodoxy: An Aspect of General Cultural Orientation in Traditional Korea." in Korea's Response to the West.
Nahm, Andrew C. Reaction and the Response to the Opening of Korea: 1876-1884. in Korea's Response to the West.
Lockard, Earl N. Historv of Bureau of Education from 11 September 1945 to 28 February 1946. Mimeograph, no date. 153
SCAP. Summation of the Non-Military Activities in Korea. No.12, September, 1946.
Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers. Education in the Japan. Tokyo: Civil Information and Education Section, 1948.
Ryu, Hong-Ryol. "The Acceptance of Western Culture in Korea." in Korea's Response to the West, edited by Yung-Hwan Jo, Kalamazoo: The Korea Research and Publications, Inc., 1971.
Troeltsch, Ernst. "The Economic Ethic of Calvinism." in Protestantism and Capitalism.
Purpose and Objective of Korean Education. HQ, USAMGIK, Department of Education, February 13, 1946.
Unpublished Materials
Adams, Donald K. "Education in Korea 1945-1955." Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation. The University of Connecticut, 1956.
Choe, Won-Hyung, "Curricular Reform in Korea during the American Military Government, 1945-1948." Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation. The University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1986.
Kim, Dong-Koo, "American Influence on Korean Educational Thought during the Period of U. S. Military Government, 1945-1948." Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation. The University of Connecticut, 1984.
Kim, Jim-Young, "The Role of Christianity in the Economic Modernization of South Korea." Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation. The Florida State University, 1984.
Lee, Won-Sul, "The Impact of United States Occupation Policy on the Socio-Political Structure of South Korea, 1945- 1948." Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, western Reserve University, 1961.
Park, Sung-Jae, "Physical Education and Sport as an Instrument of National Building in the Republic of Korea." Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation. The Ohio State University, 1974. 154
Yoo, Hyung-Jin, "An Intellectual History of Korea from Ancient Times to the Impact of the West with Special Emphasis upon Education." Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, The Harvard University, 1958.
Youn, Yeo-Tak, "A Study of Korean Physical Education Thought under Japanese occupation: 1910-1945, Unpublished Master's thesis. The Yonsei University, 1984.