Digital Editions available on:

Magzter.com www.worldfocus.in ISSN 2230-8458 U.S. Library of Congress No. 80910345 446

A Premier Indo-Centric Foreign Affairs Journal Since 1980 FEBRUARY 2017

100 To Reach this location scan Here QR code /WorldFocus.In US $ 17 /WorldFocusIn

EDITORIAL Let us look at the causes of Radicalism ending up with Terrorism and the WORLD intervening surroundings around. Suppression of aspirations and ambitions in youth, the fire in them for differ- ent reasons mainly lacking of constructive and good options propels deviated youth to carve out paths of terrorism. Sometimes, it leads an individual to aspire to do something great since time immemorial, as we find today radical groups forging and promoting their idea of justice as they see it with their FOCUS jaundiced eyes with a lot of money with them and driven by their concept of INDOCENTRIC FOREIGN AFFAIRS MONTHLY JOURNAL justice are taking charge of these children and making monsters of them by indoctrinating them with the group beliefs and making Roberts of them to do Volume XXXVIII Number 2 February 2017 the bidding of the vested interests of these groups. Displacement of large G . Kishore Babu ethnic groups, for different reasons form the land they know as home also is Editor a big cause, and an ideal ground for recruitment of children to serve special interests of groups. Religion and land are the major lifelines of these groups. Bhabani Dikshit Radicalism starts from this genesis and leads the world to mindless terrorism. Managing Editor Where young children’s parents are paid money, or when they are convinced by an idea of faith, then their children are given away to be trained as robots Stuti S. Mandala in the hands of their masters willing to die for a cause: sometimes religious and Associate Editor sometimes ideological. India says the is more dangerous than the ISIS, but the US, Russia, Arundeep Singh China and (creator of the Taliban) say that the ISIS is more danger- Manager ous than the Taliban, thus isolating India. The biggest fallout of the US trying to settle the ISIS ( locally called Daesh) WORLD FOCUS takes up every month one issue in West Asia with about 24 major participants in various zones of the international issue and gives an analysis of its various conflict in and around Syria, which will be the biggest challenge for the aspects by persons well known for their Trump administration. If we don’t settle the Kashmir issue bi-laterally the specialisation in the subject. The issues covered are US and Russia will force a solution on us both in the larger interest of peace topical or near topical, but of an abiding interest. in the region, to cap and stop Pakistan from training terrorist organisations The analysis is simple enough to interest even an and exporting terrorists of which Pakistan has made a living as a nation. initiate to world affairs, but without sacrificing depth. President Trump praised Modi’s reforms and said that he “will be the best The aim is to present an Indocentric view on a friend of India in the White House.” With high tech defence trade to grow in particular issue currently facing the world. a big way and India needed to counter China along with Japan, Australia and Opinions expressed in the articles are personal views South Korea our voice will be heard as we are a big market also. We should of the author and in no way reflect the opinion of also keep in mind of President Trump telling Nawaz Sharif when he called World Focus. The author is solely responsible for him to wish him that he is “ready and willing to play any role that you want the contents in his/ her article and the World Focus me to play.” With Beijing saying “One China” principle is not negotiable and takes no responsibility in this regard. India must keep in mind in President Trump’s foreign policy: Everything is Negotiable to advance America’s interests putting China on the back foot, The Contents of this magazine cannot be reproduced settling the ISIS issue and stopping nuclear proliferation being among major in any form with out prior permission from World issues for the US. Focus. Any legal issues pertaining to World Focus India should watch out for our interests, or else we are for big surprises thrust will be settled in NCT region of Delhi only. on us. Taking bold solutions will take India forward on the path of solving Unsolicited articles will not be returned or disputes with Pakistan and China. China accepts the Mac Mahon line as its acknowledged. World Focus reserves the right to border with Myanmar, but not with India. The best possible solution of edit articles for brevity and clarity before publication. swapping our interests in Aksai Chin while retaining our interests in Arunachal came during the Vajpayee administration. This approach should be taken up Edited, Owned, Published and Printed by to its conclusion by the Modi leadership. India has given away the Katchatheevu G. Kishore Babu from B-49 (Ground Floor), Joshi Colony, I.P. Extension, Delhi-110092 at Meenakshi Press, 4857/24, First Islands to Sri Lanka in 1974. Floor, Ansari Road, Dariyaganj, New Delhi - 110002 To end cross border terrorism from Pakistan, we should start the peace pro- cess started by Prime Minister Vajpayee and President Musharraf which Total number of Pages 138, including Covers almost happened. Farooq Abdullah when he asked Vajpayee about talks he Copy Right : World Focus had with Musharraf in Lahore, Vajpayee said “I have suggested to Pakistan Our Address: President Musharraf that you keep this part (Kashmir) with you and we will World Focus keep ours, this way we will settle the (Kashmir) issue and also set right the B-49, (Ground Floor) Joshi Colony, Line of Control,” as reported by PTI. The peace process was later pushed hard by Prime Minister Manmohan Singh, now it should be taken forward by I P Extension Prime Minister Modi and Pakistan Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif. These bold Delhi - 110092, India steps may lead towards de-escalating tensions in the region and curbing ter- Tel. / Fax : 22246905, Mobile No. 8130754555 rorism to a large extent. Email: [email protected] New Delhi G. Kishore Babu Website: www.worldfocus.in February 2017 Editor 3 Redical Islam & Terrorism Contents Radical Islam and Terrorism: A Discourse Prof. Snehalata Panda...... 5 Radical Islam and Terrorism: An Overview Dr. B. Srinivas, IPS...... 14 Radical Islam and Terrorism: Perils of Stereotypes Dr. Arunoday Bajpai...... 18 Understanding Terrorism: Is it Cause or Effect of Islamic Radicalism? Dr. Alok Kumar Gupta...... 24 Islam and Nonviolence Dr. Sailaja Gullapalli...... 32 Radical Islam and Terrorism in West Asia Dr. Sudhanshu Tripathi...... 39 Islamic Radicalism: Rethinking the Indo-US Policy of Countering Terrorism Dr. Sanghamitra Patnaik...... 46 Radical Islam and Terrorism: A Non-Religious Approach Pratip Chattopadhyay and Dr. Amulya K Tripathy...... 53 Radical Islam and the Spread of Global Terrorism: An Analysis Dr. Bhawna Pokharna...... 59 Emergence of Radical Islam in the 21st Century: Challenges for the West Dr. Saleem Ahmad...... 67 Conflict and Peace in Mindanao: A Case Study of Ethno-religious Secessionist Dynamics Dr. Mohor Chakraborty...... 74 Terrorist Attacks on Mumbai & Role of Pakistan Dr. Onkar Sadashiv Pawar...... 81 Radical Islam and Terrorism: How women responding? Pankaj Chaudhary...... 86 The Role of Radical Islam and Ideological Terrorism in the Ambit of Contemporary World Politics: An Anthology Dr. Pratyay Dutta...... 94 Critically Understanding “West’s War on Terror”: Role of US and Europe Rameez Raja Mir & Manzoor Ahmad Hajam...... 102 Liberation Theology as an ‘Ethical’ Intellectual Discourse: Engaging with the Post-Secular Moment in Post-9/11 Prasanta Kumar Sahu...... 110 The Growth of Religious Radicalism and Terrorism in Pakistan Shivani Sharma...... 119 The Rise of Women’s in West Asia Sumaiyah Ahmed...... 126 Examining the Role of United Nations in Defining Terrorism Afroz Ahmad...... 134 4 World Focus February 2017 Radical Islam and Terrorism: A Discourse Prof. Snehalata Panda

Widespread rampage with bestial brutality has government in peacetime is virtue, its basis in a time characterized terrorism in the past couple of of revolution is virtue and terror- virtue, without years. If religious fundamentalism is the which terror would be barbaric; and terror, without motivating factor for violence then any religious which virtue would be impotent”, (6) Since then group can be identified as radical for using terrorism has manifested in different forms, morphing inhuman methods to achieve their goal or retaliate into more radical, devastating, ruthless, organized and with inordinate force. But the debate veers round militarized activity with superb technical and the phrase “Radical Islam”. Realignments to propagation skills. But sometimes in the “anxiety – counter the menace are surprisingly unusual inspiring method of repeated violent action employed reversing the earlier order reminiscent of the by (semi) clandestine individual, group or state actors events preceding the global wars. for idiosyncratic, criminal or political reasons … the direct target of violence are not the main targets.” Introduction (7) An acceptable definition of terrorism is “the unlawful use of — or threatened use of — force or violence In the post colonial era terrorism can be against individuals or property to coerce or intimidate located in the nationalist and revolutionary movements governments or societies, often to achieve political, which proliferated with growing resentment against religious, or ideological objectives.”(1) Walter Laquer state formation and creation of Israel as threat to the defines it as “systematic use or threatened use of Marxist leftist governments. Terror was an effective violence to intimidate a population or government for method to achieve their political goals. Prominent political, religious or ideological goals”. (2) Acts of among these were Al Fatah and the Popular Front violence are perpetrated by…”deplorably, determined for the Liberation of Palestine(PFLP) which targeted youths lured by hardcore criminals and underground the victims outside the geography of conflict as the extremists and attracted by the ideology of terrorism” Arab world was far less capable to encounter the (3) which produce a “prolonged psychological effect military might of Israel which became evident after on the society as a whole” (4) the defeat of Arab forces by Israel in 1967 .The methods used were hijacking, kidnapping, bombing Terror, in the form extraordinary brutality to ,shooting etc. carried out across the world to control the ruled was being used by rulers and internationalise their issue .With patronisation from governments since political entities were formed some states and non state entities the organisations either to end the nasty situations prevailing in the pre proliferated. Failure of Arab nationalism was an state period or to eliminate inconveniences prevalent important reason for bolstering extremist Islamic in the society. However, extreme fear by use of movements in the Middle East along with some violence and threats corroborating “terror” as a form progressive ones. Terrorism entered a new phase of state sponsored political violence was displayed in after the USSR’s invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 and France, during Le terreur when systematic use of Islamic revolution in Shia majority Iran. But Soviet violence to attain political ends was codified by incursion of Afghanistan gave a boost to well trained Robespierre. He deemed it as “emanation of virtue” terrorist groups for indulging in violence. Volunteers that delivers “prompt, severe and inflexible” justice, from across the world supported by Arab as well as as a consequence of the general principle of non Arab countries fought against the communist democracy applied..to most pressing needs” of government .Later they trained insurgents in North France (5) In his words “If the basis of popular Africa, Kashmir ,Chechnya, China, Bosnia and

Radical Islam and Terrorism: A Discourse 5 . Their tactics also changed as most of financial assistance and preaching. Violence is them used suicide bombers which not only devastated justified on the basis of Islamic scriptures, prophetic their targets but killed innocent people. It accelerated traditions and legal opinions. Conversion to the its pace and adopted more sophisticated violent religion is their ultimate goal. Islamic radicals methods in the post period as globalization interpret Islam and the Holy Scriptures differently, proliferated .Weak states in the Balkans, Afghanistan, prohibit many types of traditional worship and inflict some Central American and African states became severe punishment to the non-conformist. the safe haven for such groups for recruitment and training who used smuggling and drug trafficking Quite a few Islamic scholars reiterate the routes to further their action globally. Support by some peaceful aspects of Islam. But British Evangelical states, indoctrination in dehumanizing ideology and activist Patrick Sookhdeo states “The violence availability of modern means of communication raised perpetrated by (jihadi) groups is rooted both in the the intensity of their violent action. Afghanistan tops ideology of large contemporary Islamist movements the list of countries providing training to the extremists. and in the traditional orthodox and classical version Pakistan is serving as the transit area between Middle of Islam especially its doctrine of jihad, da’wa and East and South Asia as well as providing assistance dhimmitude and also the law of apostasy, presented to terrorist groups active in Kashmir. Taliban is in the authoritative Islamic scriptures and supported by Pakistan which over the years has commentaries.” (11)The struggle against the non grown in strength and expanded its terrorist activities Muslim is apparently clear from the Islamic State of .Presumably Pakistani backed terrorist groups active and the Levant (ISIL)’s five point justification in Kashmir have used training camps inside Taliban for the right to take non Muslims hostage, decapitate controlled areas. Members of these groups and ,ransom and enslave .(12)Jihad is a religious obligation Pakistanis from the North West Frontier province and is elaborated in Sharia Law. For some scholars (NWFP)have fought with the Taliban against jihad is defensive but some others view it as fight opposition forces.(8) US State Department records against oppressive regimes and conversion of non- five such groups of which three are very active in Muslims to Islam (13) “The literal definition of the the Indo -Pak border. Reportedly one or more of these word jihad is: striving to achieve a goal, while the groups were involved in the terrorist attacks including Quranic definition of the word is “striving with one’s the attack on army bases in Punjab and Kashmir in self and one’s money in the cause of God”. (14) 2016. These are the fundamentalist Islamic groups which reject modernity. (9) Radical Islam became the core of discussion after the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) aligned Radical Islam the notch on history of the past century with the Islam is founded on peace and toleration but “radical present expressing ideology as the primary motive Islam” is based on enforcement of religious beliefs for terrorist activity. It is inspiring people of Islamic using more often than not, extreme violent means. It origin by stirring their consciousness about the can be sourced to Wahabism faith according to which Caliphate. The eighth century Abbasid Caliph Harun is not an option but compulsion mandated by force.(10) –al - Rashid is epitomized as the most successful Such groups borrow form Wahhabi and Salafi ruler. (15) The group calls it a jihad to resurrect the thought grounded in the traditions of caliphate that was dismembered after the end of Fundamentalist Islamic interpretations of the World War I. religious texts having extensive influence in the Muslim world. Founding members of such groups is defined as terrorist are inspired by the works of Wahabi-Salafi activity committed by groups or individuals who scholars. Wahabism is conservative and its learning profess Islamic motivations or goals and justify their includes training in weapons .It strictly restricts action quoting the two important Muslim religious texts contact with non Muslims. Saudi Arab is the Quran and Hadith. US government held Islamic acknowledged as the main exporter of Wahabism militants rooted in the Middle East and South Asia to Africa, Asia and the West supplementing with for September 11,2001 attacks on the twin towers

6 World Focus February 2017 .(16)But the phrase Radical Islam is disputed as Democrats and in accordance with the changing view “highly politicized, intellectually contested and of the Republicans about Russia since 2014(less anti damaging to community relations”(17) It is now Russian). Civilisational conservatives view “Putin’s debated more in US after the Republican Donald Russia as Christianity’s frontline against the new Trump’s assumption of presidential office. Trump’s civilisational enemy: Islam”. It indicates that foreign and national security team consists of two President Trump is “moving away from an ideological streams of conservatives; ideological” and “cultural”. confrontation with authoritarian Russia and towards Earlier ideological conservatives opposed Soviet Union civilisational conflict with Islam”. For the present US because it was the enemy of freedom .The “cultural National Security Advisor “fear of Muslims is conservatives” opposed communism because it was rational”; Islam is like cancer”. He argues “America atheistic and sought the destruction of the could defeat Hitler because of US relationship with predominantly Christian culture of the West. Peter Russia and that partnership should be renewed to Beinart has brilliantly described Trumps’ views on fight against “Radical Islam”. Steve Bannon, the chief Islam and Russia. (18)Despite the “cold war” strategist and senior counselor of presidency of between US and Russia after the Ukrainian episode, Donald Trump views that “war against Islam is Trump has described Russia as a partner. Islam is a continuation of Judeo-Christian west’s war against hostile force for “Muslims guilty of jihadist sympathies Islam.” The “clash of civilisations” approach to until proven innocent”. Republican leaders so far held defeat and destroy the IS may result in loss of support that US is fighting an ideological struggle against the of US partners in the Middle East and the Islamic enemies of freedom. But Trump and his advisors countries specifically Afghanistan without whose describe America as fighting a civilisational struggle support it cannot successfully combat IS .Restricting against the enemies of west .This view makes Russia flow of immigrants form Islamic countries may target more benevolent and Muslims despicable. (19) US institutions and people outside the country. It might also strengthen IS and al-Queda’s stand of continuing The shift in policy can be understood by the war against the western “crusaders” and divide distinguishing two different conservative streams in the Atlantic .Though approaches are different and foreign policy thinking associated with the cold war; risks are plenty, US war against terrorism has the civilisational and the ideological. Civilisational visualized Islam “as common foe” to thwart which conservatives viewed the cold war as a struggle nations without common interests have partnered . between two countries defined on their respective The Obama administration viewed that “even nations perspectives on God that is Judeo Christian- United with sharply different interests cooperate against their states versus the atheistic Soviet Union. Ideological common foe :terrorism in all its forms”.(20) Conservatives viewed the cold war as a conflict between two countries defined primarily by their view After the attacks on Charle Hebado the of government; the liberty loving versus debate on Radical Islam has intensified between the the totalitarian USSR. Realists viewed it as traditional Democrats and Republicans. President Obama great power conflict defined by their geopolitical shunned the phrase for political reasons. Shadi importance. Both the streams argued differently the Hamid, a scholar at the Brookings Institution disagrees disturbances in the Balkans and elsewhere after the with the phrase because it “maligns Islam” a religion end of the cold war. But after 9/11 attack President founded on peace. The debate arose after the Islamic Bush “justified war on terror in ideological terms: as State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) occupied a large chunk a new totalitarian foe that had hijacked Islam” of Iraq using violence. There was controversy among .Civilisational conservatives described Islam as the Democrats and Republicans regarding its religious “wicked”. Even so both the groups supported Bush affiliation that is whether they were terrorists without government’s stand on Afghanistan and Iraq. a linkage with Islam. While the Democrats refused President Trump views terrorism as problem of to use radical Islam, the Republicans argued that the Muslims in general which is evident from his speech main perpetrators were radical Islamists. during the campaign for election to the office of “Republicans who invoke “radical Islam” seem to be President. His position on Russia too, is unlike the trying to telegraph certain arguments about Muslims,

Radical Islam and Terrorism: A Discourse 7 political correctness, and the United States’ failure to American –Islamic Relations said IS terrorism is stop the march of extremist groups across the Middle not clash between Islam and the West.(24) East. At the same time, Democrats who reject it are also making a political statement, one touching on While the debate in US is continuing, Islam phobia and inclusiveness.” (21) is worried about the issue of border security as the terrorist suspect Anis Amri, Senator Marco Rubio of Florida, then a the chief suspect of truck bomb attack in Germany candidate for the Republican presidential nomination in December, 2016 allegedly crossed borders of said “We are at war with radical Islam,” following at least two states before being killed in Italy. terrorist attacks in Paris. Commenting on president Obama’s avoidance of the phrase he said “we Following this debate has intensified on weren’t at war with Nazis, because we were afraid cross border security failure. Europe is now to offend some Germans who may have been divided on the issue of free transit across the members of the Nazi Party but weren’t violent European Union (EU) countries. Nationalists who themselves.” …Senator Ted Cruz said “You cannot dislike European unity argue that “extremist fight and win a war on radical Islamic terrorism if violence is too high a price to pay for the freedom you’re unwilling to utter the words ‘radical Islamic of travel” .Defenders of EUs’ border free zone terrorism,’ “ The controversy centred on Islam as a argue that security failure calls for more religion being radical which it certainly is not. It had cooperation among the European governments. also a political context in view of risking anti Muslim Marine Le Pen, French far right leader argues, sentiment in the US and outside which the Democrats “The myth of total free movement in avoided .Another argument for not using radical Islam Europe..should be definitely buried. Our security for ISIS was not to legitimize the group as representing depends on it.”Free travel zone according to her the whole of Islam. Democrats did not prefer to label is “total security catastrophe”. With the increasing religion with the terrorist group .But the nomenclature anti immigrant and anti –establishment sentiments “Islamic State”” cannot simply be said un-Islamic rightists will come to power in most EU member though the method that is violence it has used to countries and put an end to free travel across achieve its ends are not true to the religion. Hillary Europe which allowed millions to travel daily and Clinton took a “middle path”. “She described the precipitated trade and job prospects.(25)The EU Orlando attack as “radical Islamism” — a small but is already divided on the immigrants issue as most meaningful distinction; Islam is a religion, whereas East European countries of the EU denied entry Islamism a political ideology calling for Islamic of immigrants to their territory while Germany government”. According to her, “It matters what we welcomes and others debated about the issue. do, not what we say.”(22)But defeating the enemy Rightists in Germany defend closure of border as being foremost its existence need to be acknowledged. the truck bomb attack in Germany is an example (23) of Islamic extremists using the free border “to attack the principles of tolerance “while President Trump described Berlin truck conservatives suggest transit zone to confirm the attack on 24 December ,2016 as “purely religious identity of migrants. In Hungary the Gyorkos threat which turned into reality “basing on the incident reveals neo Nazism .Its leading opposition video in which the suspected reportedly said “by party Jobbik is a “big fan “of Russian president God’s will we will slaughter you…”During election Putin. A Hungary based research group views campaign Trump criticized both President Obama Russia is adopting the USSR era KGB methods and Hillary Clinton for their refusal to use the towards the extremist groups which have phrase “radical Islam”. Critics of Trump say that proliferated across Scandinavian countries. But such a phrase would flare up communal tension. it is very difficult to completely do away with the Ibrahim Hooper, National Communication Islamic extremists. (26) Director and spokes person for the Council of

8 World Focus February 2017 Challenges and Realignments looking than espousing globalization as an A decade in hind sight presents a plethora of events opportunity. Economic reasons like falling that miserably failed US led war in Iraq and execution productivity and growing unemployment demand of President Saddam Hussein, who was “able to non democratic solutions. Western countries had achieve equilibrium in ethnically divided Iraq”. Stability advanced following industrial revolution which and democracy in the Middle East is a chimera. Iraq’s continued for about two centuries .Now developing bitter indignation at having been treated unfairly by countries like China and India have obtained skill the Shiite government stoked up ultra radical Islamic and competitiveness. Skilled people from these State group (ISIS). It has only one objective that is countries are as productive as the European and annihilation of the enemy. The war against ISIS is American worker at much less wages. Out sourcing taking place on all continents. The terrorist group is and immigration are contested as pruning attacking around the world with incredible intensity employment opportunities for the locals in US and and tactics. Even with huge number of US soldiers the West. Therefore, the leaders have promised providing support to Iraqi army to counter the violent drastic cut in outsourcing and immigration. But radical group, it has failed to contain the radicals. technological development like automation and The failure in Iraq influenced president Obama so artificial intelligence is also displacing human much so that he refrained from military intervention labour. “A post-truth society is emerging where in the Syrian civil war .President Trump also pledged independent fact checkers are sneered at and the during campaign for presidency that US will never fundamentalist opinions are seen as the revealed engage in “regime change” or “nation building”. truth….The US alt-right, the far right in France and Holland and the Islamic fundamentalism have Many countries have aligned to fight against all gained at the expense of liberal centre.”Aiyar it in their own territory as well as Iraq and Syria. The argues that Islamic fundamentalism is no different two branches of Islam, Shia and Sunni are fighting from the rightists of European countries (27) while Iran is supporting Shias and Saudi Arab is supporting Sunnis.US is propping up Shias .All big “The greatest risks of the postwar liberal powers have indulged in supporting one or the other international order are the “growing fissure between group. US, Russia and China are challenging one Islamism and the West –in Europe and its periphery, another in the military field. Russia is supporting the rise of authoritarian leaders within ostensibly President Assad of Syria and its military is trained in democratic frameworks, and the visible fragility of China .US is supporting the rebels. The victory of American alliances and the security architecture that Trump in US reveals rightist sentiment of the US sustain them”. Rej has given the example of Turkey voters. “Arab Spring” helped stabilisation of where successive governments after Mustafa Kemal democratic government in Tunisia, gave rise to had envisioned its modernization by aligning with dictatorship in some other Arab countries but left the West but Europe had never allowed it to many in total anarchy particularly Libya and Syria. materialize. Thus its leaders foresaw geopolitical Proposed truce by Russia and Turkey with some advantage by playing the Shia- Sunni conflict .Turkey groups in Syria has been suspended following the thereby was “exposed to Islamist violence” and attack in Turkey on 1 January,2017 indicating that expansion of “Islamic base”. Its president Erdogan the war will not cease in 2017. has aligned his policy priorities as conservative Muslim. He has challenged Turkey’s commitment to The rise of rightist leaders is an indication western alliances and seeking membership of the of popular dissatisfaction of liberal democratic Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) , a Sino – systems which failed to meet people’s aspirations. Russian security setup. Aligning with Russia seems People seek solution even with extreme means to be a move for long term diplomatic gain which is blaming government policies on immigration, evident from its action against suspected groups based reservation foreigners and so on. If hatred basing in US behind the assassination of Russian on race, religion, and ethnicity proliferates ambassador. Turkey joining the SCO will be setback governments might be compelled to be more inward

Radical Islam and Terrorism: A Discourse 9 for NATO .But the realignments by using the Islamist continue its policy towards India as the security plank is much against the liberal order. “ (28) dynamics in the Asian region remain unchanged though president Trumps’ call to Pakistani president In India Islamic terrorism coincided with the as well as cautioning it use of “double standards” civil war in Afghanistan and direct involvement of against India indicates uncertainty.(34) former Soviet Union in the faction ridden Afghan conflict. Characteristic of the cold war US had to Terrorism specifically Islamic terrorism has contain USSR. One of the means it adopted to fostered new alignments in South Asia. One important succeed in its effort was to encourage Islamic youth reason for Russia- Pakistan friendship is the growing to be trained in terrorist activities. While the Central menace of terrorism originating in Pakistan and Intelligence Agency(CIA) encouraged unemployed terrorists based in Russia indulging in violent activities Muslim youth to land in Afghanistan to fight against in the Af-Pak region. Security has assumed an Communism, Pakistani Inter Services Intelligence important matter for discussion even in exclusively (ISI) embedded the religious motivation along with economic forums. In the recently held BRICS summit arming the trained Muslim youth from across the world in Goa leaders supported Russia and called for an who were sent to Afghanistan to carry on the anti- “unrelenting fight” against the Islamic State and Soviet Jihad.(29) Majority of the Muslims from India Jabhat al-Nursa.”US could not pit other BRICS were from Jammu and Kashmir (Some of the jihadists members against Russia on the Syrian issue .The were non Kashmiri Muslims) who later formed the leaders of five countries had a unified stance on the Students Islamic Movement in India(SIMI, now situation in Libya and Afghanistan and other countries banned) to indulge in jihad in India. Funded and affected by terrorism”. Western media characterized indoctrinated by the ISI they indulged in extreme BRICS summit in Goa as routine affair .But the violence . Pakistan has the intention to capture forum is important for Russia in view of its conflict Kashmir and keep obsessed the Indian security forces with the west and the menace of terrorism. China is in fighting the extremists across the country. At the a threat to US hegemony. Russia’s relation with US turn of the century when US launched war against will improve in view of president Trumps’ assertions international terrorism in Afghanistan the remnants and the posture of Russia after Obama administration of jihadists fled to Pakistan and were given a safe scaled up its anti Russia policy. But it is terrorism haven in Pakistani Occupied Kashmir thereby which will decides friends and foes and engineer new emboldening the structure of jihadists in India. Some alignments. Islamic terrorist organizations in Kashmir are indigenous but many organisaions are based in Relation between India and Pakistan Pakistan. (31)Their goal is “liberation” of Muslims in deteriorated after the terrorist attacks in Pathankot India and creation of “Islamic Caliphate” in the region. army base followed by Uri and Nagrota in Jammu SIMI reportedly is active both in north and south India. and Kashmir. India suspected Massod Azhar as the There are also groups in south India like Al Ummah mastermind behind the Pathankot attack but India’s whose organization extends beyond India. (32) stand was rejected by China in the United Nations. This was an indication of China’s support to Pakistan During the cold war India ‘s friendship with even on sensitive issues like terrorism to keep India the USSR antagonized US .But after adopting liberal under pressure. Now Russia’s relation with Pakistan market economy India’s relation with US has been has gained traction. The China Pakistan Economic strengthened though during the Republican as well Corridor (CPEC)coming up in the disputed territory as Democratic rule in US both India and US have will dilute India’s claim .Russia ,China and Pakistan disagreed on issues like climate change and are engaged in Afghanistan . Pakistan will gain in commerce.(33) An important factor in boosting Indo political, economic and strategic sectors by the -US relationship is terrorism. The war against terror CPEC. It is strategically important to China as it has united even countries without a common interest provides access to the Indian Ocean as an alternative but India being the worst sufferer stepped up its to the Strait of Malacca. It also ensures China’s relation with US to fight the common enemy.US might presence in the Indian Ocean with enough elbow room

10 World Focus February 2017 for economic, political and military influence in the Nandan Unnikrishnan, Russia analyst at region. It has provided Pakistan an option to link Observer Research Foundation, said, “In the present culturally, economically and strategically with West context of limited communication between India and Asia and strategically locate in the Chinese politico- Russia, Russia’s actions could lead to a drift in economic zone. Russia has balanced its relation relations.” India only recently reaffirmed its ties with with India and Pakistan by including both in the Russia by announcing almost $10 billion in defence Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) which will purchases+ from MoscowAs Russia, China and be finalized at the summit in Astana in 2017. The Pakistan work+ towards building a new axis in organization presently includes Russia, China, Afghanistan to accommodate Taliban as a tool against Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan .SCO the Islamic Sate terror group, it could have unforeseen membership will allow India and Pakistan to consequences for the Russia-India relationship. participate in its military exercises which would help the organization and facilitate dialogue between the On Tuesday, China, Pakistan and Russia met two countries.(35) In December 2016Russia, China in Moscow to discuss Afghanistan’s “deteriorating” and Pakistan work+ towards building a new axis in security situation, despite strong protests from the Afghanistan to accommodate Taliban as a tool against Afghan government. The three countries relented the Islamic Sate terror group, it could have unforeseen towards the end of the day’s discussions and said consequences for the Russia-India relationship. that they would expand the group to include Afghanistan the next time. There is already a move On Tuesday, China, Pakistan and Russia met to induct Iran into this group. in Moscow to discuss Afghanistan’s “deteriorating” security situation, despite strong protests from the Nandan Unnikrishnan, Russia analyst at Afghan government. The three countries relented Observer Research Foundation, said, “In the present towards the end of the day’s discussions and said context of limited communication between India and that they would expand the group to include Russia, Russia’s actions could lead to a drift in Afghanistan the next time. There is already a move relations.” India only recently reaffirmed its ties with to induct Iran into this group. Russia by announcing almost $10 billion in defence purchases+ from MoscowAs Russia, China and Nandan Unnikrishnan, Russia analyst at Pakistan work+ towards building a new axis in Observer Research Foundation, said, “In the present Afghanistan to accommodate Taliban as a tool against context of limited communication between India and the Islamic Sate terror group, it could have unforeseen Russia, Russia’s actions could lead to a drift in consequences for the Russia-India relationship. relations.” India only recently reaffirmed its ties with Russia by announcing almost $10 billion in defence On Tuesday, China, Pakistan and Russia met purchases+ from Moscow.As Russia, China and in Moscow to discuss Afghanistan’s “deteriorating” Pakistan work+ towards building a new axis in security situation, despite strong protests from the Afghanistan to accommodate Taliban as a tool against Afghan government. The three countries relented the Islamic Sate terror group, it could have unforeseen towards the end of the day’s discussions and said consequences for the Russia-India relationship. that they would expand the group to include Afghanistan the next time. There is already a move On Tuesday, China, Pakistan and Russia met to induct Iran into this group. in Moscow to discuss Afghanistan’s “deteriorating” security situation, despite strong protests from the Nandan Unnikrishnan, Russia analyst at Afghan government. The three countries relented Observer Research Foundation, said, “In the present towards the end of the day’s discussions and said context of limited communication between India and that they would expand the group to include Russia, Russia’s actions could lead to a drift in Afghanistan the next time. There is already a move relations.” India only recently reaffirmed its ties with to induct Iran into this group. Russia by announcing almost $10 billion in defence purchases+ from Moscow Russia, China and Pakistan

Radical Islam and Terrorism: A Discourse 11 met in Moscow to build a new axis in Afghanistan of interest. Recently the Gulf countries led by Saudi to accommodate Taliban as a tool in the fight against Arab and United Arab Emirates have broached plans the ISIS. The exclusion of India signals a drift in India’s for relationship with nations across the Red Sea for relation with Russia despite the recently concluded security reasons. But some countries are using it defence deal between the two countries. against their traditional enemies like Pakistani based (36)Personality and leadership factors also influence terrorist organizations indulging in violence in India. their relationship despite the fact that both are victims India’s attempt to isolate Pakistan has not been of terrorism. (37) successful .Rather Pakistan has forged new alignment drawing Russia to its fold and making a foot print in Observations .The “Belt and Road “diplomacy of In international relationship, nations more often than China will draw more Asian countries aspiring for not evaluate the benefits of friendship .Probable risks infrastructure development .Russia turned to Pakistan are worked out keeping in view probable gain .They as India closed in to US though Russia denies that its are prepared to abjure the present choice if a better relation with Pakistan is not used as a bargaining tool alternative is available though immediate and long against India. It is strengthening its relation with term gains are calculated for preferring relationship. Pakistan because it does not consider it to be a non Nations constantly assess the cost and benefit of NATO ally of US in its war on terror. It is not a partnering though within the compass there may be secret that Russia is extremely alarmed by the growth strong and weak relationship. Relation is not valued of ISIS and a possible collapse of Afghanistan, to the as much as its positive outcome. This is applicable to extent that it is even ready to engage with Taliban. the reconfiguration of relationship between India and By actively coordinating with Pakistan, Russia would US after its fight against terrorism. Developing be able to stop the radical jihadists’ future spillover to countries have limited option to determine their Central Asia. Therefore, Russia is trying to portray choice. Depending on the economic and military its own security concerns as the raison d’être behind capabilities the range of options changes. But it is not the rapprochement.(38) Following its confrontation defined solely by the bilateral issues ,a states’ relation with US and Europe over Ukraine, Russia views with big powers intervenes to choose a policy. much else in the world through this prism. But it has changed the geopolitical realities after Donald However, mere self interest does not create Trumps’ election as president who denounced Syria an environment of trust .Even so relationship policy of the Democratic administration and indicated continues. This is applicable to India’s relation with “strong….enduring relationship” with Russia one of China though both are victims of terrorism. When the intent of which is combating terrorism. These nations move upward in their potentiality they changes forebode a common strategy to combat the perceive to be powerful and try to exert influence. menace of radical terrorism, Islamic as well as non This is repetition of their past experience in their Islamic but success depends on preventing rampage external relationship when they were less potential than retaliating after devastation. vis-a- vis the more powerful nation/s.For example India is potential now compared to the pre economic Notes and References reform period .So is China but more potential than 1. U.S. Department of Defense publication. India. But their relationship is based on calculated 2. Walter Laqueur, No End to War, New York: Continuum, p. assessment of net benefits. China is more influential, Walter Laqueur, No End to War, New York: Continuum, p.11 Francis Fukuyama, “History and September 11,” in Booth and does not view India as equal but as a competitor in its Dunne, World in Collision, p. 34 aspiration to assert as a world power. Therefore, 3. 1994, 3 SCC 569, p. 621. terrorism is viewed to suit its calculations to downplay 4. H B Thakur vs. The state of Maharashtra. India. 5. Maximilien Francois Marie Isadora de Robespierre ‘principles de morale politique’, speech delivered to French National Interestingly in the last couple of years convention,5 Feb,1794at http://members.jycos.fr/discours/ terrorism in the Arab countries has forged new 1794.htm 6. Robespierre, speech in French National Convention, 1794, alignments even with countries lacking in commonality Online Etymology Dictionary, 2010, Douglas Harper. The

12 World Focus February 2017 English word “terror” originates in the Latin word “terrere” 24.Attacks Like Berlin purely religious threat, The Times of which means frighten. French spell it as Terrour .Frightfulness India,Bhubaneswar,25December,2016,p10 was used in Britain for “deliberate policy of terrorizing enemy 25. In Sweden, Netherlands, France ,Germany non combatants”, German Schrecklichkeit, Online Etymology ,Hungary,Austria,Slovakia and Greece there is resurgence of Dictionary, 2010. rightwing parties. In UK and Philippines also rightist leaders 7. Alex Schmid, Terrorism-The Definitional Problem, Journal are emerging. of International Law, 36,2and3, 2004 26. There will be no remittance of violence in Nigeria despite 8. “Intermixing of Pakistani movements with the Taliban and Nigerian president’s declaration that the home grown Boko their Arab-Afghan allies has seen ties between these groups Haram extremists were “flushed out of their last enclave”.”Boko strengthen”. US State Department Haram flushed out of last enclave”, The Times of 9. (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/target/etc/ India(Bhubaneswar)25 December,2016,p10. modern.html 27. Swaminathan Ankhleswar Aiyar,The Year we were mad as 10. The ideology and theology developed in the 18th and 19 hell, The Times of India,26 Dec, 2016,p7 centuries in the tribal areas of eastern Arabian Peninsula founded 28. Abhinjen Rej, Turkey is the. Canary in the coal mine, by Muhammad bin Abd-al Wahab that proliferated after the forecasting whether the West-led liberal order has a future, The collapse of the Ottoman Empire in 1920. Times of India,(Bhubaneswar)December 22,2016,p10. 11. See also Patrick Soohdeo, The Myth of moderate Islam 29.Huge number of Muslim youth were from Arabic countries http://archive.frontpagemag.com/ including some from India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Indonesia, readArticle.aspx?ARTID=7758 and Malaysia, Philippines, Chechenya, Xingxiang,US Caribbean 12. Johnlee Varghese, ISIS Lists Out 5 Islamic Reasons to Justify countries and Europe. Beheading Alan Henning and other Captives, International 30. Israel had caught a Palestinian student studying in India who Business Times,6 October 2014. revealed about the presence of the extremists in South India). 13. Wael B.Hallaq (2009) Sharia,Theory,Practice 31. Pakistani pan Islamic organizations are identified as Harkut- ,Transformation, Cambridge University Press,pp.338-339 ul-Mujahaidin(HUM,Harkat-ul-Jehad-al-Islami(HUJI), Jaish-e- 14. http://www.quran-islam.org/articles/part_3/ Mohammad(JEM)and Lashkar-e-Toiba(LET. the_concept_of_jihad_%28P1360%29.html 32. Patterns of Global terrorism http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/ 15. Wael B.Hallaq (2009) Sharia,Theory,Practice pgtrpt/2000/ ,Transformation, Cambridge University Press,pp.338-339 33. Ajai Shukla, Trumping Up An India Policy,Business 16. Bruce Hoffman identified 2 out of 64 groups as religious Standard, 6 December, 2016,p.9 but in 1995 26 out of 56 were religiously motivated ,the In a major boost to the armed forces, India signed a nearly Rs majority of these espoused Islam as their guiding force” .Bruce 5,000 crore deal with United States Of America for 145 M777 Hoffman, Inside Terrorism,2006,Columbia University Press ultra-light howitzers guns. The guns will be mostly used near 17. Jackson, Richard (2007). “Constructing Enemies: ‘Islamic the borders with China. The purchase of guns will be India’s Terrorism’ in Political and Academic Discourse”. Government first deal for artillery guns since the Bofors scandal in 1980s.” and Opposition. Wiley Online Library. 42 (3): 394–426. PTI 18. Peter Beinart,What Their Reactions to Monday’s Attacks 34. Trump’s Ignorant Call To Pakistan’s Sharif May Send India Reveal about Trump and Obamahttps://www.theatlantic.com/ An Unwelcome Message http://www.forbes.com/sites/ feed/author/peter-beinart/ charlestiefer/2016/11/30/trumps-ignorant-call-to-sharif-may- 19. Steven Menz,Will Trump Base U.S. Security Strategy on a send-india-an-unwelcome-message/#29d3d35 ‘’ Outlook?) http:// http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/donald-trump-india-pakistan- www.worldpoliticsreview.com/articles/20719/will-trump-base- china-north-korea-kim-jung-un/1/848258.html u-s-security-strategy-on-a-clash-of-civilizations-outlook 35, http://in.rbth.com/russian_india_experts/2016/08/01/sco- 20.could-help-improve-india-pakistan-ties-russian-expert_616973 utm_source=Weekly+Headlines&utm_campaign=b0d426de2b- 36. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/russia-china-and- WPR_Weekly_12302016&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_6e36cc98fd- pakistan-for-flexible-ties-with-taliban-india-ignored/articleshow/ b0d426de2b-62725613 and http://www.theatlantic.com/feed/ 56228906.cm author/peter.beinart 21. http://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/17/world/when-a-phrase- 37. “Culturally and politically prime minister Modi’s diplomatic takes-on-new-meaning-radical-islam-explained.html approach is popular in the west..his interaction with people,op- 22. http://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/17/world/when-a-phrase- eds in news papers, using social media ..This is not popular takes-on-new-meaning-radical-islam-explained.html see also with Vladimir Putin ,as he prefers more traditional ways to https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/nov/14/france-the- cooperate with leaders”http://in.rbth.com/russian_india_experts/ secular-seat-of-europe-to-lose-so-many-to-radical-islam 2016/08/01/sco-could-help-improve-india-pakistan-ties-russian- 23. Shane, Scott (February 18, 2015). “Faulted for Avoiding expert_616973 ‘Islamic’ Labels to Describe Terrorism, White House Cites a 38. http://thediplomat.com/2016/05/whats-behind-russias- Strategic Logic”. The New York Times. . “You cannot defeat an rapprochement-with-pakistan/ enemy that you do not admit exists” Radical Islam and Terrorism: A Discourse 13 Radical Islam and Terrorism: An Overview Dr. B. Srinivas, IPS

Islamic terrorism has become an issue of new life style of terror. Indoctrination into deviant serious concern for governments all over the world ideology begins in schools and mosques where children with many terrorist groups justifying violent terrorist grow receiving exhortations of hatred, intolerance and acts through perverse interpretation of Islamic adherence to militant Islamic beliefs. It is, thus, no religious texts. Islamic terrorist groups which have wonder that all radical Islamic groups differ only in unleashed a series of dastardly acts against humanity tactics but not in strategy to cause and perpetuate under the guise of alleged and perceived barbaric violence and attempt to subjugate muslim discriminations have compelled many nations, youth into a new wave of fanaticism with much hitherto, unconcerned about the scourge of terrorism disregard to the dreams of their parents for career around them, to acknowledge and take note of the planning and future aspirations. All these groups not far reaching and debilitating consequences that only sow the seeds of radicalization but indulge in violence can impact on peace living citizens and their politicization of sermons that whip up a sense of societies, at large. victimhood among muslims and contempt towards non-muslims. There have been an increasing number of radical Islamic organizations in the post 9/11 scenario Efforts at radicalizing muslim youth into and subsequent “war on terror”.These Islamic terrorism and violent ways have become more organizations have become breeding ground for young pronounced since the American invasion of and new generation of terrorists who believe that Afghanistan and Iraq. The lure of youth into radical beating and stoning women to death for alleged Islamic outlook was witnessed earlier among adultery, declaring war on non-muslims and unemployed and underprivileged in the 1990’s when subjugating people to Islam are the fundamental duties terrorist groups all over the world were indulging in imposed upon them by their religious texts, a Guerilla warfare challenging the democratically misguided notion which, indeed, is far from the truth elected governments as well as the military despotic that is enshrined in Islamic religious texts where in states. They employed the terror craft of kidnappings, tolerance has been accorded a very high premium. arson, loot, abductions and damaging both public and It is the misinterpretation and misleading exhortation private properties with self proclaimed goals of of Islamic texts by the self anointed religious seceding territories. Governments and military states preachers that has been found gaining greater all over the world responded to the growing terror currency among the impressionable youth, both with firm resolve to limit the damage that terrorist educated and uneducated as well as employed and groups could inflict and ensured that much of the unemployed who subscribe and romanticize violence population was insulated from the influence of evil in the name of Islam and perpetuate violence as a doers. In maintaining the sovereignty of the states tool to subjugate populations. and run the writ of governments, counter terrorist operations, both at tactical and psychological level, It is also observed that apart from pseudo have also let loose a series of penal, legal and military religions interpretations, social factors like poverty, actions by governments and expectedly, a few of the cultural isolation, political marginalization and other state responses suffered from credibility deficit and forms of alienation propel the misguided muslim youth legitimacy crisis which the radical groups were quick to eulogise and advocate terror in the name of religion. to exploit. It is in this background that some of the It may need to be appreciated that the problem of Islamic terrorist groups which were operating in radicalization begins much before the youth pick up localized areas have embarked upon forging

14 World Focus February 2017 networking with different terrorist groups across of demonstrative violence with absolute disregard for countries to challenge the might of nation states. human life.

Wahabism and Terror Groups Radical Islam in India An intolerant ideological sect in Islam, known as The threat of radical Islam in Indian Context needs wahabism, lends itself to the practice of to be understood in the backdrop of pluralism with fundamentalist Islamic ideology. The wahabist many religions co-existing in harmony. Indian muslims tradition of Islam Believes that Western governments constitute more than 14% of India’s total population policies are anti-Islamic and they see the in the world. Historically and Culturally, Islam has government’s actions having roots in the historic had more than a thousand of years of co-existence in conflict between Islam and Christianity that could be India with the Hindu and other religions with a traced to many centuries. These Wahabi groups have commendable tradition of religious tolerance drawn launched a tirade against governments all over the from the Sufi tradition. The secular tradition of Indian world with a call for what they believe in, the ‘Jehad’, Republic and its constitution has ensured the a perceived struggle or fight against the enemies of commitment to pluralist ideology and occasional Islam whom the Wahabis call ‘infidels’. outbursts of muslim community over undue or Inspired by the ideology of ‘Jehad’, a number of radical perceived interference into muslim religious affairs terror groups sprung up in many parts of the western was quickly met with positive state interventions, both world and they also set up sleeper cells in different executive and legal, to ensure the secular fabric of countries. As a result, past three decades saw Indian Society intact and not allow the sense of increased radical Islamic terrorism in Afghanistan, perceived neglect or marginalization among muslim Iraq, Pakistan, Syria, Nigeria, Israel, Lebanon, Yemen, community to assume deviant or extreme over tones. Indonesia, Thailand to name some. They all have It is, therefore, no wonder that in the past three been operating under different names in different decades when radical Islamic movements were countries with some of them, viz, Taliban, Al-Qaeda, threatening the democratically elected governments and ISIS becoming the most dreaded in many parts of the world, Indian muslim community radical terror outfits. These radical Islamic terror was, by and large, insulated from the perverse groups have become synonymous with high voltage exhortations of radical Islamic ideology. It is, certainly, terror and are drawing membership and recruitment a great tribute to the secular tradition of Indian nation in various countries to cause serious security concerns that there had absolutely been no recruitment of Indian for the governments. muslims into Al-Qaeda and that suicide terrorism or Fidayeen actions found no legitimacy among Indian Among all these radical Islamic group, ISIS muslims. Despite the fact that there have been at or Islamic state of Iraq and Syria, popularly known least 100 Fidayeen actions or suicide bombings in the as Islamic state has become the current dominant past two decades at many places in India and more Jihadi group with sheer brutality and sadistic violence so in Kashmir valley, not a single Indian muslim was as its signature mark. In a short span of 15 years, found to be part of these terror strikes, a very fact Islamic state has brought in radical and barbaric that vindicates the tolerant Indian Islamic tradition ideology with an agenda of capturing territories and which disapproves and condemns violence and establishing what it calls the ‘caliphate’, or, an Islamic terrorism in any form. state and it has spread its tentacles all over Iraq and Syria. In the ideology of the ‘caliphate’, the Islamic The overwhelming view of most of the Indian state terrorists attack and damage the economy of muslim community towards the Sufi and tolerant governments and subjugate the population by visible tradition that had sustained Indian secular mosaic, acts of horrific terror and gain control over territories. however, has come under strain over the years with The Islamic state twists the Islamic texts into perverse some disgruntled and marginalized Indian muslim idiom with a narrative that legitimatize practices of youth getting fascinated by the radical Islamic slavery, beheadings, suicide bombings and other forms Ideology. A number of terrorist organizations in India like Hizbul , Lashkar-E-Toiba, Jaish-E-

Radical Islam and Terrorism: An Overview 15 Mohommed and many others, aided and supported by the religious bigots. It may be important to mention by Pakistan have indulged in a series of terror actions that low level of education and unemployment may in Jammu and Kashmir and in many Indian cities in be contributing to radicalism among uneducated and the past three decades. They have succeeded in poor muslim youth but some of the educated and recruiting sizeable number of youth into their terror middle class youth among muslims also get radicalized fold in the name of religion and call for ‘freedom’. due to the perceived sense of assault on their religion, There has also been the emergence of an indigenous ethics and cultural moorings apart from the perceived terrorist out fit under the name of SIMI (Student apprehensions that they suffer from lack of Islamic Movement of India) in 1997 which has opportunities in the economic sphere of activity. A attracted recruitment of radical Islamic youth, in many better educated but un employed or, underemployed parts of India. Members of this group indulged in a who experiences a relative deprivation among his series of terrorist action in many Indian cities. A peers becomes a potential target for the men on the number of terror modules of this Islamic terror group lookout for potential terror recruits. In societies where were neutralized with the arrest of its members. It such educated or uneducated numbers are high and continues to be a radical Islamic group that needs to there is restrained freedom on speech and political be watched closely. aspirations, there is invariably a huge catchment area for potential radical youth who could be motivated The major concern, of late, has been the into terror fold. The religious dimension coupled with emergence of Social media as a powerful tool of socio-economic and political aspiration issues make religious propaganda which is exploited to the it a fertile ground for radicalizing the youth into maximum by the Islamic State. Though there has militancy and most of the Islamic terror groups / been recruitment of just a handful of Indian youth movements bear testimony to the mixture of these into the IS fold, the social media propaganda of ISIS factors that are pushing young men and even women has adequate propensity to radicalize Indian muslim to take to the path of violence. The consequent state youth. Some of the Indian muslim youth who owed response and the vicious cycle of violence and counter allegiance to Pakistan based terror outfits are fast violence blunts the radicalization further making it getting attracted to the radical muslim ideology being more belligerent and difficult proposition for state propagated by Islamic State. In the past few years, interventions. In such situations, religious institutions there has been a high pitched ISIS propaganda on like the Mosques and Madarssas become the only cyber space and media reports indicate busting of outlet where youth can express their political dissent many of such small modules of ISIS trying to gain and it will not be long before that the religion gets entry into India in the cities of Bangalore, Hyderabad politicized and youth gets radicalized under the and some parts of Kerala. influence of preachings of ‘Jehad’.

Radicalization and De-radicalization In this background, attempts at The romanticism of terror on social media and the deradicalisation need to focus upon the socio spread of intolerant and radical dimension of Islam economic and political dimensions at a strategic level interpreted in a valgar sense necessitates the need to and the security issues at the tactical level address the issue of radicalization so as to discourage complementing each other. The aim would have to the youth from the option of taking to terrorism as an be to prevent the radicalized youth from joining militant outlet to vent out their perceived sense of injustice ranks. It needs to be reiterated that not all radicalized that they believe is responsible for their deviant youth may take to terror and street violence. They behaviors. It may, also be necessary to appreciate are, however, the potential talent who could be the factors that are possibly responsible for radicalized propelled into cyber terror through social media Islam. Studies on radicalization have found that influence and they pose much more danger than the religious ideology, culture, social and economic factors terrorists with weapons. The invisibility and at times, such as lack of education, unemployment, absence even deniability, affords these radical youth an of upward mobility are the major factors that make opportunity to create a sea of followers on the Cyber the youth very susceptible at attempts of radicalization

16 World Focus February 2017 Space, a medium that radical Islamist groups have Governments have to pro-actively address this issue used to the fullest advantage in the past decade. with multi pronged strategy by involving the departments of education, IT, health, housing, youth The security issues, however, are on different and Sports and launch various programmes to tackle plane that need to be addressed firmly but with a the deviant factors that push youth away from the humane approach so that innocents and bystanders mainstream. The primary focus has to be on school do not get sucked into the pool of disenchantment education with a curriculum focused on respect for with the State Counter terrorism and perceived interreligious faiths and also bringing down the school coercive strategies. A serious effort is needed by dropout among children. Another important dimension the security apparatus to initiate the process of de- relates to the housing as many of the radicalized radicalization or disengagement. This would, in effect, uneducated youth are part of the Ghetto culture with means that the attitude and belief systems of the youth poor economic backgrounds, especially, in the urban who are trapped in the fanatic framework of religious setting. It may also be pertinent to mention that cyber indoctrination need to be moderated to the mainstream wings of governments have a greater role to play to religious ideological moorings. The de-radicalized monitor the online cyber activity of educated youth youth, arrested or detained, have to be engaged in for whom radical terror groups make serious efforts dialogue with moderate Islamic clerics who would, in in talent spotting and recruitment. The de- turn make effort to dissuade the radicalized youth radicalization effort may also need to attend to the from adopting the extremist interpretation of Islamic mental health concerns and treatment for post texts. In fact, the de-radicalization programmes could traumatic stress for the youth who get sucked into be aimed with the narrative where in the de- radical ideology and terror infrastructure. The radicalized individual can assist in the counter terror rehabilitation centers, prisons and detention centers efforts as well as prevent recruitment of misled youth where the radicalized youth get lodged have a greater into terrorism and radical belief systems. role in the de-radicalization programmes to address the psychological concern of waylaid youth. The challenge posed by radicalization cannot be addressed in security paradigm alone. (The views expressed in the article are ‘personal’.) GET CONNECTED TO THE INTRICACIES OF GLOBAL STRATEGIC AFFAIRS THROUGH WORLD FOCUS

For any clarifications and queries regarding subscriptions, kindly just send an e-mail to us at [email protected] for our record as we discourage telephonic conversations. After receiving your e-mail, we will get back to you.

Radical Islam and Terrorism: An Overview 17 Radical Islam and Terrorism: Perils of Stereotypes Dr. Arunoday Bajpai

In the wake of Orlando attack by an ISIS 3. The phenomenon of terrorism is an act of pure affiliated terrorist in June 2016 in the US the mindless violence. It has its own dynamics and Republican nominee Donald Trump asked the complexity, shaped by multiple social, psychological, incumbent President Obama to term this event as an historical, political and economic conditions. While, act of ‘Radical Islamic Terrorism’ or resign from the violence, fear and surprise are the common factors post of President. However, Obama neither resigned in all phases of terrorism, each phase has some nor described this event in the manner desired by distinct characteristics. Trump. Instead, Obama termed this event as pure act of terrorism and argued that describing this event A clear exposition of these assumptions is as motivated by radical Islam would give advantage significant as it is directly relevant to any national or of Islamic cover to terrorists. He remarked, ‘these global counter-terrorism strategy. The way we define are people who’ve killed children, killed Muslims, take terrorism becomes the foundation stone of the global sex slaves, there’s no religious rationale that would counter-terrorism strategy. For example, if we define justify in any way any of the things that they do’. He that contemporary terrorism derives purpose and summed up his argument with the comment that we sustenance from the ideology of radical Islam, we are fighting terrorism not the ‘radical Islam’ (CNN: need to address both the terrorism and the ideology 2016). This issue became a matter of debate during of radical Islam. If we define terrorism as an act of the US presidential elections. Republicans and violence which selectively uses the ideology of radical conservatives argued that since every act of Islam merely as a camouflage or as a tool of contemporary terrorism is sustained and supported justification, our counter-terrorism strategy should in the name of radical Islam, failure to take this into also focus on breaking the association between account is tantamount to misunderstanding terrorism terrorism and the ideology of radical Islam. On the and its motive and going soft on terrorism. Now other hand, if we define terrorism as a complex and presidential elections are over and Trump has become multidimensional phenomenon, shaped by social, American President, but the controversy has left over political, economic and historical factors, our counter the core issue underlying the phenomenon of terrorism strategy needs to be different and contemporary terrorism- its association with radical comprehensive. Islam or any other ideology. This association gives rise to the three important assumptions: Defining terrorism faces other challenges also. The definition of ‘terrorism’ has become a major 1. The contemporary terrorism is closely associated obstacle in the adoption of the ‘Comprehensive with the ideology of radical Islam and is supported Convention on International Terrorism’, pending and sustained by the same. Also, this ideology provides before the UN General Assembly since 1996. The rationale and purpose to the contemporary terrorism. main point of disagreement among parties is to make 2. The ideology of radical Islam does not define the distinction between the terrorist violence with the purpose of terrorism, however, it is articulated by similar violence involved in the context of national terrorists to camouflage their violence and immoral liberation movements of self-determination (Diaz- acts and search justification of the same. Otherwise, Paniagua: 2008). The definition proposed in this how the so called Islamic terrorism indulges in the Convention notes that any unlawful and intentional killing of other Muslims also rather than only non- act causing serious damage to human life or private Muslims? property with the intention of intimidating people or compelling any government or international

18 World Focus February 2017 organization to do or abstain from doing any act, may been more than eight time increase in the annual be termed as an act of terrorism. This has undermined terrorist activities between 2001 and 2015. According not only the evolution of a comprehensive and to the Global Terrorism Database (GST: 2016), acts acceptable global counter-terrorism strategy but also of terrorism increased from nearly 2000 in 2001 to the coordinated and concerted efforts of the nearly 15000 in 2015. The increase in terrorist international community to fight terrorism (UNGA: activities and associated damage occurred mainly in 2002). This has resulted in piecemeal approach to Islamic countries or it has roots in these countries. fight terrorism. Thirdly, the global terrorism map (GST: 2016) shows that the high intensity terrorism is concentrated in Amidst this deadlock, individual member region of central Asia, Middle East and other countries have tried to articulate legal definition of countries, which are predominantly Islamic societies. terrorism, which largely relies on its external These regions constitute the ‘heartland’ of dimensions. The Chapter 113 B of the US Code 18 contemporary terrorism. Many analysts find that the defines ‘international terrorism’ with three Middle East, Pakistan and Afghanistan are turning characteristics: Violent acts dangerous to human life out to be the main power centers for terrorism. and violate state law; influence the policy or operation Decades of lawlessness and corruption have seen of the government by mass destruction; assassination Islamic terrorist groups fill the power vacuum in this or kidnapping; and transcend national boundaries in region and continue to turn out an alarming number terms of means or targeted people or place of of religiously motivated terrorists (Terrorism operation (FBI: 2015). The Indian law book definition Research: 2015). One may further substantiate these of includes all those dangerous activities, which use arguments by highlighting the fact that the ideology lethal means and aim at the intimidation of government of radical Islam inherently abhors the basic tenets of or strike terror in the minds of general public (TADA, democracy, individual freedom, human rights and rule 1985). The fundamental drawback in legal definitions of law. Hence it is by nature conducive to the growth is that they focus on the nature and constituents of of extremism and terrorism. For example, the violence but fail to include the purpose of this violence. radicalization of Muslim youth in many parts of In fact, any meaningful definition of terrorism should developed world and their desires to join Islamic state include not only the ‘what’ of terrorism but also the cadres further attests the global hold of radical Islam. ‘why’ of terrorism. Analysis of ideology of terrorism helps us in addressing this inadequacy. Perils of Stereotypes However, this straightforward association of radical Radical Islam and Contemporary Terrorism Islam with terrorism needs further interrogation as The association of contemporary international the dynamics of the contemporary terrorism is equally terrorism with radical Islam, either as a final and mediated by other factors like ethnic fault lines, desirable world view or as a camouflage, may be political instability, democratic deficit, use of modern problematic and debatable but not without reason. tools, which sustain the rise and growth of terrorism. First, the contemporary international terrorism For example, how we will explain the use of most attracted global attention mainly since the 9/11 event modern tools, techniques, and all other adjuncts of in the United States. The terrorist group Al Qaeda, globalization by terrorists to defend and protect the which was held responsible for this act, had its most obsolete Islamic values and traditions? moorings in radical Islam. The 9/11 prompted the US Contemporary Islamic brand of terrorism symbolizes to launch ‘the global war against terrorism’. Ever the realization of traditional goals with help of modern since then, the terrorism has become a part of means. How is it possible for the radical Islam to discourse agenda of various regional and global fora. manage the traditional worldview with the modern The rise of Islamic State in 2014 in the heart of Islamic means amidst modern surroundings. world and its rapacious expansion on the basis of dream of establishing a global Islamic order, also The moot question in understanding attests the influence of radical or even a most association between Radical Islam and contemporary primitive form of Islamic order. Second, there has terrorism is: what is special about radical Islam, which

Radical Islam and Terrorism: Perils of Stereotypes 19 makes it a potential source for the mobilization and western. It is this cultural contradiction between the support of terrorism across the world and justifies Islamic world view and the rest of the world, which mindless violence amidst talk of melting of cultures prompted Huntington to articulate the thesis of clash in the present era of globalization? Islamic ideology of civilization. is not a monolithic project. It has many variants, but with Islamic values and tenets as their common Some scholars distinguish ‘political Islam’ essence. The prominent figures of modern Islamism from the ‘fundamentalist or the new fundamentalist include Mohammad Ibn al Wahab, Hasan al-Banna, Islam, in order to derive the point that it is the latter Sayyid Qutb, Abul Ala Moududi, Ruhollah Khomeini breed of Islam, which is opposed to modernity, and among others. Mohammad Ibn al Wahab (1703-1792) therefore sustains Islamic terrorism, whereas ‘political rejected all modifications in Islam and laid emphasis Islam’ is selectively prone to modernity (Moore: on adherence to its pure form as preached by Prophet Retrieved 2015). This distinction appears irrelevant Mohammad. He laid the foundation of Wahabism, to our discussion as it begs the question: Why political which is the most fundamentalist brand of Islam. It is Islam was not able to adapt to modernity and strike also the official ideology of Saudi Arabian regime. roots in Islamic society with its long sway in power? All of them agree that Islamic values should be the Another related but fundamental question is: why guiding principles of political, social and economic life. radical Islam emerged as an option to political Islam However, they differ on the ways to realize the dream or Islamism, when rest of the world was ideologically of Islamic world order. While many of them advocate moving towards a secular democratic order? Is peaceful means to realize Islamic order, Sayyid Qutb something inherent in the very nature of ‘Islam’, which (1906-1966), an Egytian Islamic scholar advocated defies innovation, scientific outlook or democratic violence and Jihad to realize the dream of Islamic ethos? These questions are fundamental and complex society. His followers are generally considered as both and require multivariate analysis. Islam, unlike extremists or radical Islamists. Thus, divergence of other religion, is not a socio-cultural code of conduct. views on the means of realizing Islamic order gave Rather it is a socio-political code of conduct. Its rise to two broad ideological framework- ideology of association with political regime is persistent and Islamism or political Islam on the one hand and unparallel in human history. It is a comprehensive ideology of radical or extremist Islam on the other. ideology and touches entire gamut of human life. This The Free dictionary (2016) defines radical Islam as makes secularization of Islamic polity a difficult task. ‘an Islamic revivalist movement, often characterized In Arab world political objectives and religious by moral conservatism, literalism, and the attempt to objectives are intertwined. Thus, a pure political implement Islamic values in all sphere of life’. It should terrorism appears to be motivated by religious goals. be noted that all extremist and terrorist groups claim Islamic State is the latest incarnation of this tendency. direct linkage with radical Islam. Some of these pronounced groups are: Muslim Brotherhood, Ansar Designating a worldview as modern or Din, Boko Haram, Al Qaeda, Islamic State and so conservative is the result of comparison and relative on. This prima facie means that it is the ideology of in nature. No doubt, The Islamic worldview has not Radical Islam with emphasis on violence and jihad kept pace with modern developments in last three which sustains the persistence of terrorism in Middle centuries. But before that the culture lag between East and other predominantly Islamic societies. But, the Islamic worldview and rest of the world was we should not forget that fact that both breeds of insignificant. Now this cultural lag has increased to a Islamic ideology agree on the Islamic worldview as considerable extent, so also the tendency of the their final goals. This Islamic world view is at odds Islamic world to jealously guard its distinct identity. with modern values in many respects most notably The large concentration of the Muslim community in the association of religion with state; equality between the Middle East and the abundance of natural men and women; human rights, rule of law and resources have generated a sense of self-sufficiency democracy. Since rest of the world tends to adhere and cultural isolation at micro-level. Its interaction to these modern values, radical Islam inherently with the rest of the world remained confined largely becomes ant-non-Muslim or more specifically anti- to the government level.

20 World Focus February 2017 Thus, searching the roots of contemporary the face of external threats but also internal threats terrorism in the ideology of radical Islam is too within the community. Clash of civilizations is the simplistic as this ideology, while appearing to be the natural outcome on the face external threats to outcome of religion, is in fact the outcome of many survival. The radicalization and consolidation of Shia- non-religious factors. Its underlining violence and Sunni fault lines is nothing but a strategy to address exclusive outlook has earlier patterns in human the internal threats to survival. This fault line has history- 20th century radicalism in Russia, Germany complicated all challenges of Middle East and and Japan as well as the ideology of existentialism. weakened all forces which are useful for addressing Mazarr (2007) argues that the ideology of radical Islam those challenges. is not a product of religious tenets of Islam. Rather, it has emerged from the people’s reaction in the Arab In fact, various historical, social, religious, and Muslim world to the modern, Western shaped economic and political factors are at work to shape world; the anger and confusion of that reaction; and the dynamics of contemporary Islamic terrorism. the fury at their governments’ inability to promote Since the World War II, the region of Middle East the interests and welfare of their people in a globalized has been the play ground of all great powers to realize world. Its origin lies in the historical insult to the their strategic and commercial interests. The oil national as well as individual identity and self-esteem resources of the region were the major attraction for and the socio-economic crisis of the Arab and Muslim the global powers. The attempts of Arab unity in 1960s societies. It is also doubtful if the ideology of radical and 1970s in the face of Palestinian conflict were Islam has strong appeal to the staunch supporters of frustrated due to the interference of external powers. Islam. In fact, radical Islam, like other similar extremist However, the US and European powers did not ideologies, appeals to a person with a besieged mind interfered in the internal affairs of the regional states. set, thwarted, filled with real and invented grievances, They controlled the policies of the host countries to overwhelmed with the existential demands of the extent it was required for the realization of their modernity, thrilled with the prospects of revalidating interests. It was a brazen form of neo-colonialism. a humiliated nation, or ethnic group by recapturing Their civilizing mission stopped at the borders of their age values and glories, which are most conducive regional partners. The principle has been that the their existence. This means that in the final analysis colour of the cat hardly matters as long as its catches the ideology of radical Islam and violent manifestation mouse. Saudi Arabia is the staunch US ally in the in the form of terrorism is not merely a religious Middle East, but it is also the home of the Wahhabism, phenomenon. In fact, the ideology of radical Islam which is the most fundamentalist ideology of Islam. mediates between the terrorism and secular Both Saudi Arabia and the Islamic State adhere to conditions. It is not the final destination of ‘Islamic’ the tenets of Wahhabism. It is recorded in history terrorism. that the founder of Saudi Arabia Mohammad Bi Saud and the founder of Wahhabism Mohammad Ibn al The part of the answer can be located in the Wahab entered an agreement in 1744 to expand their prevailing political, economic, and strategic conditions political power over larger Arab world (Arora: 2016). over many decades. It is the cocktail of democratic As a consequence, repressive, sectarian, feudal, deficit, poor human resource development, lack of theological as well as all forms of non-democratic any consensual vision for regional security and regimes flourished and survived as partners of the development and external support as well as most democratic and progressive western regimes. intervention which facilitated Islamic theology to hold For four decades in succession, the region missed its sway with traditional framework. This has become every opportunity for democracy and genuine a vicious circle. Any real or imaginary threat to its development. Amidst affluences of Perto-dollars, hold leads to its radicalization as a survival strategy. modern amenities were arranged without any serious Even the idea of ‘survival’ is articulated in terms of policy intervention to address the issues of economic protection of cultural and religious values and inequality, diversification of economy, unemployment, resources, rather than in terms of protection of secular or development of human resources. resources. This survival instinct is visible not only on

Radical Islam and Terrorism: Perils of Stereotypes 21 There has been no internal and external It is fighting with Syria’s Assad regime. Both The stimulus for democratic process to strike roots in US and its European allies and Saudi Arabia have regional societies. The modern institutions like rule been trying for last four years to replace Assad of law, independent and rational judiciary and regime. However, they now face a unique bureaucracy, citizenship all did not get any chance to predicament. If they fight with IS, it will strengthen survive and flourish in feudal and theological settings. Assad regime and alternatively if they fight with Assad The sectarian identities overshadowed rational regime, the IS may become stronger. The rivalry citizenship. The repressive, corrupt and sectarian between Shia Iran and Sunni Saudi Arab for regional regimes in many states like Iraq, Syria, Libya, Egypt influence and Russian intervention in Syria in 2015 etc. brought uneasy political stability, occasionally for protecting her strategic space are the other factors disturbed by either external intervention (US which influence the dynamics of terrorism in Middle intervention in Iraq and Libya) or by internal forces. East. Whatever may be the fate of Islamic terrorism, The Arab Spring, at the beginning of this decade was none of the major players- the US, European a democratic aberration, where one set of repressive countries, Russia, Iran and Saudi Arabia- is going to ruling elites was replaced by another set of more compromise her strategic interests. This fact is of repressive and sectarian elites. In either case the vital significance in the management and control of political stability was a casualty, which paved the way Islamic terrorism. for the birth and rebirth of sectarian and radical groups to occupy the vacant political space. Political Conclusion instability, whether caused by external forces (end of It is true that the modern international terrorism has cold war or Western intervention) or emerging from evolved in a manner that it is branded as Islamic within (Arab Spring), rather than the lack of terrorism. It is also true that it has successfully used democracy, has been a potential factor contributing and manipulated Islamic theology for its support and to the rise of ongoing phase of terrorism in Middle survival. However, it is not the Islam as such but he East. prevailing historical, political, economic factors, which facilitate exploitation of theology by terrorists as a The rise of Islamic State (IS) in the summer survival strategy. The strategic interests of the major of 2014 from the ashes of Iraqi civil war has brought players and the existing Shia-Sunni fault lines have in sharp focus all contradictions inherent in the complicated the management of terrorism in Middle strategies and positions of all major actors playing in East. The rise of IS in 2014 has exposed contradictions the murky waters of Mediterranean Sea. Much to inherent in the strategy of major players. One of the the dismay of developed societies, it has displayed serious shortcomings of the global fight against the ability to radicalize youth all over the world. international terrorism is the absence of any mitigation Primarily, these youth are led to believe on the basis strategy to root out those conditions which breeds of theological justification, unlike as it’s believed that the culture and ideology of terrorism. It is crystal clear it’s injustice, poverty or an aggrieved person joins that the prevailing conditions in the Middle East, fundamentalist outfits (Ghose: 2015). another noted Central Asia or North Africa are prone to sustain the scholar, Wiktorowicz (2005) finds three reasons for radical and extremist tendencies. Al Qaeda, Taliban the attraction of the Western Muslim youth to radical or Islamic States are not the last generation of Islam: Initial cognitive opening, which shakes the terrorism. They will continue to take rebirth till the certitude of previous beliefs due to perceived alternative worldview takes roots. The ‘Arab Spring’ discrimination, socio-economic crisis or outreach by generated initial hopes but soon it relapsed in the activists; conviction that the radical group is the most prevailing order of the Middle East. Terrorism has authentic interpretation of Islam; and deliberate engulfed the entire political and social space in the culturing and socialization of youth for risky activism. region to the extent that the discourse on democracy, The Western states are hard pressed to check this human rights of rule of law has taken a backseat. rising tendency. The Islamic State is a Sunni terrorist group and has rapidly gained control in the parts of This requires a clear perspective about the Iraq and Syria to realize its goal of Islamic Caliphate. nature, purpose and dynamics of contemporary

22 World Focus February 2017 international terrorism. Alex P Schmid (2011) has REFERENCES identifies 12 rules to prevent terrorism and one of the Arora, Uday Prakash (2016) Wahabi Ideology of Terrorism rule is to counter the ideology of terrorism, which (Hindi) Dainik Jagran, Hindi news paper, 9 January, 2016. sustains it. But it is not a simple task, particularly CNN (2016) Obama: Why I Won’t Say ‘Islamic Terrorism’? when the Islamic terrorism has articulated its goals Available At: http://edition.cnn.com/2016/09/28/politics/ in close association with Islam. Opposing the ideology obama-radical-islamic-terrorism-cnn-town-hall/ Diaz-Paniagua, C. F (2008) Negotiating Terrorism: The of Islamic State is, many times, taken as opposition Negotiation Dynamics of Four UN Counter-terrorism to Islam itself. It is very difficult to convince its Treaties, 1997-2005. Available At: https:// followers that Islam, which literally means peace, is books.google.co.in/books?id=q2qHd6a-slIC&lpg= not opposed to violence and terrorism. Even branding PR4&dq =Negotiating+terrorism:+t he+negotiation + this breed of Islam as ‘Radical Islam’ is Problematic. dynamics + of+four+UN+counter-terrorism+treaties,+1997 “Radical Islam” is an unhelpful term because it sounds 2005&hl=es&pg= PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false too much like “Islam” and has been used so much FBI (2015) Terrorism: Definition of Terrorism in US Code. that it practically sounds like “Islam” alone at this Available At: https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/investigate/ point. (Mac Whorter: 2016). terrorism/terrorism-definition Ghose, Debobrat (2015) Changing face of Islamic terror: From state-backed terrorism in 2000 to lone-wolf attacks Moreover, direct challenge to any established in 2015. Available At: http://www.firstpost.com/india/ and well entrenched ideology is always changing-face-of-islamic-terror-from-state-backed- counterproductive. After the World War II, the terrorism-in-2000-to-lone-wolf-attacks-in-20 Western powers made their best efforts to contain GTD (2015) Global Terrorism Database. Available At:http:/ the spread of Communism in East Europe, but hey /www.start.umd.edu/gtd/search/Results.aspx? failed. However, later communism crumbled down chart=casualties & casualties_type=b &casualties_max= with its own weight and contradictions. Yet credit &start_yearonly=2001&end_ yearonly=2014&dtp2=all goes to the western world for exploiting those &count=100 contradictions by consistently pushing ahead with an MacWhorter, John (2016) The big problem with calling it ‘radical Islam’ Available At: http://edition.cnn.com/2016/ alternative vision. This strategy of pushing ahead with 06/14/opinions/dont-call-it-radical-islam-john-mcwhorter/ alternative vision of peace, democracy and Mazarr, Michael J. (2007) Unmodern Men in Modern World: development in the Middle East may succeed to root Radical Islam, Terrorism and the War on Modernity. New out conditions giving rise to terrorism. In view of their York: Cambridge University Press. p.10. narrow and short term strategic interests, the major Moore, John (retrieved 2015) Evolution of Islamic players- the US, European states, Russia, Iran, Turkey Terrorism: An Overview. Available At: and Saudi Arabia- may fail to develop consensus for http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/target/ an alternative vision of regional peace and etc/modern.html development. However, their long term interests may Schmid, Alex P. (2011) Twelve Rules of Preventing and encourage them to do otherwise. Combating Terrorism, in Routledge Handbook of Terrorism Research. Available At: https:// books.google.co.in/books?id=_ PXpFxKRsHgC&pg= After all, the political instability and violence PA39&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false in the Middle East has caused a grave refugee crisis Terrorism Research (2015) Future of Terrorism. Available in Europe and the IS has radicalized youth across the At: http://www.terrorism-research.com/future/ world. In the present globalized and interdependent The Free Dictionary (2016) Radical Islam. Available world, peace and development are no more local or At:http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Radical+Islam regional issues. The real challenge before the UNGA (2002) Report of the Ad Hoc Committee established international community is to make people, society by General Assembly resolution 51/210 of 17 December and state in the Middle East as real stakeholders in 1996, Sixth session (28 January-1 February 2002) Available peace, democracy, rule of law, development and At: http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N02/ 248/17/PDF/N0224817.pdf?OpenElement protection of human rights. Transformation in Wiktorowicz, Quintan (2005) Radical Islam Rising: Muslim affiliations is the key to mitigate terrorism. Extremism in the West. Lanham (US): Rowman and Littlefield Publisher Inc. pp. 5-6

Radical Islam and Terrorism: Perils of Stereotypes 23 Understanding Terrorism: Is it Cause or Effect of Islamic Radicalism? Dr. Alok Kumar Gupta

Entire globe has become their stage. They been changing in the aftermath of the incident of 9/ can choose a place and a target according to their 11 and globalization. It is changing in terms of its choice and time. Terrorism in contemporary world definition, manner of execution of violence, style of has emerged as the most dreaded and important issue violence, insensitivity, and brutality with which violence as well as the defining feature of security paradigm is being orchestrated. of nation-states. It has acquired the place of prominence on most of the bilateral and multilateral World seems to be divided over the usage of forums of the world. The main security paradigm the narrative “Radical Islam” or its ilk, owing to the across the globe in the so-called post-modern era is fact that most dreaded of the acts of terrorism are not war but counter-terrorism. It has given rise to being executed by the elements belonging to this radical violence involving multi-million by the terrorists particular community, at least in the contemporary on the one hand; and has involved much more than world. The pronouncement of a Caliphate by Islamic double the amount by the state towards combating State of Syria and Levant1 (ISIL or ISIS) with details terrorism on the other. Millions of people have been of territorial claims in the Islamic world has made the or are being killed across the globe and almost the matter worse for people belonging to this community. entire globe is being forced to live under the constant Radicals though exist on the fringes of almost every psychological fear of being killed for no fault of their religion; fears about the rise of radical Islam have own. It is being studied and responded by the become especially rampant over the years. One academics and institutions as non-traditional threat obviously wonders how ‘Religion’ which is a source to the security of a nation-state. They are being of peace and is being designated as a kind of ‘soft addressed as non-state actors in international system. power’ as well could become a source of conflict. The advent of technology and revolution in the field Religion which is source of inner tranquillity with of telecommunication has added complex dimensions consequent peace in social life; how it could become to its growth, operations, and outreach. Nature of a source of conflict and violence of highest order? terrorism across the globe differs alongside their Most parts of the world have developed a perception motivations and targets. that ever-growing menace of terrorism in the contemporary world is the consequence of The growing incidence of terrorism has radicalization of Islam. Therefore, author endeavours rendered even the most powerful nation-state of the to explore the causes and imperatives that have made world United States as vulnerable. Even the state- Islamic religion as a source of conflict and terrorism of-the-art defence preparedness with loads of which under normal circumstances must be a source Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) and most of peace. What must have led to radicalization of sophisticated conventional armoury seems to be Islam, if any? Accordingly, it makes it imperative to inadequate or useless in the wake of infiltration of comprehend what exactly is terrorism, because there terrorism and the violence perpetuated by it. The has been controversy and conflict around the definition magnitude of lives lost on account of terrorism is of terrorism since the term came in vogue. Author becoming difficult to assess or are being useless owing makes an endeavour to put the same in proper to its frequency of killings. World seems to have been perspective. reduced to Hobbesian ‘State of Nature’ where life of individual was nasty, poor, brutish and short; and Defining Terrorism: the law that prevailed was ‘kill whom you can, take Terrorism is one of the most popular terms in what you can’. Perception about terrorism has also contemporary international relations; yet it exists as

24 World Focus February 2017 a nebulous concept. Explaining terrorism is both “Criminal acts intended or calculated to complex as well as controversial. Terrorism exists as provoke a state of terror in the public, a group of a cause and as an effect of a conflict. It has been a persons or particular persons for political purposes means to carry on a conflict without the adversary are in any circumstance unjustifiable, whatever the realizing the nature of the threat; and often mistaking considerations of a political, philosophical, ideological, it for a criminal activity or a law and order problem. racial, ethnic, religious or any other nature that may Given its characteristics, the term has become be invoked to justify them. Violent dissidents focus increasingly common among those pursuing extreme on the actions, crimes, and even government goals throughout the world. Consequently, defining repression and call those actions terrorism.”5 terrorism is not an easy task owing to number of reasons: first, it has assumed subjective connotation, The US Department of Defence Dictionary of in terms of whose point of view is being represented Military Terms defines terrorism as: while one is attempting to define the term. Secondly, The calculated use of unlawful violence or threat controversy has also surrounded the definition of the of unlawful violence to inculcate fear; intended term as different legal systems and government to coerce or to intimidate governments of societies agencies use different definitions of terrorism in their in the pursuit of goals that are generally political, municipal legislations. Third, related problem has been religious, or ideological. (FBI of US has also a lack of consensus among the international defined on the same line). community towards formulating a universally agreed, and legally binding definition of terrorism.2 It has been Therefore, definition of the term differs both defined variously: as a tactic and strategy; a crime at national as well as international level, and is and a holy duty; a justified reaction to oppression and subjective. Another way of comprehending the issue an inexcusable abomination. Prevailing conflicts of related to definition of terrorism is to develop some different kinds give rise to terrorism as a tactic by characteristic features of this form of violence and the weaker side in the conflict to be effective. As an then judge the prevailing violence in any part of the asymmetric form of conflict, it confers coercive power globe on the basis of some of these characteristics. with many of the advantages of military force at a Hoffman believes it is possible to identify some key fraction of the cost. Therefore, one must be aware characteristics of terrorism. He proposes that, by that any consensus about a “terrorist act” or distinguishing terrorists from other types of criminals ‘terrorism’ per se is only relative to concerned parties. and terrorism from other forms of crime, we come to Generally speaking terrorism is the systematic use of appreciate that terrorism is6: terror or unpredictable violence against government, public, or individuals to attain a political objective. • Ineluctably political in aims and motives; Governments also attempt to label political opponents • Violent—or, equally important, threatens violence; and dissidents as terrorists in order to reduce possible • Designed to have far-reaching psychological 3 support for their causes. Terrorism is, in its broadest repercussions beyond the immediate victim or target; sense, the use of intentionally indiscriminate violence • Motivated not by personal gain, but by a political, in order to achieve a political, religious, or ideological 4 religious, or ideological objective, such as religious aim. The term terrorism is also loaded with political freedom or social change;7 and emotional charges that further contribute to the • Conducted either by an organization with an difficulty of arriving at a succinct definition. identifiable chain of command or conspiratorial cell Consequently, the divergences have made it structure (whose members wear no uniform or impossible for the United Nations to evolve a identifying insignia) or by individuals or a small comprehensive convention on International Terrorism collection of individuals directly influenced, that incorporates a single, all encompassing, legally motivated, or inspired by the ideological aims or binding, criminal law definition of the term. Since example of some existent terrorist movement and/ 1994, the United Nations General Assembly has or its leaders; and repeatedly condemned terrorist acts using the • following political description of terrorism: Perpetrated by a subnational group or non-state entity.

Understanding Terrorism: Is it Cause or Effect of Islamic Radicalism? 25 • It is primarily an extremism of means, not of ends.8 has been estimated that the successful attacks • Targeted toward unarmed, non-combatant persons launched on that day against the United States may or those otherwise unable to defend themselves (with have cost the terrorists no more than $200,000. (The indiscriminateness to achieve significant psychological terrorist lives lost were at most costless since the and social disruption).9 perpetrators were expediting their journey to Paradise). The present value of the economic damage Taylor in 1988 stated that, the fact is, of to the United States economy however has been course, that there is a vast amount of hypocrisy on estimated to be perhaps as much as two trillion dollars. the subject of political terrorism. We all righteously Immediate costs, counting the value of lives lost, condemn it, except where we ourselves or friends of property damage and lost production are well in ours are engaging in it. Then we ignore it, or gloss excess of the $100 billion. The annual cost of airport over it, or attach to it tags like ‘liberation’ or ‘defence and airline anti-terrorist measures is estimated to be of the free world’ or national honour to make it like in excess of $40 billion.11 Even by conservative something other than what it is.10 estimates it may serve as a guiding figure regarding the contrast of cost involved between the acts of Put precisely it may be understood as “one terrorists and counter-terrorism activities. person’s terrorist is another person’s freedom fighter.” Some Palestinians suffering under Israeli oppression Ideologically, most terrorism is neither left viewed or members of such groups nor right rather triggered by ethnic or religious as Hezbollah, Hamas, and al-Qaeda to be freedom contradictions. Terrorist activities are not motivated fighters, martyrs, revolutionaries, and guerrillas; by ideology but are an expression of anger over however, Israel and the US regard them as terrorists perceived injustices to the minority religious and ethnic along with some other nation-states of the world. communities by the majority community. The rise of Terrorists thus do not see themselves as an evil. They religious terrorism needs special mention as it has believe that they are legitimate combatants, fighting added another dimension to new right wing terrorism. for what they believe in, by whatever means possible Tara Kartha writes that religion has proved to be the to attain their goals. On the other hand, a victim of a most potent motivator of terrorism with at least 64 terrorist act sees the terrorist as a criminal with no out of total 96 active terrorist groups clearly regard for human life and human rights. The identifiable as being religiously motivated, even if the sympathetic view of terrorism has become an integral doctrine and theology that they swear is violently part of their psychological warfare and has been extremist and far from actual precepts.12 Of all the countered vigorously by governments, the media and religion based terrorist groups, Muslim terrorist other civil society organizations. For example, a car groups13 have not only been the most violent and bomb on a city street and a jet fighter dropping a destructive but also the most organised, well-armed, bomb on a tank are both acts of violence that produce thoroughly trained, technologically most sophisticated death and terror. Therefore, at the extreme end of and deeply committed to their cause. this argument, any military action is simply terrorism by a different name. This is the reasoning behind the There is strong networking among various given phrase. It is also a legacy of legitimizing the Islamic extremists and terrorist groups. Terrorism, use of terror by successful revolutionary movements thus has unleashed a carnage in the name of Islamic after the fact. State in the West in the recent past, from Paris, Copenhagen and Brussels to Orlando, to name but a The other reason for resorting to such an act few. It has been also threatening other parts of the is that it is a cost effective way of inflicting damage world like Pakistan, Afghanistan, Bangladesh and on state’s physical and psychological base. It leads India. However, the present breed of terrorism is to an asymmetric war, as terrorists are able to impose dominated by Islamic theology and radical advocacy very high costs on their enemies at seemingly trivial which requires to be understood in terms of reasons costs to themselves. September 11, 2001 (9/11) is the behind it and the extent of its authenticity. most extreme example to date of this asymmetry. It

26 World Focus February 2017 Radicalization of Islam and Terrorism with these godless and apostate regimes, does not One need to understand what exactly is radicalization know Socratic debates, Platonic ideals, nor Aristotelian of Islam. The term radicalization may be interpreted diplomacy. But it knows the dialogue of bullets, the differently and its causes may also differ to different ideals of assassination, bombing, and destruction, and people. However, the common understanding could the diplomacy of the cannon and machine-gun. The be that while professing unwavering faith in a young came to prepare themselves for Jihad transcendental deity, radical Islam is a militant, commanded by the majestic Allah’s order in the holy politically activist ideology whose ultimate goal is to Koran.”15 create a worldwide community, a Caliphate, of Muslim believers. It is also considered to be a process by However, the problem of Radicalization and which an individual or group comes to adopt Terrorism within Islam boils down to a chicken-and- increasingly extreme political, social, or religious ideals egg problem that has engaged governments and and aspirations that reject or undermine the status terrorism scholars. The reason is that the killers in quo or undermine contemporary ideas and expressions most of the atrocities committed by terrorists have of freedom of choice. Basically it contests the forces been, by definition, radicals, and all of them had of modernization of the community in different walks pledged allegiance to Islamic State. However, the of life. Martin Kramer, a scholar of Middle East affairs pertinent question that has been jolting the sufferers has described the goals of radical Islamist as: “The of terrorist menace is whether the threat is idea is simple: Islam must have power in this world. ‘radicalization of Islam’ or ‘Islamization of It is the true religion—the religion of God—and its radicalism’.16 There are different responses to the truth is manifest in its power. When Muslims believed, question raised and they dictate different policies. they were powerful. Their power has been lost in According to some the true problem is the shift of modern times because Islam has been abandoned by some Muslim communities, particularly in the West, many Muslims, who have reverted to the condition to a more fundamentalist version of the faith that that preceded God’s revelation to the Prophet becomes violent over time; then the probable solution Muhammad. But if Muslims now return to the original could be to enhance policing and surveillance, and Islam, they can preserve and even restore their power. government intervention in the running of mosques, That return, to be effective, must be comprehensive; charities, and Islamic schools. Islam provides the one and only solution to all questions in this world, from public policy to private conduct. It There are radicals who simply look for an is not merely a religion, in Western sense of a system ideology and only find one. But at the same time, all of belief in God. It possesses an immutable law, those who are radicalised share the same ideology, revealed by God that deals with every aspect of life, which is why we have to take its content and its and it is an ideology, a complete system of belief about sources seriously.17 However, the emergence of the organization of the state and the world. This law Islamic State has significantly transformed the nature and ideology can only be implemented through the of this threat. In the previous decades, a network of establishment of a truly Islamic state, under the mosques, many of them funded by Saudi Arabia or sovereignty of God. The empowerment of Islam, Qatar, spread the ultraconservative Salafi brand of which is God’s plan for mankind, is a sacred end.”14 Islam which often produced a pathway from growing The inter-linkages between radical Islam and observance to militancy to involvement with Islamist terrorism, and its willingness to use violence as a groups such as Hamas or al Qaeda.18 Radicalism can means to its ultimate ends, is clearly spelled out in a originate from a broad social consensus against training manual produced by the radical Islamist terror progressive changes in society or from a broad desire group al Qaeda, whose operative carried out the 9/11 for change in society. It can be both violent and attacks in US. The publication of al Qaeda states nonviolent. However, most literature and candidly: “An Islamic government would never be interpretation on radicalization is linked to violent established except by the bomb and rifle. Islam does extremism. There are number of ways in which the not coincide or make a truce with unbelief, but rather process of radicalization can occur. These processes confronts it. The confrontation that Islam calls for could be independent or mutually reinforcing; leading

Understanding Terrorism: Is it Cause or Effect of Islamic Radicalism? 27 to group’s resilience and lethality. Radicalization has resources and they want to keep the balance of made significant inroads in several countries of West international trade in their favour. Accordingly, they Asia, Central Asia and in the Caucasus; in particular destabilize those countries which are in possession the three countries that share the Ferghana Valley, of these resources. Such countries are rendered namely Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, politically volatile with consequent lack of social and Chechnya, and the Russian Republic of Daghestan.19 economic modernization. The destabilised polities Radicalism is also addressed as fundamentalism or become the breeding ground of criminal and terroristic Wahhabism20, and it poses direct challenge to the ideal activities with loads of unemployed youths. vision of a state that the newly founded nations of Unemployed youths in these countries are the the region have embraced. Wahhabism is the broader vulnerable lot who are easily motivated and lured by ideology that represents a serious challenge to the leaders of the terrorist organizations and become theology and practice of the mainstream Sunni Islam probable recruits. These leaders have well understood to which most of Islamic populations adhere. The that it is only on the name of religion that the faith, other remarkable feature of Wahhabism is that it uses trust and loyalty of such youths could be exploited Islam whenever it suits them, and likewise for their vested interests. Accordingly, they resort to contravenes it at its convenience. radicalization of religion by misinterpretation of religious texts to lure the youths to rise in defence of Implications of Radicalizations religion, convincing them that their religion is under When a group of people following Islamic religion; threat vis-à-vis followers of other religions. put precisely its radical version started perpetuating Radicalization of Islam is the consequence of such crime against humanity and the state, in most factors, and has been growing on account of several barbarous of the ways, were termed as Islamic reasons.First, reason is the external interventions terrorist. This brought a bad name to the entire Islamic towards politicization Islamic religion. This has community and the world got divided into Islam versus basically been done for exploitation of Oil as it has the rest because the word Islam got treated as been the chief source of energy. International synonymous with terrorism; consequently the religious terrorism is the worst facets of legal and illegal oil community. World said to have started suffering from trade of the world.21 It has also led to the internal Islamophobia. It has thus given rise to complexity as division and political rivalry within the countries which to whether radicalization of Islam is the cause of are in substantial possession of oil. Major Powers terrorism or is the effect of terrorism. It means have been eying for enhancing their influence in oil according to some advocates of radicalization, possessing countries for which they have been terrorism erupted within Islam as an effect of state’s contributing toward unmaking of these states. Islamic oppression perpetuated against certain disgruntled countries with possession of oil have been most elements of society i.e. Islamic population and the vulnerable on this count. The increasing importance community. According to others, terrorism erupted of oil in the world is on account of the rising demands because radical Islamic elements started asserting of almost all the nation-states of the world. Each and its superiority against other religious communities. every country of the world is aspiring for its economic Whether it is radicalization of Islam, or Islamization development, consequent to which there is of radicals, the fact is that contemporary terrorism is tremendous growth of energy demand in the world. dominated by people belonging to Islamic religion and Oil and coal are two of the most important fossil fuel for legitimizing their acts of terrorism they resort to which is the source of energy alongside other sources advocacy of radicalism. However, it could be better such as nuclear energy, hydro-energy and solar understood if the reasons behind the contemporary energy. Even though most countries of the world are form of terrorism are looked into. diversifying their energy-mix, yet oil remains the biggest sought-after resource so far as energy is Reasons that Contributed to its further Growth concerned. Consequently, different rich countries of There is a kind of chain that exists between forces in the world in possession of oil within are making all international politics and the radicalization of Islam efforts to preserve their resources for the future and and terrorism. Major Powers of the world need are trying to purchase the same, that too at a dictated

28 World Focus February 2017 price of their own, from different petroleum producing dynamics of the international terrorism also need to countries of the world. Therefore, to facilitate be taken into account; that oil has fast replaced drug themselves cheap and constant flow of oil and gas, trafficking as the source of their funding for arms countries of the world are either aligning themselves and other anti-state and anti-national activities. with the oil producing countries or they are trying to Terrorist organizations like ISIS resort to radicalization transform these countries into their area of influence of Islam to raise legitimacy to their act of terrorism by fair and foul means. This has led to exploitation of in the garb of capturing and resorting to illegal trade Islamic countries with oil by injecting upheavals into in oil; which is indirectly the impact of globalization. it and destabilizing them. This has contributed towards Thirdly, and most obvious reason is that duly elected radicalization of Islam with changing passage of time governments and dictatorial governments, both have and changing geo-politics of the world. been using extremist or radical groups to foment disturbance within the polities of others; and on most Second is the phenomenon of Globalization occasion in their neighbouring countries. Terrorist that has contributed towards radicalization of Islam. organizations are financed and fostered by these Most obvious reason is that it has further given a governments, which later turn the barrel of their guns strong boost to the energy demands of most nation- against them itself causing havoc for the very states of the world. Nation-states of the world are government which reared and geared them.22 Small liberalizing their economy at a faster rate to integrate and well-financed militant movements have arisen their economy with the global economy by integrating and acted against their own government and the their market with the world market. In this endeavour common people, instigating conflict. Such extremist they require electricity as well as oil and gas to sustain movements have been supported by outside and enhance their corporate growth and means of government under the false impression that this communications such as roadways, railways, and constitutes preserving religious freedom. The same airways. All such endeavours shall have ‘energy’ at is and has been practiced by many of the major its centre, and a key to growth. Therefore, powers of the world. They fostered and financed globalization is the most important factor of raising some of the extremist groups to destabilize the demands of oil in different parts of the world on a governments. Later the same extremist organizations scale of geometrical progression. As discussed above have perpetuated acts of killing against these oil politics have motivated major countries of the world governments. When these governments tried to to dislodge the established regimes in oil-producing contain the extremism of such groups it has badly Islamic countries making them vulnerable to conflict backfired on them. Sometimes supporting ‘religious and chaos. Given the ever growing importance and freedom’ abroad without having knowledge of which demand of oil the entire globe has been reduced into one is supporting (i.e. an extremist movement) is an ‘zones of chaos’, with rare areas as ‘zones of peace’. irrational misuse of the laws protecting the religious ISIS adventure into Syria and Iraq, conflicts in Sudan rights of individual. Contemporary world is a witness and other parts of Africa, Sino-Soviet rivalry in Central to an ideological movement turning militant, and has Asia, Sino-US rivalry in Syria and Iraq, Sino-US and become attractive to many of the Islamic groups.23 Russia-US rivalry in Iran, Sino-Indian and Sino- Fourthly, religion play a seminal role in radicalization, Japanese rivalry in Asia and Asia-pacific, triangular but this role of religion in radicalization is dangerously competition among China, US and Russia in Central exaggerated. The teachings of Islam are indomitable Asia are to name but a few. The most perverted face in most Islamic societies, and people in these societies of conflict related to oil is ISIS misadventure in Syria often consider the truth and finality of Islam to be and Iraq and the way they have been butchering self-evident. In states like Pakistan, young men humanity right under the nose of big powers of the undergo religious awakening in madrassas where world. The way they took Paris and committed their they are convinced that they are not only struggling hara-kiri on the streets of Paris speaks volume about against segments of their society that fail to comply the potentials of oil to perpetuate crime and the way with Islamic teachings, but that doing so will bring it has taken the world in its stride. The biggest source them closer to God. In other countries, including of fund for ISIS is oil. Therefore, the changing Europe, young Muslim men feel marginalized because

Understanding Terrorism: Is it Cause or Effect of Islamic Radicalism? 29 of perceived bigotry, discrimination, and alienation. the rich and the poor in the oil rich countries as well These young men specially seek religious justifications as other countries. This naturally makes the youth an for violent acts. The understanding of Islamic theology easy prey to radicalization. According to several and jurisprudence among most young radicals is often reports, many of the radicalized youth who espouse wafer-thin and superficial. Most such individuals are radical beliefs, often between 17 to 25 years old, are not experts in the Qur’an or Islamic law and thus do uneducated and unemployed men. In the tribal areas not understand that Islam is a religion of tolerance.24 of Pakistan to Yemen, where the writs of central Fifthly, radicalization is also driven by personal governments are absent, young men suffer from lack dissatisfaction, grievances, indignation, and a sense of services, opportunities, and ideas. Such situations of adventure, all factors for radical groups to exploit. create alienated young men who are susceptible to Although the reasons may vary, yet the most visible act on poisonous beliefs. triggers are civilian casualties caused by air-strikes or drones, displeasure with political outcomes, and Conclusion disrespect to religious and cultural norms, including World, undoubtedly is under a wave of radical caricatures of Prophet Muhammad and burnings of movements, which sometimes turn militant, whose Qur’an. Such acts become the cause of provocations source can be traced to movements being waged by and are often exploited by extremist groups and Wahhabis, Salafis and others. Irrespective of the radicals as ‘cultural weapon’. Cultural aversion of source, fact remains that radicalism within Islam is a violations of Islamic norms thus further contributes highly complex phenomenon. Its meaning and towards radicalization of Islam. Sometimes the application varies from individual to individual and narratives used by political leaders mostly in countries from organization to organization. It is not limited or like United States and countries of Europe are constrained by borders or a single ideology. However, interpreted as interventions and are manipulated by comprehending as to what drives radicalization within radical leaders in their preaching with an aspiration Islam is imperative because they have become prime to take action and do something meaningful to support tactics for radical groups to recruit individuals. Given a righteous cause.25 A spirit of tolerance and its multi-dimensions it requires a multi-pronged strategy diplomacy which could have contained gets escalated to resolve the issue of Islamic extremism. and contributes to further radicalization of Islam. Sixthly, the bandwagon effect is another contributory Muslim leaders, whether Sunni or Shia, Salafi factor towards radicalization of Islam. The humans or Sufi, conservative or liberal, have almost have tendency to follow their groups. Social contacts unanimously condemned and denounced Islamic State and networks play an integral role in this process. In not merely as un-Islamic but actively anti-Islamic. several known cases, radicals who committed attacks Two great powers of the world USA and Russia have were either close friends or relatives. Many young almost vowed to destroy and are bombing all over its men are enticed by radical circles through peers, social stronghold. The wholesale slaughter of prisoners by networks, the Internet, and other friendly settings, IS, although not unknown in the history of Islam, is including places of worship. Charismatic clerics are not true to the Islamic faith. The bad and sad face of apt at producing convincing speeches and sermons Islam has raised strong voice within itself and have which plays a pivotal role in inspiring radicalization decried the IS that what it is doing and advocating is and are often idolized and emulated by gullible young not Islam. However, in spite of opposition from almost men.26. all corners, IS has not only survived but is attracting youth from all over the world into its fold and cadre. This happens because of genuine education Offensives against IS in Mosul and other strongholds and enlightenment of the youth and other members may decimate its base over there but the issue of of the community; and sometimes lack of proper radicalization of Islam could only be mitigated through employment also makes them free to be exploited by a sustained and long-term efforts and policies. The radicals. Last but the most important, is the widely radicalized understanding of Islam, if continue to rampant poverty and unemployment among the youth spread unchecked, radical interpretations could in Islamic countries because of huge gap between threaten social stability at the local, national, and

30 World Focus February 2017 regional levels and create serious geopolitical dangers 4 See Verginia Page Fortna,“Do Terrorists Win? Rebels’ Use of Terrorism and Civil War Outcomes”, International Organization, 69(3), 20 May 2015, pp.619- to which neighbouring powers, as well as the US and 556. Europe, would have to react. Therefore, academicians 5 1994 United Nations Declaration of Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism annex to UN General Assembly resolution 49/60,“Measures to and policy makers need to articulate means and Eliminate International Terrorism”, of December 9, 1994, UN Doc.A/Res/60/49. In 1992 UN Security Council Resolution 733 described the Somali situation as mechanism to arrest radicalization at a faster pace. a threat to international peace and security; in 1996, UN Resolution 1070 Education is a positive instrument through which such identified the failure of Sudan Government to extradite criminals who attempted to assassinate Egypt’s President Mubarak, as threat to peace; Libya’s failure to radicalization could be contained. Therefore, increased denounce terrorism was seen as threat to international peace and security. investment in education, economic mobility and social However, the US invasionof Iraq and Afghanistan was not seen as a threat to international peace; whereas Arab entry into Israel in the 1948 War was termed cohesion can play a mitigating role on a long-term as a threat to international peace and security. Hence, there remains the and permanent basis. Think tanks or research subjectivity in defining terrorism. This has certainly given rise to controversy. 6 Bruce Hoffman,Inside Terrorism,2ndedn., Columbia University Press, 2006, institutes may also be formed in order that government p.40. officials, researchers, and media understands Islam 7 This has been identified by William C Banks, Renee De Nevers, and Mitchel B Wallerstein,Combating Terrorism: Strategies and Approaches(Washington: on a deeper level, rather than making rash CQ Press, 2008), p.7. generalizations based on superficial understandings. 8 This has been identified by T. Bjorgo,“Introduction” in Tore Bjorgo (ed.)Root Causes of Terrorism: Myths, Reality, and Ways Forward(London: Routledge, Radicalization of Islam is not just a social 2005), p.3. 9 Ibid., no.7, p.7. phenomenon, hence must not be mistakenly assumed 10 M. Taylor,The Terrorist(London,Brassey’s Defence, 1988), p.3. so; but it has turned into full-fledged ideological war 11 As mentioned in Anne Rathbone and Charles K Rowley,“Terrorism”,Public Choice,Vol.111, No.1/2 (March 2000), p.16. of words and weapons alike. This ideological war 12 Tara Kartha,“Transnational Terrorism and Radical Extremists”, in Virinder need to be purged in terms of religion as a source of Grover(ed.) Encyclopaedia of International Terrorism—Part II, Deep and Deep, New Delhi, 2002, p.93. inner and social peace for individuals; through the 13 See Ashwini K Mohapatra,“Radical Islam: Ideology Behind Global instrumentality of education and enlightenment. Terrorism”, India Quarterly, Vol.LVIII, No.2, April-June 2002, pp.93-112. 14Asquotedin“RadicalIslam”onhttp://www.discoverthenetworks.org/ Most importantly, the pushback against radical Islam guideDesc.asp?catid=107&type=issueVisited on January 09, 2017. has to stem from religious centres themselves. It must 15 Ibid. no.14. 16 Yaroslav Trofimov, “Radicalization of Islam or Islamization of Radicalism”,The not be misunderstood that a kind of Lutheran Wall Street Journal, June 16, 2016. 17 Guido Steinberg, a former counterterrorism adviser to the German Government reformation movement is needed for that. Rather, it and a scholar at the German Institute for International and Security Affairs, as is important to put forward a viable counter-narrative quoted in Yaroslav Trofimov,“Radicalization of Islam or Islamization of Radicalism”,The Wall Street Journal, June 16, 2016. against violent extremism. The on-going 18 This happened often in the Middle East but also in the US. The best example counterterrorism endeavours must also be continued. is Anwar al-Awlaki, the charismatic, US-born imam of mosques in San Diego who inspired an entiregeneration of radicals in the late 1990s and 2000s and The collection and dissemination of intelligence must later became one of the leaders of al Qaeda in Yemen. See Ibid., no.16. also be allowed to grow with sophistication so that 19 “Islamic Radicalism: Its Wahhabi Roots and Current Representation”,The Islamic Supreme Council of America, www.islamicsupremecouncil.org Visited the processes and causes of radicalization stands on January 9, 2017. understood and comprehended thoroughly and in 20 The origins of nearly all of the 20thcentury’s Islamic extremist movements lie in a new Islamic theology and ideology developed in the 18th and 19thcenturies totality. Only a better understanding of the problem in tribal areas of the eastern Arabian Peninsula. The source of this new stream of could lead one to devising a better policy intervention thought was a Muslim scholar named Muhammad ibn Abd-al Wahhab, hence the name Wahhabism. Traditional Islam views religion as a pact between man and to contain and mitigate the radicalization of Islam and God and therefore the domain of spirituality. In this belief, there can be no compulsion or force used in religion. From the time of the Prophet Muhammad(S), consequent terrorism. peace and tolerance were practiced between different religious groups, with respect to distinctions in belief. Contrary tothis, the Wahhabi ideology is built on concept of political enforcement of religious beliefs, thus permitting no Footnotes differences in faith whatsoever. In Wahhabi belief, faith is not necessarily an 1 Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) is an active extremist Islamic rebel option, it is sometimes mandated by force. See“Islamic Radicalism: Its Wahhabi group and self-declared Caliphate in the Middle East which claims to be a Roots and Current Representation”, Ibid., no.19. sovereign state, and as such has made announcements of territorial control and 21 There exists confusion about the contribution of Islamic countries towards aspirations of control. No other nation recognizes ISIL as a state. Its goal is the total oil production in the world. However, in the List of world’s top oil foundation of an Islamic State and a worldwide caliphate, in accordance with producers of 2016 there are six countries in the top ten which are Islamic Salafi Islam, by the means of military jihad. ISIL is also referred as ISIS, IS and countries; and about 19 to 20 countries in the top 36 oil producing countries Daesh. are Islamic countries. Saudi Arabia is at the top of the List. In 2014 over 66 % of 2 This becomes obvious with the example of Conflict in Syria. While the the world oil production came from the top ten countries.See “World’s Top Oil adversaries of President Basar al-Assad who have been waging a civil war against Producer 2016",US Energy Information Administration. Retrieved on November the state forces to dislodge Assad’s government is being treated as terrorist by 05, 2016. Russia;the other major power and its companions are supporting these very 22 Pakistan is the best example of such a phenomenon. It has been branded as a forces to get rid of Assad. Another element ISIS is fighting against Assad’s rogue state and notorious as a manufacturing hub of terrorists and extremists. forces as well as some of the civil war groups to capture the seat of authority in However, fact remains that Pakistan itself has been suffering on account of terrorist Syria in consonance with its avowed aim of establishing a Caliphate. blasts and killings. Consequently, Syria stands devastated with complete butchering of the life of 23 Javid Ahmad, “5 Paths to Islamic Radicalization”, http://nationalinterest.org/ common men, women and children without any fault of theirs. feature/5-paths-islamic-radicalization-12269Visited on January 08, 2017. 3 Brenda J. Lutz and James M. Lutz, Terrorism in Global Settingin Brenda J. Lutz 24 Ibid., no.23. and James M. Lutz Global Terrorism(New Delhi: Sage Publication, 2008), p.xxi. 25 Ibid., no.23. Understanding Terrorism: Is it Cause or Effect of Islamic Radicalism? 31 Islam and Nonviolence Dr. Sailaja Gullapalli

The contemporary world is witnessing a lot of nonviolence. Of all the conflicts in the contemporary unrest as religious teachings are being era, the ones related to religion are assuming enormous misinterpreted and projecting a malicious image proportions. This mainly because religion is more of different religions. Nonviolence, a great virtue personal in nature and a unifying factor while in that would enable us to live in peace is being community. Further, religion basically means relegated to the background and the religious consciousness, righteousness and piety. It provides sentiments coming to the fore in creating disorder. the much needed answers to an individual’s quest of Various religions are being suffixed with terms meaningful life, truth and the ultimate end. As people such as terrorism and fundamentalism often tend to oscillate between the right and wrong, religion giving an impression that these are some of the in a way became a breeding ground for serious prime characteristics. No religion teaches misconceptions, practices and dogmas. Out of this violence; nor does it promote war. The very emanated the method of nonviolence through which purpose of a religion is to guide an individual to peace could be established and ultimate truth realised. lead a peaceful and disciplined life and engage This factor that identifies and unites people has, of in social good and set an exemplary model. Wars late, been crucial in the on-going conflicts of the world. can never be holy. Wars wreak havoc and disorder. As noted by the eminent scholar Gene Sharp, ‘it is To wage them in the name of religion is all the often believed that the conflict must be waged in order more sordid. The aim of this article is to give an to advance or protect freedom, justice, religion, one’s insight into Islam as a peaceful and nonviolent civilization or one’s people’. It is in this context that religion, for a religion can never misguide people. he defends the efficacy of the nonviolent struggle. Nonviolence, of late, is becoming a forgotten Nonviolent struggle is defined as ‘a technique of action virtue. New hopes need to be instilled if we are to by which the population can restrict and sever the live in a world where violence and disorder are sources of power of their rulers or the oppressors shunned and peace finds a permanent place. and mobilize their own power potential into effective Relevant examples have been cited from the lives power’ (Gene Sharp, Waging Nonviolent Struggle, of great men who dedicated their lives to promote 2005, p.39). It is based ‘on the ability to be stubborn, peace and nonviolence and made it their life to refuse to cooperate, to disobey, and to resist mission. powerful opponents powerfully’. It makes one realise Nonviolence is an unchangeable creed. It has to be their inner determination and capacity to carry on the pursued even in the face of violence raging around struggle in spite of the risk of violent action that might you. – Mahatma Gandhi be inflicted upon by the opponent in return. Nonviolence is active, positive result oriented and What is Nonviolence? steadfast. Conflicts are diverse in nature, degree and intensity. The reasons are numerous- political, social, economic, While nonviolence is not new to history, what cultural, national, ethnic, religious or international. makes it stand apart is the approach and method of While some conflicts are resolved within a limited adhering to it come what may. One of the most popular timeframe, others take longer than usual due to leaders who made nonviolence a creed is Mahatma different aspects. While some of the conflicts have Gandhi. His Satyagraha, or nonviolent approach based been solved with retaliatory violent actions, much to on truth stands in history as the most commendable the dismay of the aggressor and the opponent, many efforts with which he led the nation in rooting out the conflicts have been amicably resolved through colonial rule from India.

32 World Focus February 2017 Islam- A Religion of Peace for love, kindness, affection, forgiveness and mercy Islam originated in the desert of Arabia, where the on the part of the true followers. Bedouin and other tribes lived. The land, desert and its climate reflected in its inhabitants, and they were Five Pillars of Islam constantly exposed to the harsh climatic conditions. Prophet Muhammad successfully disentangled the The much revered Prophet Muhammad was born in earlier beliefs, some of which were outdated and this land. The different cohabitant tribes often fought retained some that were for the god of the society. amongst themselves and this was followed by much With this came into existence the broader and anarchism, polytheism, odd rituals and so on. The monotheistic values of Qur’an. A new structure was socio-economic conditions of those times gave way formed out of earlier beliefs in support of the concept to quarrels and strife. With no unifying factor, they of strong monotheism, known in Arabic as ‘Tauheed’. had to be unified, and brought together as a single In the centuries following its birth, Islam spread by community. Prophet Muhammad, blessed by God or the message of its different spiritual leaders, scholars, Allah as he called the Almighty, was the chosen man saints. The idea behind the spread is mainly political for this task. The Holy Scripture, Qur’an, is widely and ideological. There was also peaceful missionary considered as the direct and true word of God, as work and in some cases through conquest and transmitted by angel Gabriel to Muhammad, when occupation. Overall, the very basis of this religion is the Prophet was in a state of divine insight/ trance. to inculcate goodness in a human being and make In this state, the prophet was ordered to recite the him a worthy follower of God. word of God, and thus came Qur’an, a “recitation”. Kalimah: The holy word, when translated, reads The Kalmah There is no Deity but God, and that ‘There is no deity but God. Muhammad is the Muhammad is his only messenger” forms the basis apostle of God” thus asserting the monotheism or of this religion. The very purpose of this religion was supremacy of only one God. to bring in orderliness, discipline and suggest a way Namaz, the prayer: Each person has to pray five of life that is beneficial for one’s own growth morally times a day, after following the principle of ritual and spiritually. The Holy Qur’an contains 114 cleanliness. chapters, and its essential theme is the Unity of God. Zakath, the almsgiving: Each person is ordained The believer is encouraged to accept the emissaries to give a portion of his wealth as alms, depending on of God- Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and his capacity. Certain class of persons, who are not Muhammad. capable of giving, are exempted from this. Roza, the fasting: Each of the followers of this faith When we read this Holy Scripture, we find has to fast in the month of Ramadan/Ramzan, from that two aspects stand out: one is of impersonal, sunrise to sunset, and should abstain from food, drink, remote, and all powerful God, who can punish the and physical relation during the fasting. There, guilty and sinful; on another, He is taken as however, are exemptions for pregnant women, compassionate and merciful, who gives the purest children of pre-adulthood age, the aged, and the sick. form of divine benevolence and love. After the Haz/Haj, the pilgrimage to Mecca: A Muslim has passing away of the Prophet, the faithful followers to do his pilgrimage to Mecca, provided he has the turned to the life, habits and practices of the Prophet, physical ability and means to undertake the journey. and thus the practice of compiling, recording, and Even if a person is unable to go, he can experience classifying the tradition came up. This is known as the holiness and atmosphere of the pilgrimage in the Hadith (Pronounced as Hadis). The very word Islam company of the pilgrim, which is shared by all. is derived from the Arabic Salama that implies, tranquil, to have done one’s duty, be faithful and at When we go through the above principles, perfect peace. It is based on the tenets of belief in we realise that these are meant to inculcate and unity, power, mercy and supreme love of the Creator, encourage the innate goodness of the human being. charity and unity of all people, subjugation of passion, The case of misinterpretation of Islam as a religion and accountability of all actions on the day of wanting to wage war raises from many factors. Even Judgement. Some of the verses in this Holy text call among the Muslim world, there many a people who

Islam and Nonviolence 33 lack a comprehensive knowledge of Islam and its this phase, he neither spoke ill-willingly against others principles. It is given in the Chapter 5, Verse 32 of nor cursed them for their actions. Throughout this the Holy Quran that ‘if anyone saved a life, it would period, he only prayed for their forgiveness and be as if he saved the life of the whole people’. Human realisation of truth. He was finally compelled to life, thus, is very sacred and humankind is one entity. migrate to Medina, from where he continued his Every human life, then, has a value equivalent to the peaceful missionary work with much zeal and sum total of all human lives. Thus Islam is more steadfastness. As Islam became popular and conducive to peace and nonviolence and not war and acceptable, he returned to Mecca but did not set any violence. It is said that a practising Muslim should terms and conditions about people who humiliated possess the potential for disobedience, discipline, him earlier. As his army marched on the streets of social concern and action, patience and willingness Mecca, he set an exemplary model for others to to suffer for a cause, and the idea of unity- all of emulate. Stanley Lane-Poole observes: ‘the day of which are crucial for successful nonviolent action Mohammad’s greatest triumph over his enemies was (Gene Sharp, The Politics of Nonviolent Action). also the day of grandest victory over himself. He Sufism, one of its variations, was an example of freely forgave Quaraysh all the years of sorrow and synthesis between theology and mystic movement in cruel scorn with which they had afflicted him and Islam. Sufism was a way of practising religion through gave an amnesty to the whole population of Mecca. the personal mystical experience. It was not against Four criminals whom justice condemned made up the orthodox Islam, and in many ways complemented Mohammad’s proscription list, when as a conqueror it. In due course of time, it became popular and he entered the city of his bitterest enemies. The army acceptable among the masses, and provided the much followed his example, and entered quietly and needed strength and recognition. It contributed to peaceably; no house was robbed, no woman insulted perceiving Islam as a peaceful religion among the (cited in A R Azzam, 1979, p.27). This can be non-believers. seconded by citing M.N.Roy who writes that the sword of Islam, wielded ostensibly in the service of As M.N.Roy points out in The Historic Role God, actually contributed to the victory of a new of Islam: an Essay on Islamic Culture (1974), as intellectual life (1974, pp.8-9). Islam spread, ‘the strident cry of the new religion that there is but one God, softened by great tolerance, In this faith, as in others, individual is the subject to this fundamental creed, was enthusiastically nucleus of the social order. Therefore one is expected hailed by the distressed multitudes searching for the to conduct oneself in a manner as befitting the faith secure anchor of a simple faith in a stormy sea of and set an example to others. Islam provided new social disintegration, intellectual bankruptcy and answers in the sense it ‘adopted a realistic attitude spiritual chaos. As this new religion allowed freedom and expects its adherents to adopt a middle course in of conscience, it also became a shield of protection solving day-to-day issues, keeping in mind the spirit against all kinds of persecutions. Thus Islam provided of equality, brotherhood, love and purity of character. the much needed support to people weighed down No one is allowed to kill anybody except under certain by differences and clashes. specified conditions (Razi Ahmed, p.38). Ahmed also cites the example of the first Caliph Abu Bakr, who Islam and Nonviolence sent the forces to Syria, as instructing his army to The very first example of nonviolence in Islam was enforce strict discipline. The army was given orders said to have set by none other than the Prophet ‘Do not commit treachery or deviate from the right himself. As he revealed his Prophethood in Mecca in path. Neither kill a child, nor a woman, nor an aged about 611 AD., he preached the gospel of one God man. Bring no harm to the trees, nor burn them with thus discarding the rituals associated with others; fire, especially those which are fruitful. Slay not any people were infuriated and charged him with of the enemy’s flock, save for your food. You are blasphemy and misguidance. As he, his family and likely to pass by people who have devoted their lives his followers constantly faced the humiliation, he never to monastic services, leave them alone’ (as cited in left or altered his ideas of one God and peace. During Ameer Ali, The Spirit of Islam, London, 1949, pp.137-

34 World Focus February 2017 138). Being kind and good natured would make one The basic teachings of Islam propound a just as the most favoured in the eyes of the God. As the social order and peace. Therefore it is erroneous to Holy text says, “The most honored of you, in the sight assume that it sanctions war and violence. Prophet of Allah, is (he who is) the most Righteous of you. Muhammad stressed for order in society and the And Allah has full knowledge and is well acquainted Quran unequivocally condemns disorder and anarchy. with all things (Ch.49, v.13). And hold fast all together, Tolerance should be the rule and shown effectively by the rope which Allah (stretches out) for you and to the non-believers. The strife and struggle should be not divided among yourselves. Kind words and be directed more towards eliminating the evil in covering of faults are better than charity followed by oneself and discard carnal desires and move towards injury (Ch.2, v.256)”. Prophet Muhammad, exhibited spirituality and peace. Even the wealth of an individual maximum tolerance, fellow-feeling and brotherhood, is to be used for the benefit of the society and not for peace towards all, compassion and love, righteousness individual accumulation. It is not for maximizing the and freedom of conscience, courtesy towards all; and standard of living but for maximizing social duty towards parents, kith and kin, and especially development. The one who seeks guidance from the towards the downtrodden and the exploited (cited in Almighty is least inclined towards violence and ill- Ahmed, pp.39-40). will towards others. War in the name of religion strictly prohibited for harming others is considered as Renowned Egyptian Scholar, Anwar al-Jundi, sinful. The use of violence is extremely exceptional draws our attention to the following essential in the sense it is to be used only for self-defence or principles of Islam. As we get familiar with these when physically attacked by an opponent. The principles, there comes disbelief as to why this religion prophet himself set a good example by forgiving his of peace has often been misinterpreted by some of opponents and giving them generous amnesty. its own scholars and makes it much antagonistic in Compulsion in religion is prohibited and the message the eyes of the followers of other faiths. As this can be spread only through missionary work and not eminent scholar says, (1) Islam has established a through sword. complete system covering the general lines to be followed by man in his behaviour towards himself Gandhi, Islam and Nonviolence and his community. (2) This religion supports the Among the prominent men of 20th century, Mahatma community and individualism, links spiritualism and Gandhi advocated nonviolence and no other leader materialism and wholly integrates the human soul and or personality, to this day, can match up to his zeal reason. (3) It calls upon Muslims for movement, for towards this end. Gandhi was much impressed by transformation of their means and lifestyle, and for the tenets of Islam, especially its monotheism and welcome for any innovation fitting in with the unconditional surrender to God. He included the framework of their values and principles. Islamic reading of some of the verses of the Holy Quran principles possess sufficient flexibility and during his ashram prayers, especially al-Fateha. As comprehensibility to suit them to any human society one of his followers asked him whether it would and to offer for its problems the truest solutions within threaten the basic belief of other faiths, Gandhi replied the framework of belief in God, excellent morals, that ‘There should be in us an equal reverence for all effective individual responsibility, and faith in religions. Badshah Khan (Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, resurrection and future reward. (4) Islam has the whenever he comes) joins in the worship here, with capacity to co-exist with different civilizations and delight. He loves the tune to which the Ramayana is cultures. The characteristic of Islam is that it unites, sung, and he listens intently to the Gita. His faith in liberates and controls, individualism and collectivism, Islam is not lessened thereby. Then, why may I not science and religion, nationalism and effectivity, the listen to the Qur’an with equal reverence and spirit and matter, revelation and reason, this life and adoration in my heart?” (Harijan,15-2-1942). The the hereafter, the world of mystery and the perceptible ideas that shaped Gandhi’s non-violence were drawn world, stability and evolution, the past and the present, both from Western and Indian sources. The trial of conservation and regeneration, Islam and humanity Socrates as described in Plato’s Apology had a deep (Ahmed, pp.48-49). impact on Gandhi. In 1908 he published a restatement

Islam and Nonviolence 35 of this work in English and Gujarati under the title proceed from a helpless creature. The religion of non- The Story of a Soldier of Truth. Socrates was a violence is not meant merely for the Rishis and saints. model for all those who would resist non-violently It is meant for the common people as well. Non- the violence of the state. The moral principles of the violence is the law of our species as violence is the Sermon on the Mount, as interpreted in Leo Tolstoy’s law of the brute. The spirit lies dormant in the brute The Kingdom of God Is within You (1893), had a and he knows no law but that of physical might. The lifelong sway on him. Another of Tolstoy’s writings, dignity of man requires obedience to a higher law to Letter to a Hindu (1908), made Gandhi rethink the the strength of the spirit. Non-violence in its dynamic role of violence in the Indian society. John Ruskin’s condition means conscious suffering. It does not mean Unto This Last (1860) opened Gandhi’s eyes to the meek submission to the will of the evil-doer, but it veiled structural violence in industrial capitalism and means the putting of one’s whole soul against the will in society. Gandhi published it in English and Gujarati of the tyrant. Working under this law of being , it is (1908) under the title Sarvodaya (The welfare of possible for a single individual to defy the whole might all). To Gandhi, ahimsa was the expression of the of an unjust empire to save his honour, his religion, deepest love for all humans, including one’s opponents. his soul and lay the foundation for the empire’s fall or Nonviolence included not only a lack of physical harm its regeneration (Young India, Ahmedabad, to them, but also a lack of hatred or ill-will towards Wednesday, 11th August, 1920). them. He rejected the traditional dichotomy between one’s own side and the “enemy;” he believed in the Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, Islam and need to persuade opponents of their injustice and Nonviolence prejudice, not to punish them, and in this way to win Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, or Badshah Khan or their friendship. Frontier Gandhi as he is affectionately known as, stands as a unique example of nonviolent soldier In 1947, India prepared itself for gaining waging war for betterment of society. He joined independence. What it did not prepare for was the Gandhi in 1919 during the freedom struggle movement massive violence in the name of religion and its severe in then undivided India. His aim was never to occupy after effects. The communal discord that struck the a position in the highest office. His one and only aim nation devastated Gandhi’s faith. He was petrified was to constantly strive for the welfare of the people by the communal differences, and the calls for the and their rights. As Eknath Easwaran says about creation of a separate Muslim state of Pakistan. The Badshah Khan, ‘A devout Muslim, he showed in his widespread distrust and hatred that was fast engulfing life a face of Islam which non-Islamic countries the nation took a toll on the nation with millions of seldom see, proving that within the scope of Islam lives lost. Many believed that Gandhi’s non-violence exists a noble alternative to violence. His nonviolent was unsuccessful. Althrough those times, Gandhi army, the ‘Servants of God’ was entirely Muslim, and spent his time in the most violent areas where each based upon the ancient Islamic principles of universal day he preached Peace and Love and prayed as brotherhood, submission to god, and the service of written the historian Stanley Wolpert. “Gandhi walked God through the service of His creatures’. Easwaran from village to village through the heart of that violent quotes Khan as reiterating “it is my inmost conviction madness, preaching ahimsa. Mohandas K. Gandhi, that Islam is amal, yakeen, muhabat-selfless service, the “Great Soul,” was anything but a failure. In a faith and love. Yakeen, faith, is an unwavering belief world seemingly dominated by violence and hatred, in the spiritual laws that underlie all life, and in the Gandhi reincarnated the ancient idea of Ahimsa, non- nobility of human nature- in particular, in the ability violence, as the only way of living in peace. of every human being to respond to spiritual laws. It implies a profound belief in the power of muhabat, Gandhi said, “I believe that non-violence is love, to transform human affairs, as Badshah Khan, infinitely superior to violence, forgiveness is more like Gandhi, demonstrated with his life. He based his manly than punishment, forgiveness adorns a soldier. life and work on this profound principle, raising an But abstinence is forgiveness only when there is the army of courageous men and women who translated power to punish, it is meaningless when it pretends to it into action. Were his example better known, the

36 World Focus February 2017 world might come to recognize that the highest aim to bring in reforms through educating the masses. religious values of Islam are deeply compatible with Pushtun, The Pathan, was an instant success a nonviolence that has the power to resolve conflicts everywhere, even outside the Frontier region. It even against heavy odds. contained articles on hygiene, social issues, and Islamic law. He viewed the veil of women as an The frontier region gave Badshah Khan impediment to their freedom and called for doing away immense scope to work for the people. He was with it. As he wrote in a piece, ‘O Pathan, when you relentless in his efforts as he was extremely restless demand your freedom, why deny it to women?’ to take up the task of educating the masses and fight (Easwaran, p.92). the British and their colonial rule. He came into contact with a wide network of Muslims in the region As he attended various Congress Sessions, and gradually got to know about Mahatma Gandhi’s Khan became aware of the massive efforts being nonviolent movement across the nation. On Gandhi’s taken up at the national level. He realised that he call, Khan responded to the simple lifestyle and his could replicate the same in the Frontier region who insistence upon truth and nonviolence in all of life’s were not much aware about these efforts. He went affairs. As summed up by Easwaran aptly, ‘as to his home front and massively encouraged people Gandhi’s work and ideas spread, Khan’s attempts at to participate in the mainstream national struggle. As reforming and educating the Pathans took on new he awakened the people, some of the youth came meaning; this was not only uplift, it was also the path forward and suggested to form a band of soldiers, to freedom. Buoyed, Khan redoubled his efforts. drilled and disciplined, and certainly not violent- an Between 1915 and 1918, he visited everyone of the army of trained professional nonviolent soldiers. Thus five hundred villages in the settled districts of the came under the guidance of Badshah Khan, the Frontier. He sat with the men in the guesthouses and nonviolent army known as Khudai Khidmatgars or spoke of sacrifice and work and forgiveness (pp.68- Servants of God. Their aim was to gain freedom 69). As his efforts and work got recognition, he through service and their arms were discipline, faith increasingly became popular and came to known as and determination. They took an oath to serve Badshah Khan. As the freedom movement gained humanity in the name of God, refrain from violence, momentum, Khan was imprisoned a number of times. forgive those who oppress them, refrain from quarrels To his surprise, he realised that his imprisonment and feuds, anti-social activities and customs; lead a strengthened the will of the people to resolutely fight simple life, practice virtue, good manners and good against the British. Khan said, there is nothing behaviour and devote atleast two hours in a day to surprising in a Muslim or a Pathan like me subscribing social work. to the creed of nonviolence. It is not a new creed. It was followed fourteen hundred years ago by the We are the army of god Prophet all the time he was in Mecca, and it has By death or wealth unmoved since been followed by all those who wanted to throw We march, our leader and we, off an oppressor’s yoke. Khan travelled widely in Ready to die. the Arab region and upon his return, he formed the We serve and we love Pushtun Jirgah, the Pathan Youth League, with the Our people and our cause aim to bring in educational, social and political reforms. Freedom is our goal Our lives the price we pay. Badshah Khan was against the system of Purdah for women and called them to leave it behind Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, because of his and get on to the forefront of the freedom movement. nonviolent approach, was also known as Frontier His sisters were actively involved in the struggle, thus Gandhi or as Badshah Khan (meaning a King). He setting an example for other women to follow. He discouraged his followers from calling him so as he started a journal in the Pushto language to educate felt that he did not deserve to be praised; he insisted the masses about the freedom movement and that the hard work put in by the people is dearer to encourage them to do social good. It was also his him than the praise they shower on him. He lived a

Islam and Nonviolence 37 simple life, wore handspun cloth, gave up eating meat, peace in order. The very lives of the great men like and renounced his land. The legacy of this great man, Prophet Muhammad and Gandhi and Khan Abdul whose work is still unknown to the other parts of the Ghaffar Khan demonstrate to us as to how the world, continues to influence many. His contribution mankind can march ahead with progress if we to the legacy of nonviolence has special significance faithfully follow the path of absolute nonviolence. today, when so many countries of the Islamic world are torn by violence. Just as Gandhi reminded Indians References of their long-forgotten legacy of truth and nonviolence, 1.Paige, Glenn.D, Chaiwat Satha-Anand, and Sarah it has been given to Badshah Khan to perform the Gilliatt., Islam and Nonviolence, Center for Global same great service for Islam. His life is a perfect Nonviolence, Spark M Matsunaga Institute for Peace, mirror of the profound values of love, faith and selfless University of Hawai’I, Honolulu, 2001 service embedded in Islam since its inception. His 2.Ahmed, Razi., Islam, Nonviolence and Global nonviolent ‘army of God’ stands as a beacon to all Transformation (in Paige, Glenn.D, et al., Islam and Muslims who seek an alternative to the self- Nonviolence, 2001) destructive violence of our times. He demonstrated conclusively that nonviolence-love in action- is in 3.Wahid., Abdurrahman., Islam, Nonviolence and perfect harmony with a vigorous, resurgent Islam. National Transformation, (in Paige, Glenn.D, et al., Khan’s simplicity, deep faith, and selfless service Islam and Nonviolence, 2001) represent the Islamic tradition at its purest and most 4.Easwaran, Eknath., The Two Gandhis, Nonviolent enduring. Soldiers: The Frontier Gandhi-Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan and Mahatma Gandhi, Jaico Publishing House, Mumbai, Conclusion 2009 The contemporary world, as we see today, does not 5.Roy, M.N., The Historic Role of Islam: An Essay on in anyway, reflect the values of the past. Religion Islamic Culture, Sind Sagar Academy, Lahore, 1974 has become more of an issue than a value to be 6.Azzam, A.R., The Eternal message of Mohammad, imbibed, inculcated and practised. A thorough reading London, 1979. of the Holy Quran opens our eyes to the fact that it is 7.Thomas Patrick Hughes., Dictionary of Islam, first indeed a peaceful religion with a great emphasis on published in 1885. 7th impression by Rupa & Co., truth and nonviolence. The interpretation of Islam today has been misleading; the misinterpretations 2007, New Delhi. wrongly project this peaceful religion as abetting 8.Relevant portions of The Collected Works of violence and unrest. Just as violence begets violence, Mahatma Gandhi, Volumes 1-96, Publications Division, misguidance in turn encourages a tireless propaganda New Delhi. of maligning each others’ religions. This would not 9.Gene Sharp, The Politics of Non-violent Action, only threaten the peace among communities and Harvard University’s Center for International Affairs, nations but also trigger more and more negative Boston, 1973. interpretations as to why the civilizations are at clash. 10.M.K. Gandhi, Non-Violence: Weapon of the Brave, It is time to come out of this vicious cocoon and look Orient Paperbacks, New Delhi. for the finer nuances of other faiths. If the world has 11.Raghavan N. Iyer, The Moral and Political Thought to live in peace, faith and goodwill, it is necessary to of Mahatma Gandhi, Oxford University Press, New understand the goodness of others. This is but a minor Delhi, 2000 edition. step in promoting the communal, national, and world

ANALYSIS OF INDIAN DIPLOMACY, FOREIGN POLICY AND STRATEGIC AFFAIRS CONVERGE AT WORLD FOCUS.

38 World Focus February 2017 Radical Islam and Terrorism in West Asia Dr. Sudhanshu Tripathi

Unfortunately, both Islam and terrorism are be- disturbed the peace and security of the region for long ing defined as co-terminous but that is absolutely in the past century and that continues to be so even wrong. Despite having its origin in Arabian pe- today. In the same way, intra-sects wars within Mus- ninsula of West Asia, Islam has been getting lim communities have, perhaps, turned into most ma- radicalised in this very region among unedu- cabre form in Syria and Iraq where Islamic State ter- cated and orthodox Muslims due to their wrong rorists (ISIS) have already wreck worst ever havoc interpretations and also by external power’s in- upon the innocent humanity, including children and stigated and supported vested interests; and women. Thus West Asia, despite being the birth place that has driven a permanent wedge between of Islam and also being extremely rich in terms of Arab and Israel over partition of Palestine for natural resources of oil and gas, continues as one of creation of an independent homeland as well as the most war-torn, insecure and volatile zone of the their sovereign state for Jews. Hence both Jews world due to ongoing heinous violence and extreme and Arab Muslims must be encouraged to barbaric militancy since many long decades of the resume direct talks on the complex West Asian previous century, particularly after the Balfour decla- imbroglio so that it may finally be resolved and ration in 1917, by the then British mandate adminis- the continuing terror may come to an end. Be- tration over Palestine which opened a Pandora’s box cause, the direct mutual dialogue will, indeed, of almost endless trouble between Muslims and Jews help remove their mutual misunderstanding and and has caused a permanent wedge between Arab differences, being perpetuated by the external and Israel as regards partition of Palestine for crea- powers, and assuage their hurt sentiments and tion of an independent homeland for Jews as well as will also help arouse the kinship feelings as they their sovereign Zionist state. Thus the Arab - Israel have the same ancestral origin. dispute in West Asia over the years became more and more heinous and violent and has already resulted Introduction into the ongoing macabre terrorism. Even during ini- Unfortunately, Islam is today projected as a radical tial course of the evolution of militancy and violence or militant religious movement which, it indeed is not. in the region, Islam as a religious bond of unity played Islam originated in 7th century in West Asia - in Mecca an important role for Muslims against the fast spread- which in on the eastern side of the Arabian peninsula ing Zionist movement getting organized in favour of in modern Saudi Arabia and is the native city of the capturing Palestinian land for creating a full-fledged Prophet of Islam, Mohammed sahib - and spread rap- Zionist sovereign state, now called Israel. As a con- idly all over the world by splintering into different forms sequence, the frustrated vested interests, mostly & communities, sub divided into various intra-religious among backward - orthodox and uneducated Mus- units. Although Islam is a diverse religion followed by lims, took recourse to misinterpretation of Islam by more than 1.5 billion Muslims of different sects and deliberately sharpening its edge to suit their socio- schools of thought yet this great number of followers, political and economic goals to defeat the emerging despite observing a variety of interpretations of their Zionism in West Asia and that afterwards resulted religious texts, have remained united by an overarching into a rising brutal militancy and violence in the re- bond of religious and cultural unity. But this so-de- gion. Thus Islam became a potent instrument in the fined apparent unity had been worst affected in West hands of hardliner and orthodox sections of the Mus- Asia or Middle East as long drawn Arab-Israel dis- lim community which is decidedly engaged into vio- pute and, consequent bitter War between Arab Mus- lent and militant activities in the name of protecting lims and Jews over Palestine - a tri-junction of three their religion in the world because that, according to religions viz., Christianity, Islam and Judaism - had them, is in grave danger. Hence, they advocated for Radical Islam and Terrorism in West Asia 39 jihad including global jihad (a religious war) to pro- themselves as vanguard of Islam, an elite race in con- tect their region and that led to gradual emergence of trast to the so-called hypocrites and moderates of Is- “Radical Islam” with the passage of time because lam. Fortunately, the majority of Muslims - around the process of radicalization of Islam resulted into more than ninety five per cent - don’t interpret the much more criminalization, militarization and perver- verses in a wicked and violent way. The radical or sion of the Islamic teachings among orthodox and “fundamentalist” Islam, as reflected in the teachings hardliner Muslims who used terrorism as a weapon of modern thinkers like Sayyid Qutb, differs more from for realizing their political ends and that is still continuing mainstream conceptions of Islam as regards there unabated and also in many areas of the entire opposition to Western society and their culture though world. But it is an obvious fact that the true Muslims he develops and makes extensive use of can certainly not hold and practice such wickedness the term Jahiliyyah to characterize modern societies and perversion, as seen in ever rising brutality, of West. As part of this confrontation, Qutb and so- barbarism and blood-curdling inhuman acts, because defined radical Islam concentrate on Jihad, especially Islam never supports violence and terror by Muslims; with respect to its outer militant aspects. Indeed, Jihad instead it teaches love, peace and solidarity among plays a lesser or more internal role within mainstream all. Islamic thought. In fact, the radical Islam or Islamic terrorism is terrorist acts committed by groups or Radical or fundamentalist Islam: individuals who profess Islamic or Islamist motivations Though the radical Islam or fundamentalist Islam can for achieving their goals. Islamic terrorists justify their claim to have roots in earlier traditions, but it is mostly violent tactics through misinterpreting viewed as a modern phenomenon along with other the Quran and Hadith so as to pursue their own religious fundamentalisms because scholars consider nefarious goals. Obviously, this leads “radical” Islam it to have emerged in the modern era, especially in to seek more aggressive interpretations of Sharia to post-colonial times. The main difference lies in justify the use of force against infidels as well as interpretation of the Islamic texts. Indeed, the radicals apostates. The mainstream Islam strives more for follow the distorted version of Islam which instigates ensuring Muslim unity than projecting “vanguard violence and justifies all kinds of perversion by protection.” The radical Islam looks as somewhat like Muslims who constitute a criminal gang of fanatics Protestantism because it claims that its scripture for executing jihad or even global jihad. They are those (Quran) can and must be interpreted directly, even who wage war with their fellow Muslims and plan with innovation or ijtihad, and it thereby downgrades terror-plots for killing innocent civilians. But it is true the reliance on medieval and early modern that Muslims have no right to punish people for the interpretations which could have a moderating effect. sins committed by them. It is something between a In the same way, Protestants believe in sola scriptures man and God and He says He will do justice on the and reject the Catholic interpretive traditions. In short, Day of Judgment. If one violates the highest duty to radical Islam differs in terms of theology and by self by killing oneself (suicide), he will not enter recognizable policies as well as practices. At its most Heavens as well. Or if one violates one’s duty to radical interpretations, unfortunately leading to smaller others by killing anybody else he will also not enter splinter groups like Al-Qaeda or ISIS, the role of Heavens. Hence, the emerging different interpretations authorized clergies and institutions become very of Islam and Islamic religious rituals may be described effectual. Further, the radical Islam also differs in its as “radical” or “moderate”, depending upon how they history from Islam in general. In fact, “Islam interpret the Islamic verses. Though the Islamic guarantees religious freedom to all people in a state. radicals are less than five per cent and they not only It is the duty of Islamic governments to ensure confront the non-Muslim countries, they strongly equality and justice among all people. Murder cannot criticize and fight the “hypocrisy” among Muslim be justified in Islam except in self-defense.” It only communities and Muslim nations which fail to meet allows for judicial systems to implement capital the “fundamentalist” standards of blind devotion to punishment for certain category of crimes, if the Islam, Sharia law etc.. During intra-religious infighting accused is found guilty after a proper trial in a court within Islamic lands, the radical Islamists consider of law. There is no punishment including death for

40 World Focus February 2017 non-Muslims because the true Muslims oppose all precise, the radical Islam refers to more aggressive kinds of barbarism or savagery. Further, the Sharia interpretations of religious texts to justify the use of Law is not barbaric. It aims to protect five basic rights force against non-Muslims as well as Muslim apostates of humanity: religion, life, mind, honour and property. of Islam. There are ‘extremist groups, called takfiri The right to religion guarantees religious freedom for who claim that even some Muslims are actually kafir, all people of the state. The right to mind includes or unbelievers or heretics. These are ideologies that factors that obstruct human objectivity, including are not accepted by mainstream Muslims, who view intoxication and lying. The right of honour upholds a these perspectives as extreme and inaccurate culture of respect and human dignity. In reality, most according to Islam and to the established principles of the rules of West, particularly the United States of human rights and dignity of human person. Thus and other democratic countries are in accordance with the militant or radical adherents of religion may the teachings of Quran and Sharia Law.’ So what is interpret their faith in an extreme way, but moderates pronounced as “barbaric Sharia Law”, publicised by do adopt the moderate or normal course.’ As is terrorists is certainly not in accordance with Islam. clear that the main source of terrorism today are the No faithful Muslim can support barbarianism and western governments under whom are placed many inhumanity by extremists, and it is wrong to say that organizations such as government think-tanks to Sharia law supports it. Basically there are “three promote propaganda through the media and are realms of duty in Islam: duty to God; duty to other instrumental in collecting taxes from the public to people and duty to self too. The highest form of duty suppress those governments, not complying with to God is firm faith in the oneness of God as polytheism American policy for running puppet governments in is not acceptable in Islam. Shirk is the sin of practicing all over the world. Similarly, the US supported idolatry or polytheism, i.e. the deification or worship countries, like Iraq, Saudi Arabia and Qatar etc. in of anyone or anything other than the singular God.” West Asia play the second fiddle and that promotes Also one cannot stop any other from entering a mosque vested American interests, instead of national interests for offering his prayer as Islam permits even a non- of these nations and it ultimately has resulted into Muslim to enter into a mosque. Unlike Hinduism or popular reactions in the form of terrorism and- with Christianity and many other religions, a Muslim does radicalization of Islam- into religious fundamentalism not need a ritual-performer (purohit) to offer his against the ruling elites in these countries. prayers. Worship is solely an individual affair between man and God and no matter what his affairs are in his Militancy and terrorism in West Asia: life. He always has the right to pray and worship and Unfortunately, militancy and terror have their close enter mosques or practice their faith. And Islam also connection with West Asia or Middle East ever since promotes the culture of mutual respect and friendship. Arab Muslims began exerting their hegemonic control This is what the non-practicing Muslims and non- over Palestine - a British mandate then - in their bid Muslims would like the “moderate” Muslim to be to uproot Jews who were then gradually consolidating defined as: someone who identifies with Islam but themselves to form their homeland, particularly after does not necessarily agree with or follow its the Balfour Declaration by the British mandate constituents. In this interpretation, it can actually be administration. This declaration over Palestine, which an insult to call a practicing Muslim “moderate,” is the confluence of three different religions and abode because it may imply that he does not observe Islam to their equally distinct followers i.e. Christians, Jews in toto. Everyone picks their own “moderate” and Muslims respectively, paved the way for a new Muslims. Thus, as defined by popular media, the non-Arab and non-muslim community seeking for a “radical” Muslims are individuals who murder innocent Jewish Homeland and also a sovereign Zionist state. people in the name of Islam, without having any reason Obviously the predominantly backward muslim in the Islam. Such people are cowards who do not community bitterly opposed to the rising Jews have courage and patience to understand the contrary population over Palestine, considering them as a socio- views. Though it is good to have an independent and religious and cultural threat, causing them an identity unbiased opinion but to become emotionally blind and crisis with the passage of time. As these Muslims, take sides create the radical ideology. To be more united under the religious bonds of Islam, never lost

Radical Islam and Terrorism in West Asia 41 their enormously powerful links of a common lan- carrying on unbelievingly horrible and ghastly inhu- guage and a common faith which always served to man & blood-curdling massacre of innocent people. revive and give substance to their arrogant and of- Obviously, the cruel and savage psychology of fensive visions of a renewed unity, they soon took militancy and so-evolved terrorism today may be found recourse to militancy and terror characterised by rou- rooted in the backward and uneducated sections of tine and heinous violence, killing opponents and even the restless muslims and also among the Jews, which innocent people just like grass or vegetables - for have already acquired the much hyped title of religious maintaining their dominance and hegemonic control fundamentalism and that is getting more and more over Palestine - against the backdrop of the rising macabre with the passage of time as a religious war Jews population who, in reaction to this violence, had called jihad - a fight to finish by the faithful followers also become equally gruesome and savage in using to protect and preserve their religion - as they project terror tactics against the Arab muslims. As the Brit- that Islam is in danger all across the world, particularly ish, who were providing occasional support to the then in West Asia. struggling Jewry against these muslims, had become the sole surviving target of expanding Arab national- While caring about one’s homeland by a ism which had consolidated in the aftermath of Balfour particular community is quite right but not letting Declaration, they therefore wanted to divert the so- another community, which is an equally legitimate arisen muslim-wrath over others and elsewhere. native of the same homeland, is absolutely wrong and Indeed, they (British) were afraid of their ghastly and that needs to be stopped by all means. As West Asia violent retaliatory zeal inflicting heavy damage upon is the birth place of three religions viz. Christianity, their enemies as clearly visible in their retrograde and Judaism and Islam, the followers of all these religions, offensive life styles, particularly their non-vegetarian obviously, have their legitimate stake over here. Hence, eating habits, unhygienic societal conglomeration, none has the right to uproot another on grounds of extremely orthodox thinking as regards their religion being a different community having different socio- and beliefs and also a medieval out look towards the cultural and religious identity. But, unfortunately, outer world. That is still devoid of modern, liberal and mostly backwards among the muslim community never progressive education and so-evolved scientific understand this fact of obvious Law of Nature ie. temper, where eternal and moral values like non- live and let live others since long because they always violence, love, peace, freedom, solidarity, truth, take recourse to violent means or even terror just to equality, justice etc. prevails in the form of political settle down their petty scores with other communities doctrines like liberty, equality, justice, fraternity, everywhere in the world which is well proved by democracy, rule of law, accountability and history. Against such an aggressive and violent attitude transparency etc.. Indeed, majority of the backward of Muslims towards other communities, a similar and uneducated muslims practice an old mind-set, reaction or more is bound to arise in the so-victimised hardliner and insistent approach to their religion and community and that way the Jews, after suffering still hold closed and narrow vision towards other social the Muslim terror for long, resorted to equally macabre conglomerates and the world at large which is based terror-violence in West Asia which is going on there on their irrational, ill-founded and self-assumed myth in the ever violent form and has already been resulted that they are the true progenies of the past global into three bitter Arab-Israel war. Here a question rulers who ruled the entire world with a noble mission naturally arises that why is so bitter and macabre to found an ‘Ummah’ or the earlier Caliphate system violence just for a share on the same land where all - an utopian society of Muslims sans ‘kafirs’ (non- of them can survive and prosper as the land in question faithful), hence they have been sent by the almighty is the common ancestral abode of the three distinct “Allah” to rule again over the world and fulfil the religions which well proves their simultaneous unfinished task of establishing the Ummah upon the coexistence here since ages. earth. This is what the most notorious terrorist and head of the worst ever defamed terror outfit ISIS, While discussing militancy and terror in West Abu bakr-al Baghdadi wishes to form in and around Asia as regards Arab-Israel dispute over partition of the vast area of Syria and Iraq and for that end he is Palestine, it is necessary to understand the generic

42 World Focus February 2017 origin of the term ‘terrorism’ for conceptual clarity of fascism or imperialism. Even though terror is fre- the phenomenon so that an effective solution for quently used term for the actions in question today, resolving the long prevailing crisis may be found for but no acceptable definition has yet been framed. As establishing permanent peace and security in the West terrorism is, perhaps, the most complex psychological Asian region by ensuring happy union of Muslims and and socio-political phenomenon having various Jews who have their common origin in the deity mutating shades and forms, its understanding also Abraham. becomes very difficult and complex for theoretical purpose of investigation and analysis and theory Militancy and Terrorism & Global Terrorism: building. Many new definitions of terrorism have been Although use of violence and terror has been in vogue framed by experts and scholars all over the world so since times immemorial for achieving solutions to far, but that has failed to evolve a common approach contentious problems, whether national or international, resulting into an acceptable doctrine. This is particularly they were practised under some regulation either of so because the person who is declared as a terrorist religion, customs and conventions or traditions or fear by one country is often called a freedom fighter by of God. As an eminent scholar, Brian Jenkins argued the other one. in the mid 1980’s that ‘simply killing a lot of people has seldom been one terrorist objective…terrorists Another trend in the late 19th century was operate on the principle of the minimum force the increasing tide of nationalism spreading through necessary… as long as killing a few suffices for their the world wherein the nation and state were combined. purpose. But today’s terrorism has crossed all limits Nationalism, like communism became a much greater where sanity is no more and hearts are devoid of ideological force in the 20th century. The Russian conscience. It is not simply about deaths and loss of ‘Populist’, followed by ‘Anarchists’ and ‘Communists’ properties but about a slow erosion of the authority of unleashed terrorism targeted against the Government a state and challenge to its core ideals. In fact, or a particular class of people, but not against terrorism is not a new phenomenon as it has been commoners. The world also witnessed state sponsored there since time immemorial either in one form or the terrorism in Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy and Stalinist other. It has its presence as early as the 1st century; Russia, but there also the targets were not the whole known to the Romans as Sicarie- a dagger man- people. Why is it not being contained despite the best because they carried an underground campaign for efforts is a particular cause of concern. Instead, it assassination of Romans. The origin of the term is has acquired a frightening and diabolical dimension derived from the Latin word “terreri’, meaning due to quantum jump in the technology of terror in the thereby to tremble, fear or panic and anxiety. It also post-Kalashnikov and post RDX and post-bio weapon has its French origin from ‘regime de la terreur’ era. established after French revolution of 1789 during 1793-94 when the great revolutionary Robespierre As the existing genre of writings on terrorism glorified it: “Terror” is nothing other than justice, form a vast literature containing a spectrum of prompt, severe, inflexible; it is, therefore, an emanation commentaries focussing on both theoretical and of virtue.” Though Edmund Burke demonised the term practical aspects of this issue, un-packaging the “terrorism” for its innate brutality but it was shown terminology on terrorism and associated forms of as a useful means for political change by violence is not an easy task. The first category is revolutionaries like Italian Carlo Piscane and thinkers domestic terrorism and the second is that of global like Karl Marks. In fact, terrorism is a nebulous term and both are same in the wider context. Worryingly, and has pejorative implications. As a concept, it means terrorism means different things to different people. ‘intimidating’ but this must be in great intensity and In fact, militancy or extremism is a precursor of be capable of creating sudden feeling of extreme fear. terrorism - it is an overarching belief system that is It has both paradise and paradoxical consequences. used by terrorists to justify their violent behaviour. However, it comprises of ‘terror’ and ‘ism’ which The origin of the modern terrorist was rooted in the may simply translate as the philosophy of creating organization of zealots and assassins of Judea who terror of fear or destruction among the people, like operated in antiquity. The problem of using them, either

Radical Islam and Terrorism in West Asia 43 by themselves or in an umbrella fashion, is that each very complex and has multiple reasons behind its ori- term – such as insurgency, terrorism, guerrilla gin and growth not only as regards Arab-Israel dis- warfare, Islamist militancy, jihad, radicalism and pute in West Asia, but also everywhere in the world. fundamentalism- has a specific connotation when While rooted in the psychology of deprivation, frus- applied to a particular context or situation. The U.S. tration and helplessness, it results as a reaction into Department of Defense defines terrorism as, “the uncontrolled violence with a view to arouse fear not unlawful use of - or threatened use of - force or only on the target but among all, even ultimately on violence against individuals or property to coerce or the very might of a state. In West Asia too, both intimidate governments or societies, often to achieve Muslims and Jews resorted to militancy and terror, political, religious, or ideological objectives.” In fact, over Palestine, in abject frustration of not being able terrorism is an umbrella term currently in usage, best to accomplish their respective legitimate claims under defined as the use of violence to create a psychological normal circumstances and also due to misinterpretation sense of fear. Within this framework, terrorism can and gradual radicalisation of Islam. Initially the be defined as an extremely violent and horrible Muslims, being in majority, began to dominate to the theatrics used by its perpetrators or insurgents to extent that they persecuted the minority Jews with a terrorise the populace into accepting its cause as view to uproot them from their traditional abode, the legitimate. Jews reacted by using much more brutal violence and terror. Thus the terror and counter-terror became A macabre global menace: more and more macabre as reflected in several ghastly Now, terrorism has become a widespread events of violence and terror like Munich Olympics, phenomenon in most of the contemporary global 1972 and the thrice waged Arab-Israel War, system. It poses challenge not only to the state power assassination of Egyptian President Anwar Saadat but also to the national sovereignty and security and etc.. With the passage of decades, their so-evolved also to the very survival of humanity as is visible in mutual animosity became much more worse due to the heinous acts of ISIS. Thus how can one interference of Super and major powers who, in their conceptualise terrorism as a theory which is a macabre bid to capture a lion’s share over excessive petroleum global menace today and is a worst ever threat before resources of the region, deliberately pushed the dispute humanity since the dawn of civilisation. When few to become complex and remain unresolved with a terrorists can convert a civilian aircraft into a deadly view to maintain their hegemony. Though the Jews missile and a gas cooker & a tiffin box as a bomb, have accomplished their homeland having an besides human bombs, cycle bombs, car bombs etc. independent and sovereign state by forcibly capturing it should not be a surprise that terrorism has become the Palestinian land yet there looks no end to the as much a scourge as AIDS, with hapless humanity continuing violence and terror between them. In this being violently massacred by the ISIS. It’s rapid global scenario, though many attempts for establishing peace spread threatens the very foundation of freedom, in the region have made including that by the United democracy and development and also to an extent Nations, but all that have failed to materialise because that it has become a substitute of modernism. In the of several complexities involved therein. Hence, West Asia the scourge of terrorism was due to the instead of continuing with external power’s intervention by Super and major powers for capturing interference in the disputed regional rivalry, both Jews and controlling the region’s oil and natural gas for and Arab Muslims be encouraged to resume direct ensuring energy security for themselves. Further, the talks on this complex issue for its final resolution. emerging possibility of nuclear weapons falling into Because such direct mutual dialogue will remove all hands of terrorists, along with the likely use of persisting differences, created by outside powers, by chemical, biological and narcotic agents, poses an assuaging their hurt sentiments and also helping arouse unimaginably horrible and threatening scenario in the kinship feelings among them because they have today’s world. the same ancestral origin. While Israel recently fought the worst-ever fire inside its territory, Palestine’s offer Conclusion: to help-combat the fire was highly commendable, Thus, the phenomenon of militancy and terrorism is given the age old acrimonious relations between them.

44 World Focus February 2017 If there is an empathy really evolving between them, rorism: essential primary sources. Thomas Gale, 2006: Li- the consequent opportunity may prove to be a brary of Congress. milestone towards resolving their long persisting Liberman, David M (2006): Sorting the revolutionary from mutual dispute over Palestine and that, obviously, be the terrorist: The delicate application of the “Political Of- carefully availed by both the arch-rivals so that fence” exception in U.S. extradition case, Stanford Law radicalisation of Islam and scourge of terrorism may Review, Vol. 59, No.1 PP. 181-211. come to an end in West Asia. Pape, Robert A. (2003): The Strategic Logic of Suicide Ter- References: rorism, American Political Science Review No. 97 (3): PP 1- 19. Abbas Hasan, (2007): ‘Pakistan’s drift into extremism’, New Pastor, James F. (2009): “Terrorists & Public Safety Polic- Delhi: Pentagon Press. Abrahams, Max (2008): “What Terrorists Really Want: Ter- ing: Implications of the Obama Presidency”, New York, Taylor & Francis. rorist Motives and Counter-terrorism Strategy”; Interna- Raza, Maroof (ed.) (2009): Confronting Terrorism; Viking/ tional Security, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press 32 (4) : 86-89. Arno Tausch (2007): Against Islamophobia : Quantitative Penguin Books, India Richardson, Louise (2006): “What Terrorists Want: Under- analyses of global terrorism, world political cycles and standing The Terrorist Threat”, London, John Murray, p center periphery structures, Hauppauge, N.Y. Nova Sci- ence Publishers /for info:http://www.novapublishers.com/ 33. Rodin David (2006): Terrorism in E. Craig (Ed.), Routledge catalog/). Encyclopedia of Philosophy. London, Routledge. Friedman, Thomas L (2002). Longitudes and Attitudes: Ex- ploring the World after September 11. New York: Farrar, Sageman, Mark (2004): Understanding Terror Networks, Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. PP Straus and Giroux. 166-167. Hudson, Rex A. (2002): Who Becomes a Terrorist and Why: Government Report on Profiling Terrorists, Federal Research Tankel, Stephen, (2009): ‘Lashkar-e-Taiba: From 9/11 to Mumbai’, The International Centre for the Study of Division, The Lyons Press. Radicalisation & Political Violence, April/May. Kalyvas, Stathis N. (2004): The Paradox of Terrorism in Civil Wars, Journal of Ethics No. 8:1, 97-138. http://www.danielpipes.org/274/there-are-no-mod... http://www.diffen.com/difference/Christianity_v... Kochler, Hans (2002): Manila Lectures 2002, ‘Terrorism and http://www.eurasiareview.com/29112016-middle-ea... the Quest for a Just World Order’; Quezon City, Manila, FSJ Book World. https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-difference-be... https://www.quora.com/How-many-extremist-Muslim... Lacquer, Walter (2003): No End to War – Terrorism in The https://www.openbible.info/topics/judgment_day 21st Century, New York. Lerner Brenda Wilmoth & K. Lee Lerner, (eds) (2006): Ter- https://quizlet.com/15707823/normative-ethics-f...

Forthcoming issues of World Focus: 2017 with Deadlines for Submission of Articles (Words: 5,000) March 2017 From Pacific Atlantic to Indo-Pacific Region: Shifts in Global Politics (10th February) April 2017 One China Principle and Trump’s U.S. Strategy (10th March)

Radical Islam and Terrorism in West Asia 45 Islamic Radicalism: Rethinking the Indo-US Policy of Countering Terrorism Dr. Sanghamitra Patnaik

The global security system is very much Professor Rudolf Kjellen was usually regarded as the endangered by a new challenge from non-state founder of the science of geopolitics in 1900 that used actors like ISIS with membership from different the term geopolitics (in Swedish “geopolitik”). The countries. The post-9/11 world compelled United term geopolitics means a study of the influence of States of America to review its security system. The such factors as geography, economics, and US counterterrorism efforts in the Af-Pak region demography on the politics and especially the foreign and the terror attacks on Indian cities brought policy of a state. The behavior of nation-states varies India and the US to join hands to work out in response to the geography, economy and strategies for countering terrorism. The need of demography in the international scenario.For example, the hour is to build up confidence and trust in Rear Admiral Alfred Thayer Mahan a professor at each other and readjust their perspectives on the the U.S. Naval Academy published the first of many threat of terrorism by understanding various works on the subject of geopolitics in 1890. Based causes of the development of religious radicalism. on a study of previous world powers, Portugal, Spain and England, he concluded that maritime commerce Introduction: was indispensable to the economic prosperity of a The word radicalism comes from the Latin ‘radicalis’, great power. So according to Admiral Mahan it led “of or having roots,” which in turn arose from radix, the United States to develop a powerful naval fleet or “root.” Both radical and radicalism based on the that was engaged in the Spanish-American War of idea that political change must “come from the root,” 1898.During World War II, another theory of or the very basic source of society. Religion is one of geopolitics was developed in the United States. the very roots of any society as it shapes the human Professor Nicholas Spykman felt the importance of behavior in relation to socio-political–economic and both sea and land power. He located the real potential cultural environment. The radicals use religion to of Eurasia in the “inner crescent.” He defined this ascertain power which is against the very nature of area as Western Europe, the Middle East, South Asia, any religion of the world.Each and every religion of Southeast Asia and the Far East. This “Rimland was the world manifests humanism, love, peace and important because the region had access to the sea sustenance. The idea of ‘Secularism’ is based on and to interior regions. Professor Spykman’s Rimland rendering equal respect to every religious belief. theory eventually served as an imminent factor Secularism is a positive force to strengthen humanism justifying the U.S. policy of containment of the spread and peace. So it is wrong to associate any religion of communism during cold war. The end of cold war with violence and terror. The concept of radical and the onset of globalization created a challenging Islamist talks about the behavior of those handful geo-political scenario in international politics. groups who prefer to use a particular faith to ascertain power through violence and terror. These groups play The Aftermath of Cold War and Onset of a very crucial role in the present geopolitical scenario. Globalization The culmination of cold war did not bring an end to The root of modern geopolitics was found in international tensions. During Cold War the United the work of a German geographer Professor Friedrich States and the Soviet Union acted like the cork in a Ratzel in 1897 who coined the phrase champagne bottle- a stabilizing force. The balance anthrogeographical, meaning a combination of of power was maintained by both the super powers anthropology, geography and politics. A Swedish by limiting the use of force. With the fall of Berlin Professor of geography at Gothenburg University, Wall, it was like pulling the cork out of the bottle, all

46 World Focus February 2017 the individual nation states were free to go their own and Al Qaeda were in Sudan and Afghanistan. The way. As Richard Haass, in his book Intervention, U.S. Special Forces were deployed in north-western pointed out “Duopolies, or systems based on two poles, Pakistan, Somalia and Yemen which all fall in the are simpler and easier to manage than those with same category. Dr. Barnett’s said, “A country’s multiple decision-making centers (Hass, 1994).The potential to warrant a U.S. military response is term globalization has been interpreted differently by inversely related to its globalization connectivity.” different writers. It is a concept that paves for the (Barnett, 2002) Military strategists were made to start inexorable integration of markets, nation-states and thinking about operations in those gap states of the technologies. It enables individuals, corporations and world which seem to be the breeding ground of global nation-states to reach round the world farther, faster, terrorism. The September 11, attacks was a clear deeper and cheaper than ever before. The alert from the gap states against the core states and unprecedented revolution in global communication against the whole concept of globalization. Al Qaeda system brought a radical change in the international started from Afghanistan, one of the Gap states by politics. It weakened the influence of nation-state. using icons of international connectivity as weapons The increased communications make it very difficult (United and American Airlines) to smash World Trade for state to control individual behavior. The impact of Center in New York City -the financial nerve centers regional organizations and multi- national corporations (symbols of globalization).One year after the limited the power of a state to control the events , the Bush administration within its territory than in the past.The revolutionary published a new National Security Strategy designed changes in both conventional and unconventional to deal with the post cold war world . It reflected military technologies enhanced the capability of small very closely the principals outlined by Dr. Barnett. groups / individuals to alter the structure of the While emphasizing on the New Strategy, President international system as propounded by the neo-realists Bush described the current situation by saying, like Kenneth Waltz. The groups like ISIS and other “Enemies in the past needed great armies and great terrorist groups became more powerful to unleash industrial capabilities to endanger America. Now, instability and terror throughout the world. Richard shadowy networks of individuals can bring great Haass calls this a period of ‘international deregulation’- chaos and suffering to our shores for less than it costs a period where “There are new players, new to purchase a single tank( Bush,2002) capabilities and new alignments, but as yet, no new rules.”(ibid) He also says that terrorists are organized to turn the power of modern technologies against United The Geopolitics of Global Terrorism States. In pointing out the differences of the current In the late 1990s, Dr. Thomas P.M. Barnett, a world from the cold war era, he said, “Today, the professor at the Naval War College, while studying world’s great powers find themselves on the same the post cold war situation, looked at the factor of side - united by common dangers of terrorist violence globalization and its impact on individual nation-states. and chaos.” In emphasizing the problems of the gap His studies point out that the globalization is simply states, the president said, “The events of September too big and too complex to reach any clear-cut 11, 2001 taught us that weak states, like Afghanistan, conclusion to evaluate its impact as good or bad. can pose as great a danger to our national interests According to him, the terrorist attack of September as strong states. Poverty does not make poor people 11, 2001 was not an attack by a great power, or a to become terrorists and murders. Yet poverty, weak nation, or even an army, but by a group whose bases institutions and corruption can make weak states of operation were located in gap states of the world. vulnerable to terrorist networks and drug cartels within He defines Gap states are those states where their borders.”(Bush, 2002) The new National globalization is absent or have less impact. The Security Strategy outlined 8 goals ( ibid) which all fit progress is thwarted by repressive regimes, into the geopolitical theory pointed out by Dr. Barnett. widespread poverty and disease, frequent mass The 8 goals of the strategy are: killings and conflicts that encourage the global • Champion aspirations for human dignity. terrorists. The operating base of Osama Bin Laden

Islamic Radicalism: Rethinking the Indo-US Policy of Countering Terrorism 47 • Strengthen alliances to defeat global terrorism and established to become a primary mechanism to guide work to prevent attacks against us and our friends. the Indo-US defence ties (Chari 2003). The period • Work with others to defuse regional conflicts. of 1990s was a period of cooperative engagement • Prevent our enemies from threatening us, our allies between the two countries. The end of the Cold War and our friends with weapons of mass destruction. brought modifications in Indian nonalignment policy, • Ignite a new era of global economic growth through leading to the intensification of strategic interaction free markets and free trade. between the US and India. • Expand the circle of development by opening societies and building the infrastructure of democracy. When the Indo-US relations began to move • Develop agendas for cooperative action with the in a positive direction in the 1990s, issues like signing other main centers of global power of the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT), the • Transform America’s national security institutions Kashmir issue, the human rights issue and India’s to meet the challenges and opportunities of the nuclear test put hurdles on the path of Indo-US twenty-first century. relations. Indian nuclear tests triggered a set of stringent US sanctions. Still, the US tried to retain as The New Strategy emphasized on much of the military-to-military relationship as possible strengthening alliances and tackle global terrorism by as Clinton, instead of isolating India, followed the collaborating with the main centers of power. India ‘Strategy of Engagement’ (Talbott 2004). There was as an emerging power fits well in to the new pattern a bilateral strategic dialogue between the US Deputy of US strategy. The Indo-U.S. Strategic relations Secretary of State Strobe Talbott and Indian External came as a welcome step in this direction. Affairs Minister Jaswant Singh in June 1998 (Singh 2006).However, during the George W. Bush Indo-US Cooperative Engagement administration the growing Indo-US bonhomie entered The Indo- US relations represent a new landmark in into a ‘strategic partnership’. The Bush administration the changed international scenario. They are the proud redefined Indo-US cooperation as they saw fore- runners of the two most populous democracies strategically important India as a potential partner in of the world. The determined effort of the US providing peace and stability in the Indian Ocean by administration to assist in India’s rise as a major power conceptualizing new Asian balance of power amidst has significant implications for US interests in Asia the rising China. The United States recognized India in general and South Asia in particular. The collapse as a rising power, as it has world’s second fastest of the Soviet Union has changed the balance of power. growing economy with a stable and successful Every country including India is looking for an democracy. Consequently, in May 2001, US Deputy appropriate place in a new international matrix. Secretary of State Richard Armitage visited India to explain President Bush’s strategic framework The whole Cold War period had seen hardly including a Missile Defence Programme. He hinted any significant economic cooperation and political at countering of rogue states like Iran, Iraq, Libya, convergence between India and the United States North Korea and some in India’s neighborhood those except the brief interlude of cooperation during the support terrorism. India’s unconditional support for a Indo-China War in 1962, military aid between 1954 missile defence system and full cooperation with the and 1964 (worth $10 billion) and Memorandum of US after 9/11 was seen positively by the Pentagon. Understanding signed in 1984 on transfer of The high level military and political leaders’ visits technology.The growing Indo-US defence between both the countries became more frequent. cooperation of 1980s was reflected by efforts to (‘Text of Ambassador Robert Blackwill’s Speech’, increase reciprocal exchange of information and 2003). The cooperation in the defence and military personnel. The military-to-military interaction stated sector emerged as one of the most crucial components to improve under the ‘Kickleighter proposals’ (April in the Indo-US bilateral relationship, paving the way 1991). The Kickleighter’s proposal was formalized for another breakthrough in the form of the Next Step by the ‘Agreed Minute on Defence Cooperation’ in in the Strategic Progress (NSSP) in 2004. January 1995. A Defence Policy Group (DPG) was

48 World Focus February 2017 The Indo – US partnership that has made a manifested in the Joint Working Group (JWG), new beginning in the latter parts of the Clinton established in the year 2000.It was “proved to be a Administration reached a new high with the US-India useful mechanism for exchange of information, agreements in June and July 2005 between US intelligence sharing, anti-terrorism training programs President George W. Bush and Indian Prime Minister and strengthening institutional links between crime Dr. Manmohan Singh. The Joint Statement issued prevention agencies in the two countries.” by them showed their resolve to establish a “global partnership” through increased cooperation on Counterterrorism various issues. The post-9/11 Indo-US cooperation United States and India are jointly striving to expand that highlighted various important issues like ‘Counter the scope of their counterterrorism cooperation, which –Terrorism’, ‘Energy’, ‘Agriculture’ and ‘Health’, includes work on bioterrorism and cyber security. The ‘Science & Technology’ ‘Education’, ‘Business’, and emerging “strategic partnership” between United ‘Culture’, were widely viewed as the reflections of States and India is increasingly focusing on the positive new trajectories to carve out a long- counterterrorism cooperation. In November 2001, US standing partnership. President, George Bush and then-Indian Prime Minster, Atal Bihari Vajpayee had shared their great Indo-U.S. Strategic Dialogue concern when they agreed that terrorism was not The Indo-U.S. strategic Dialogue initiated in the 2010 only a security threat to United States and India, but through 5th Strategic Dialogue 2014 underlines the it was also a danger to freedom, democracy, following areas of convergence: international security and stability. In 2002, the Indo- • To broaden and deepen the US-India global strategic U.S. Cyber Security Forum was launched to protect partnership and their critical infrastructures from cyber attack. On • To chart a vision for the future- centered on June 2005, the ‘New Framework for the U.S.-India promoting shared prosperity, peace and stability. Defense Relationship’ enlisted terrorism and violent • counterterrorism cooperation, religious extremism as the key security interests, and • cyber security, also called for strengthening their respective mutual • aviation safety, defense capabilities. In April 2006 session of Indo • women’s empowerment, US- Joint Working Group on Counterterrorism, both • scientific cooperation and clean energy, the countries had reflected their determinations to • information sharing, and higher education further advance bilateral cooperation and information sharing on areas like bioterrorism, aviation security, Global Campaign against Terrorism cyber-security and terrorism, weapons of mass The terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and destruction and terrorist funding. In May 2006, United Pentagon and their aftermath made US to realize its States came forward to assist India in demining, vulnerabilities, and sensitized it to the issue of counterinsurgency training for police forces and terrorism; with which India has been suffering from providing humanitarian relief for displaced persons almost two decades. United States adopted a more affected by the Maoist rebellion.The Indo-US joint reserved approach towards state-sponsored terrorism effort of the global campaign against terrorism has until it became a victim in September 2001. The been manifested in the Joint Working Group (JWG), unprecedented event compelled US to cover half of established in the year 2000.It is “proved to be a useful the globe to fight terrorism in Afghanistan. However, mechanism for exchange of information, intelligence the US Administration gave way to the strong sharing, anti-terrorism training program and diplomatic effort of India when US Secretary of State, strengthening institutional links between crime Colin Powell acknowledged the terrorist attack in prevention agencies in the two countries. Kashmir as a heinous crime that affected India like other nations of the world.1 Since then India has been Indo-US Fight Against Terror recognized as a key partner in the global coalition United States and India are jointly striving to expand against terrorism. The Indo-US joint effort of the the scope of their counterterrorism cooperation, which global campaign against terrorism was rightly been includes work on bioterrorism and cyber security. The

Islamic Radicalism: Rethinking the Indo-US Policy of Countering Terrorism 49 emerging “strategic partnership” between United as regional perspectives. The dynamics of Indo-US States and India is increasingly focusing on relations depend much on carving out a well-guarded counterterrorism cooperation. In November 2001, US policy by redefining terrorism in the context of state- President, George Bush and then-Indian Prime sponsored terrorism like Pakistan’s involvement in Minster, Atal Bihari Vajpayee had shared their great 26/11 Mumbai attacks. In this complex situation, concern when they agreed that terrorism is not only United States need to give a fresh look, while analyzing a security threat to United States and India, but it is Pakistan’s policy of defining terrorists as freedom also a danger to freedom, democracy, international fighters in Kashmir and offering them all types of security and stability. In 2002, the Indo-U.S. Cyber technical and monetary support. The US drone attack Security Forum has was launched by both the on the Al Qaeda and the Taliban in , tribal countries to protect their critical infrastructures from areas of Pakistan, makes the issue more sensitive by cyber attack. On June 2005, the ‘New Framework questioning the sovereignty of Pakistan.Prime for the U.S.-India Defense Relationship’ enlisted Minister Modi and President Obama reiterated their terrorism and violent religious extremism as the key strong condemnation of terrorism with ‘zero security interests, and also called for strengthening tolerance’ and reaffirmed their deep concern over their respective mutual defense capabilities to achieve the continued threat posed by transnational such a goal. In April 2006 session of Indo US- Joint terrorism including by groups like Al Qaida and Working Group on Counterterrorism, both the the ISIS. They reaffirmed the need for joint and countries reflected their determinations to further concerted efforts to disrupt entities such as bilateral cooperation and information sharing on areas Lashkar-e-Tayyiba, Jaish-e-Mohammad, D like bioterrorism, aviation security, cyber-security and Company and the Haqqani Network. They agreed terrorism, weapons of mass destruction and terrorist to continue ongoing efforts through the Homeland funding. In May 2006, United States came forward Security Dialogue as well as the next round of the to assist India in demining, counterinsurgency training U.S.-India Joint Working Group on Counter for police forces and providing humanitarian relief Terrorism in late 2015 to develop actionable for displaced persons affected by the Maoist rebellion. elements of bilateral engagement. They also agreed to continue to work toward an agreement to share Indo-US Joint Working Group on information on known and suspected terrorists. Counterterrorism They also reiterated their call for Pakistan to bring In February and November, 2007, the Indo-U.S. joint the perpetrators of the November 2008 terrorist working group on counterterrorism met in New Delhi attack in Mumbai to justice. The President and the as well as in Washington to discuss various strategies Prime Minister appreciated the positive cooperative to counter the global menace of terrorism. The engagement between the Indian and the U.S. discussions primarily included regional authorities to counter the threat of IEDs and to counterterrorism efforts, threat assessments in South develop counterterrorism best practices. Asia and the Middle East, bioterrorism, weapons of mass destruction, and the on-going Anti-terrorism During President Obama’s visit to India in Assistance Training Program. They also discussed November 2010, the Indo-US joint endeavor on about terrorist finance and money laundering, the Homeland Security Dialogue was initiated to ideological dimensions of terrorism, information emphasize on operational cooperation, counter- sharing, and widened cooperation for preventing terrorism technology transfers and capacity building. terrorist acts. In 2011, the U.S. Secretary of Homeland Security Janet Napolitano while visiting India in May 2011 held The interplay of terrorism, weapons of mass the first round of the dialogue. The second meeting destruction and countries those adopt as their state of this Dialogue was held in May 2013 in Washington policy to transfer these weapons to the terrorists pose D.C. The Dialogue reviewed the progress/ activities a great danger to humankind. It attracts urgent of each of the Homeland Security Dialogue Sub- attentions of both the countries to chalk out a new Groups, namely: (a) Megacities Policing; (b) strategy to tackle terrorism from the global as well Combating Illicit Finance, Bulk Cash Smuggling, and

50 World Focus February 2017 Counterfeiting; (c) Cyber-security and Critical terrorism in all its forms, which is a profound threat Infrastructure Protection; (d) Port, Border, Maritime, to global peace and security, and to uphold the Transportation and Supply Chain Security; (e) Science common values of democracy, justice, and the rule and Technology Cooperation; and (f) Capacity of law. They reaffirmed to translate President Building. In December 2013, India-U.S Police Chief Obama’s and Prime Minister Modi’s vision to Conference on homeland security was organized in transform the U.S.-India relationship into a defining New Delhi. counterterrorism partnership for the 21st century .The meeting reiterated the threat posed by Al-Qa’ida U.S.-India Homeland Security Dialogue 2014 and its affiliates, Lashkar-e-Tayibba, Jaish-e- The Department of Homeland Security and Ministry Mohammad, D Company, and the Haqqani Network, of Home Affairs planned to hold a third U.S.-India and other regional groups that seek to undermine Homeland Security Dialogue to enhance homeland stability in South Asia. There was a call for Pakistan security cooperation. They emphasized on building to bring to justice the perpetrators of the 2008 Mumbai up capacity in cyber security and critical infrastructure attack. They strongly condemned the July 27, 2015 protection, countering illicit finance, global supply terrorist attack in Gurdaspur, Punjab, and August 5, chain security, megacity policing, and science and 2015, attack in Udhampur, Jammu and Kashmir.There technology. In January 2014, U.S. Immigration and was a clear reorganization of the serious threat posed Customs Enforcement repatriated to India three by ISIL/Da’esh to global security and affirmed efforts recovered stolen sand stone sculptures dating from to degrade and defeat this threat in accordance with the 11thcentury, valued at more than $1.5 million. U.S.- the provisions of United Nations Security Council India Counterterrorism Joint Working Group stressed Resolutions 2178, 2170, and 2199. The agreement on continued exchange of senior experts of both the was signed in January 2015 between the U.S. countries to hold an in-depth exchange of views on Department of Treasury and India’s Ministry of common areas of interest and collaboration to further Finance to enhance cooperation against money mutual U.S.-India counterterrorism goals. The laundering and terrorism financing. cooperative efforts include coordination in international fora including the UN and GCTF, and There was great appreciation for the 15 year mutually agreed bilateral capacity building measures. anniversary of the U.S.-India Counterterrorism Joint Working Group and the provision of Anti-Terrorism Law Enforcement Collaboration: This emphasized Assistance (ATA) training for more than 1100 Indian on ongoing cooperation and consultations between security personnel since 2009.They recognized India’s the State Department’s Office of the Legal Adviser, participation in the February 2015 White House the U.S. Department of Justice and India’s Ministry Summit on Countering Violent Extremism and of Home Affairs and Ministry of External Affairs. reaffirmed their support for a UN Comprehensive This includes efforts by the Federal Bureau of Convention against International Terrorism that Investigation and the National Investigative Agency advances and strengthens the framework for global to share of electronic evidence to combat cybercrime cooperation and reinforces that no cause or grievance and mitigate the threat of terrorism. justifies terrorism. There was an agreement on the U.S.-India Megacity Policing Exchange, an initiative Indo-US Joint Efforts on Combating Terrorism- to deepen collaboration on training and community 2015 policing between local and state law enforcement. On September 23, 2015 the U.S.-India Joint Both the countries moved forward in signing the Declaration on Combating Terrorism was announced Memorandum of Understanding between the Indian by Secretary of State John Kerry and Indian Minister National Police Academy (Hyderabad) and the New of External Affairs Sushma Swaraj on the occasion York Police Department. They proposed for the next of the inaugural U.S.-India Strategic and Commercial meeting of the Homeland Security Dialogue in early Dialogue. Secretary of State John Kerry and Minister 2016.While India and United States are focusing on of External Affairs Sushma Swaraj reaffirmed the the technical nuances to counter terrorism, both the commitment of India and the United States to combat countries should evolve a new strategy to strike at

Islamic Radicalism: Rethinking the Indo-US Policy of Countering Terrorism 51 the root of religious extremism professed by ISIS and survey reflects that 6 conflicts in the region have led other groups. Both the countries should deal with those to a net loss of $613.8 billion in economic activity, aspects that strengthen the hands of religious and an aggregate fiscal deficit of $243.1 billion. (UN extremism in Middle East and North African (MENA) Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia, region which includes Algeria, Bahrain, Djibouti, 2016) Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Malta, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Conclusion: Syria, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates, West Bank and The Indo-US cooperation on countering terrorism can Gaza, and Yemen. Ethiopia and Sudan are sometimes reinvigorate their relationship if both the countries included. understand the sensitivity of the issue from each other’s point of view and act accordingly. This is a Rethinking the Threat of Religious Extremism challenge from the non-state actors with global to Counterterrorism membership. It can only be tackled with collaborative Little attention is being given to key problems within efforts on the part of both United States and India a steadily expanding Islamic world those facilitate the largest and oldest democracies of the world. They violence and extremism that began in 2011. should join hands to build up the firewall of ‘Zero Challenges like failed governance, population Tolerance’ along the line of the gap states so that pressures, corruption, ethnic and sectarian division, those states can be deterred from exporting the man inadequate economic development, massive and materials to play havoc in seam and the core unemployment and dead end careers feed extremism states. Islamic extremism is considered as a critical and violence for decades to come. India and United threat that dominates global terrorism and is the key States—and its Muslim and non-Muslim allies—need source of broader violence within the MENA (The to focus on the fact that extremist violence can be Middle-East and North Africa) region. Both the contained and defeated but no lasting victory can be United States and India need to address the forces possible until the causes of extremism are addressed that alienate Muslims in their own countries. Isolating effectively. In the MENA region, the fighting between Muslims from the rest of the world would push governments and extremist movements highlight that moderate Muslims towards extremism. The key is the major threat to several key governments does better cooperation with the governments in Muslim not come from terrorism per se rather it finds its root states in instilling confidence in them while mobilizing in insurgencies—where terrorism is considered as the support of moderate Muslims. There is a call for one of the instruments.Though casualty data is missing partnership with the Islamic states and not prejudice on the impact of extremism in Libya and Yemen, but to deal with terrorism and Islamic extremism. it is clear that sectarianism has been a key cause of fighting, suffering, and economic loss in Yemen. It References: 1. Cline, Ray S. World Power Assessment: A Calculus of Strategic Drift. Washington,D.C.: Center for Strategic and has also been the major cause of casualties in Iraq International Studies, 1975 2. Cohen, Saul. Geography and Politics in a World Divided. New York: Random House, 1963. 3. Cox, Kevin ed. Spaces of Globalization. New York: Guliford, 1997 since 2011. In the case of Iraq, the best source of 4. Ferguson, Yale H. and R.J. Barry Jones, eds. Political Space: Frontiers of Change and Governance in a Globalizing World. Albany: SUNY Press, 2002. data is reflected by Iraq Body Count (https:// 5. Friedman, Thomas L. Longitudes and Attitudes: Exploring the World after September 11. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2002. 7. Haass, Richard N. Intervention: The Use of American Military Force in the Post-Cold War World. Rev. Ed. www.iraqbodycount.org/database/). It estimates Washington, D.C: The Brookings Institution, 1999. 8. Herod, Tuathail, and Susan Roberts, eds. An Unruly World?: Globalization, Governance and Geography. London: that—as of the end of November 2016—at least Routledge, 1998. 9. Hopkins, Terencek, et. al.The Age of Transition: Trajectory of the World System 1945-2045. New York: Random House, 1996. 67,049 Iraqi civilians died from fighting, triggered 10. Tuathail, Gearoid and Simon Dalby, eds. Rethinking Geopolitics. London: Routledge, 2002. largely by Islamist extremism and religious violence 11. Wallerstein, Immanuel. The Modern World System. New York: Academic Press, 1974. 12. A GEOPOLITICAL GUIDE TO THE MIDDLE EAST http://www.list.org/~mdoyle/introduction.html 13. International Studies Abroadhttp://www.studiesabroad.com/ since U.S. forces left at the end of 2011. Iraq Body 14. Department of Defense Office of Force Transformationhttp://www.oft.osd.mil/library/transformation_trends/ trends.cfmhttp://www.oft.osd.mil/index.cfm Count also estimates that at least 52,576 civilians died 15. Naval War Collegehttp://www.nwc.navy.mil/ http://www.nwc.navy.mil/newrulesets/ 16.ForeignPolicyMagazinehttp://www.foreignpolicy.com/ 17. Center for Strategic and International Studies http://www.csis.org/ since ISIS first invaded in late 2013—with a possibility 18. The International Institute for Strategic Studies http://www.iiss.org/ 19. Political Geography http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/30465/ that the total is at least 10,000 higher. (Ibid) description#description#description 20. Globalizationhttp://globalization.about.com/cs/whatisit/a/whatisit.htm,http://www.globalpolicy.org, http:/ /www.emory.edu/SOC/globalization/index.html 21. State Sponsored Terrorism, http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/pgtrpt/2002/html/19988.htm 22. http://www.informationclearinghouse.info/article2320.htm, The UN’s Economic and Social Commission 23. http://www.brookings.edu/~/media/research/files/papers/2002/10/defense-daalder/pb109.pdf 24. www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/news/2001/10/mil-011002-usia09b.htm - 29k 25.www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/us_and_americas/article5575883.ece for Western Asia published a study in November 2016 26.http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2015/09/247201.htm 27.http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2014/07/230049.htm 29. entitled Survey of Economic and Social Developments 28.https://www.iraqbodycount.org/database/ 29.UN Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia, Survey of Economic and Social Developments in the Arab in the Arab Region in 2015-2016. The finding of the Region 2015-2016, November 2016, pp. 6-7. 52 World Focus February 2017 Radical Islam and Terrorism: A Non-Religious Approach Pratip Chattopadhyay and Dr. Amulya K Tripathy

Terrorism and Islamism are age-old ideas in the values. A different look on both these phenomenon philosophy of world politics but with the 9/11 will highlight that transnational terrorism has been attack the idea of ‘radical Islam’ emerged in the made possible by internalising the technological lexicon of analysis of the linkage between development of the West by the terrorist groups and terrorism and Islamism. The prevalent and common networks across the globe and the gruesome nature practice is to understand the linkage from a of terrorist violence is equated with the radicalism of religious point of view or from a civilizational point Islam religion. The primary point that this paper put of view. However to the student of world politics forth is that the recent spread of terrorism and anti- the more attractive approach to ponder over is terrorism missions across the globe attracting analysts that of strategic analysis. This paper takes such a of world politics is nothing to do with religion or non-religious view to understand the linkage religious values of Islam. On the contrary the radical between international terrorism and radical Islam nature of contemporary terrorism is a fall out of the in the 21st century. In this paper, section I highlight 20th century mission of United States of America to the meaning of international terrorism and Radical patronage radical groups (Muzahiddins) in Islam, section II focus on the mainstream Afghanistan and Pakistan to counter Soviet influence understanding between the linkage between in the region and 21st century vision of United States terrorism and radical Islam along with some of America to have a purpose to lead the world powers debates on the issue and section III argues about to cement its dwindling myth of invincibility in world the strategic understanding of the linkage. The politics following the 9/11 attacks. paper concludes by arguing that this Radical Islam idea have been used by United States of America Section I in a multivariate way to promote its hegemonic According to William Shepard “radical Islamism leadership over the world affairs in 21st century means the orientation of many who agree with the in a very strategic manner. fact that Islam is flexible and accept the need for absolute ijtihad, and they emphasize that it must be Introduction done in an authentically and not as a covert means In contemporary international relations the issue of of copying the West”. Further elaborating the terrorism and the ways and means to combat it have ideological basis of radical Islamism, Shepard states been the primary agenda for discussion. The trend is that “since Pan-Islamism is also consistent with to relate the genesis and growth of terrorism with a Islamic modernism and radical Islamism, it can particular religious identity – Islam and its provide an ideological basis for cooperation among fundamentalist outlook and to promote the Western adherents of these types, in spite of their major values of modernity, development and progress to differences.” (Shepard, 1987: 310, 314) Terrorism counter the fundamentalism of Islam as a cure to stop on the other hand refers to the use of violent means the crusade against the Western values through the on specific targets to attract audience attention means of violent activities in the name of terrorism. towards certain specific claims of a group or a The new millennium has witnessed two different community. Terrorism usually gets associated with dimensions of both terrorism and Islamism, namely, religion branding it a s religious terrorism and also trans-national terrorism and radical Islam. The crux with the State branding it as State terrorism. of both these new phenomenon is to go beyond the Operational definitions of religious terrorism, established circle of influence for promotion of their particularly those that can be used to distinguish it so called agitation against the spread of Western social from other types of terrorism, are rare. Barry Rubin

Radical Islam and Terrorism: A Non-Religious Approach 53 has made one of the more interesting contributions to address specific sources of Iranian resentment this discussion. Rather than focusing on terrorism, against the United States, the Reagan administration Rubin attempts to define radical (Islamic) resolved to expand the pro-U.S. Islamic lobby in order fundamentalism and in doing so provides what he to isolate Iran. The strategy was two-pronged. First, describes as a three-part definition of the movement’s with respect to Afghanistan, it hoped to unite a billion key premises: 1) Islam is the answer to the problems Muslims worldwide around a holy war, a crusade, of their society, country and region. 2) Implementing against the Soviet Union. I use the word crusade, not Islam and resolving the huge problems of the peoples jihad, because only the notion of crusade can and states require the seizure and holding of power accurately convey the frame of mind in which this by radical Islamic groups (3) The only proper initiative was taken. Second, the Reagan interpretation of Islam is the one offered by a specific administration hoped to turn a doctrinal difference political group and its leaders (Rubin 1998: 2). inside Islam between minority Shia and majority Sunni Terrorism is readily subsumed into religion and into a political divide. It hoped thereby to contain the particularly radical Islamism because of the influence of the as a minority Shia prevalence of religious extreme comments towards affair. The anti-Soviet war in Afghanistan by providing religious sentiments and against Western modern the mujahideen with U.S. advisors and U.S.-made cultural reach. Transnational terrorism which is the Stinger antiaircraft missiles to shoot down Soviet newest type of terrorism in the 21st century is planes. The second was to expand the Islamic described as the ultimate product of understanding guerrilla war from Afghanistan into the Soviet and using the Western technological advancements Republics of Tajikistan and Uzbekistan, a decision by the terrorist groups against the West particularly reversed when the Soviet Union threatened to attack the United States of America. A more precise and Pakistan in retaliation. The third was to recruit radical analytically useful definition of Islamism describes it Muslims from around the world to come and train in as a form of instrumentalization of Islam by Pakistan and fight with the Afghan mujahideen. The individuals, groups and organizations that pursue Islamic world had not seen an armed jihad for political objectives. It provides political responses to centuries. Now the CIA was determined to create today’s societal challenges by imagining a future, the one, to put a version of tradition at the service of foundations for which rest on reappropriated, politics. Thus was the tradition of jihad-of a just war reinvented concepts borrowed from the Islamic with a religious sanction, nonexistent in the last 400 tradition. This becomes the basis for transnational years-revived with U.S. help in the 1980’s. terrorism of the 21st century. The gruesomeness of transnational terrorism is associated with radical The association and identification of the nature of Islamic jihadi sentiment but going by the terrorists of September 11 with Islam contribute to meaning of radical Islam and terrorism this the already prevalent demonization of the Arab complimentary relationship is not sustainable. Thus Muslim that Europe first and then the US have there is a debate surrounding the two ideas which promoted since the emergence of Islam. This process will be dealt with in the next section. of demonization started with the economic, political, and cultural conflicts between the Muslims and the Section II Christian kingdoms beginning in the seventh century, It was during the cold war years that the world and has been reinforced continually ever since. In powers were very much engrossed with the problem the current situation, the ‘hyperculturization’ of of tackling the radicalism of Islam following the economic problems and political conflicts, on both intervention of Afghanistan by Soviet Union in the sides, in the West and the Orient, is a dangerous 1970s. The shifting center of gravity of the Cold development. Political powers have always used War was the major context in which Afghanistan religion to justify their actions and to lend legitimacy policy was framed, but the Iranian Revolution of 1979 to things that do not proceed from the religious or was also a crucial factor. Ayatollah Khomeini anointed cultural domains (Gafaiti, 2008:98-99). The distinction the United States as the ‘Great Satan’, and pro-U.S. between political terror and crime is that the former Islamic countries as ‘American Islam’. Rather than makes an open claim for support. Unlike the criminal,

54 World Focus February 2017 the political terrorist is not easily deterred by the contribution of these crucial external factors to punishment. Whatever we may think of their methods, the growth in Islamism’s popular appeal is recognized, terrorists have a cause, and a need to be heard. it will not be possible fully to comprehend this Notwithstanding Salman Rushdie’s (2001) claim that phenomenon or to make useful predictions about its terrorists are nihilists who wrap themselves up in future trajectory” (Ayoob,2005:961). objectives, but have none, and so we must remorselessly attack them, one needs to recognize The fact that global balance of power is very that terrorism has no military solution. This is why much important in influencing the spread of the U.S. military establishment’s bombing campaign transnational terrorism and in that aspect the idea of in Afghanistan is more likely to be remembered as a promotion of democracy versus an authoritarian combination of blood revenge and medieval- type regime is crucial in the understanding. Scholars argue exorcism than as a search for a solution to terrorism. that “the positive empirical association between Bin Laden’s strength does not lay in his religious but, democracy and transnational terrorism is better rather, in his political message (Mamdani, 2002:773). explained by the foreign policy behavior of states. Highlighting the political message of Islam’s renewed States that adopt more active foreign policies, as aspiration in 21st century to attract the world audience democracies often do, are likely to foment some sort many scholars focussed on the separation of religion of resentment among foreign groups and, hence, may and political within the terrorist groups propagating be the target of terrorism by these aggrieved groups. radical international terrorism. According to Involvement in international crises, alliance ties with Mohammad Ayoob, “It is the invention of tradition the United States, and intervention in civil wars that provides the tools for dehistoricizing Islam and particularly increase a state’s vulnerability to separating it from the various contexts in terms of transnational terrorism”(Suvan and Phillips,2009:896- time and space in which Islam has flourished over 897). The United States of America being the sole the fourteen hundred years since its foundation. This superpower in the post cold war period propagated decontextualizing of Islam allows Islamists in theory- the idea that democratic political systems are less to ignore the social, economic and political milieu vulnerable to terrorist threat because of the openness within which Muslim societies operate. It therefore of the system. Such an idea was seen by radical provides Islamists with a powerful ideological tool Islamist group as retrograde approach to their that they can wield in order to ‘purge’ Muslim societies authoritarian regime and therefore an attempt on their of ‘impurities’ and ‘accretions’-natural part to alter such image. In that direction transnational accompaniments of the historical process-which they terrorism became a regular feature of the 21st century see as reasons for Muslim decline” (Ayoob, 2005:952). world politics. The role of religion in international It is also very interesting to note that like the Islam terrorism has been exaggerated. While groups with radical terrorist acts many acts of terror have religious affiliation engage in violence, factors other surfaced across the globe in London, France, India than religion appear to be the cause of this violence. and in Turkey. Thus the simple generalisation of Rather than serving as a catalyst for violence, religion equating Islam religion with transnational terrorism is a means of polarizing populations, often taking the of 21st century is not on the cards. Mohammad Ayoob place of other ideologies that have failed. Perceived notes that “the explanation for Islamism’s rising political, economic, social, and security inequities or popularity can be found primarily in factors that are threats and the lack of an effective ventilation not inherent in Islamism itself but are external to the mechanism, rather than ideologies, create conditions phenomenon. Two such external variables have been that lead to international political violence. identified as the nature of regimes in most Muslim Preconceptions of U.S. policymakers who have countries, especially in the greater Middle East, which adopted the term religious terrorism as a euphemism has proved highly conducive to the growth of for violence committed by Muslim extremist further Islamism; and the imbalance in the global distribution obscure this issue. As John Esposito notes (1992), of power, where most cards are stacked against “The challenge today is to appreciate the diversity of Muslim countries-especially true in the Middle East, Islamic actors and movements, to ascertain the but generalizable throughout the Muslim world. Unless reasons behind confrontations and conflicts, and thus

Radical Islam and Terrorism: A Non-Religious Approach 55 to react to specific events and situations with from the perspective analysts seems to be the inability informed, reasoned responses rather than to distinguish between radical methods (i.e., the use predetermined presumptions and reactions” (Esposito, of violence) to achieve them. In this context, three 1992:168). To do so, one must realize that religion is major points about radical Islam that should be dealt not a precipitant of contemporary international with (Cavatorta,2005:40) terrorism but rather a polarizing mechanism exploited by some who choose to engage in political violence. In the aftermath of September 11, the Bush Thus the simple religious approach to understand the Administration used the same conceptual categories spread and reach of transnational terrorism in the to justify its hegemonic actions not only in Afghanistan 21st century can only give a partial picture of the and Iraq, but also at home. The ‘War on Terror’ slogan event. has been used to justify the detentions at Guantanamo Bay, but also the systematic assault on civil liberties Section III in the US. Any serious student of history can quickly The strategic understanding between transnational determine that the identification of Islam with violence terrorism and radical Islamism is to be understood by is a convenient short-cut to camouflage the focussing on the role of United States of America in incomparably more destructive policies of the Western the cold war period and post cold war period. It is powers in modern history, whether illustrated in the argued that during the cold war periods, the CIA and systematic genocide of Native Americans, the the Pentagon called terrorism by another name: ‘low massacre of Indians in Latin America, the Holocaust, intensity conflict’. The hallmark of terror was that it the massacre of the Algerians by the French, the targeted civilian life: blowing up infrastructure such large-scale destruction of Vietnam by the US, and as bridges and power stations, destroying health and more recently Iraq, where it appears that since the educational centers, mining paths and fields. Terrorism invasion more Iraqis have been killed than in twenty- distinguished itself from guerrilla war by making five years under Saddam Hussein. The fact that civilians its preferred target. What is now called Muslim fundamentalist killers have reignited forms collateral damage was not an unfortunate by-product of violence found in other historical and cultural of the war; it was the very point of terrorism could spaces (for example, the unilateral violence of be made unacceptably high. Even after the Cold War, Christians against Muslims, Jews and other Christians U.S. tolerance for terror remained high, both in Africa during the Crusades, the very Christian principle of and beyond like in Rwanda in 1994 or in Sierra Leone martyrdom in their war against Muslims during the during 1999. It follows that the ‘radicalism’ of Reconquista in Spain, or the Japanese Kamikazes) Islamism is forcefully expressed in Islamist groups does not justify the generalizing discourse about a would like to see implemented, and it is considered so-called structural violence of Islam. This ongoing because some of the groups may threaten established debate necessitates an interrogation of the famous regional and Western order. Most of their demands but much misunderstood notion of jihad (Gafaiti, seem to be actually quite sensible: the end rule, the 2008:106). end of corruption, productive investments in infrastructure social services for the impoverished Radical Islamic groups throughout the region masses, Arab unity and a realignment away from the have sought political recognition, have participated in United States and what is perceived as aggressive elections when and where they have been held and neo-colonialism. This general ‘menu of actions’ is have engaged with other opposition movements in purely indicative, and would subscribe to these actions order to maximise the pressure on the ruling elites to with varying degrees of support and, does not really reform. This is often not taken into account in matter if these are populist and unrealisable demands. analyses of Islamic movements, to the detriment of a Thus, the Islamist camp is indeed radical in the sense fuller understanding of what these movements actually that it is politically because in order to achieve its stand for and can contribute in terms of objectives it needs to ‘revolutionise However, the democratisation in the region. From the perspective notion of radical Islam as a unitary actor fails of radical Islamic groups, the War on Terrorism had complexities of the Islamist camp. The main problem three distinct effects on their beliefs and on their

56 World Focus February 2017 actions. First, direct American intervention in the for many individuals and groups across the Arab region through military invasion has popularised anti- world.(p.37) Contemporary scholars argue that there American sentiments once again. Second, the is no justification for the current discursive continued support of the United States for dichotomies that have set the agenda for global authoritarian regimes indirectly contributes to policies and politics regarding the West and the Arab- aggravate the domestic political position of all radical Muslim world. Nothing can support the notion that Islamic movements, as no distinction is made between the Arab-Muslim world is a unified and homogeneous the violent Islamic opposition groups and the peaceful entity that is structurally opposed to the West. As has ones. Finally, the rhetoric of democratisation that the been widely documented, the countries of the Arab- US administration employs is, from the perspective Muslim world and the West are parts of a continuum of radical groups, being misused. Furthermore, there based on a common heritage. The notion that they is an assumption that radical Islamist engaged in are separated in essence does not hold in view of the violent activities and that there is a very high degree historical and textual evidence available to us, which involved, which makes these groups all the more any serious reader can determine and evaluate. The dangerous. While for groups such as al-Qaeda, such differences between them are not simply based on assumptions do not find much with the reality of radical theology, but on human relations involving socio- Islam. While most radical groups tenets and some economic, political, cultural, and intercultural factors, policy preferences, they are very much an ‘indigenous’ such as rivalry. The biased representations of Muslims their national environments and therefore are very by non-Muslims and vice-versa over the centuries, different from one most radical groups are not involved which have been artificially and dangerously in violence and specifically condemn political purposes reinforced since September 11, obscure the reality of because it is both against ‘true’ Islam and because the Arab-Muslim subject just as it obscures that of counter-productive. These groups prefer to focus on the Westerner (Gafaiti,2008:114). the provision of and on proselytising. In addition, most radical groups have attempted attempt to enter the Conclusion political arena on an equal footing with other political It is plainly stated that terrorism is caused due to and aim at competing on a pluralist stage certain factors like - political transformation and (Cavatorta,2005:49-50). instability; identity and cultural clash; economic deprivation; socio-economic and demographic strain; As ideologies, religions do not cause political and institutional order; global economic and violence. They are systems of belief that mobilize political order(Kriegger et al 2011). Thus one cannot populations toward common objectives and justify their simply present a religious view to understand behavior in the pursuit of these objectives. Most of transnational terrorism. The role of extra-regional today’s Islamic terrorists see religion as a means of factors like global balance of power and in post cold achieving political, economic, social, and security war period the role of United States of America is objectives, rather than as an end in itself. The War very much important in understanding transnational on Terrorism is not as vague as is often assumed. terrorism in the 21st century. The changing nature of Technically, it is waged against the new security the approach of President George W. Bush, President threats that the United States faces. These include Obama and that of President elect Donald Trump is terrorist groups and rogue states that may cooperate also a pointer to understanding United States of with them. However, the actions undertaken by the America’s strategy to terrorism. After 9/11 terrorist US since the attacks on New York and Washington, attack George Bush tried to revive the lost prestige DC in September 2001 do not entirely reflect that. by promoting humiliation to the Afghanistan-Pakistan While the war in Afghanistan was consistent with based terrorist camps. However the extent to which the plan to rid the world of safe havens for terrorist George W. Bush pushed ahead the anti-terrorist groups, the war against Iraq is patently inconsistent strikes raised eyebrows about the humanitarian aspect with that objective. Contrary to that plan, Iraq has of the strikes. Thus President Obama through his now become a hub for terrorist activities and, possibly famous Cairo speech tried to soften US stand on more important, has become a new rallying cause terrorism by declaring that Islamist terrorists and not

Radical Islam and Terrorism: A Non-Religious Approach 57 Islam is the target of attack. Off late President elect Francesco Cavatorta(2005): ‘The ‘War on Terrorism’- Donald Trump is seen to reinstate a very conservative Perspectives from Radical Islamic Groups’, Irish Studies outlook towards US security and hence a more rigid in International Affairs, Vol. 16, pp. 35-50 approach towards Islam. The present article argues Hafid Gafaïti(2008): ‘Hyperculturization’ after September plainly that to keep international terrorism in its 11: The Arab-Muslim World and the West’, Substance, agenda is part and parcel of US foreign policy to Vol. 37, No. 1, Issue 115, pp. 98-117 keep its on-going hegemony intact in waging anti- John L Esposito (1992):The Islamic Threat: Myth or terrorist mission. In order to keep off the discussion Reality?, New York: Oxford University Press. of international public agenda away from the root Rubin, Barry (1998): ‘Islamic Radicalism in the Middle East: cause of origin of grievance of Islamist groups, i.e. A Survey & Balance Sheet’, Middle East Review of the role of US, the United States of America tries to International Affairs, Vol.2, pp.1-8. promote the factor of Islamism as a religion Thomas J. Badey (2002): ‘The Role of Religion in propagating terrorism across the world. This strategic International Terrorism’, Sociological Focus, Vol. 35, No. approach of the United States of America to keep 1, pp. 81-86 alive its military hegemony across the world needs to Tim Krieger and Daniel Meierrieks (2011): ‘What Causes be highlighted, detected and done away with. In that Terrorism?’, Public Choice, Vol. 147, No. 1, pp. 3-27 direction the Indian foreign policy of tolerance towards Mahmood Mamdani (2002): ‘Good Muslim, Bad Muslim: civilizational heritage and nonalignment must be the A Political Perspective on Culture and Terrorism’, American most precise approach to deal with international Anthropologist, Vol. 104, No. 3 (Sep., 2002), pp. 766-775 terrorism in the 21st century. Mohammed Ayoob (2005): ‘The Future of Political Islam: The Importance of External Variables’, International References: Affairs, Vol. 81, No.5, pp. 951-961 Burcu Savun and Brian J. Phillips (2009): ‘Democracy, William E. Shepard (1987): ‘Islam and Ideology: Towards a Foreign Policy, and Terrorism’,The Journal of Conflict Typology’, International Journal of Middle East Studies, Resolution, Vol. 53, No. 6, pp. 878-904 Vol. 19, No. 3, pp. 307-335

To make the world a safe place, one should start at the root cause of settling globally all conflicts of land to start with, which is as difficult to deal with as issues of faith. After hunger, faith evokes the beast in man. In terror man/ woman is a perfect brute, once convinced they refuse to see reason and give up physical safety for the cause, and with the provided means and no concerns he/she will do anything at the bidding of his masters. To stop this in entire regions, only develop- ment and the removal of poverty and hunger and giving them a decent place to live which they can call home and have something to live for and grow up will this radicalism end. It is a dream we all wish is fulfilled fast to make the world a safer place to live in. Poverty leads to radicalism, not having what the other has leads one to get it methods fair or foul. This is one of the faces of terrorism. - Editor

58 World Focus February 2017 Radical Islam and the Spread of Global Terrorism: An Analysis Dr. Bhawna Pokharna

Radical Islam and terrorism is the gravest Islamic Extremism is driven by an interpretation of problem of mankind in contemporary international Islam that believes that Islamic law or Sharia is an all perspective. It is also very difficult to define and encompassing religious political system. Since it is describe radical Islam owing to subjectivity it involves believed to be prospered by Allah, Sharia must be as different countries and different scholars have enforced in the public sphere by a global Islamic State. different opinions regarding the topic. Radical Islam As such, Islamic extremists consider it to be the only is a militant, politically activist ideology whose ultimate truly legitimate form of governance and reject goal is to create a worldwide community, or caliphate democracy and human rights values. Thus the ultimate of Muslim believers. Determined to achieve this new objective of Islamic extremists is the merger of “ world order by any means necessary, including Mosque and State” under Sharia law. These who violence and mass murder, radical Islam is favour such an approach are called Islamists. Their characterized by its contempt for the beliefs, ideology is called Islamism or political Islam. Islamic practices, and symbols of other religious traditions. fundamentalism has been defined variously as a This intolerant creed is cited by Islamists as the movement of Muslims who harken back to earlier philosophical justification for their terrorism. Radical times and seek to return to the fundamentals of the adherents of religion may interpret their faith in an religion. extreme way, sometimes not according to the religion’s original intent. According to the radical view, Islamic extremists believe they are obligated anyone and everyone opposed to their concept of to install this form of governance in Muslim majority the world is at war with Islam and must be treated as territories countries and eventually the entire world the enemy. promoting justice and freedom by instituting Sharia. In some cases, Islamic extremists even describe To understand and explain Radical Islam it Sharia as a Superior form of democracy. Islamic is pertinent to analyse related concepts . The word extremists have intermediate political goals which they radical comes from the Latin “ Radin”, which means believe will pave the way for the global root. And other meanings are (a)Arising from or going implementation of Sharia. One of these goals is the to a root or source; basic. (B). Departing markedly removal of non- Muslim military forces from Muslim from the usual or customary; extreme or drastic. (C). lands and the overthrow of “Enemy” regimes. Acts Relating to or advocating fundamental or revolutionary of Islamic extremisms includes terrorism, human changes in current practices, conditions, or institutions. rights abuses, the advancement of Sharia based Radicalisation is a process by which an individuals governance, bigotry towards non- muslims and rival or group comes to adopt increasingly extreme muslims and overall hostility to the west and other political, social or religious ideals and aspirations that democracy. Islamic extremism is the primary national reject or undermine the status quo or undermine security and human rights concerns of the world contemporary ideas and expression of freedom of today. It is firstly the primary motivation of acts of choice. The outcomes of radicalization are shaped terrorism worldwide. Secondly as Islamic extremists by the ideas of the society at large; radicalism can gain power and rule, human rights abuses- including originate from a broad social consensus against oppression of women, homosexuals and religious progressive changes in society or from broad desire minorities as well as governmental tyranny, sectarian for change in society. Radicalistion can be both violent warfare and bigotry inherent in Sharia law- come to and non-violent. the force. Not all Islamic extremists carry out violent acts. Islamic extremists can advance their goals using

Radical Islam and the Spread of Global Terrorism: An Analysis 59 non- violent factors such as activism, developing comprehensive; Islam provides the one and only interfaith coalition with unsuspecting non- Muslims, solution to all questions in this world, from public policy fundraising, building political influences and the overall to private conduct. It is not merely a religion, in the spreading of the ideology. These extremists follow a Western sense of a system of belief in God. It doctrine called gradualism. The largest Islamic possesses an immutable law, revealed by God that extremist group to use this method is the Muslim deals with every aspect of life and it is an ideology, a Brotherhood. Islamic terrorists on the other hand complete system of belief about the organization of use violence and terrorism to install fear and to gain the state and the world. This law and ideology can political power in order to establish their goals. 1 only be implemented through the establishment of a truly Islamic state, under the sovereignty of God. The Islamic terrorism is a terrorist acts committed by empowerment of Islam, which is God’s plan for groups or individuals who profess Islamic or Islamist mankind, is a sacred end.” 3 motivations or goals. There is no set definition for terrorism, which can make laws and methods for Dr. Ahmed Ibrahim Khadr an Arabian scholar has dealing with it problematic. It is commonly understood made major distinctions about radical and moderate as violence from groups with political, religious or Islam which is as under: 4 ideological aims. Terrorism tries to bring about political • Radicals want the caliphate to return; moderates change with violence. Peacemakers understand reject the caliphate. terrorism to be violent against the government and • Radicals want to apply Sharia (Islamic law); government policy. Islamic terrorism is terrorists acts moderates reject the application of Sharia. committed by groups or individuals who protects • Radicals reject the idea of renewal and reform, Islamic or Islamist motivation or goals. Islamic seeing it as a way to conform Islam to Western terrorists justify their violent tactics through culture; moderates accept it. interpreting the Quran and Hadith ascending to their • Radicals accept the duty of waging jihad in the path own goals and intentions. of Allah; moderates reject it. • Radicals reject any criticism whatsoever of Islam; The highest number of incident and fatalities moderates welcome it on the basis of freedom of caused by Islamic terrorism occur in Iraq, speech. Afghanistan, Nigeria, Pakistan and Syria. According • Radicals accept those laws that punish whoever to global terrorism Index 2016, in 2015 four Islamic insults or leave the religion [apostates]; moderates groups were responds for 7. 4% of all deaths from recoil from these laws. terrorism. ISIL, Boko Haram, the Taliban and Al- • Radicals respond to any insult against Islam or the Qaeda ,2In recent decades, such incidents have prophet Muhammad — peace and blessing upon him occurred or a global scale, affecting not only Muslim — with great violence and anger; moderates respond majority states in Asia and Africa, but also Europe, calmly and peacefully on the basis of freedom of Russia, Australia, Canada and United States. expression. • Radicals respect and revere every deed and every Middle East affairs expert Martin Kramer, word of the prophet — peace be upon him — in the describing the goals of radical Islamists says: hadith; moderates do not. “The idea is simple: Islam must have power in this • Radicals oppose democracy; moderates accept it. world. It is the true religion—the religion of God— • Radicals reject the idea that non-Muslim minorities and its truth is manifest in its power. When Muslims should have equality or authority over Muslims; believed, they were powerful. Their power has been moderates accept it. lost in modern times because Islam has been • Radicals reject the idea that men and women are abandoned by many Muslims, who have reverted to equal; moderates accept it, according to Western the condition that preceded God’s revelation to the views. Prophet Muhammad. But if Muslims now return to • Radicals oppose the idea of religious freedom and the original Islam, they can preserve and even restore apostasy from Islam; moderates agree to it. their power. That return, to be effective, must be

60 World Focus February 2017 ·Radicals desire to see Islam reign supreme; era, is animated by widespread alienation combined moderates oppose this. with elements of religious identity and doctrine - a ·Radicals place the Koran over the constitution; dangerous mix of forces that resonate deep in the moderates reject this . human psyche. Religious terrorists often display a ·Radicals reject the idea of religious equality because complete sense of alienation from the existing social Allah’s true religion is Islam; moderates accept it. system. They are not trying to correct the system, ·Radicals reject the so-called war on terror and see making in more just, more perfect and more egalitarian it as a war on Islam; moderates accept it. rather they are trying to replace it. Graham Fuller, in ·Radicals support jihadi groups; moderates reject his book. The failure of Political Islam (Palgrave them. Macmillan, 2003), Similarly describes the basic ·Radicals reject the terms “Islamic terrorism” or revulsion with the modern, technologies present that “Islamic fascism”; moderates accept them. exist in much of the Islamic world. “ The deepest ·Radicals reject universal human rightsl; moderates underlying source of Muslim anguish and frustration accept them. today lies in the dramatic decline of the Muslim world, ·Radicals reject the idea of allying with the West; over just a few centuries, from the leading civilisation moderates support it. the world for over one thousand years into lagging, ·Radicals oppose secularism; moderates support it. impotent and marginalised region of the world. The stunning reversal of fortune obsessively shapes the The Rise and Spread of the Islamic Terrorism impulses underlying much contemporary Islamist in the world rhetoric.” 5 Osama Bin Laden himself has referred Modern Islamic extremism grew out of the Islamic to “ Humiliation and disgrace” as a main source of Revivalist movement which began in the late 19th Grievance. The decline moreover is seen as a very Century. Islamic revivalism was a response to the specifically moral and spiritual one. It is because perceived weakness of the Muslim world. Thinkers Islam has lost touch with the values that once made associated with Islamic Revivalism preached a fresh it great and because the specific government that interpretation of Islamic tenets based on goals of Pan- now run much of the Islamic world are undemocratic, Islamic unity and the establishment of Islamic State unrepresentative, corrupt, inefficient or worse. based on Sharia laws. Over of the years primary grassroots efforts One school of thought contends that Islamic has been made through the Muslim brotherhood. This extremisms are bred by political and social grievances. organisation exists in more than 70 nation in the Thus, the school believes that extrermists are world. It was founded in 1928 in Egypt, during British provoked by injustice committed by the west and their colonial rule to create an ideal government based on government and armies in Muslim countries. Sharia. The Brotherhood preached self help, According to this school, Islamic extremism should generosity, family values, and social services for the be countered by addressing these grievances of angry poor and retracting women to their traditional role in Muslim populations through foreign policy changes, the home. In 1948, a Member of this group political concession where there are areas of assassinated Egypt’s Prime Minister. The disagreements, improvements, grievances of Muslim Brotherhood then splintered between those who countries, income redistribution and dialogue. The advocated violence and those who wanted to work other school of thought hold that these grievances non- violent by for an Islamist society. The same bred by Islamic extremists are just excuses to justify process has repeated itself in other countries, with antagonism towards the west. This side argues that the Brotherhood starting as a peaceful organisation the Islamic extremist world view leads to the adoption and sometimes splitting into more radical factors. 6 of these grievances. According to this School Islamic extremism can only be countered by undermining the Arab- Israel Conflict ideology itself. The Analyst of terrorism Audrey In the late 1960s Palestinian secular movements such Kurth Cronin has summarized the portrait of religious- as Al Fatah and the Popular Front for the Liberation extremist terrorists group in a manner, “ The Jihad of Palestine (PFLP) began to target civilians outside.

Radical Islam and the Spread of Global Terrorism: An Analysis 61 Following Israel’s 1967 defeat of Arab forces, number of westerns and were also responsible for Palestinian leaders realized that the Arab world was the bombing that killed 241 US Marines, sailors and unable to militarily confront Israel. At the same time, soldiers. Hezbollah also led in 18 years of guerilla lessons drawn from revolutionary movements in Latin campaign against Israeli occupation of southern America, North Africa, and Southeast Asia as well Lebanon which caused Israel to remove its troops in as during the Jewish struggle against Britain in 2000. 7 Palestine, saw the Palestinians move away from classic guerrilla, typically rural-based, warfare toward From the Soviet interference in Afghanistan to urban terrorism. Radical Palestinians took advantage 9/11 of modern communication and transportation systems In 1979, the Soviets invaded Afghanistan in order to to internationalize their struggle. They launched a help Afghan communists who had seized power. series of hijackings, kidnappings, bombings, and Muslims from around the world called for a Jihad or shootings, culminating in the kidnapping and holy war in defence of Islam to free the Muslim subsequent deaths of Israeli athletes during the 1972 countries from the invader. Thousands from many Munich Olympic Games. countries volunteered to be Mujahdeen , holy warriors. Saudi Funded religious schools in These Palestinian groups became a model neighboring Pakistan produced many volunteers for for numerous secular militants, and offered lessons the Jihad. for subsequent ethnic and religious movements. Palestinians created an extensive transnational Money poured in from the Muslim extremist network — tied into which were various Brotherhood, but also from Saudi Arabia and the US state sponsors such as the Soviet Union, certain Arab central Intelligence Agency C.I.A. The Saudis sent states, as well as traditional criminal organizations. many volunteers fighters and spent unfold millions of By the end of the 1970s, the Palestinian secular Dollars. The C.I.A. contributed more than $ 3 billion network was a major channel for the spread of supplied more than 1000 small, portable stinger missile terrorist techniques worldwide. (for shooting down helicopters and low flying airplanes) and thus Afghanistan had become a The Impact of revolution in Iran: battleground in the cold war between the Soviet Union In 1979, a revolution in Iran overthrew the Shah (King) and the United States.8 and electrified the Muslim world. Many Muslims viewed the Shahs a depot who had been put in power One of the Saudi Volunteer was 25 year old by the United States and Great Brittan. Osama Bin Laden, a member of a wealthy Saudi Fundamentalism saw him as a traitor to Islam. During family. He had attended wahhabi Schools and the turmoil that took place during the revolution, radical completed college studying engineering and public Muslim students seized the US Embassy and held administration. For Afghan Jihad he raised money American diplomats hostage for more then year. through his family connections, set up training campus and commanded Mujahedeen in battle against the The galvanising leader of the Iranian Soviets. He also organised his fighters into an revolution was a shia Muslim Ayatollah Ruhollah orgsnisation known as al Qaeda ( The Base”) . Khomeini. Khomeni Seized power over other factions and created an Islamist state headed by a “ Supreme After the Soviet Union withdrew its toops Religious leader. Despite popular election for other from Afghanistan in 1989, Bin Landed returned back position and even women’s right to vote and hold public to Saudi Arabia as a Hero. But in 1990, Iraq led by office, shia religious leaders control the military, law Saddam Hussain invaded Kuwait. Fearing that Iraq making power, courts, education system and all would next invade Saudi Arabia, the Saudi King Fahd matters of public morality. Iran has also become a decided to rely on American Military forces to defeat central source for arming and financing radical Iraq, and he allowed them to set up bases in the Islamism groups like Lebanon’s Hezbollah (Party of Muslim holy land. The stationing of non Muslim troops God) in 1980’s in Lebanon, Hezbollah Kidnapped a on Saudi Arabia Holy soil transformed Bin Laden

62 World Focus February 2017 into an outspoken enemy of the Saudi Ruling Family briefings and security meetings, President Obama and its American Defender. Saudi Arabia expelled gave the order for Navy SEALs (Sea, Land, and Air Bin Laden in 1991. He went to Sudan in East Africa, team) to move in on the compound. On Sunday, May a country with a strict Islamist government. He took 1, they attacked and killed Bin Laden. In the firefight, with him an estimated $250 million, part of which he four others were killed, including Bin Laden’s son, spent to fund terrorist training camps. Bin Laden had one of his wives, and two other men. Upon hearing become an international outlaw. Eventually, he made the news, President Obama reportedly said, “We got his way to Afghanistan, where the Taliban group had him.” A ten-year hunt had ended. 11 The U.S. has seized power and imposed a strict Islamist regime. continued its strategy to target and eliminate other Al (In Arabic, talib means “student.”) The Taliban Qaeda leaders, such as Sanafi al-Nasr, a radicalized offered him sanctuary in Afghanistan where he Saudi citizen who led an Al Qaeda-linked group in provided the regime with financial aid and fighters. Syria. However, Al Qaeda and its affiliates (groups He also created training camps for his growing Al claiming allegiance) remained active in several Qaeda terrorist network. 9 countries, including Iraq, Syria, Nigeria, Somalia, and Yemen. Ayman al-Zawahiri, whom national security zIn 1998, Bin Laden proclaimed jihad against experts call the “brains” behind 9/11, has been a Americans and Jews, claiming that “the United States prominent spokesman for Al Qaeda. Al Qaeda in is occupying the lands of Islam in the holiest of its Yemen claimed responsibility for the January 2015 territories, Arabia, plundering its riches, overthrowing mass shooting at the offices of the satirical magazine its rulers, humiliating its people, threatening its Charlie Hebdo in Paris, France, in which 12 people neighbors.” Bin Laden decreed that it was the duty were killed. Charlie Hebdo had frequently published of every Muslim “to kill Americans.” After Bin Laden cartoons mocking the Prophet Muhammad, among issued his decree, Islamist terrorists began to strike other non-Muslim religious and political figures. 12 American targets. In 1998, two U.S. embassies were bombed in Africa. In 2000, suicide bombers attacked The Rise of ISIS the U.S.S. Cole warship off the coast of Yemen. In Starting in 2010, protests against authoritarian 2001, terrorist airplane hijackers killed almost 3,000 government in Tunisia quickly spread to other Arab people in the United States. 10 states in North Africa and the Middle East. The widespread protests became known as the “Arab The Hunt for Osama bin Laden Spring.” In March 2011, the authoritarian regime of The United States responded to the September 11, President Bashar al-Assad in Syria imprisoned and 200l, attacks by declaring a war on terrorism. U.S. tortured 15 young people for writing anti-government troops invaded Afghanistan and overthrew the graffiti. This sparked protesters in the city of Deraa Taliban. In 2003, the United States and allies invaded to demand democratic reforms and the release of Iraq and toppled the regime of Saddam Hussein, a political prisoners. Government security forces brutal dictator, though not associated with Islamist responded with gunfire, killing four protesters. By ideas. Both Presidents George W. Bush and Barack 2011, conflict in Syria became increasingly violent Obama vowed to capture or kill Bin Laden. Obama until civil war broke out in 2012, largely along religious shifted military forces to Afghanistan in part to lines. Sunni-dominated rebel groups battled the forces accomplish it. During these presidencies, U.S. forces of the Shiite-dominated government. The and intelligence agencies were successful in targeting government’s use of chemical weapons and and killing numbers of Al Qaeda leaders, but Bin indiscriminate “barrel bombs” against civilians, as well Laden remained elusive. as violent and brutal conflicts among competing rebel groups, drove almost 12 million people from their In August 2010, U.S. intelligence focused on homes. a possible compound deep in Pakistan that had links to the terrorist leader. After months of information- In the midst of this conflict, the Islamic State gathering, more evidence suggested that this was Bin in Iraq and Syria (ISIS) rose to power. ISIS is a Laden’s refuge. On April 29, 2011, after numerous radical and well-organized Islamist organization that

Radical Islam and the Spread of Global Terrorism: An Analysis 63 has conquered territory in Iraq and Syria, further state (IS). The organisation believes that they are driving many Syrians from their homes. The stated the only true believer and that all their violent actions purpose of ISIS is to establish a renewed caliphate, are cited in the Koran and Hadith. Islamic state is or rule according to the earliest leaders in seventh- well funded terrorist organisation in the world. The century Islam, and to become the highest authority in estimated worth of the wealthiest terrorist organisation the Islamic world, destroying all it considers the comes up to $ 2 billion. According to a report by the enemies of Islam. The group is infamous for mass U.S. Treasury Department in 2014, the estimate murder of civilians, graphic videos of beheadings of revenue of oil smuggling reached almost $ 2 million a captives, and the destruction of irreplaceable day. Simultaneously the imposition of strict taxes on archaeological treasures. its citizens, charged on basic service, duties on imports, kidnappings and hostage taking, ransacking banks, The Birth of Islamic State: looting museums, money laundering and human, In 29 June 2014, ISIS spokesman above Mohammad firearms and drug trafficking consist a continuation al Adnani, had announced the birth of an Islamic State that provided is a vital source of income. 14 with al Baghadadi as Leader Caliph Ibrahim. On 1st July 2014, Al Baghadadi himself had issued a message Thousands of radicalized fighters from around to the Islamic Umma calling on Muslims from around the world, including Europe and the United States, the world to immigrate to the new Emirate. When in have traveled to Iraq and Syria to join ISIS, some 2013, Abu Bakar Al- Baghdadi decided to merge his later returning to their homelands. In 2015, ISIS forces in Iraq and Syria and to create ISIL to spread claimed responsibility for suicide bombings in Beirut, his zeal for visited actions in order to apply salafi- Lebanon, killing 40 mostly Shia Muslims, downing a Jihadi ideology and to create a caliphate. This more Russian airliner over Egypt killing 234 people, and was negatively criticised and was seen as an for a massacre of over 130 people in Paris, France. unrealisitic way to promote the goal of an Islamic Two reportedly “self-radicalized” jihadists in San state in Syria by the leadership of Jabhat-al-Nusra Bernardino, California, carried out a mass shooting, (Victory front) and by the Al-Qaeda-Leader Ayman killing 14 people, in December 2015. One of the al-Zawahiri who declared that ISIS should be shooters had proclaimed allegiance to ISIS on operating only in Iraq. On June 14, 2013 al Baghdadi Facebook prior to the shooting. rejected al Zawahiri’s statement and decided to expound the operations in Syria. Ignoring demands Boko Haram for mediation the leader of Al Nusra, Proceeded with In the years since 9/11, another jihadist group called the disbanding of ISIS but after a few months he Boko Haram (generally defined as “Western decided to halt the attacks on ISIS without reaching education is a sin”) organized a militant rebellion any reconciliation point and with severe loses of against the government of the African nation of fighters who were loyal to al Baghdadi and committed Nigeria. Seeking to conquer the Christian-dominated to help ISIS remain in Syria. The same year in areas of southern Nigeria and to install an Islamist February 2014, Al Qaeda decided to disavow relation government for the whole nation, Boko Haram targets with ISIS. 13 Muslims and Christians alike in violent raids and assaults. In January 2014, it defeated for the first time the Iraqi forces, implanting the political instability The group grabbed the attention of the world created by the Shia-led government and the minority in 2014 when its members kidnapped 276 schoolgirls Sunni Arab Community and it took over Fallujah, from a government secondary school in Chibok. Most Mosul, Tikrit, and Al Qain and then advanced towards of the girls were Christians who were forced to Baghdad.On June 29, 2014, ISIS announced the convert to Islam, and few were ever rescued. foundation of a caliphate that erase all state border Amnesty International reports that the girls were sold with Abu Baker al-Baghdadi as Calipah, the world’s into slavery, forced into marriages, and often ultimate authority on the estimated 1.5 billion Muslim “brainwashed” and turned into Boko Haram fighters. and decided to change its name from ISIS to Islamic Militant Islamist group Boko Haram released 21 of

64 World Focus February 2017 the 276 schoolgirls it snatched from their dormitories popular with Westerners, and the April 2015 massacre in the town of Chibok 2½ years ago, marking a of university students in Garissa, Kenya. The breakthrough in diplomacy between the government Westgate attack killed 67 Kenyan and non-Kenyan and the group on October 17, 2016. 15 Originally allied nationals, and a siege continued at the mall for several to Al Qaeda, Boko Haram announced its support for days. The Garissa attack killed some 150 mainly the rival ISIS group in 2015. Christian students. 17The group is still active in Somalia , recently in October and November 2016, Al Shabab Al Shabab launched three big attacks in Kenya and Somalia .18 The Harakat Shabaab al-Mujahidin—commonly known as al-Shabaab—which means The youth ( In Taliban Arabic) or the group of youngster was the militant The Taliban emerged in the early 1990s in northern wing of the Somali Council of Islamic Courts that Pakistan following the withdrawal of Soviet troops took over most of southern Somalia in the second from Afghanistan.A predominantly Pashtun half of 2006. Despite the group’s defeat by Somali movement, the Taliban came to prominence in and Ethiopian forces in 2007, al-Shabaab—a clan- Afghanistan in the autumn of 1994. Afghans, weary based insurgent and terrorist group—has continued of the mujahideen’s excesses and infighting after the its violent insurgency in southern and central Somalia. Soviets were driven out, generally welcomed the The group has exerted temporary and, at times, Taliban when they first appeared on the scene. It is sustained control over strategic locations in those commonly believed that they first appeared in religious areas by recruiting, sometimes forcibly, regional sub- seminaries - mostly paid for by money from Saudi clans and their militias, using guerrilla warfare and Arabia - which preached a hard line form of Sunni terrorist tactics against the Federal Government of Islam. The Taliban’s promise - in Pashtun areas Somalia (FGS), African Union Mission in Somalia straddling Pakistan and Afghanistan - was to restore (AMISOM) peacekeepers, and nongovernmental aid peace and security and enforce their own austere organizations. Since 2011, however, pressure from version of Sharia, or Islamic law, once in power. In AMISOM and Ethiopian forces has largely degraded both countries they introduced or supported Islamic al-Shabaab’s control, especially in Mogadishu but also punishments - such as public executions of convicted in other key regions of the country, and conflict among murderers and adulterers and amputations of those senior leaders has exacerbated fractures within the found guilty of theft. They were accused of various group. In 2013 al-Shabaab rivalries culminated in a human rights and cultural abuses. One notorious major purge of opponents of now-deceased group example was in 2001, when the Taliban went ahead leader Ahmed Abdi Aw-Mohamed.Al-Shabaab’s with the destruction of the famous Bamiyan Buddha senior leaders remain affiliated with al-Qa‘ida. The statues in central Afghanistan, despite international merger of the two groups was publicly announced in outrage. 19 February 2012 by the amir of al-Shabaab and Ayman al-Zawahiri, leader of al-Qa‘ida. The group, however, Al-Qaeda ‘sanctuary’ has lost four senior figures—including Abdi—since The attention of the world was drawn to the Taliban September 2014, which may have hampered its in Afghanistan following the attacks on the World communications with al-Qa‘ida leadership. 16 Trade Centre in September 2001. The Taliban in Afghanistan were accused of providing a sanctuary Al-Shabaab has claimed responsibility for to Osama Bin Laden and the al-Qaeda movement many bombings—including various types of suicide who were blamed for the attacks. Soon after 9/11 attacks—in Mogadishu and in central and northern the Taliban were driven from power in Afghanistan Somalia, typically targeting Somali government by a US-led coalition, although their leader Mullah officials, AMISOM, and perceived allies of the FGS. Mohammad Omar was not captured. In recent years Since 2013 al-Shabaab has launched high-profile the Taliban re-emerged in Afghanistan and grew far operations in neighboring countries, most notably the stronger in Pakistan,. There have been numerous September 2013 Westgate mall attack in Nairobi, the Taliban attacks on Kabul in recent years and, in May 2014 attack against a restaurant in Djibouti September 2012, the group carried out a high-profile

Radical Islam and the Spread of Global Terrorism: An Analysis 65 raid on Nato’s Camp Bastion base. In the same month democratic values , adoption of liberal ideologies , the US military handed control of the controversial inculcation of the spirit of ethno national and religious Bagram prison - housing more than 3,000 Taliban tolerance , value led education , just social and political fighters and terrorism suspects - to the Afghan society can help to overcome this menace. authorities. In September 2015 the Taliban seized control of a provincial capital for the first time since End Notes their defeat in 2001, taking control of the strategically 1. Ryan Mauro, “ Understanding Islamist Extremism important city of Kunduz. The US is keeping close to available at www.clarionprject.org 10,000 troops in Afghanistan, but the Taliban finds itself an increasingly splintered organisation - that is 2. Global Terrorism Index available at http://www.business- also threatened by the rise of the so-called Islamic standard.com/article/international/global-terrorism-index- State militant group in Afghanistan. 20 2016-116111700024_1.html 3.“Fundamentalist Islam: The Drive for Power,” (Martin Conclusion Kramer, 1997). Available at http://www.faculty.umb.edu/ Global terrorism is an unlawful use of violence or threat of violence aiming to inculcate fear among the gary_zabel/Courses/Phil%20108-08/ masses. It is a philosophy of violence which terrorists Fundamentalist%20Islam%20The%20Drive% use to destablise the social and economic set up of 20for%20Power%20by%20Martin%20Kramer.htm the country. Terrorism that occurs throughout the 4.Raymond Ibrahim, “Radical” vs. “Moderate” Islam: A world is known as global terrorism. Assassinations, Bombings, hijackings, diplomatic kidnappings- is the Muslim View, by,25 May 2016, available at https:// most publicized form of political violence which www.gatestoneinstitute.org/8101/radical-moderate-islam terrorists carry out in order to create terror. 5. Michael J. Mazarr, “ The Psychological Source of Islamic Social and political injustice, ethno nationalism, Terrorism “ available at www.hower.org. June 2004 religious intolerance and regidness, poor socio - economic status are some of the important causes of 6. www.cnf.usa.org,”Islamist Terrorism from 1945 to the terrorism. Islamic fundamentalist groups like Al- rise of ISIS.” Qaeda, , Ansar al-Islam, Armed Islamic 7. Ibid Group of Algeria, Army of Islam, Boko Haram, Al 8. Ibid Shabab, Taliban, Egyptian Islamic Jihad, Lashkar-e- 9. Ibid Taiba, Jaish-e-Mohammed, , Harkat-ul-Jihad al-Islami, Harkat-ul-Mujahideen, 10. Ibid Indian Mujahideen, Islamic State of Iraq and the 11. Ibid Levant, Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan, Ansar e Shatai, 12. Ibid ansar Dine, Caucasus Emirate among many others 13. Prof Rajesh Dogra, “ ISIS: The geopolitics of terrorism, engaged in disruptive activities around the world. The world has witnessed serious terrorist acts caused by World Focus, New Delhi, February 2016. Islamic state in countries such as Syria Iraq , Libya 14. Ibid etc. leading millions of people to leave their country 15. www.wsj.com/articles/boko-haram-frees-21-chibok- and take refuge in Europe which in turn culminated schoolgirls-1476357103 into serious immigration crisis. Terrorism practiced anywhere, in any form is condemnable and a threat 16. https://www.nctc.gov/site/groups/al_shabaab.html to mankind. International community should join hands 17. Ibid to fight the menace of terrorism. Looking at the 18.http//:www.bbc.com/news/world_africa.95336689 present scenario it seems very difficult to find out the 19. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-11451718 ways and means to control terrorism and question 20. Ibid arises where the world is heading towards? What will be the future of mankind and international peace and security? But in the long run , the spread of

66 World Focus February 2017 Emergence of Radical Islam in the 21st Century: Challenges for the West Dr. Saleem Ahmad

Religion in a situation of crisis could become more This definition is composed of four interrelated powerful than the economic infrastructure, the elements. The first is a religious ideology, the second basis.” - Ernst Bloch a holistic interpretation of Islam, the third conquest of the world, and finally the fourth and the last element Origin is the use of all means in the search for the final The Islamic revolution of Iran took place in 1979 under objective. The use of this term has increased among the leadership of Ayatollah Khomeini who preached politicians, scholars and journalists worldwide since about political Islam and established the first Islamist the September 11, 2001 attacks on the United States government in the West Asia region. Consequently, of America.4 it was needed to find a new vocabulary in order to outline this new phenomenon, and soon after, the Since the end of the Cold War, the world witnessed a multitude of terms which globalization has exerted major impact upon Muslim frequently used as ‘Islamic fundamentalism’, ‘radical culture and beliefs, lives, and inter-state relations. The Islam’, ‘Islamic revivalism’, ‘Islamic extremism’, cultural impact of the West became overwhelming ‘political Islam’ and etc. To note that, this kind of with the spread of information technology and the ‘Islam’ is quite different from other versions of experience of millions of Muslims gaining advanced ‘Islam’, and this particular form of Islam is more degrees in the West. Radical Islam has embraced political, often violent and seriously poses challenges technology for the propagation of its ideas; therefore, for the West, and determines its hostility towards an “electronic Umma” or Muslim religious community established regimes in the non-Muslim world.1 has created a deeper sense of international awareness Radical Islam, therefore, is an interpretation of Islam regarding Islam and solidarity.5 that believes Islamic law, known as Shari’a, is an all-encompassing religious-political system. It is Nomenclature believed to be prescribed by Allah and Shari’a must The term “radical” dates back to 1817 when it be enforced in the public sphere by the Islamic State conveyed the meaning “reformist” regarding the under the leadership of Caliph. Radical Islam British Liberal Party, and “Islam” describes the considers it to be the only true legitimate form of world’s second largest religion named in some 1500 governance and reject democracy, modernity and years ago. In contrast, “radical Islam,” i.e. a term human rights. Thus, the ultimate objective of Radical that uses the two words in combination has a modern Islam is the merger of “mosque and state” under history. It was first referenced in January 1979, when Shari’a law.2 Those who favor such an approach the New York Jewish Weekly published an article are called Radical Islamists. Their ideology is called titled, Carter pushes Sadat to demand West Bank, Radical Islamism. Radical Islamists believe that they then, the author Jackson referred to the Ayatollah’s are obligated to install this form of government in “anti-Christian, anti-Jewish, anti-Bahai” rhetoric as Muslim-majority territories, countries and, eventually, “radical Islam.” However, it was not until August the entire world. In the minds of Radical Islamists, 1979 that “radical Islam” was associated with death they are promoting justice and freedom by instituting or violence.6 Specifically, the Associated Press Shari’a and describe as a superior form of reported on the assassinations of two by Khomeini’s “democracy”.3 Radical Islamism is a political supporters as having “…been the work of a radical ideology with a holistic interpretation of Islam whose Islamic group.” In fact, it was in the context of the final aim is the conquest of the world by all means. news media that “radical Islam” flourished and

st Emergence of Radical Islam in the 21 Century: Challenges for the West 67 approximately five years later, during the vice- communism. The war is not confined to extremist presidential debate in 1984 between George Bush Sunni Muslims or extremist Shi’a Muslims; the and Congress woman Geraldine Ferraro, publicly Islamic State and the Islamic Republic of Iran are identified “radical Islam” as a threat to American seen as two sides of the same coin. Michael Flynn, interests and synonymous with international terrorism. Trump’s national-security adviser argues that, “I don’t During the debate, George Bush addressed the believe all cultures are morally equivalent, and I think importance of strategic partnerships with “moderate the West, and especially America, is far more civilized, Arab states” to “guard against radical Islam.” At that far more ethical and moral, than the system which historical moment, “radical Islam” represented a our main enemies want to impose on us. Not all the security threat perpetrated by Ayatollah Khomeini’s world’s 1.6 billion Muslims are extremists or distinct brand of Islamic Revolution. In 1986, the terrorists. But even if just 10 per cent of 1 per cent Chicago Tribune reported on “radical Islam” in are radicalized, that is a staggering 1.6 million people Libya and Syria. In 1987, US News & World Report bent on destroying Western civilization and the values added Egypt to that list as well. Soon thereafter, we hold dear. The fascists wanted to control the “radical Islam” made its first appearance in United world. So did the communists. But the radical Islamists States in January 1993; the Wall Street Journal want to brutally kill a significant percentage of the published an article, titled, Egyptian Jihad Leader world”.10 Preaches Holy War to Brooklyn Muslims, Sheik Omar Abdel-Rahman, and the blind Egyptian cleric Versions of Islam who convicted for the World Trade Centre bombings Islam is one of the world’s great religions, has brought in same year.7 And today, “radical Islam” is a hotly comfort and peace of mind to countless millions of debated and contested term in print as well as in men and women. It has given dignity and meaning to electronic media. More recently, in June 2016, in the dull and impoverished lives. It has taught people of aftermath of the mass shooting at the Pulse different races to live in brotherhood and people of Nightclub in Orlando, Florida, Republican Presidential different creeds to live side by side in reasonable candidate Donald Trump publicly criticized President tolerance. It inspired a great civilization in which Obama for describing the tragedy as an “act of terror others besides Muslims lived creative and useful lives and an act of hate” without making any specific which enriched the whole world. According to references to “radical Islam” or “Islamic terrorism.” Bernard Lewis, Islam, like other religions, has also Research from the Brookings Institute shows that known periods when it inspired some of its followers 73 per cent of Republicans that typically employs a mood of hatred and violence. It is our misfortune “radical Islam” to refer as terrorism and hold that part of the Muslim world is now going through unfavourable opinions about Islam. This figure, such a period of hatred which is directed against West. however, contrasts sharply with 51 per cent of However, neither the Muslim world is unanimous in Democrats who view the religion in a positive sense.8 its rejection of the West, nor have the Muslim regions As President Obama has stated repeatedly regarding been the most passionate and the most extreme in the Islamic State: “They try to portray themselves as their hostility. This hatred goes beyond hostility and religious leaders — holy warriors in defence of becomes a rejection of Western civilization and the Islam...That’s why ISIL presumes to declare itself principles and values that it practices and professes.11 the ‘Islamic State.’ And they propagate the notion Indeed, these values and principles are seen as that America — and the West, generally — is at war innately evil, and those who promote or accept them with Islam... [rather] We are at war with people who as the “enemies of God”. This phrase, which recurs have perverted Islam”.9 President-elect Donald so frequently in the language of the Iranian leadership, Trump’s national-security appointees have argued that in both their judicial proceedings and their political the United States is at war with “radical Islamic pronouncements, and the idea that God has enemies terrorism,” or “radical Islam,” or something broader and needs human help in order to identify and dispose still, such as “Islamism.” They have described this of them. The concept of the enemies of God is familiar war as a primarily ideological struggle to preserve in pre-classical and classical antiquity, and in both Western civilization, like the wars against Nazism and the Old and New Testaments, as well as in the Quran,

68 World Focus February 2017 and it is strictly monotheistic and recognizes one God, modernism. The war against secularism is conscious one universal power only. There is a struggle in human and explicit, and denouncing secularism as an evil in hearts between good and evil, between God’s the modern world and attributing it to the Jews, the commandments and the tempter, serving as a test of West, and the United States. The war against mankind, a struggle in which mankind has a crucial modernity is for the most part neither conscious nor part to play in bringing about the victory of good over explicit, and is directed against the whole process of evil.12 In Islam, the struggle of good and evil very change that has taken place in the Islamic world in soon acquired political and even military dimensions. the past century and has transformed the political, Muhammad was not only a prophet and a teacher, economic, social, and even cultural structures of like the founders of other religions; he was also the Muslim countries. Radical Islam has given an aim to head of a polity and of a community, a ruler and a the aimless and resentment and anger of the Muslim soldier. Hence, his struggle involved a state and its masses at the western forces that have devalued their armed forces. If the fighters in the war for Islam, the traditional values and loyalties which robbed their holy war “in the path of God,” are fighting for God, it beliefs, their aspirations, their dignity, and even their follows that their opponents are fighting against God. livelihood. Since, the United States is the legitimate And since God is the sovereign, the supreme head of heir of European civilization and unchallenged leader the Islamic state… and the Prophet and, after the of the West in the contemporary politics.15 One Prophet, the Caliphs are his Deputies… then God popular narrative is that the West is engaged in a as sovereign commands the army. The army is God’s “clash of civilizations” with Islam. Some phrase like army and the enemy is God’s enemy. The duty of Islam being at war with the West, while some are God’s soldiers is to dispatch God’s enemies as quickly willing to cast the war as being between the West as possible to the place where God will punish and radical Islam. It is no surprise that both politicians them…that is to say, the afterlife.13 This is the basic and jihadist leaders are happy to push the West vs. division of mankind as perceived in Islam and most Islam narrative. Doing so serves both their agendas. probably, all human societies have a way of Many militant jihadist groups that claim to be fighting distinguishing between themselves and others, insider for Islam have declared open war on the West; and outsider, in-group and out-group, kinsman or however, the overwhelming majority of Muslims have neighbor and foreigner. In the classical Islamic view, not done so. As such, the West is only at war with many Muslims are beginning to return, therefore, the some Muslims and not with Islam. Likewise, Islam is world and all mankind are divided into two: the House not at war with the West, but some Muslims are.16 of Islam, where the Muslim law and faith prevail, and the rest, known as the House of Unbelief or the On the contrary, there is another aspect of House of War, which it is the duty of Muslims Islam which has not featured so strongly in media in ultimately to bring to Islam. The obligation of holy the aftermath of September 11, 2001. There are 1.6 war therefore begins at home and continues abroad, billion Muslims in the world today, and the vast majority against the same infidel enemy. The struggle between of them is law abiding and lives peacefully with their these rival systems began with the advent of Islam, neighbours, including those of other faiths. They are in the seventh century, and has continued virtually to respected for their hospitality, generosity and the present day. It has consisted of a long series of graciousness. In many countries like India, attacks and counterattacks, jihads and crusades, relationships between Muslims and those of other conquests and re-conquests. For a long time, there faiths have long been harmonious, with mutual respect, has been a rising tide of rebellion against this Western friendship and shared participation in community supremacy and a desire to reassert Muslim values events, such as weddings. But recent years have and restore Islamic greatness. The leaders sought seen the development of more violent movements, religious revival and identified their enemies as the with bitter conflict, fighting, death and destruction.17 enemies of God.14 Consequently, there is a counter-attack against these peaceful Muslims in response to the terrorist activities Moreover, the struggle of the Radical of radical Islamists. For terrorism breeds fear and Islamists is against two enemies, secularism and fear breeds irrationality. Irrational fear does not make

st Emergence of Radical Islam in the 21 Century: Challenges for the West 69 distinctions and therefore a hostile response to radical Scholars have argued that there lies the duality within Islamist can quickly spread to hostility to all Muslims. Islam and it is possible to claim, following Prophet Radical Islamists believe in what they are doing with Mohammed’s example in Mecca, that Islam is a a religious fervor that justifies mass murder and self- religion of peace. But it is also possible to claim that immolation. Jihad is a word which has various a revelation was sent to Prophet Mohammed meanings. Literally it means ‘struggle’, including commanding Muslims to wage jihad until every human ‘struggle for the good Islamic life’, but is frequently being on the planet accepts Islam or a state of translated as Holy War and Islamist literature subservience, on the basis of his legacy in Medina. frequently mentions jihad for various purposes but The key question is not whether Islam is a religion of the ambiguity of the term makes it capable of different peace, but rather, whether Muslims follow the interpretations.18 Jihad includes the concept of Qital Mohammed of Medina, regardless of whether they which means violence, physical fighting and it is an are Sunni or Shi’a. Today, the West is still struggling integral part of Jihad. However, resorting to violence to understand the religious justification for the Medina is, according to the Quran, 1) bound to rules and 2) ideology, which is growing, and the links between non- to be used to limited targets. So, I cannot attack violence and violence within it.21 Consequently, two somebody in the name of Jihad without a prior main viewpoints have emerged in the debate on the warning. And then, limiting the target: According to causes of violent extremism in Islam. The difference the classical Islamic doctrine, you are not allowed to between them is reflected in the different terminology attack unarmed people, first pre-warning, then do not used by proponents of the rival views. John Esposito attack unarmed people, no killing of children, no killing and Karen Armstrong believe that Islam in this case of women, no killing of elderly people. No is the “circumstantial” bit and that the real causes of indiscriminate killing. This is the classical Jihad. In Islamist violence are poverty, political marginalization, the modern re-interpretation of this concept, Hassan cultural isolation, and other forms of alienation, al-Banna, in his book “On Jihad”, he re-interpreted including real or perceived discrimination against Jihad as . And he says, “We are not committed Muslims. They use words for Islam such as to rules because we cannot prevail while keeping these “radicalism,” “violent extremism,” and “terrorism” to rules”. So, the limitation of targets was abandoned, describe the various attacks around the world the compliance with rules was abandoned, so Jihad committed in the name of Islam. If Islam is mentioned becomes terrorism. But Jihad in the Quran, and also at all, it is to say that Islam is being perverted, or in Islamic history, was not terrorism. It is a use of hijacked. They are quick to assert that Islam is no violence, but it is a kind of classical warfare.19 different from any other religion, that there are terrible To understand whether violence is inherent in the aspects to other religions, and that Islam is in no way doctrine of Islam, it is important to look at the example unique.22 That view is more or less the “official” view of the founding father of Islam, Prophet Mohammed, not only of the US but also of most Western countries. and the passages in the Quran and Islamic Proponents of the alternative view, such as Patricia jurisprudence used to justify the violence we currently Crone and Paul Berman, rely on different terms such see in so many parts of the Muslim world. During the as “political Islam,” Islamism, Radicalism, Salafism, 7th century in Mecca, Prophet Mohammed preached Wahhabism, and Jihadism. All of these terms are to his fellow tribesmen to abandon their gods and designed to convey the religious basis of the accept his message. He preached about charity and phenomenon. The argument is that an ideological the conditions of widows and orphans. This method movement to impose Shari’a law, by force if of persuasion called Dawa in Arabic remains an necessary, is gaining ground across the West Asia, important component of Islam to this day. However, North Africa, Southeast Asia, and even in Europe.23 during his time in Mecca, Prophet Mohammed and The view that the ideology of radical Islam is rooted his small band of believers had little success in in Islamic scripture understands fully the cause of converting others to this new religion.20 So, a decade terrorism; it takes religious arguments seriously, and after Prophet Mohammed first began preaching, and views them as a “real” motivation for such as socio- then he went to Medina, known as Hijrah. Over time, economic grievances. However, Western he cobbled together a militia and began to wage wars. governments have tried to engage with “moderate

70 World Focus February 2017 Muslims”: imams and community leaders who destruction. To note that, the War on Terror has not denounce terrorist attacks and claim to represent the just been confined to one particular country and the true, peaceful Islam. But this has not amounted to US has furthered its operations in other countries and meaningful ideological engagement. These so-called regions, which had not previously been considered a moderate representatives of Islam insist that violence potential base for terrorist groups. Countries which has nothing to do with Islam and as a result the have been scrutinized include Iran, Libya, Syria, North intolerant and violent aspects of the Quran and the Korea and Cuba, and the US encouraged its allies Hadith are never acknowledged or rejected.24 and the wider international community to take a much tougher action towards these nations, viewing these War on Terror countries suspiciously either because of their links to Moreover, Terrorism has existed for as long as man terrorist groups or their willingness to pursue a nuclear himself. Regardless of its aims, terrorism has weapons program. Former President George Bush continually changed in form due to ever changing Junior famously used the term “” consisting factors such as; the perpetrators, means, motivation of many countries but naming three specifically; Iraq, and the victims. Since the beginning of the 21st Iran and North Korea.27 century, there has been a stark shift in the global perception of terrorism and its causes. The Islamic State development of counter-terrorism in relation to the Moreover, Islamic radicalism was virtually unknown radical Islam whether rightly or wrongly it is perceived fifty years ago and suicide bombings were as the global ‘terror’ in the 21st century. On inconceivable. And today, it seems that we are September 11, 2001 one of the most horrific events confronted with both on a daily basis. So what in US history took place. Prior to the attacks, happened to bring Islamic radicalism to the forefront combating terrorism did not feature highly in the US of global politics? There are many factors involved policy. It was only after the September 11 attacks, and undoubtedly one of the primary factors is Western the threat of terrorism became apparent. These imperialism. The most recent consequence of this attacks changed the way in which terrorism and process is the jihadist group known as the Islamic counter-terrorism were perceived. For many, these State, which emerged out of the chaos created by attacks marked a clear shift in the perception of the US invasion on Iraq. In order to understand the Radical Islam and social interaction.25 It became clear rise of the Islamic State, we must briefly focus on to the US if they neglect the political situation in the history of Western intervention in West Asia to countries such as Afghanistan and Iraq, the terrorist reveal that Islamic radicalism is not a unique threat to them may increase. Such countries were phenomenon. Following the terrorist attacks on becoming a safe haven in which terrorist groups such September 11, 2001, the United States launched its as Al-Qaeda could develop and they were creating war on terror and targeted the Islamic extremist group a base against the US and its allies. The immediate in Afghanistan.28 Moreover, the Bush administration response of the US was launching the War on Terror sought to exploit the September 11 attacks to justify and the Taliban was given an ultimatum to either give action against Saddam Hussein of Iraq. Top Bush up Osama Bin Laden or to undergo war. This was administration officials launched a massive motivated by the idea that the US would limit the propaganda and misinformation campaign to convince threat of terrorism and prevent Afghanistan to the American people that Saddam Hussein was becoming a breeding ground for extremism. With directly involved in the September 11 attacks and America’s allies, including the UK, the war in linked to al-Qaeda, both of which were untrue. They Afghanistan was launched in 2001. Further, the Iraq also portrayed Saddam Hussein as a serious threat War started two years later, at that time, those who to the region because he possessed weapons of mass supported the War often cited the need to combat destruction, which was another lie. In March 2003, terrorism in its justification as well as the creation of former President George W. Bush ordered the US a democratic political system in Afghanistan as well military to invade Iraq without authorization from the as in Iraq.26 The US and UK claimed the war in Iraq UN Security Council and it was a direct violation of was necessary to halt the threat of weapons of mass international law. The military occupation gave rise

st Emergence of Radical Islam in the 21 Century: Challenges for the West 71 to an insurgency that sought to oust the foreign Challenges occupying troops. Prior to the US invasion, there had In fact, the violence emanating from parts of the been no Islamic extremist groups operating in the Muslim world does not mean that violence is a product country. But the emergence of uprising and the post- of the religion. The extremist violence that has invasion chaos opened the door for al-Qaeda to enter overtaken a majority of Muslim countries, including Iraq.29 Following the invasion, the United States Iraq, Syria, Yemen and Pakistan, is the product of dismantled Saddam Hussein’s military and many of complex political and social circumstances. Religion, the unemployed former officers joined the insurgency. certainly, comes into play not because of the nature Some of these military officers conspired and broke of the faith but because of the way it is abused, off from the faction of al-Qaeda in Iraq to form the manipulated and hijacked. To grasp this complexity, Islamic State. The new extremist group sought to it is important to understand three areas: the role of establish an Islamic Caliphate in northern Iraq and global politics that have destabilized the West Asia Syria where it grew dramatically stronger and began region and inflamed tensions; how dysfunctional states to consolidate control over territory. The Islamic State create an opening for extremism; and finally, how has had significant success recruiting disenchanted religion fills the gaps created by international and Muslims from around the world to join its ranks and domestic uncertainties. In doing so, it is important to to carry out terrorist attacks in Western nations. note that Western states have played a significant Western imperialist policies in West Asia had given role in the rise of extremist groups.33 The emergence rise to Islamic radicalism. But the rise of the Islamic of the Islamic State has more to do with US foreign State should not have come as a surprise to anyone. policy in the regional politics of West Asia, how its The former Bush administration’s illegal invasion of military interventions have changed the region than Iraq laid the foundation for the emergence of the radical Islam. The US invasion on Iraq and Islamic State or radical Islam in the region as well as subsequently dissolving the , for in the world which poses terrible challenges for the example, left hundreds of thousands of well-trained West.30 soldiers bitter and unemployed. Many of these officers have supported the militants with the military expertise In addition to that, in the regional politics of required to conquer territory as quickly as they have. West Asia, Saudi Arabia has spent billions dollar Another example of the United States’ role in Israel’s promoting its extremist version of Islam to combat illegal building of settlements, there has been no the rising power of Shi’a Crescent under the action, despite numerous UN resolutions passed, leadership of Islamic Republic of Iran to ensure that because of US intervention on its behalf. As for state- the Islamic world is primarily Sunni. In recent years, level problems, domestic power struggles and the ancient Shi’a-Sunni conflict in Iraq, Yemen, and government dysfunction across the West Asia have Syria and throughout the West Asia has grown more also opened the door for violent extremist groups.34 overt, bitter and extreme violent. After the Iran-US It is the failure of the regional states to provide its nuclear deal, Riyadh fears a newly enriched Tehran citizens basic rights and services which allowed non will be more aggressive in spreading its Shi’a doctrine state actors to emerge and take control. Failures were and promoting Shi’a led revolutions in the regional not only limited to economic needs but also lack of states.31 Therefore, Iran and Saudi Arabia are political inclusion, freedom of expression, and the right competing with each other and a fight for domination to live with dignity has been primary factors of youth of the region between Saudi Arabia and Iran has radicalization and violence. A more recent example hijacked Islam and they are using their sectarian can be seen in Iraq and Syria: the Islamic State and differences to legitimize and strengthen their positions al-Nusra Front have offered services and material in their spheres of influence. Their use of Islam and benefits to lure citizens into joining the fight against its religious discourses in favor and against each other the governments. In this context, religious spaces often has made ISIS, Hezbollah and the Houthis more become important and powerful. Radical groups not relevant for advancing their national interests.32 only offer services such as employment, they also offer a utopian ideology that extends beyond the rhetoric of suicide and sacrifice to promise an ideal

72 World Focus February 2017 state built on strict principles of Islam. In turn, Islam differences between Shi’a and Sunni, ethnic and becomes as a tool for violent groups to attract support sectarian conflicts, violation of Human rights and the for their causes.35 For Muslims in these environments, Palestinian problem, globalization and socio-cultural the mosque became the sole channel for express their and political changes and most importantly, distorted policies and the weekly sermon the only place for and manipulated versions of Islam, which tried to fill dissidents to reach the people. Confrontations such the vacuum and gave a new task to the frustrated as the invasion of Afghanistan and Iraq have sparked youth to lead an ideal life with this new version of the creation of more extremist groups that poses Islam. Those Muslims believe in this version of Islam serious challenges to the geo-political interests of the are more radical and want to establish Islamic State west in the region. Those who claim Islam as a violent in the World under the leadership of the deputy of religion ignore the overwhelming majority of adherents God. to the faith and there are approximately 1.6 billion Muslims worldwide who live peacefully. They know From the beginning, Islam is known as a that using religion as a justification for violence is religion of peace and humanity and now the holy nothing new. If the tenets of Islam could truly cause image of Islam has been abused, distorted and hijacked violence, all these Muslims would be joining the Islamic to secure their vested interests by the leaders of the State instead of risking their lives to stop it. Now it western countries, media, and the various versions makes clear that violence committed by radical suggested by Muslim and non-Muslim scholars or Islamists is not because of the faith rather their clerics. The politics of low level is playing on Islam actions and ideology are based upon the manipulated to malign the sacrosanct image of the world’s second basic principles of Islam, Quran and Hadith.36 largest religion. Ernst Bloch says rightly that “Religion in a situation of crisis could become more powerful Conclusion than the economic infrastructure, the basis.” In sum, the emergence of radical Islam in the 21st century is based upon the western imperialist policies End Notes 1 http://pure.au.dk/portal/files/22326292/What_is_Islamism_Totalitarian in the West Asian region, consequently, which has _Movements_article.pdf 2 http://m.clarionproject.org/understanding-islamism/islamic-extremism posed terrible challenges at the regional as well as 3 http://m.clarionproject.org/understanding-islamism/islamic-extremism 4 http://pure.au.dk/portal/files/22326292/What_is_Islamism_ international level. Moreover, the United States of Totalitarian_Movements_article.pdf 5 https://kestaneagacikahvesi.files.wordpress.com/2012/01/the-future-of-political-islam.pdf America is only responsible for creating the deadly 6 https://www.law.upenn.edu/live/news/6593-the-origins-evolution-and-impact-of-the-term/ news/international-blog.php mess in this region, and its blunder mistake was to 7 https://www.law.upenn.edu/live/news/6593-the-origins-evolution-and-impact-of-the-term/ news/international-blog.php remove Saddam Hussein of Iraq from power, and 8 https://www.law.upenn.edu/live/news/6593-the-origins-evolution-and-impact-of-the-term/ news/international-blog.php the creation of Islamic State is also an outcome of 9 http://www.dailykos.com/story/2016/6/14/1538623/-About-that-Radical-Islam-Thing 10http://www.defenseone.com/ideas/2016/11/coming-war-radical-islam/133479/ American geo-political intervention in the regional ?oref=defenseone_today_nl 11 http://www.theatlantic.com/past/issues/90sep/rage.htm politics of West Asia. Islamic State is fighting a war 12 http://www.theatlantic.com/past/issues/90sep/rage.htm 13 http://www.theatlantic.com/past/issues/90sep/rage.htm with the Shi’a governments of Iraq and Syria and a 14 http://www.theatlantic.com/past/issues/90sep/rage.htm 15 https://www.theatlantic.com/past/issues/90sep/rage2.htm proxy war with the Islamic Republic of Iran, and the 16 http://blog.talkingphilosophy.com/?p=9058 17 http://www.civitas.org.uk/pdf/cs29.pdf Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and Qatar both are 18 http://www.civitas.org.uk/pdf/cs29.pdf 19http://cir.au.dk/fileadmin/site_files/filer_statskundskab/subsites/cir/pdf-filer/ supporting weapons, supplied by United States, and H%C3%A6fte_5_Tibi.pdf 20 http://www.usip.org/publications/2015/11/09/islam-religion-of-violence financial aid to the Islamic State. Indeed, this is a 21 http://www.usip.org/publications/2015/11/09/islam-religion-of-violence 22 http://www.usip.org/publications/2015/11/09/islam-religion-of-violence proxy war between Saudi Arabia and Islamic 23 http://www.usip.org/publications/2015/11/09/islam-religion-of-violence 24 http://www.usip.org/publications/2015/11/09/islam-religion-of-violence Republic of Iran for regional dominance and the cost 25 http://www.e-ir.info/2011/09/20/the-rise-of-radical-islam-and-effectiveness-of-counter- terrorism-in-a-global-age/ of this bloody war is paying by the innocent people of 26 http://www.e-ir.info/2011/09/20/the-rise-of-radical-islam-and-effectiveness-of-counter- terrorism-in-a-global-age/ Iraq and Syria. 27 http://www.e-ir.info/2011/09/20/the-rise-of-radical-islam-and-effectiveness-of-counter- terrorism-in-a-global-age/ 28 http://www.counterpunch.org/2016/03/30/islamic-extremism-is-a-product-of-western- imperialism/ The emergence of radical Islam is also based 29 http://www.counterpunch.org/2016/03/30/islamic-extremism-is-a-product-of-western- imperialism/ upon several factors such as Muslims are angry and 30 http://www.counterpunch.org/2016/03/30/islamic-extremism-is-a-product-of-western- imperia frustrated because of their governments’ policies and lism/ 31 http://theweek.com/articles/570297/how-saudi-arabia-exports-radical-islam 32 http://www.dailysabah.com/op-ed/2015/06/03/islam-victim-of-the-saudi-iranian-rivalry states response were based upon brutal suppression, 33 http://www.usip.org/publications/2015/11/09/islam-religion-of-peace 34 http://www.usip.org/publications/2015/11/09/islam-religion-of-peace US intervention for democracy promotion, ideological 35 http://www.usip.org/publications/2015/11/09/islam-religion-of-peace 36 http://www.usip.org/publications/2015/11/09/islam-religion-of-peace

st Emergence of Radical Islam in the 21 Century: Challenges for the West 73 Conflict and Peace in Mindanao: A Case Study of Ethno-religious Secessionist Dynamics Dr. Mohor Chakraborty

The year 2014 will be commemorated in the history community, leaving an indelible mark on its socio- of Southeast Asia in general and the Philippines political, economic and developmental milieu. The in particular as the year marking the almost- Moros (composed principally of thirteen indigenous penultimate step towards the finale of a protracted groups, namely Badjao, Molbog, Iranun, Palawani, separatist movement in the southern island of Jamamapun, Sama, Kalagan, Sangil, Kalibugan, Mindanao, since the “Comprehensive Agreement Tausug, Maguindanao, Yakan and Maranao) believed on the Bangsamoro” was signed in Manila in to possess a sense of special cultural identity distinct March. Conceived as a nationalist struggle, aimed from the rest of the Philippines, have been demanding at the establishment of an autonomous homeland independence from the country ever since the Moro for the thirteen ethno-linguistic groups comprising movement was systematically organized under the the Philippine Muslims (‘Moros’), the historical leadership of Nur Misuari, the co-founder of the Moro roots of this movement run deep into the labyrinths National Liberation Front (MNLF) in the late 1960s. of the colonial era. As a dominant group with a Subsequently, with the disintegration of MNLF in 1978, five-century old civilizational heritage, the Moros its co-founder, Hashim Salamat formed the Moro account for about 20% of the entire population Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) as its splinter. Since of the Philippines and were originally then, these two branches have been pursuing their concentrated in the southern provinces of the demand on separate pedestals for Bangsamoro or an country. The legacy of the colonial policies independent Muslim Moro homeland, on the basis of created the matrix of mutual suspicion and core nationalist ideals, common (Muslim) descent, animosity among the three principal ethno- corporate identity and shared religious heritage. The religious factions, which found reflection in roots of this separatist movement can be traced back intermittent wars and feuds. This plunged the to Spain’s colonization of the Philippines in the 16th southern islands of this country into a vicious Century, when feelings of deprivation and exploitation cycle of poverty and underdevelopment, forming of the Moros were fuelled by the migration and the bedrock of subsequent rebellions and settlement of Christians and non-Filipinos in the insurgent movements, snowballing into vociferous southern islands in the post-1898 scenario, after the demands for secession and autonomy. The Spanish colonizers were vanquished by the movement has been dealt with quite deftly by the Americans. The period of colonial occupation of the successive administrations in Manila. Presently, Philippines (Spanish occupation from 1565 to 1898, under the leadership of President Rodrigo Duterte, followed by American occupation from 1898 to 1946) significant strides in the quest for taking the more had an impact on the socio-political, cultural and than four-decade old peace process close to its psychological framework of the Moros, instilling a logical fruition is observable. The present case sense of “Morohood” or a unique ethno-religious study is a unique exemplar of how sustained consciousness, built on Islam. The rise of Islamic administrative efforts entail conflict resolution and political institutions in Southeast Asia is a 15th Century can be flagged as a peace-study model for phenomenon and the Sulu Sultanate established the countries both within the Southeast Asian region first central Government in the southern Philippines and beyond. in 1450. At the height of its power in the 18th Century, the stronghold of this Sultanate encompassed The history of the southern Philippine island Zamboanga, Basilan, Sulu, Tawi-tawi, Palawan and of Mindanao has been interspersed with the ebullient Sabah. The inhabitants of this Sultanate earned the demand for autonomy led by the Muslim Moro title “Moro” from the Spanish colonizers – an epithet 74 World Focus February 2017 that evolved into a positive symbol of national identity, systematic expression in the Muslim Independence depicting the Moros as the first nationalists of the Movement (MIM), formed in May 1968, demanding Philippines.1 As a dominant group with a five-century outright secession of Mindanao, Sulu and Palawan old civilizational heritage, the Moros account for about (MinSuPala) regions from the Philippine 20% of the entire population of the Philippines and Government’s control. However, the MIM could not were originally concentrated in the southern provinces consolidate itself as a popular secessionist movement of the country. The other dominant religious groups, and its public political actions were limited to “Lumad” or “native” or non-Muslim indigenous pronouncements in the form of manifestos and people and the “Dumagat” or Christian settlers, declarations of policy. Notwithstanding the MIM’s constitute the other demographically dominant groups. operational failure, it was successful in forming the The concentration of the principal demographic groups groundwork for the MNLF’s establishment in 1969 in the southern Philippines, as an offshoot of colonial under the leadership of Hashim Salamat and Nur policies created the matrix of mutual suspicion and Misuari, calling for the creation of a ‘Bangsa Moro animosity, which found reflection in intermittent wars Republik’ (Moro National Republic) encompassing and feuds. This plunged the southern islands of this Mindanao, the Sulu Archipelago and Palawan Island. country into a vicious cycle of poverty and The trajectory of the MNLF’s demands underwent underdevelopment, forming the bedrock of violent transformation in the context of the imposition subsequent rebellions and insurgent movements, of martial law by President Ferdinand Marcos (tenure snowballing into vociferous demands for secession 30 December 1965 – 25 February 1986) on 21 and autonomy.2 Given this backdrop, this article September 1972. Martial law was clamped citing the analyzes the trends of the Moro-led separatist existence of a Muslim “secessionist movement” in movement, the policy responses of the successive the Philippine south as the principal rationale. Philippine governments (from President Ferdinand Naturally, Marcos’ declaration of martial law catalyzed Marcos’ tenure: 1965 to the current President, the conflict as it fuelled further violence and tensions Rodrigo Duterte) concluding with the present status in the region, particularly since the Front began of the quandary. carrying out violent attacks.

Germination of the Moro Problem In a bid to stem the tide of the movement, After independence of the Philippines on 4 July 1946, Marcos worked towards resolving the Moro problem the Moro Sultanates were incorporated with the and the signing of the Tripoli Agreement with the Philippine Republic, notwithstanding the relentless MNLF in December 1976 was a significant demands for autonomy put forward by the Moro achievement. Essentially an Agreement on a cease- leaders, denying them the provision of democratic fire and tentative terms for pacific settlement, it laid consultation. The incorporation entailed certain out the general principles for Muslim autonomy in administrative modifications like the establishment of the Philippine south (encompassing Basilan, Sulu, provincial and municipal Governments and imposition Tawi-Tawi, Zamboanga del Sur, Zamboanga del of a new legal system, which undermined the status Norte, North Cotabato, South Cotabato, of the traditional leaders, dislocated the authority and Maguindanao, Sultan Kudarat, Lanao del Norte, communication infrastructure, besides negating the Lanao del Sur, Davao del Sur, Palawan and all cities traditional judicial functions of the village elders. Since and villages situated in these areas) within the realm the policies of the nascent Republic facilitated the of the sovereignty and territorial integrity of the migration of the Filipino Christian settlers to the south, Republic of the Philippines, besides extending the right particularly the Visayas and Luzon, the Christian to set up their own Courts and the right of migrants not only outnumbered and dominated by the representation and participation in the Central Moros in the socio-economic and political spheres, Government and in all other organs of the State.4 but also fuelled their increased marginalization and Although the provisions of this Agreement were underdevelopment in their ancestral homeland.3 This considered favourable to MNLF demands, the cease- stream of exploitation of the Moros aggravated their fire effective from January 1977 was generally discontent, which found its initial organized and successful for about nine months, collapsing over

Conflict and Peace in Mindanao: A Case Study of Ethno religious Secessionist Dynamics 75 widely divergent interpretations of the key terms of Development Council (SPCDC) to govern the MNLF the Agreement, which were considered vague and areas of autonomy under Nur Misuari was submitted. unrealistic. The failure of finalizing the implementation Although rejected initially by the MNLF, alleging of the Tripoli Agreement facilitated the emergence incongruence with the provisions of the Tripoli of more radical insurgent groups like MILF in 1978, Agreement, President Ramos succeeded in formed as a splinter of the MNLF. The two groups negotiating with the Front in June 1996, which agreed differed on the very principle of governance: while to establish the SPCDC as the transitional mechanism the MNLF was more secular and recognized the to implement the Tripoli Agreement. This initiative Philippine Constitution, the MILF wanted a State fully culminated in the signing of the Final Peace Agreement governed by the Koran and Islamic law. In the on the Implementation of the Tripoli Agreement, in backdrop of widespread violence in the late 1970s Manila on 2 September 1996 between the and early 1980s, Marcos attempted to reinstitute the Government and the MNLF, marking the most goals of the Agreement, calling for the creation of an remarkable achievement of President Ramos’ tenure. Autonomous Region in southern Philippines. The basic provisions of this Agreement were: the However, his proclamation was struck down by a establishment of a Special Zone of Peace and plebiscite and the baton of the peace process was Development in Southern Philippines (SZOPD), the passed on to the administration of Marcos’ successor, establishment of the Southern Philippine Council for President Corazon Aquino. Peace and Development (SPCPD) and allowing the local government units in the area including the Nascent Steps to Dispute-settlement: the Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao to continue Legacies of President Corazon Aquino and to exist and exercise their functions in accordance President Fidel Ramos with existing laws. Nur Misuari was made the When Corazon Aquino (tenure 25 February 1986 – Chairman of the SPCDP and was also elected the 30 June 1992) took over as President in February Governor of ARMM. Thus, by appointing Misuari in 1986, her initial endeavours in facilitating resolution charge of both institutions, it was believed that the of the included the restoration of endeavour would gain recognition among the Moro democratic institutions, pursuit of a national community, demonstrating the potential benefit of the reconciliation programme and the resumption of Agreement. The cornerstone of this Agreement, the negotiations with MNLF with the Tripoli Agreement creation of an autonomous region in Mindanao, was as its reference point. Within a year, she was confirmed by a plebiscite in 1999. However, by the successful in reaching a cease-fire with MNLF, which end of 1998, the peace process had been weakened relinquished its goal of complete independence and owing to the failure of the transitional autonomous accepted the Government’s offer of autonomy structures to prove themselves, since they were instead. The new Philippine Constitution of 1987 debilitated by mismanagement, corruption and the ultimately honoured the Tripoli Agreement and inability to address the issue of land rights and access provided for autonomous regions in Muslim areas of to resources, the responsibility for which could be Mindanao. Eventually, in August 1989, the Aquino accorded partly to the lack of commitment of the administration approved Republic Act 6734 that MNLF leadership.6 Notwithstanding these limitations, created the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao the MNLF viewed the Agreement as a possibility of (ARMM) as a response to their clamour for regaining moral ascendancy among the Moros. autonomy, and even gave the right to Mindanao and Therefore, the Final Peace Agreement was an Sulu to avoid membership of the ARMM if they so important footstep towards resolving the long-standing voted in the plebiscite of November 1989.5 conflict.

With Fidel Ramos (tenure 30 June 1992 - 30 New Wave in Conflict Resolution: The June 1998) succeeding Corazon Aquino as the Presidential Tenures of Gloria Macapagal- President, he resumed negotiations with the MNLF Arroyo and Benigno Aquino III in 1993, following which, a “compromise proposal” Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo’s (tenure 20 January 2001 intended to set up a Southern Philippines Consultative – 30 June 2010) ascension to Presidency of the

76 World Focus February 2017 Philippines in January 2001 took off with the signing of two agreements: a Joint Communiqué that Government’s unilateral declaration of cease-fire. provided an “ad hoc joint action group” of the Arroyo’s efforts reversed the “all-out-war” policy Philippine Government and MILF forces to isolate undertaken by her immediate predecessor, Joseph and interdict “criminal syndicates and kidnap-for- Estrada (tenure 30 June 1998 – 20 January 2001) ransom groups” and the Agreement on “Implementing whose strategy of launching a military campaign had Guidelines on the Humanitarian, Rehabilitation and resulted in enhanced pursuit of violence. A couple of Development Aspects of the Tripoli Agreement on important events took place during the initial period Peace of 2001” (signed respectively on 6 and 7 May, of Arroyo’s tenure which may be briefly recounted 2002 in Cyberjaya and Putrajaya, Malaysia). as follows: first, on 31 March 2001, the Republic Act Eventually, the First Exploratory Talks on the Final 9054 (“An Act to Strengthen and Expand the Draft of the Peace Accord was initiated between Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao”) lapsed the two sides in Kuala Lumpur in March 2003, with a into law, amending the Organic Act of the ARMM to further commitment for a “mutual secession of provide for the region’s expansion from the original hostilities”. Besides, the provision for a Muslim four provinces under its jurisdiction.7 Secondly, the Ancestral Domain was laid down as the prominent Tripoli Agreement on Peace was concluded between agendum of the next round of Exploratory Talks.9 the Philippine Government and MILF on 22 June 2001, Following up on this pursuit, a Memorandum of constituting the roadmap for the initiation of Agreement on the Muslim Ancestral Domain (MoA- successive agreements for ushering in peace. Another AD) was signed on 5 August 2008 in Kuala Lumpur, significant step taken by President Arroyo was to re- within the scaffold of which, the “Bangsamoro unite the MNLF and MILF at the negotiating table Juridical Entity (BJE)” was accorded the “authority for signing a Reunification Agreement on 29 October and jurisdiction over the Ancestral Domain and 2001. The three-point agenda of this meeting aimed Ancestral lands, including both alienable and non- at strengthening the unity and cooperation of the alienable lands encompassed within their homeland MNLF and the MILF so as to hasten the process of and ancestral territory, as well as the delineation of resolution of the Moro problem. Although hailed by ancestral domain/lands of the Bangsamoro people both Misuari and Hashim Salamat as a “major turning located therein.”10 Although the signing of the MoA- point in our common quest for total peace, AD paved the way for the conclusion of the Final development and freedom of the Bangsamoro Peace Agreement by October 2008, its trajectory was people”8, the Agreement, unfortunately, fell apart not devoid of a fair share of obstacles. Unfortunately, barely a month later when Nur Misuari tried to lobby the MoA-AD was left in the lurch following the for an extension of his term after the 2001 ARMM Supreme Court’s verdict against it. Notwithstanding elections, and was arrested subsequently. this impediment, President Arroyo took a significant step by signing the “Mindanao Development Authority In the wake of Misuari’s arrest, the MNLF Act (MinDa)” or Republic Act 9996 on 17 February regenerated into a spent force, paving the way for 2010 “to accelerate the socio-economic growth of the MILF to emerge as the largest, the most potent Mindanao, increasing its trade, tourism and and influential militant group in the Philippines fighting investments, encouraging private enterprise and for the cause of a Bangsamoro Republik. The most advancing efforts towards peace and development.”11 important among the MILF’s demands at that juncture Mindful of the fact that the neglect of Mindanao’s was the call for self-governance and a constitutional economic development was the principal contributing amendment for creating a Moro ‘sub-state’, whereby factor to violence, separatism and widespread poverty, a Bangsamoro Basic Law would be crafted, the MinDA ended five decades of prolonged waiting manifesting the highest expression of the Moros’ right for the creation of a Mindanao-wide body dedicated to exercise self-determination without jeopardizing the to peace and development efforts that the region had national sovereignty and territorial integrity of the longed for. In sum then, notwithstanding the major Philippines. President Arroyo was also successful in hindrances countenanced by President Arroyo resuming the Fourth Round of Formal Peace Talks towards initiating and sustaining the peace process in with MILF on 6 May 2002, which resulted in the the southern Philippines, a major achievement of her

Conflict and Peace in Mindanao: A Case Study of Ethno religious Secessionist Dynamics 77 tenure was the signing of the Republic Act 9996, (ARMM)”14 thereby bringing the MILF a step closer aimed at addressing the vicious cycle of poverty and to realizing its dream of establishing the Bangsamoro regional underdevelopment, the very factors in which as an independent political entity. Subsequently, in the seeds of separatism, dissent and violence were April 2013, Aquino issued an executive order to germane. establish the Bangsamoro Transitional Commission (BTC) for the purpose of drafting the implementing The baton of the next lap of this marathon legislation, viz. Bangsamoro Basic Law (BBL). peace process was passed on by President Arroyo to her successor, Benigno Aquino III (tenure 30 June The most significant contribution of President 2010 – 30 June 2016) who resumed peace parleys Benigno Aquino III to the peace process was the with the MILF in February 2011, after the latter signing of the Comprehensive Agreement on the announced that it no longer demanded secession from Bangsamoro (CAB) with the MILF on 27 March the Philippines. This paved the way for Aquino’s 2014. The CAB is a comprehensive, holistic document unprecedented meeting with the MILF Chairman, fortifying the commitments spelt out in the Ceasefire Ibrahim Al Haj Murad in Japan on 5 August 2011, in Agreement between the Government and the MILF a bid to fast-track the peace negotiations and ensure (1997), the Memorandum of Agreement on the that any agreement(s) undertaken be implemented Ancestral Domain Aspect of the Government of the within the remaining five years of his administration.12 Republic of the Philippines (GRP) - MILF Tripoli Agreement on Peace of 2001 (2008) and the Unfortunately, this meeting could not guide Declaration of Continuity of Negotiation (2010). the peace process immediately to its destination. In Therefore, this momentous Agreement provided the spite of this failure, President Benigno Aquino, in a building blocks of the political framework for the sustained bid to salvage the stalled peace talks, MILF-led “more powerful, better-funded and brought the MILF to the negotiating table once again, potentially larger” autonomous region, to be christened which resulted in the signing of a Joint Statement “Bangsamoro”, replacing the ARMM, and planned between the Government and the MILF in April 2012, to be set up by 2016, following the Philippine facilitated by Malaysia. The Joint Statement contained Congress’ approval. The Comprehensive Agreement ten principles to guide both parties in addressing the was hailed by both the contracting parties. President prospects and challenges to final peace in southern Benigno Aquino proclaimed it as a “testament to how Philippines. The Joint Statement scrapped the far trust and earnestness can move humanity ARMM, supplanting it with “Bangsamoro” as the forward”, paving the “path that can lead to a New Autonomous Political Entity (NPE). In addition permanent change in Muslim Mindanao.” He further to being identified as “commitments that can be declared this Agreement as the torch-bearer of “how properly accommodated by our current legal and righteousness, reason and goodwill are the mightiest political realities”, the principles focused on power- of instruments in ending conflict”, bearing testimony sharing and wealth-sharing between the national to the fact that “the search for common ground is Government and NPE, and reserved defence and infinitely more productive than hegemonic ambition.” external security, foreign policy, coinage and monetary Besides, he hoped that the Agreement would facilitate policy, citizenship and naturalization, postal service, MILF’s shedding its identity as a “military force” by common market and global trade for competence of transforming itself into a “political entity”, casting its the national Government.13 The signing of the Joint stake in the democratic process by “vying for seats Statement paved the way for the sealing of the in the Bangsamoro elections”.15 Subsequently, the “Framework Agreement on the Bangsamoro” (FAB) MILF formed the United Bangsamoro Justice Party in October 2012, which was acknowledged by (UBJP) to contest the Bangsamoro elections. President Aquino as outlining the “political settlement” between the Government and MILF, declaring that Following up the positive momentum, the “the status quo is unacceptable and that the President submitted the revised BBL to the Philippine Bangsamoro shall be established to replace the Congress for passage in September 2014, with the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao goal of getting it passed by the first quarter of the

78 World Focus February 2017 next year, since it required a plebiscite, the Ebrahim, Ghadzali Jaafar and Abul Khayr Alonto, establishment of an interim Government and the MILF Chairman, Vice Chairman and MNLF transformation of MILF into a legal political party, Chairman respectively on a common platform in June which he wanted to accomplish before the end of his 2016, with the purpose of harmonizing previous peace tenure in May 2016. However, the Philippine Congress agreements they had signed with the Government. failed to pass the BBL in December 2015, proximate Furthermore, after assuming power as the President reasons being the infamous Mamasapano incident of of the Philippines, Duterte’s inaugural State of the 25 January 2015, when the MILF ambushed a Special Nation Address of 25 July 2016 exhorted the Congress Action Force unit; incongruence over the to “pass it (BBL) minus the Constitutional issues that constitutionality of some of the provisions of the BBL are contentious” subsequent to inserting a provision and the fact that the negotiating process had been of federalism in the proposed legislation, which he dominated by a single group, the MILF. The said could only be restored after consultations with Mamasapano incident evidently demonstrated that the acknowledged leaders of MILF. Besides, he notwithstanding President Benigno Aquino’s underscored that a consensus among MILF and assurance that the failure to pass the implementing MNLF leaders, as well as other stakeholders was legislation did not render the CAB redundant, the Front the only panacea to ending the cycle of violence, had no legal obligation to disarm, which further underdevelopment and struggle in the Philippine enraged the Congress and shifted the destination of south.18 the elusive peace process by many more miles. In any case, despite the Congress’ inability to complete The most recent reflection of Duterte’s its deliberations on the BBL, there had been significant efforts of catapulting this arduous peace process to progress in a number of areas, including the completion the stage of implementation is the agreement between of the work of the Transitional Justice and the Government and MILF, reached on 14 August Reconciliation Commission, as an outcome of which, 2016. It calls for the expansion of membership of the the MILF chief negotiator, Mohagher Iqbal was BTC by including leaders of the MNLF, officials of determined to pursue the settlement relentlessly with the ARMM and other sectors in Mindanao, attempting the next Government in power.16 to represent adequately all sectors in the Bangsamoro in the process of crafting the charter of a new Present Status of the Peace Process: Challenges autonomous setup in Mindanao. Towards this end, and the Path Ahead the concerned panels have recommended the issuance When Rodrigo Duterte succeeded Benigno Aquino of a fresh executive order by the Office of the as the President of the Philippines on 30 June 2016, President for constituting the BTC with expanded the MILF had been highly optimistic about pushing membership. The reconstituted BTC will come up the legislation through in the Congress under his with another enabling law that will hopefully pass the helmsman-ship. The optimism was primarily 17th Congress even before the 1987 Constitution is generated by Duterte’s Presidential campaigns, which subjected to amendments to accommodate a shift to had echoed his resolve to “correct the historical a federal form of Government. 19 Under the present injustices committed against the Moro people”, circumstances, it is evident that the Philippines has assuring them that the Mindanao conflict would find never been closer to achieving the desired destination niche on top of his agenda. While Duterte of peace than it is today. One can only hope that acknowledged the BBL as the “template” for the even in the face of grave provocations, the peace country, he declared that he would only push for its process, in its implementation phase, reaches its prized passage if the Congress embraced federalism, and destination with success. Towards this end, the present thereafter, if he was satisfied with its progress, only administration must be mindful of President Benigno then would BBL be incorporated into the Constitution Aquino’s words, as he reminded “those who wish to as an organic law of the Philippines.17 sow divisiveness for self-interest and those who continue to wield arms to pursue their own agendas, In this context, Duterte succeeded in meeting so many people have suffered for so long, so many the MILF and MNLF leaders, namely Murad of our stakeholders have worked so hard to arrive at

Conflict and Peace in Mindanao: A Case Study of Ethno religious Secessionist Dynamics 79 this point: I will not let peace be snatched from my on Peace of 2001“, 5 August 2008, Presidential people”.20 The future of the peace process is Communications Development and Strategic Planning contingent on the able leadership of President Duterte Office, Government of the Philippines, Manila, http:// pcdspo.gov.ph/downloads/2012/10/MOA-%E2%80%93- as well as the peaceful, accommodating mindset of Ancestral-Domain-August-5-2008.pdf the principal stake-holding factions, such that this ), [Accessed on 26 December 2016] protracted conflict can be brought to its logical fruition. 11 Republic Act No. 9996, Mindanao Development Only then would this case-study be able to leave its Authority (MinDA) Act of 2010, 17 February 2010, mark not only as a unique exemplar of how sustained Congress of the Philippines, Republic of the hilippines, Manila, http://www.gov.ph/2010/02/17/republic-act-no- administrative efforts entail conflict resolution, but also 9996 [Accessed on 26 December, 2016) as a peace-study model for countries both within the 12 N. Bordadora, “Aquino, MILF Chief Talk Peace in Southeast Asian region and beyond. Tokyo”, Philippine Daily Inquirer, 6 August 2011, http:/ /newsinfo.inquirer.net/36947/aquino-milf-chief-talk-peace- Endnotes in-tokyo [Accessed on 26 September, 2016] 13 1 Hannbal Bara, The History of the Muslim in the “Joint Statement and Decision Points of the Government th Philippines,National Commission for Culture and the Arts, of the Philippines and MILF on the 27 1999, http://ncca.gov.ph/subcommissions/ Round of Exploratory Talks“, 24 April 2012, Official subcommission-on-cultural-communities-and-traditional- GazetteGovernment of the Philippines, Manila, http:// arts-sccta/central-cultural-communities/the-history-of- www.gov.ph/2012/04/24/joint-statement-and-decision- the-muslim-in-the-philippines/ [Accessed on 19 December, points-of-the-gph-and-milf-on-the-27th-round-of- 2016] exploratory-talks/ [Accessed on 26 December, 2016] 14 2 Ronald E. Dolin, Philippines: A Country Study, “Framework Agreement on the Bangsamoro“,15 October US Library of Congress, 1991, http://countrystudies.us/ 2012, Official Gazette, Government of the Philippines, philippines/ [Accessed on 19 December, 2016] Manila, http://www.gov.ph/the-2012-framework- 3 Patricia Abinales and DonnaAmoroso, State and Society agreement-on-the-bangsamoro/ [Accessed on 27 in the Philippines, Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, December, 2016] 15 2005, p. 182 Speech of President Benigno Aquino III during the 4 Text of the Tripoli Agreement, 23 December 1976, Signing Ceremony of the Comprehensive Agreement on Government of the Philippines, Manila, http://www.gov.ph/ the Bangsamoro, 27 March 2014, Government of the 1976/12/23/the-tripoli-agreement-december-23-1976 Philippines, Manila, http://www.gov.ph/2014/03/27/ [Accessed on 20 December, 2016] speech-of-president-aquino-during-the-signing-of-the- 5 “Republic Act No. 6734: An Act Providing for an Organic comprehensive-agreement-on-the-bangsamoro Act for the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao“, 1 [Accessed on 28 December, 2016] 16 August 1989, National Economic an J. Maitem, “Congress’ Refusal to Pass BBL ‘Not End of d Development Authority, Cordillera Administrative our World’ – MILF”,Philippine Daily Inquirer,31 January Region, Government of the Philippines, Manila, http:// 2016,http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/760344/congress-refusal- www.car.neda.gov.ph/organic-act-for-the-autonomous- to-pass-bbl-not-end-of-the-world-milf[Accessed on 28 region-in-muslim-mindanao/ [Accessed on 20 December, December, 2016] 17 2016] N. Calleja, “Mindanao will be Priority, Says Duterte”, 6 Jacques Bertrand, “Peace and Conflict in the Southern Philippine Daily Inquirer, 25 April 16, http:// Philippines”, Pacific Affairs, Vol. 73, No. 1, 2000, pp. 45-46 newsinfo.inquirer.net/781450/mindanao-will-be-priority- 7 “Republic Act No. 9054: To Strengthen and Expand the says-duterte [Accessed on 28 December, 2016] 18 Organic Act for the Autonomous Region in Muslim Full Text: President Duterte’s First State of the Nation Mindanao, Amending for the Purpose Republic Act No. Address, 25 July 2016, Press Release, Manila, 6374“, 31 March, 2001, Office of the Presidential Adviser http://www.philstar.com/headlines/2016/07/25/1606702/ on the Peace Process, Office of the Presidentof the full-text-dutertes-2016-state-nation-address [Accessed on Philippines, Government of the Philippines, Manila,http:/ 29 December, 2016] 19 /www.opapp.gov.ph [Accessed on 25 December, 2016] R.D. Rosauro, “Inclusive Bangsamoro Law in the Works 8 “MNLF Unites with MILF”, Official Website of Moro – Dureza”, PhilippineDaily Inquirer, 15 August 2016,http:/ National Liberation Front, 2001, http://www.mnlfnet.com/ /newsinfo.inquirer.net/806318/inclusive-bangsamoro-law- The_Jeddah.htm, [Accessed on 25 December, 2016] in-the-works-dureza#ixzz4NE9hnNyh [Accessed on 9 A. Lingaa, “Reasons behind the Non-signing of the 30December 2016] 20 MOA-AD”, 2010, http://www.hdcentre.org/uploads/ Speech of President Benigno Aquino III during the tx_news/70Monograph4.pdf[Accessed on 25 December, Signing Ceremony of the Comprehensive Agreement on 2016] the Bangsamoro, 27 March 2014, n.15 10 “Memorandum of Agreement on the Ancestral Domain Aspect of the GRP-MILF Tripoli Agreement

80 World Focus February 2017 Terrorist Attacks on Mumbai & Role of Pakistan Dr. Onkar Sadashiv Pawar

Introduction cause death or serious bodily harm to civilians or non- Today, terrorism has become a global phenomenon. combatants with the purpose of intimidating a It has been observed that most of the states in the population or compelling a government or an world are affected by terrorist attacks. They have international organization to do or abstain from doing been challenged by the global non state actors and any act”.3 The general idea about the terrorism is the dispersed fanatical terrorist networks that have use or threat of violence against small numbers to capacity to wage war internationally. It poses a real put large numbers in fear; or as put by ancient Chinese threat to the very survival of humanity and is set to philosopher: “Kill one, frighten 1000”.4 It is a state of deprive humankind of its most highly prized treasure terror, panic and a fear psychosis created by the of peace, security and understanding among nations terrorists in order to force, coerce and blackmail the which are the key underpinnings of sustainable authorities using violent methods to accept their progress.1 Afghanistan and Pakistan are the epicenter demand. Terrorism implies intense fear caused for of terrorist training camps within the region. In the the purpose of coercing or subduing.5 The United Indian context, India has been witnessing a threat to States Department of Defence defines terrorism as her national security from terrorism since the last “The calculated use of unlawful violence or threat of three – decades. Today many Indian states have unlawful violence to inculcate fear; intended to coerce become victims of terrorist attacks. Maharashtra’s or to intimidate governments or societies in the pursuit capital city Mumbai has been targeted eight times of goals that are generally political, religious or since 1993 and every attack have had its own ideological”.6 magnitude. These attacks have succeeded to create a huge impact on our society, economy and media Terrorists generally know what they are too. This paper attempts to find reasons as to why doing. Their selection of target is planned and rational. Mumbai, the capital city of Maharashtra has been They know the effect they seek. Terrorist-violence repeatedly attacked by the terrorists. is neither spontaneous nor random. Terrorism is intended to produce fear; by implication, that fear is Terrorism engendered in someone other than the victim. In other Terrorism has been defined widely by authors and in words, terrorism is a psychological act conducted for international conventions, but still no universal its impact on an audience.7 It appears that bombings, definition has come up. One of the central problems assassinations, armed assaults, kidnappings, in defining terrorism lies with the subjective nature highjacking and hostage incidents involving significant of terror. Because of the complex interplay of the facilities are now becoming more common incidents subjective forces and frequency of irrational individual of terrorist operations.8 It is also important to mention response, it is very difficult to define terror.2 In many that while terrorism is not a new phenomenon; some countries, acts of terrorism are legally distinguished aspects of terrorist activity today are certainly new. from criminal acts done for other purposes. Among Brian Michael Jenkins9 has identified the following the several definitions of terrorism, there are many features of the ‘New Age Terrorism’. ‘First, terrorism that do not recognize the possibility of use of violence has become bloodier. Second, terrorists have by civilians against the state. Others make a distinction developed new financial resources so that they are between lawful and unlawful use of violence. less dependent on state sponsors. Third, terrorists have Ultimately, the distinction is a political judgment. In evolved new models of organization. Fourth, terrorists November 2004, a United Nations Security Council can now wage global campaigns. Fifth, terrorists have report described terrorism as any act “intended to effectively exploited new communication Terrorist Attacks on Mumbai & Role of Pakistan 81 technologies. Sixth, some terrorists have moved Commission of India (AECI), and the Department beyond tactics to strategy, although none of them have of Atomic Energy.15 Moreover, Mumbai is one city in achieved their stated long-range goals’.10 Finally, India, which comes nearest to any western city in its ‘terrorists ignore existing global norms, especially role as the engine of India’s industrialization & those intended to protect innocent civilians’11 modernization. It provides a vision of what the rest of India could be in the years to come if the Geo-Strategic Significance of Mumbai modernization and globalization policies of the Mumbai has immense geo-strategic significance from government continue to make progress. Many foreign the perspective of National Security of the country. investors tend to look at India through the prism of The goal of national security is to defend and secure Mumbai. If internal security in Mumbai is good, they the nation from both internally as well as externally look at internal security in India as a whole as while assuring the well being of citizens of the country. satisfactory. If it is bad in Mumbai they tend to look This implicates that proper efforts have to be taken upon security of life and property in the rest of India to maintain the territorial integrity and to utilize too as worrisome even if this is not necessarily so.16 available resources for the prosperity of the people Mumbai is a city of strategic significance for India. of the country. This has been observed very well in Mumbai is also the mafia capital of India. Many mafia the context of Mumbai. Mumbai apart from being groups of South Asia have their active presence in one of the most developed cities in India is also an Mumbai. One finds the nexus between terrorism and important economic hub of the country, having organized crime most vividly demonstrated in financial institutions like the Reserve Bank of India Mumbai.17 Perhaps this could be the one reason of (RBI), the Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE), the repeated terrorist attacks takes place in Mumbai. This National Stock Exchange of India (NSE), financial directly impacts the economy of the country and sector regulators such as the Securities and Exchange makes strategic installations and the inhabitants Board of India (SEBI) and the corporate headquarters vulnerable to the terrorist attacks. of many Indian companies. Many of India’s numerous conglomerates (including State Bank Of India, Tata Profile of Mumbai Bomb Blasts Group, Goderj and Reliance), and five of the Fortune Till the 11th July 2006 serial blast in Mumbai’s local Global 500 companies are based in Mumbai.12 Many railway, Mumbai, witnessed 32 explosions carried out foreign banks and financial institutions also have by the different terrorist groups. The first explosion branches in Mumbai. Mumbai attracts migrants from was launched at Kalyan railway station in the 1980’s all over India because of the immense employment by the Khalistani extremists.18 Thereafter Mumbai opportunities, and the relatively high standard of living, witnessed six terror attacks, as follows; making the city a potpourri of various communities and cultures. 13 It’s contributes to 10% of all factory 1. Serial blast on 12th March 1993; employment, 25% of industrial output, 33% of all 2. Twin blasts at Ghatkopar on 2nd December 2002; income tax collections, 60% of all customs duty 3. A blast at Mumbai Central station, McDonald’s on collections, 20% of all central excise tax collections, 6th December 2002; 40% of India’s foreign trade and Rupees 4000/- crore 4. A blast outside Ville Parle station on 27th January (US$ 590 billion) in corporate taxes. As of October 2003; 2015 Mumbai’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is 5. A blast in Mulund in local railway on 13th March $278 billion and its per-capita income in 2009 was 2003; Rs.486000 which is almost three times the national 6. Twin blasts at the Gateway of India and Zaveri average.14 It is the base of India’s off shore oil industry. bazaar on August 25th August 2003. It is also home to some of India’s premier scientific and nuclear institutes like Bhabha Automic Research The 11th July railway blasts were the seventh Center (BARC), Nuclear Power Corporation of India of this series.19 The 26th November 2008 terrorist (NPCL), Indian Rare Earth Limited (IREL), Tata attack on Mumbai was a fedayeen attack, which India Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR), Atomic experienced for the first time in a metro city. Before Energy Regulatory Board (AERB), Atomic Energy the 26/11 fedayeen terrorist attack, the 7/11 serial

82 World Focus February 2017 blasts were the second major terrorist attack in Role of Inimical Country Mumbai since 1993. The main targets appear to have While investigating the role of external factors in been chosen for their economic significance such as Mumbai bomb blasts, several evidences were found means of transport, areas of prosperous economic which prove that Lashkar-e-Tayiba (L-e-T), one of activity or a very well known hotel. Like New York the Pakistani components of the International Islamic in the U.S., Mumbai in India has been a tempting Front (IIF), has been responsible for the majority of target for jihadi terrorists since 1993. the terrorist incidents in Jammu and Kashmir (J and K) since 1999 and had shifted their focus to Mumbai Why the Mumbai has been made target by taking advantage of the conducive atmosphere in Terrorists are rational in the choice of their targets sections of the local Muslim community. It is believed because the urban landscape of Mumbai holds that the youth of that particular community were angry significant advantages for them. Population is not only over the Babri Masjid issue and the large-scale killing high in Mumbai but also dense. Inhabitants in cities of Muslims in Gujarat in the year 2002.26 Amongst and towns are more heterogeneous that gives terrorists the L-e-T’s local accomplices in Mumbai, were more space for anonymity.20 For terrorists, logistical alleged cadres of the banned organization Student support like arms, medicines, food and lodging are Islamic Movement of India (SIMI). There were readily available in an urban area like Mumbai. several reports which claimed that many SIMI cadres Manoeuvrability of terrorists is guaranteed by the had gone to Pakistan for training in the 1980’s, long presence of transportation facilities that are both before the Babri Masjid was demolished and some dependable and un-obstructive.21 Metro cities like others from its ranks had been trained in J and K by Mumbai offer soft targets like commuters in the local the terrorist organizations like the Hizbul trains in a fixed schedule, high rise buildings and high Mujahideen.27 According to a senior retired Research profile symbolic targets. By attacking them, the and Analysis Wing (RAW) officer, L-e-T, like the terrorists wish to ensure a point that “Your government other Pakistani components of the IIF, is a Pan-Islamic cannot protect you. No place is safe”. This undermines organization, which advocates the revival of this the credibility of the government as the impact of the Islamic caliphate in the Indian subcontinent. It has its destructive act is more widespread in cities. headquarters in Pakistan, but also has an active co- ordination center in Saudi Arabia which has been Moreover, it has been observed that to create coordinating its activities in Mumbai, South India and desired maximum havoc, terrorists never needed the Eastern province of Srilanka.28 The links of many sophisticated, long-range weapons. The attention of the jihadi terrorists arrested in Mumbai, Hyderabad seeking goal of the terrorists was well served in in Andhra Pradesh and in Tamil Nadu were reportedly Mumbai where the immediate audience was greatest traced to this coordination center in Saudi Arabia. and where representatives of the print and electronic Even though L-e-T emerged as the standard –bearer media were available and quite eager to report.22 Such of the Al-Qaeda and the IIF, the Saudi authorities wide coverage made it clear that “terrorists feed not have not acted against their activities in other countries on the deaths of their victims but also on the fear of of the Gulf.29 those left behind”. Thus Mumbai facilitated terrorists in realizing their goals: “maximum damage with Investigation agencies revealed that there minimum risk, hyper media attention and subsequent have been three prominent organizations involved in disappearances”.23 Apart from this Mumbai was various terrorist attacks which took place in Mumbai. chosen again and again because it is communally The first one is L-e-T, Second is SIMI which facilitated sensitive.24 Moreover, to strike successfully, terrorists a number of past L-e-T strikes in the Mumbai, other need money, sanctuaries, arms, ammunition, parts of the state and parts of the country. It is believed explosives, logistic support and alienated pockets of that SIMI emerged as the principle recruiting the population wanting to give vent to their anger etc. organization and facilitator for the operation of All of them are available in plenty in Mumbai.25 Pakistan based Islamist terrorist groups. The third organization, which has been involved in trafficking of arms and explosives as well as illegal transfer of

Terrorist Attacks on Mumbai & Role of Pakistan 83 funds to Islamist terrorists groups, is Dawood Ibrahim Affairs’ Status Paper, the strategy of Pakistan – based outfit which is headquartered in Karachi.30 terrorist groups is to: - a)Maintain a continuous flow of finances to sustain The investigation also reveals that Pakistan the terrorist networks in India; based terrorist group, L-e-T, has tied up with b)Target vital installations and economic infrastructure Bangladeshi Taliban, as the Harkat-ul-Jihad al Islami in India; (HUJI) was known to outsource execution of their c)Recruit and train local modules; terrorist plans to Indian extremist groups like the d)Attack soft targets like market places, public SIMI. 31 According to Raman, Al-Qaeda, L-e-T, transport system, places of worship and congregation, Dawood mafia group and others involved in such etc.; terrorist strikes lived under the protection of the e)Provoke communal tensions to create a rift between Pakistan’s Intelligence agency Inter Services communities; Intelligence (ISI) and they would not have been able f)Supply hardware through land and sea routes.38 to carry out sophisticated operations without the ISI’s knowledge.32 As Ajai Sahni executive director, However, Indian investigation agencies Institute of Conflict Management also pointed out that fumbled along and every proof they put up in support all these groups have an ISI link. There are clear of the role of ISI was shot down as another instance evidences that ISI have been controlling L-e-T, Jaish- of paranoia and design to malign the neighbour. e-Mohammad and al Badar etal. The Taliban and Al- Conclusion:- Qaeda too are its creation.33 ISI had an indirect but long standing relationship with Al-Qaeda. It had also We drew false security from the belief that turned a blind eye for years to the growing ties between terrorism could be confined to the border states of Osama Bin Laden and Taliban. The ISI even used Punjab and J and K. But now terrorism is spreading Al-Qaeda camps in Afghanistan to train covert its tentacles in all parts of country. The Mumbai terror operatives for use in the war of terror against India.34 attacks therefore should not be seen merely in the It is a complex relationship. Sahni links Al-Qaeda to context of the Kashmir. It’s just because of the a virtual corporate. “There is a leadership but to Pakistan’s realization that they cannot wrest J and K decentralize control, all groups operate like franchises. from India by military means that they have tried to They have a common vision, share the same internationalize the J and K issue by engaging in a motivation and follow similar modules to secure their low-cost intensity conflict on India and by aiding and objectives. What’s more, anyone can become a abetting terrorism. Pakistan’s ISI is the chief member at will”. It’s a perfect example of a instrument for the implementation of terrorist decentralized, autonomous corporation and it uses strategies and creating formidable upheavals in modern communication deftly to achieve its goals.35 India.39 It was initially the outcome of an assessment For a long a time, security experts have pointing out made by the Pakistani intelligence community in the that terror in India has a global connection, and the early 1950s that keeping India destabilized and its repeated terrorist attacks has proved how deep-rooted military preoccupied with internal security duties would it is. Experts say ISI hand in terror acts can be traced be one way of neutralizing at little cost, the superiority back to Zia-ul-Haq’s time. However, jihadi terrorism of the Indian Armed Forces over their Pakistani in Indian territory outside Kashmir is a post 1992 (after counterpart.40 The terrorist attacks is, in essence, a the Babri demolition) phenomenon.36 There was no continuation of a sustained covert war against India longer any doubt Pakistan’s powerful ISI has been in which Pakistan has created and exploited a number doing in India what it had successfully done for years of Islamist terrorist groups. in Afghanistan- supplying arms, money and protection, providing training and often sending its own men to With the Mumbai attack, pan-Islamist forces oversees sabotage and terror operations. The pattern have brought their global jihad against the USA, Britain is similar. The ISI steps in to an area where trouble is and Israel into the heart of India. The terrorist attacks brewing and carefully nurtures the fire, slowly but on Mumbai were possibly carried out with three methodically.37 According to Ministry of Home intended objectives. One possible motive of those who

84 World Focus February 2017 repeatedly targeted Mumbai could be to provoke India 16 B. Raman, Why is Mumbai a Tempting Target?, into a military retaliation, similar to its Parliament’s available online at http://www.rediff.com/news/2003/ attack in 2001. This would provide Pakistan with an aug/26raman.htm, accessed on 28/12/2016. excuse for redeploying its troops currently stationed 17 B. Raman, Why is Mumbai a Tempting Target? near the Afghan border easing pressure on Taliban/ Question & Answers, available online at http:// Al Qaida militants and allowing them time to regroup. A second motive was to bring the dangerous clash of in.rediff.com/news/2006/jul/17raman.htm, accessed on civilization to its denouement and create tension 28/12/2016. between India’s majority Hindus and minority 18 “A Metropoli’s Darkest Hours“, Times of Muslims resulting in a deadly communal bloodshed India,Mumbai, 29/08/2007. between the two communities. Finally, this kind of 19 Urvashi Aneja,“Mumbai Train Blasts: Mission attack on India’s financial capital is intended to send Accomplished?“Institute of Peace & Conflict Study, the message that India is not safe place to do business. Vol.9 No.8, August 2006. 20 Manoharan N, “Targeting Urban Terrain“, Hindu, Footnotes Chennai, 11/01/2009 1K. R. Gupta, (ed.), “Global Terrorism”, Atlantic 21 Ibid. Publishers, New Delhi, 2002, p. 1. 22 Ibid. 2 D. B. Shekatkar, “Terrorism as Weapon”, in S. 23 Ibid. Manivasakan, (ed.), ‘Terrorism’, University of Madras, 24 D. Suba Chandran, “Mumbai Train Attacks“ Institute 2003, p.21. of Peace and Conflict Study, Vol.9, No.8, August 2006. 3 Robert Allison, Global Terrorism Ideology and 25 B.Raman,n.17. Operation, Global Vision Publishing House, New Delhi, 26 B. Raman, n.16. 2008, p. 3, (Report does not constitute international 27 Ibid. law.) 28 Ibid. 4 Yuvacharya Dr. Lokesh and Dr. Anil Dutta Mishra,“ 29 Ibid. Terrorism: A Global Challenge“, Regal Publications, 30 Ajai Sahni, “Looking for Answer“ DailyNews New Delhi, 2009, p. viii Analysis,Mumbai, 13/07/07 5 Ranjit K. Pachnad,“Terrorism & Response to Terrorist 31Sujata Datta Sachdeva,“ISI+Al-Quaida:CanIndia Take Threat,New Delhi, 2002, p.4. on This MNC”, Times of India,Mumbai,23/07/06 6 Robert Allison, n. 3., p. 3. 32 Ibid. 7 Yuvacharya Dr. Lokesh, n.4, p. 2. 33 Ibid. 8 Ranjit K. Pachnad, n. 5., p.15. 34 Gupta, n.1, p. 14. 9 Jenkins Michael Brian, “The New Age Terrorism“, 35 Sujata Datta Sachdeva, n.31. Rand Research Reportavailable online at http:// 36 Ibid. www.rand.org/pubs/reprints/2006/ 37K. Bhushan, G. Katyal, “Attack on Parliament“, APH RAND_RP1215.pdf , accessed on 9/1/2017. Publications, New Delhi, 2002, p.56. 10 Ibid. 38 India Assessment-2007, available online at 11 Mansbach Richard W and Rafferty Kirsten L, www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/index.html, Introduction to Global Politics, Rutledge, New York, accessed on 14/11/2007. 2008, p. 339. 39 Sudhir Sawant, “Internal Security: Dangers of Narco 12 Mumbai, available online at http:// en.wikipedia.org/ Terrorism“,available online at www.bharat- wiki/Mumbai, accessed on 10/01/2017 rakshak.com/LANCER/idr00007.htm,accessed on 26/ 13Mumbai, available online at http:// en.wikipedia.org/ 08/2008. wiki/Mumbai, accessed on 22/12/2008 40 B.Raman, “A Terrorist State as a Frontline Ally“, 14 Mumbai, n. 12. New Delhi, Lancer, 2002,p.5. 15 Ibid. Terrorist Attacks on Mumbai & Role of Pakistan 85 Radical Islam and Terrorism: How women responding? Pankaj Chaudhary

In his statement after the terrorist attack in religious behavior. This is what radical Islam, globally, Orlando, newly elected US president Donald Trump endorsing and aggressively advocating today. called on former US president Barak Obama to resign and Hillary Clinton to quit presidential campaign Women and Radical Islam simply for refusing to say the words ‘Radical Islam’.1 It is not surprising that such a totalitarian thought As a candidate of US presidential election, Donald would severely damage the efforts of those Muslim Trump was certainly using a strategic ploy against women who are contesting outdated family laws based Hillary Clinton and Barak Obama but his remarks, on Islamic jurisprudence, which give men the power nonetheless, were a clear example of how in marriages, divorces, and custody issues. Events of phenomenon of ‘Radical Islam’ was gaining recent past have also demonstrated that radical Islam prominence in global politics. In fact, in the wake of is globally intensifying its war on women freedom increasing incidences of violence and brutality against and gender equality. For example, in Nigeria, the common people across world by radical Islamic extremists of Boko Haram kidnapped schoolgirls to groups such as Islamic states (ISIS), Boko Haram use as sex slaves and suicide bombers. A manifesto and others, radical Islam, as a phenomenon calls for distributed by the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS) sincere response from world leaders and democratic allows girls to marry at age nine and states that women bodies. should work outside the house only in “exceptional circumstances.”4Even in Saudi Arabia, women are New Radical Islam- Some Characteristics banned from driving, in Egypt, a husband can divorce Though, this new wave of radical Islam, in the his spouse without grounds or going to court, options leadership of IS, is inspired by a group of religious denied to his wife. Needless to say, most Muslim scholars like other militant movements, especially al- countries run on the premise that men have a God- Qaeda and its offshoots across Islam’s history who given authority over women. advocated the idea of declaring other Muslims as infidels or apostates and justifying their killing, its Women and Islam- Islamic law in historical emphasis on righteous life for true Muslims in its self- Perspective declared state in parts of Syria, Iraq and on ideology While secular and liberal Muslims have made strides that sanctifies violence as the only means for Sunni throughout the world to elevate the status of women, Muslims to achieve power and glory2, makes it the issue of women’s rights remains a problem in the somewhat different from conventional Islamic militant Muslim culture, as various regions and sects interpret groups. The new wave of radical Islamism is also the Quran in different ways. Part of the problem dates highly sophisticated in its use of social media and other to Muhammad. Even as he proclaimed new rights propaganda to sow fear among its enemies, unlike for women, he enshrined their inequality in immutable older groups.3 law, passed down as God’s commandments and eventually recorded in scripture. The Quran allots In fact, we can call this new wave as daughters half the inheritance of sons. It decrees that totalitarian. It seeks total control of how the people a woman’s testimony in court, at least in financial under its reign act. Like authoritarian regimes seek matters, is worth half that of a man’s. to control their subjects’ political behavior, totalitarian Under Sharia, or Muslim law, compensation for the regimes also seek to control their social, cultural and murder of a woman is half the going rate for men. In many Muslim countries, these directives are

86 World Focus February 2017 incorporated into contemporary law. For a woman to Women’s rights are compromised further by prove rape in Pakistan, for example, four adult males a section in the Quran, sura 4:34 that have been of “impeccable” character must witness the interpreted to say that men have “pre-eminence” over penetration, in accordance with Sharia. women or that they are “overseers” of women.5 The verse goes on to say that the husband of an What is Sharia insubordinate wife should first admonish her, then Sharia, or Islamic law, offers moral and legal leave her to sleep alone and finally beat her. Wife guidance for nearly all aspects of life – from beating is so prevalent in the Muslim world that social marriage and divorce, to inheritance and workers who assist battered women in Egypt, for contracts, to criminal punishments. Sharia, in its example, spend much of their time trying to convince broadest definition, refers to the ethical principles victims that their husbands’ violent acts are set down in Islam’s holy book (the Quran) and unacceptable. examples of actions by the Prophet Muhammad (sunna). The Islamic jurisprudence that comes “Men have authority over women because God out of the human exercise of codifying and has made the one superior to the other, and interpreting these principles is known as fiqh. because men spend their wealth to maintain them. Muslim scholars and jurists continue to debate Good women are obedient. They guard their the boundary between sharia and fiqh as well as unseen parts because God has guarded them. As other aspects of Islamic law. for those among you who fear disobedience, admonish them and send them to beds apart and Family law in Islamic countries generally beat them.” Sura 4:34 follows the prescriptions of scripture. This is so even in a country like Egypt, where much of the legal code “Women shall with justice have rights similar to has been secularized. In Islam, women can have only those exercised against them, although men have one spouse, while men are permitted four. The legal a status above women. God is mighty and wise.” age for girls to marry tends to be very young. Sura 2:228 Muhammad’s favorite wife, Aisha, according to her biographer, was six when they wed, nine when the Some Islamic scholars believe that literalist marriage was consummated. In Iran the legal age reading of Quran should be avoided in order to for marriage is nine for girls, 14 for boys. The law understand its true historical essence. They even has occasionally been exploited by pedophiles, who argue historically, Islamic law is based on four sources: marry poor young girls from the provinces, use and The Quran; the sayings and traditions of the Prophet then abandon them. Muhammad (the Sunnah); analogical reasoning; and the consensus of religious scholars. According to Wives in Islamic societies face great difficulty this view, militant groups favour a literalist reading of in suing for divorce, but husbands can be released only two sources: the Quran and the Sunnah, from their vows virtually on demand, in some places disregarding most legal reasoning and interpretation merely by saying “I divorce you” three times. Though developed over thousand of years. Advocates of such in most Muslim states, divorces are entitled to view attribute phenomenon of radical Islam and alimony; in Pakistan it lasts only three months, long present day crises to the teachings of the 18th century enough to ensure the woman isn’t pregnant. The cleric Ibn Taymiyya and Muhammad Ibn Abd al- same three-month rule applies even to the Muslim Wahhab, who propagated that Islamic law should be minority in India. There, a national law provides for based on only two sources: the Quran and the long-term alimony, but to appease Islamic Sunnah.6 conservatives, authorities exempted Muslims. Fear of poverty keeps many Muslim women locked in bad While this view warns against the selective marriages, as does the prospect of losing their reading of Islamic scripture, it is clear that the religion children. Typically, fathers win custody of boys over has been used in most Muslim countries not to liberate the age of six and girls after the onset of puberty. but to entrench inequality. The Taliban, with its

Radical Islam and Terrorism: How women responding? 87 fanatical subjugation of the female sex, once occupied (53%). Sub-Saharan Africa was the only region where an extreme, but it nevertheless belongs on a continuum a median of less than half (40%) thought a woman that includes, not so far down the line, Saudi Arabia, should be able to decide for herself whether to wear Kuwait, Pakistan, Lebanon and the relatively a veil. moderate states of Egypt and Jordan. Where Muslims have afforded women the greatest degree of Views on women’s rights to divorce and equality—in Turkey—they have done so by inheritance varied considerably across the regions overthrowing Islamic precepts in favor of secular rule. surveyed. Muslims in Southern and Eastern Europe As Riffat Hassan, professor of religious studies at and Central Asia clearly supported a wife’s right to the University of Louisville, puts it, “The way Islam initiate a divorce (regional medians of 86% and 70%, has been practiced in most Muslim societies for respectively). However, fewer in the other regions centuries has left millions of Muslim women with thought this should be a woman’s prerogative. battered bodies, minds and souls.” Similarly, medians of six-inten or more in three regions – Southern and Eastern Europe (69%), Southeast Islam- Attitude towards women Asia (61%) and Central Asia (60%) – thought It is impossible, given their diversity, to paint any daughters and sons should have equal inheritance comprehensive picture of women living under Islamic rights. But far fewer agreed in South Asia (46%) system today. It is relevant here, therefore, to quote and the Middle East North Africa region (25%). As major findings of Pew research Centre’s report ‘The in the case of support for religious courts and making world Muslims – Religion, Politics and Society’ which Sharia official law, attitudes toward equal inheritance was prepared during 2008-2012.7 Extensive surveys appear to reflect, at least in part, a society’s legal were conducted in total of 39 countries and territories and social norms. For example, at least three-quarters on three continents: Africa, Asia and Europe. Survey of Muslims said children should be able to inherit found that most adherents of the Islamic religion were equally, regardless of gender, in Turkey (88%), Bosnia deeply committed to their faith and want its teachings Herzegovina (79%) and Kosovo (76%) – all countries to shape not only their personal lives but also their where laws did not require that sons should receive societies and politics. A majority of Muslims said that greater inheritance than daughters. By contrast, in Islam was the one true faith leading to eternal life in Jordan (25%), Iraq (22%), Morocco (15%) and Tunisia heaven and that belief in God was necessary to be a (15%) – countries where laws specified unequal moral person. inheritance based on gender – a quarter or fewer said daughters and sons should have equal rights to Muslims’ attitudes toward women’s rights their family’s wealth. were mixed. In most parts of the world, Muslims said that a woman should be able to decide whether to Although many Muslims endorsed a woman’s wear a veil. Yet when it came to private life, most right to choose how she appeared in public, Muslims said a wife should always obey her husband. overwhelming majorities in most regions said a wife There was considerable disagreement over whether should always obey her husband. Medians of more a wife should be able to initiate a divorce and whether than eight-in-ten Muslims expressed this view in a daughter should be able to receive an inheritance Southeast Asia (93%), South Asia (88%), and the equal to a son’s. Across five of the six major regions Middle East and North Africa (87%). Even in Central included in the study, majorities of Muslims in most Asia, a region characterized by relatively low levels countries said a woman should be able to decide for of religious observance and strong support for a herself whether to wear a veil in public. woman’s right to decide whether to wear a veil, seven- in-ten Muslims agreed that a wife should carry out Medians of roughly seven-in-ten or more took her husband’s wishes. Only in Southern and Eastern this view in Southern and Eastern Europe (88%), Europe do fewer than half (median of 43%) shared Southeast Asia (79%) and Central Asia (73%). But this view. Survey also revealed that Muslims who fewer said women should have this right in South want Sharia to be the law of the land in their country Asia (56%) and the Middle East-North Africa region often, though not uniformly, were less likely to support

88 World Focus February 2017 equal rights for women and more likely to favor the word ‘talak’ thrice. The absence of a traditional gender roles. corresponding right for Muslim women seems to be prima facie discriminatory. Nearly all Muslims in Afghanistan (99 percent) and most in Iraq (91 percent) and Pakistan Such practices, when based on original (84 percent) support Sharia law as official law. religious texts, have escaped the scrutiny of Courts However, in other countries, especially in Eastern which have taken the view that while personal laws Europe and Central Asia, including Turkey (12 modified by custom are subject to judicial review, those percent), Kazakhstan (10 percent) and Azerbaijan (8 in their pure form are not. percent), relatively few favor implementing Sharia law. On 7 October, 2016, a fresh controversy erupted when government of India filed an affidavit In the United States, where Muslims are in the Supreme Court stating that the practice of triple more secularized, 51 percent of Muslims still said that talak is not an ‘essential religious practice’ because Muslims in America should have the choice of being it violates the fundamental right of equality and governed according to Sharia. Also troubling was women’s dignity, which are safeguarded by Article nearly a quarter of the Muslims polled said that it 14 and 21 of the Indian Constitution. was legitimate to use violence to punish those who give offense to Islam by, for example, portraying the As far as legal perspective is concerned, the prophet Mohammed. practice of triple talak has been contested on the grounds of whether the practice qualifies as an Overall, the survey found that Muslim women ‘essential religious practice’ under Article 25 of the were often, but not always, more supportive of Indian Constitution. women’s rights. For example, in about half of the 39 countries surveyed, women were more likely than The Indian Supreme Court will need to decide men to say that a woman should decide for herself to what extent it is fair to interpret triple talak as an whether to wear a veil in public. Yet in the remaining ‘essential religious practice’ and if the practice countries, women were just as likely as men to say contradicts the court’s aim to provide protection that the question of veiling should not be left to against the violation of other fundamental rights individual women. When it came to divorce and equal (Article 14 and 15 of the Indian Constitution). inheritance, there were even fewer countries where Muslim women were significantly more supportive The Supreme Court may reject the claim of of women’s rights than were Muslim men. the All India Muslim Personal Law Board (currently contesting the government’s recent petition) to India’s Triple Talaq Row- A Legal Perspective identify triple talaq as an essential Muslim religious The Indian Constitution guarantees special protection practice. In the case of Narasu Appa Mali, the for the several religious and cultural minorities present Bombay High Court held that personal laws cannot in the country. However, within each of these be tested under Part III of the Constitution, including communities there exist discriminatory practices that articles 12–35. The court distinguished personal laws bind members of that community. For instance, from custom and held that Article 13 would not cover women as well as members of some castes are personal laws in their unadulterated form. prohibited from entering certain Hindu temples. Similarly Muslim personal law provides that Muslim Article 25 of the Indian Constitution clearly men can have up to four wives (though they are provides that ‘Subject to public order, morality and obligated to treat all their wives equally), whereas health and to the other provisions of this Part, all there is an embargo restricting the number of persons are equally entitled to freedom of conscience husbands a Muslim woman can have to just one. and the right to freely profess, practice and propagate Moreover Muslim men enjoy the right to divorce their religion’. Even if personal laws fall within the scope wife by way of ‘triple talak’, i.e. by merely uttering of Article 25, they would be ‘subject to other

Radical Islam and Terrorism: How women responding? 89 provisions of this Part’ and can in no way violate any is subtly changing the role of women in conflict and of the other clauses — especially Articles 14, 15 and religion. It is believed that radical Islamist movements 21. have attempted to create an illusionist image of Legal experts are of the view that Supreme women empowerment by encouraging radicalism and Court may use an ‘essential religious practice’ test.8 violence as a form of empowerment. This The essential practice test helps the Court decide development certainly reveals some interesting whether a religious practice is eligible for constitutional perceptions about women and their place in society protection, ‘adjudicate the legitimacy of legislation for and needs greater scrutiny. Until recently, larger managing religious institutions’ and judge the extent Islamic world and a body of Islamic scholars have of independence that can be enjoyed by ‘religious ambivalently reacted on this emerging phenomenon. denominations’. For example, when Sigolene Vinson, one of the survivors of the Charlie Hebdo massacre claimed that There is a general consensus about the she survived because of her sex10 and terrorists didn’t exclusionary practices suffered by Muslim women simply kill her because she was a woman, Islamic in India at large and within the community in scholars, unhesitatingly, correlated it with theoretical particular. In recent past, the socio-political Islamic legal system which provides immunity from mobilization had picked up in India, particularly after the threat of military violence, rape or ransom to the horrific rape of the paramedic in Delhi. Yet the women. But the same body of scholars remains silent socio-economic status of Muslim women remained on why Kayla Mueller was killed in Syria despite dismal. Even the Sacchar Committee report, which being a woman? was hailed as progressive, had missed the Muslim women aspect. Over the years, Muslim personal laws Until a decade or two ago, women were have resulted in glossing over the economic, political considered largely inviolable across the Muslim world. and social problems that define everyday experiences Remnants of pre-Islamic tribal concepts of gallantry of Muslim women. According to India’s 2011 census and chivalry, integrated with Islamic mores over time, data, nearly 80 percent of divorced Muslim are directed this mode of thought. Taking possession of a women. Moreover, across religious communities, defeated enemy’s wife or daughter was sometimes except Sikhs, there are more divorced women than considered justifiable during wartime, but in most men. But the gender skew is particularly sharp among situations, women, especially Muslim women, could Muslims (79:21), followed by ‘other religions’ (72:28), expect immunity from the threat of military violence, and Buddhists (70:30).9 Legal experts believe that rape or ransom, at least theoretically under Islamic the skewed ratio among Muslims could be attributed legal systems and across Islamic cultures. to two problems. The first is the absolute powers given to men under the Muslim Personal Laws by Islamic Legal System- Immunity for Women and allowing triple talak and so on. For women, getting Children? married provides security of shelter and food with Under the Islamic legal precepts, a clear distinction few rights for negotiation. The other reason is the between combatants and non-combatants is drawn state’s failure to empower Muslim women. The socio- in an enemy country. As far as non combatant economic condition of Muslim women in India population is concerned, the instruction of the Prophet continues to deteriorate with inadequate access to is do not kill them. In other words, under Islamic good education, job opportunities and so on. It is in concept, civilians and the civilian population enjoy this context, Supreme Court decision on triple talak general protection from the dangers of hostilities and could revolutionize the debate of social Justice for military operations provided they do not directly Muslim women in India. participate in the hostilities. Meaning, when civilians take part in hostilities they will automatically lose Changing Role of Women in Conflict and immunity and they will become legitimate target. Non- Religion combatants according to Islamic law include persons In recent past, domination of religious extremism such as women, children, the old, the infirm and the across the world, especially, in Middle East countries monks who are recognized as a separate category of

90 World Focus February 2017 persons entitle to various degrees of immunity from least the time of the first caliph in the seventh century, attack based on the instructions of the Prophet and specifically forbade the deliberate targeting of women the caliphs. Therefore, right from the time of the and children during warfare. Prophet, Islamic Humanitarian law distinguished between combatants and civilians and strongly Radical Islam and Woman- Changing view condemned the indiscriminate use of weapons against More recently, however, this long-standing view of combatants and civilians alike.11 women has begun to change, especially among radical Islamists. From Libya to Afghanistan, jihadists have Today, there is consensus of most Muslim increasingly targeted women. ISIS has murdered jurists in international relations that non combatants mostly non-Muslim women in Iraq and Syria, whether who do not take part in fighting are excluded from foreign or local. However, Muslim women and molestation. The general protection accorded to teenagers have also suffered at the hands of ISIS. civilians naturally implies that they are not subject to This state of affairs would have been inconceivable attack or to threat of violence. Within the context of only a few decades ago. If radical Islamists no longer Islamic law, children, idiots, imbeciles, old men, sick see attacks on women as strictly illicit, what does people, the blind, monks and women are recognized this say about changing norms among jihadists or the as civilians because these categories of people live a Muslim world at large? Is it possible that this secluded life similar to that of women and women development reveals new perceptions about women are not considered to be a threat to an Islamic state. and their place in society? However, the position of majority of Islamic scholars is that the elderly and monks, who were normally The changing outlook of jihadists appears protected, could be attacked if they are involved in driven in part by the increasing presence of women supporting the enemy’s war. This stand is buttress by in the ranks of their enemies, both as outspoken the incident that happened in 630 AD after the civilian critics and as combatants. For example, the conquest of Makka, during the battle of Hunayn, Kurdish female fighters that ISIS faced in Kobani, Muslim fighters killed a man who was over one Syria, undermine the perception of women as fragile hundred years old, in the presence of the Prophet. vessels of motherhood. These female combatants The old man was killed because he was alleged to create dissonance not only with ISIS’s understanding have provided helpful intelligent advice during the of women but also with ideas in the West that tend to battle to the enemy.12 portray Muslim women as passive victims in need of saving. It is believed that women and children could be attacked for taking part in the fighting or supporting Arab and Muslim cultures actually contain a the war effort of the enemy but only if it was proven history of female combatants. Radical Islamists, to that they had actually participated in the hostilities. some extent, can dismiss such figures as historical Thus the conviction on direct participation of women anomalies. However, when confronted with the and children could not be based simply on suspicion growing presence of women in traditionally male- or likelihood but rather they must have actually served dominated areas, something has to give. The as combatants or guides . comfortable assumption that women are altogether lacking agency in the realm of violent political conflict It is argued by some women right groups, has slowly started to fade away. however, that this law exists simply because Muslim preachers generally viewed women as intrinsically Today, jihadists have begun to accept a role hallowed. Since engaging women in combat conflicts for women not only as enemy targets but also as with gender ideologies that sanctified them as agents within their own ranks. Whether it is the emblems of hearth, home and motherhood, men mostly Chechen Black Widows or Palestinian female suicide regarded them as off-limits in the overtly politicized bombers in Gaza and the West Bank, radical Islamist realm of violent conflict. It is therefore that traditional movements have encouraged women to view codes of conduct, a part of Islamic culture since at radicalism and violence as a form of empowerment—

Radical Islam and Terrorism: How women responding? 91 perhaps a kind of warped alternative to progressive fornication. The lack of legitimized sexual slavery in feminism. The ISIS Al-Khansa Brigade, composed the modern world, according to the article, has of Arab but also French- or British-born women in contributed greatly to immoral behavior. full niqab (face veil), operate checkpoints and patrol the streets as a form of morality police. In some cases, ISIS’s willingness to target women, enslave they have been accused of acting as procuresses for them and involve them in its military operations has ISIS-run brothels, in which lesser (or non-Muslim) led governments in the region toward a renewed focus women are held for the use of male fighters.13 The on women associated with jihadists. States such as reasons behind these female jihadists’ involvement Jordan have sent a clear message to radical Islamists, are manifold: revenge, ideology or financial gain. indicating that women who are involved in violence will be treated no differently from other combatants. The male jihadists who recruit women fighters Jordan’s recent execution of Sajida al-Rishawi shows and send them on their missions certainly do not that the kingdom is willing to follow through with its advocate gender equality. But something seems to threat. have changed in their perceptions of femininity and women’s roles. While rhetorical notions of sacred The Lebanese government arrested Saja al- virtue and motherhood still crop up in Islamist Dulaimi, a onetime wife of ISIS leader Abu Bakr al- propaganda, in practical terms these concepts have Baghdadi, and her new jihadist husband in December taken a backseat, unveiling a more cynical and 2014. Similarly, the wife and children of prominent utilitarian outlook. ISIS “emir” Abu Ali al-Shishani were arrested in Lebanon near the end of 2014. Al-Shishani, apoplectic According to some reports, Islamist over the arrest, called on his Sunni brethren’s sense theologians such as the Saudi Mohammed al-Arifi of honor to target the Shia community and vowed to may have even legitimized the notion of sexual jihad— kidnap Lebanese women and children unless amounting to a temporary “marriage” that may last authorities released his family. Sunni Muslims in the only a few hours. Scores of young Tunisian women larger Islamist community also criticized the detention have allegedly answered the call to sexual jihad in of these women and called for the prisoners’ release. Syria. Young women from Malaysia and Europe are This outrage over the detention of ISIS-affiliated also said to have been recruited. women is grounded in traditional notions of female sanctity. Yet these voices of Sunni protest fell silent The most famous case is probably that of when ISIS targeted non-Muslim women for two Austrian teenagers who joined ISIS and became kidnapping or assassination and when the organization jihadi brides. ISIS has accepted women from around issued guidelines encouraging the imprisonment and the world into the cause with the assumption that rape of female slaves. jihadists need pious women to support them as the wife of one of the Paris attackers allegedly said in an Conclusion interview with Dar al-Islam, ISIS’s French-language Muslims, particularly clerics, should address such magazine. double standards in the treatment of women. It is only one of the jihadists’ many hypocrisies that they A more disturbing outgrowth of the jihadists’ would promote outrage over the arrest of “their” new outlooks on women are the blatantly predatory women while simultaneously targeting “other” women practices that have emerged in relation to those whom for assassination and slavery. As women increasingly they see as enemies. Seen as an idolatrous group shift to a more active role in politics and conflict, some that purportedly worships Satan, Yazidi women have might consider this development an expression of faced kidnapping and sexual enslavement by ISIS. greater agency. The overall picture suggests that Perversely, ISIS explained in a four-page article in these women continue to be used by men, both its magazine Dabiq that the imprisonment and rape jihadists and those in government, to their own ends. of these women would prevent jihadist men from There is, however a section of women across world, being “tempted” into “illegitimate” forms of who represent hope for the future. From Cambridge

92 World Focus February 2017 to Cairo to Jakarta, women are going back to Islam’s Footnotes classical texts and questioning the way men have read 1 www.ptinews.com, June 13, 2016 2 www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/Understanding-the-Islamic-State, them for centuries. In the Middle East, activists are Mohamad Bazzi contesting outdated family laws based on Islamic 3 Ibid jurisprudence, which give men the power in marriages, 4 time.com/muslim-women-redefine-islam-feminism/ 5 The Women of Islam, Lisa Bayer divorces, and custody issues. In Europe and the United 6 www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/Understanding-the-Islamic-State, States, women are chipping away at the customs that Mohamad Bazzi have had a chilling effect on women praying in 7 www.pewforum.org/files/2013/04/worlds-muslims-religion- politics-society-full-report.pdf mosques or holding leadership positions. This winter, 8 jgu.edu.in/JSIA/news/article-by-deepanshu-mohan-on-triple-talaq- the first women-only mosque opened in Los Angeles. a-test-case-for-religious-pluralism-in-india 9 www.firstpost.com/india/nearly-80-of-divorced-indian-muslims- These efforts are localized and diverse. But all are are-women-shows-census-2011-data-3053332.html part of the multi-faceted struggle in today’s Islamic 10 www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jan/14/charlie-hebdo-killings- world between fundamentalist rigidity and a pluralist, survivor-story 11 Maududi, A.,Human Rights in Islam,(Islamic Foundation, United inclusive faith. Kingdom, 1980) P36 12 Badawi, N., Op cit, P10 13 www.newsweek.com/radical-islams-war-women Subscription Form New Subscription / Renewal from ……/.…/……… to ……/.…/……… The Subscription charges through Demand Draft No……....……… Dt ……/.…/………drawn on …………………………………… for World Focus pay- able at Delhi is enclosed. (Or) I am sending the amount by Money Order vide dated………………. Subscriber’s Name: ...... My/Our Mailing Address is as follows (in Block Capitals) : ………………………………………………………...……………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………. City: ...... State: …………………………...… Pin Code………...... EmailID………...... ………………….Phone……………….. Subscription Rates : 1yr 2yrs 3yrs Rs. 1100 Rs. 2200 Rs. 3300 Foreign (Air Mail) : 1yr 2yrs 3yrs $ 220 $ 440 $ 660 For Courier in New Delhi Rs. 400/- extra for one year (Includes packing charges), and for Outstation Rs. 700/- for one year (Includes packing charges). For Speed Post Rs. 900 (Outstation)

Single Copy Rs. 100/-

Please fill the form in clear CAPITAL LETTERS.

Radical Islam and Terrorism: How women responding? 93 The Role of Radical Islam and Ideological Terrorism in the Ambit of Contemporary World Politics: An Anthology Dr. Pratyay Dutta

Radical Islamic fundamentalism has been defined Haram, bombing throughout the city of Mumbai, variously as a movement of Muslims who hearken India, on 12th March, 1993, November 13, 2015 back to earlier times and seek to return to the shooting and hostage-taking at a theatre of Paris in fundamentals of the religion. Radical political France, May 27, 2016 bombings in Baghdad and Islam is an Islamic revival movement often Baquba, Iraq ) etc. It is an intentional use or threat to characterized by moral conservatism and the use violence against civilians and non-combatants “in attempt to implement Islamic values in all spheres order to achieve political goals.” This tactic of political of life. In recent decades, life in this word has violence is intended to intimidate or cause terror for become precariously insecure because of religious the purpose of exerting pressure on decision making fundamentalism, which is assuming menacing by state bodies. The term “terror” is largely used to proportions with each passing day. Ideological indicate clandestine, low-intensity violence that targets terrorism has now become a worldwide civilians and generates public fear. Thus “terror” is phenomenon. The present article mainly focuses distinct from asymmetric warfare, and violates the on the origin and subsequent development of concept of a common law of war in which civilian Radical Islam vis-à-vis ideological terrorism in the life is respected. national and international context on the question of security and global integration. It shall also The term “terrorism” is politically and highlight some contemporary challenges of emotionally charged, and this greatly compounds the ideology-based terrorism and its impending difficulty of providing a precise definition. In this drawbacks. context, a 2003 study by Jeffrey Record (Bounding the Global War on Terrorism) for the US Army “Everybody is killing in the name of an ideal; quoted a source (Schmid and Jongman 1988) that this was the case yesterday and this is still the counted 109 definitions of terrorism that covered a case today. Everybody, not only Muslims, was total of 22 different definitional elements. Terrorism making the same mistake. Look at the conflict expert Walter Laqueur also has counted over 100 areas; the blood does not shed only in Muslims. definitions and concludes that the “only general One also should consider the possibility that there characteristic generally agreed upon is that terrorism are some catalyzes that contribute this bloodshed involves violence and the threat of violence.” other than the Muslim fundamentals.” However, the term ‘terrorism’ comes from Latin Herbert Brown Terrere which means “to frighten”. The word ‘terror’ was first recorded in English language dictionaries in Definitions of terrorism vary widely, though 1789 as meaning “systematic use of terror as a all definitions are characterized by the fact that policy”. The meaning originated with Russian radicals terrorism involves acts of violence. These include in the 1870s. Ironically, Indian nationalists using hostage-taking, hijacking, bombing and other extremist activities against British rulers after the indiscriminate attacks, usually targeting civilians partition of Bengal were also called terrorists. (examples, “The Reign of Terror” from September Terrorism is predominantly planned and intentionally 5, 1793 to July 28, 1794 during the French Revolution, action-oriented. It is always aimed at targeting a 9/11 attack on the US World Trade Centre in 2001, particular group, authority, civilians or public property. December 13, 2001 attack on the Indian Parliament, It is also unlawful, unethical, barbaric and terrorist attack on Mumbai on November 26, 2008, undemocratic whose objective is to pressurize the armed attack on Maiduguri city of Nigeria by Boko legally elected government to bow before the 94 World Focus February 2017 demands of terrorists. The root cause of terrorism exclusively-that of an Islamic ilk. Movements of a includes numerous factors. One such factor is fundamentalist type are evident in Islam, certainly, psychological/socio-psychological one. Certain but they may be found also in Christianity, in Hinduism, analysts are of the opinion that one who is engaged in Judaism and other religious communities. in terrorism may be mentally disturbed, having Contemporary fundamentalism is not the sole province imbalanced brain. Not all terrorists are mentally ill, of any one religion. And an upsurge in the totalizing there may be others who may choose to join a terrorist claims of fundamentalist ideologues, of whatever organization for the thrill of life in the underground or religion, together with the utilization of globalized may become a terrorist to earn money or to become communication, transportation, and related modern the ‘defender’ of his community or religion. Young technologies means that the issue of religious Muslims who travel to Western countries for schooling fundamentalism itself requires, once again, some and employment get alienated of their surroundings careful attention. Although both Christianity and Islam and soon find comfort in mosques and then turn to are susceptible to imperialist impositions of one sort terrorism. This was true about Mohammed Atta, head or another, as history only too clearly demonstrated, of the 9/11 hijacking. There are ideological factors, it is nonetheless the case that Islamic modalities of which constitute a cause for terrorism. The purpose terrorism have presently taken centre-stage in current of the article is to highlight the root causes of Islamic world affairs. However, the religious fundamentalism Radicalism that acts as one of the primordial factors with which Islamist extremism is associated arguably of Fundamental Terrorism and the measures which follows an identifiable paradigm that has wider basically challenge the smooth functioning of modern purview.2 world politics. This article also addresses the socio- economic factors and the problem of backwardness Terrorism has no easy solution. It requires which also contribute the major rationale behind the both national and international support. State birth of terrorism within the womb of orthodox institutions, the vigilant civil society, and international fundamentalism. organization-all would need to wage an unrelenting war against terrorism. Most importantly, a strong Terrorists also claim themselves to be ‘true public opinion and a serious attempt would have to believers’ possessed by a will to better the society be made to create awareness of so-called problems through radical and revolutionary techniques. For like fundamental terrorism which poses a severe Marxists-Leninist-Maoists, targets are always the threat to every nation. Given the pressing need to be upper rich classes, for nationalists, the targets are able to identify, predict, locate and so counter any always the colonialists, for the religious extremists, potential terrorizing extremism born of certain the targets are always the people belonging to other expressions of religion, then the task of analyzing the religions. There are also steady environmental factors phenomenon of religious fundamentalism so as to responsible for terrorism. Grievances such as social, construct a heuristic paradigm capable of providing a political or economic, with their nature of being real, measure of predictability would seem both obvious or imagined, just or unjust, motivate people to resort and urgent. Religious fundamentalism denotes a to terrorism against those who hold power. The worldview-type that can be found across different culture of violence constitutes another factor. religions in the world of today. Terrorism has now Opposing cultures, being in conflict over a period, become worldwide phenomena. Since independence, result in terroristic activities. Chechnya and Iraq are India has been facing the problem of terrorism in examples of cultures of violence, the former fighting different parts of the country. In recent decades, life against the Russians, the latter against Westerners. 1 in this world has become precariously insecure The term ‘fundamentalism’, broadly speaking, names because of global terrorism, which is assuming today a relgio-political perspective found in many if menacing proportions with each passing day. The law not all major religions in the contemporary world. Most and order enforcing agencies throughout the world disturbingly, it is associated with variant forms of find themselves helpless in meeting the growing religious extremism and thus religiously-oriented challenge posed by global terrorism. Most terrorist terrorism, in particular-though by no means groups differ according to their aims, motives and

The Role of Radical Islam and Ideological Terrorism in the Ambit of Contemporary World Politics: An Anthology 95 ideologies. Concurrently, ideological or religious order of the body politic and aim to replace it with terrorism aims to transform the social, economic and divine order. Certainly Islamic fundamentalists will political system of the country in the light of their not be able to impose their “order” on the world, but particular ideology. Examples are the Japanese Red they can create disorder on a vast scale. 4 Army, the Italian Red Brigade, the West German Red Army (Baader Meinhof Gang),and perhaps the So, religious fundamentalism remains not as Naxalites in India.3 a spiritual faith, but as a political ideology based on the politicizing of religion for sociopolitical and New Terrorism and the Interface of Religion and economic goals in the pursuit of establishing a divine Violence order. And this ideology is exclusive, in the sense that By the 1990s, terrorism literature began referring to it attacks opposing options, primarily those secular a phenomenon known as the new terrorism, which outlooks that resist the linking of religion to politics. was based on more religious fanaticism and thought Religious terrorism is a political ideology, not the to be both deadlier and more destructive than the old religion linked with the ideology. At the same time, it terrorism. The practitioners of this form of terrorism is the advocated assumption of a deep dichotomy tend to have more religious background and the use between religion and politics which is problematic for of religious statements from the scared scriptures. much religious fundamentalism generally and certainly Therefore, in the eye of terrorism, while every target for Islamic fundamentalism. Islam, broadly speaking, is a symbol, every attack carries a message, and each has never championed an inherent linking of religion terrorist is a dissident oppression. However, no and politics. The necessary symbiosis of Islam as religion, including Islam, preaches indiscriminate religion and Islam as civilization is the default position violence against innocents. Consequently, just because which it seems to be overlooking. The modern world terrorists claim that they belong to a certain religion politics is deeply concerned about the identification or use religious symbols will not eliminate the other of Islam with fundamentalism. Besides, Islam as a dynamic factors for its existence in one country. In religion is definitely not a threat, but Islamic other words, terrorism must not be simply linked with fundamentalism is. It is by and large important to not a religion and to label it or to attach it with any religion only distinguish clearly between Islam and is absolutely wrong. It is very clear in today’s world fundamentalism but also to make clear that the that the religious texts are being hijacked in support phenomenon i.e. religious fundamentalism as such is of unjustifiable violence and thus any effective not restricted to the Islamic world. It is a fact that response in favour of peace must itself be theological. current Islamic fundamentalism as an outgrowth of The quintessential question is that can any religion be tensions that hold between the secular worldview of a source for extremist agenda? More specifically, in western cultural modernity and the monotheistic lights of what is happening today in the name of Islam, worldview of Islam. It is these tensions which can to answer such an important question demands become a source of international socio-political multiple perspectives. Broadly speaking, there is a conflict. Nevertheless, it is an interpretation and real challenge of fundamentalism as a threat that application of religious sources that predominate in results in creating disorder. This challenge is not only the forming of Islamist ideologies. Islamic posed to the West and to its civilization, but also to fundamentalists present themselves as true decent Muslims-men and women-who suffer the scripturalists, though they invoke the scriptures in a intolerance and totalitarian views and practices of highly selective manner. Furthermore, such Muslim the Islamists. In fact, in the long run the Islamic fundamentalists, are not traditionalists, their ideal is fundamentalists are far more dangerous as ideologues the selectively perceived and arbitrarily purified state of power than as extremists who kill. Fundamentalism of seventh-century Islam. is a worldview that seeks to establish its own order, and thus to separate the people of Islamic civilization Fundamentalism and Radical Islamist from the rest of humanity while claiming for their Terrorism: A Contemporary Outlook worldview a universal standing. Islamic Islamic fundamentalism strongly rejects the spirit of fundamentalists challenge and undermine the secular religious pluralism, dismissing it as a heresy

96 World Focus February 2017 threatening the neo-absolutist claim for the dominance were taking them far beyond the pale of normative of political Islam throughout the world. Islam. Indeed, they had been ostracized and told they Fundamentalism is not only an intellectual challenge; were not welcome in certain mosques because of it is a challenge to security inasmuch as it proposes their advocacy of ‘inappropriate teachings’. Their to topple the existing order. The challenge is a very ‘increasing fundamentalism’ has estranged them from concrete one posed and practiced by jihad-fighters their own. Yet, local Muslim acquaintances could not willing to sacrifice their lives. However, in the long foresee the possibility of terrorist action, suggesting run Islamic fundamentalists are far more dangerous that there is as yet a very real difficulty for religious as ideologues of power than as extremists who kill. It people to understand the range of ideological options, is certainly the case that Muslim tendencies to reform and the significance of the shifts that occur in an and modernize that emerged in the late 19th and early individual’s stance, from within a given religion. This 20th centuries have been eclipsed, in recent decades, appears acutely the case for Muslim communities by the rise of Islamism, and more latterly by globalized right now, but should in no way be deemed a uniquely and internationalized Islamic extremism. Islamists Muslim issue.7 assert Islam as a revolutionary idea and programme with the aim of utterly destroying the social structure Fundamentalism is both a specifically of the world in order to build it anew. Jihad is thus focused mindset and a certain kind of narrow revolutionary combat in a transcendent cause. In the worldview, a modus operandi, which can apply to view of such an extremist perspective, Islam is not a just about any sphere of human activity, but especially matter of optional belief but is inherently a total and so to religion and politics, for both are concerned with totalizing socio-ideological system. Thus, the message the context and aims of human existence. of Islam is believed to have been addressed to all Fundamentalism, as a framework phenomenon that humankind. For the Islamist, this means every person applies across more than just one religion, and which who believes in the message becomes a member of can be applied also to other non-religious spheres of ‘Islamic Party’ or the ‘Party of God’, which is human commitment and worldview, by at least some engaged in an inherent struggle to put in place a new key factors. Concurrently, radical Islam is not simply civilization explicitly based on the ‘word of God.’5 a religious or political option in terms of belief This is the essence of the paradigm that has motivated perspective. It is a package-deal phenomenon marked the pattern, found throughout Islamist history, of by a sequence of factors whose cumulative impact popular overthrow of Muslim governments deemed can be devastating. For example, the Taliban, to return corrupt and un-Islamic. Jihad is taken up as a tool of to this example of extreme Islamist fundamentalism, social salvation; deep disaffection finds resolution in took an absolutist, inerrant and exclusivist line with assertive jihadist action. Besides, jihad is viewed respect to religious identity and behavior, which was as a Muslim liberation struggle to be engaged in on extended to include all who were within their purview- multiple fronts and terrorism becomes a legitimate namely, the inhabitants of Afghanistan. Actions taken tool of jihad. Or, so the logic, born of the rhetoric, to effect their aims were deemed sanctioned by the can go. Religious terrorism derives from an ideology highest authority-Allah –and their extreme measures of religious fundamentalism. In the light of this context, were in consequence deemed legitimated. Thus no for instant, one political correspondent, writing in the opposition was brooked; all had to submit and obey, aftermath of the 2005 London bombings, seemed to or face the consequences. Whether political or get the point when he noting that, rather taking up religious, of local or global scope, radical Islamic arms in the so-called ‘war against terrorism’, the real fundamentalism is a phenomenon to be serious issue has to do with the ‘battle to discredit an reckoned with. Simultaneously, religious ideology…it is an idea that caused the attack, and it fundamentalism, in the form of contemporary is the idea that must be undermined’.6 Investigations Islamism, is the seedbed of Islamic extremism and are said to have revealed that as far back as January terrorism. Unmasking the underlying ideological 2005 there was mounting concern within the young framework of an extreme religious fundamentalism man’s own Muslim communities that their hardening is the first step in formulating a countering ideology, fundamentalist and extremist attitudes and opinions developing it is a demanding challenge of interreligious

The Role of Radical Islam and Ideological Terrorism in the Ambit of Contemporary World Politics: An Anthology 97 and intercultural ideological engagement. In a nut extremist, extremism’. These terms with their shell, radical Islam poses a political challenge in the negative connotations all together refer to a delinquent modern world which is like that of no other radical mindset and to behavior diverging from society’s religious movement. Ideologically, is perceived by mainstream. Political Islam is today the mainstream Western policy makers as threatening the liberal- opposition in the world of Islam, particularly in the democratic ideology by which most states in the West Middle East. Implicitly, the rejected terms imply a abide and which most other states rhetorically value-judgment because of their connotations and they espouse. Contemporary radical Islamist movements do not reflect the existing political realities. In the are geographically dispersed throughout the Far East, light of this context, it can be mentioned that Islam is Southeast Asia, Europe, Africa, and, of course, the a faith. In this capacity it by no means supports any Middle East. In fact, there is scarcely a region on the kind of action that can be identified as extremism. globe where they do not exist. Ironically, Islamic There can be an understanding of religion that leads radicalism, contributes to violence and division within to fanaticism, but this is different from Islamism. the Islamic, world itself, as the ongoing conflict in Neither theological questions nor psychological Iraq demonstrates. In short, radical Islam poses a fanaticism are the basic concern of the application of challenge to the state-based and broadly secular Islamism today. Besides, in the current form of international system that has been in place since the political Islam this process leads to jihadization of seventeenth century, in addition to the states and faith pronounced as a return to tradition.9 societies that make up this system. Ideologically, Islamism has replaced communism and fascism as While outlining the distinction between Islam the greatest threat to liberal-democratic ideals by as a faith and Islamism as a political ideology, one which most states in the West abide and which most has to refute the claims of Islamists that their religion other states rhetorically espouse.8 based worldview qualifies them as the ‘True Believers’. It also follows that countering their Even a broader categorical and historical jihadist terrorisms not ‘a war on Islam’ as they comparison, including ideological and religious propagate in a war of ideas. In a summary fashion it movements, suggests that the challenge of radical can be stated that Islamism is not a wrongdoing, rather Islam in the 21st century might have a similar impact but stands as political phenomenon within Islam as a as did radical secular ideologies in the previous 100 social reality. At issue is a transnational movement years. For the time being, radical Islam does not that solely uses existing institutions to promote the possess powerful state structures in the same way practice of irregular war while working to remake communism held sway in the Soviet Union, Nazism the world. Different people are entitled to their own in Germany, and fascism in Italy and Spain. religions, but not to their own facts. Nevertheless, globalization has advantaged radical Islamic groups in a number of important ways: large- However, facts must be contextually scale migration of Muslims from poor and dense understood in their place in the ideology of Islamism Islamic hinterlands to Europe and the Americas had and into its branch of jihadism. And in this phase of led to the emergence of a pool of potential recruits, contemporary Islamic radicalism politicization of sympathizers and financial and political supporters. religion is an important proponent. This conflict occurs The dissemination of knowledge through modern in a context of a war of ideas and worldviews where communication favours the radical underdog in the issues are complicated by religious ideologies. production of violent means and of course modern Consequently, the war of ideas enables Islamists to technology aids Islamists in their means of terrorism, ideologically defame their foes, including fellow- such as the use of airplanes in the events of 9/11. Muslims, in order to legitimate a fight against them. The new notion of ‘war of ideas’ refers to a The Basic Challenges of Radical Islam Today: competition between political concepts of Islamic A Brief Outline order and life.10 Political Islam is a transnational movement that cannot be well understood through the terms ‘extreme,

98 World Focus February 2017 The Radical Ideology of Jihadist Islamism and who fight for their goals through peaceful political its Pillars: the New Irregular War means in established institutions. Others fight within The political movements representing Islamism are the framework of terrorism and violence to achieve carried out by non-state actors in local, regional, and their ideological goals. Jihadism is a branch of international politics who work to reinvent tradition. fundamentalism that combines the views of Islamic Their subsequent realities create an indication of the world order with terrorism, turning the fight into a return of Islamic civilization to world politics and its ‘holy war.’ Although there are clear differences, claim to international domination. In fact, Islamic Islamists who choose to fight an irregular war are states exist independently, solely as a grouping of similar to Islamists who fight through traditional states with a distinct civilization based on religion. institutional means, as both are committed to the idea These states are assembled in the only international of an Islamic Sharia state.12 In terms of security organization identified by religion: the Organization jihadists are most appealing and subsequently of Islamic Conference (OIC). Political Islam is not successful when they mobilize on religious grounds. the ideology of the OIC; rather it is the orientation of In addition to the need for military security, others the Islamist movements not only politically opposed measures are measured to counter irregular warfare to the current international order, but also to the and jihadi quests for a new world order. One cannot existing regimes in Islamic countries. The unequivocal fight fundamentalists with armies, not is it possible to call to replace the existing order of the nation-state overcome ideologies with militaries. This fight can with a Hakimiyyat Allah is based on the ideology of only be won by undermining the ideology’s appeal an Islamic state and of a new world order along the for an Islamic order and by delegitimizing it. In this lines of Sharia. In summary, the goal of Islamists is connection, a new security approach is needed to not the restoration of the Caliphate as some self- counter these imminent challenges. This strategy proclaimed experts contend; rather, the establishment can neither be fixed by the state nor on the of an Islamic Order (nizam Islami) is the top priority predominance of conventional military thinking. The of political Islam today.11 This is the basis of Islamic ideological appeal of jihadism will not be eradicated fundamentalism represented by both the peaceful solely by destroying its terrorist arm. The war of ideas institution of Islamism and by terrorist jihadism. continues unabated. Despite the difference in the employed means, the final goal of Islamic order is shared by both. In the Between 1948 and 1982, five interstate wars 21st century this has become a competition between took place in the Middle East. This is in contrast to Pax Islamica and Pax Americana. The foremost current circumstances where an Arab-Israeli or target of Islamic movements is currently the toppling Indian-Pakistani interstate war is unlikely. Instead, of existing regimes. However, it is wrong to we are confronted with irregular warfare enacted by exclusively identify the concerns of Islamism as solely violent jihadists, in particular suicide bombers. Prior within the world of Islam. The major section of this to these recent developments, earlier events in article refers to the distinction between Islam and Algeria, Egypt, Israel, Afghanistan, as well as in Islamism in the context of the politicization of religion Xinjiang, Kashmir, Kosovo and Macedonia, etc. high- and religionization of politics. This is the background lightened the need to confront the new jihadist for a proper understanding of jihadist Islamism. warfare. In the light of the present discussion, it can be stated that the West will not be able to counter The Problem of Political Order and Holy Terror jihadism and its related challenges to international as a War of Ideas security using the old framework of the state-centered Islamic fundamentalism as expressed in Sunni Islam approach. In earlier conflicts, the North Atlantic is a powerful example of the politicization of religion. Treaty Organization (NATO) was able to out power It not only illuminates existing cultural differences, it its foes, such as the Serbian army with its regular also promotes greater opposition to fight traditional and armed forces in 1999 and Iraqi forces in 2003. rules and values of the current international Moreover, the Israeli Defence Force (IDF) has been community. For example, there are Sunni unable to cope with the Palestinian Intifada. The fundamentalists, such as the Turkish AKP-Islamists, inability to fight an irregular war also applies to the

The Role of Radical Islam and Ideological Terrorism in the Ambit of Contemporary World Politics: An Anthology 99 recent Hizballah war against Israel. What are understanding and unity as basics. Terrorism arises particularly striking about ‘holy terror’ compared to out of political grievances or political ambitions. In purely ‘secular terror’, however, are the radically Assam and Tripura the political factors that led to different value systems. Terrorism assumes a insurgency-cum-terrorism included the failure of the transcendental dimension and its perpetrators are government to control large-scale illegal immigration thereby unconstrained by the political, moral or of Muslims from Bangladesh. Political infighting and practical constraints that seem to affect other instability and often religious causes again provide a terrorists. Whereas secular terrorists generally suitable ground for the growth of terrorist groups. consider indiscriminate violence is immoral and Modern terrorism thrives not only on its ability to hit counterproductive. However, religious terrorists where it hurts the most but also on support from certain regard such violence not only as morally justified, but international quarters. Some people take to the gun as a necessary expedient for the attainment of their because they feel they have economically exploited. goals. Thus religion serves as a legitimizing force – Naxal terrorism largely belongs to this category. conveyed by sacred text or imparted via clerical Technological advances have helped the modern authorities claiming to speak for the divine. Religious terrorists to arm themselves with small, portable easy and secular terrorists also differ in their to operate weapons. The entire range of weaponry constituencies. Whereas secular terrorists attempt to available for national defence is more or less there appeal to a constituency variously composed of actual for the terrorists as well. Today, terrorists groups and potential sympathizers, members of the have global networks or establish contact with groups communities they purport to defend. Finally, religious in different countries. Some terrorist groups such as and secular terrorists have starkly different the Jammu & Kashmir Liberation Front want perceptions of themselves and their violent acts. independence for the state, including all the territory presently part of India, Pakistan and China. Others, Today, we are witnessing an age with dual such as the , want India’s J & K sides of extreme condition. One sides lives in constant state to be merged with Pakistan. While those who extreme pleasure and happiness, a self-centric life want independence, project their struggle as a style, whereas the others seek the eternal life via separatist one, those who want merger with Pakistan death. In other words, one group pursues happiness project it as a religious struggle. in the world of materialism, which explicitly rejects the spiritual aspect of the life, whereas in the other Conclusion edge, a group of religious fanatics seek paradise by Religious terrorism has emerged as a big danger in blowing themselves up while targeting innocent India. Soon after independence, India experienced civilian sand children. Obviously, there is something insurgencies in Nagaland and Mizoram. Later, wrong with this picture, because these two do not Naxalism, which is a special variety of terrorism, was complement each other and are wrong for many rampant in West Bengal. Though controlled in the reasons. The religions have become as manifestly state of its origin, Naxalism is a problem in tracts of sourced as instruments of terror, oppression and Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and nationalism. Thus, it is more crucial than ever for all Maharashtra. In Assam a new terrorist organization, people of faith to share this common problem and the the United Liberation Front of Assam (ULFA) has resolution itself so that these new breed terrorists emerged in the last some years, threatening the lives must not promote and execute untold violence on the of the non-Assamese residing in Assam. The terrorist human community in the name of God with their so- groups are thus proliferating in several states in India called religious ideologies. It should be conceived that but the states which have proved to be most vulnerable the solution of the problem requires the alliance of to terrorism are Punjab and Jammu-Kashmir. Today, civilizations rather than clashes, because terrorism is the menace of global terrorism can be seen at work not unique to just one religion, ethnicity or nation. in a very large number of countries. Sometimes a Rather, it is a problem for all. The modern world will single terrorist action brings disastrous consequences be shaped by systems and approaches which cherish to millions of people. The murder of Arch Duke universal values which consider affection, tolerance, Ferdinand of Austria in 1914 by a Bosnian terrorist

100 World Focus February 2017 led to the breakdown of the First World War. During believe that Muslims must return to the path of the the post-World War II period, ideological and strategic Prophet and adhere literally to the Koran. Given their interests of the two superpowers aided and abetted conservative religious lifestyle, all salafists can be global terrorist movements. The recent terrorist considered fundamentalists, but not all violent attacks in Europe and the increasing number of militants. European terrorist ‘foreign fighters’ highlight the need not only to reinforce the policy measures against Endnotes radicalization and religious fundamentalism but also 1 For a detailed discussion encompassing the role of to understand the processes of these two phenomena terrorism in the modern day politics see, Terrorism and in the European context. Radicalization is a complex ReligiousFundamentalism: Prospects for a Predictive matter that has not been defined uniformly in the Paradigm by Douglas Pratt, Marburg Journal of Religion, social sciences. It can be seen as a phenomenon of Vol. 11, No. 1, June, 2006, pp.66-79. people embracing views which could lead to terrorism 2 A very useful recent discussion can be found in Peter and is closely connected to the notion of extremism. Antes,New Approaches to the Study of Religion, Vol.1, Religious fundamentalism, a belief in an absolute Regional, Critical and Historical Approaches (Religion and Reason, Vol.42, Jacques Waardenburg, Series Editor); religious ideology with no tolerance for differing Berlin, New York: Walter de Gruyter, 2004, pp.437-449. interpretations, is a contributing factor to the 3 For a detailed understanding for a theoretical development of radical opinions. The causes of classification of most terrorist groups see, Wyno Academic radicalization are complex, drawing from the Journal of Social Science by Hasan T. Arslan or follow continuing conflicts in the Middle East, the http//ww.wnyoacademicjournals.org/soc.sci.html.as disconnectedness of large Muslim communities living accessed on 20.12.16. at 3:08 A.M. in Western societies and their search for an identity. 4 See Martin E. Marty, Fundamentalism Compared: The Ideology forms an inseparable part of the Charles Strong Memorial Lecture 1989, Underdale, South radicalization process. Nevertheless, it is suggested Australia, Australian Association for the Study of Religion, that ideology is not, alone, decisive but has to be 1989,pp.21-34. complemented by other factors-political and social 5E.B. Lumbard, ed., Islam, Fundamentalism and the environment and a psychological need for identity. Betrayal of Tradition, Bloomington, World Wisdom,2004, Using religion as a useful narrative, a cognitive New York, Routledge, 2007, pp.61-77. framework is built in religious fundamentalism and 6 Ibid.,pp. 78-79. other ideologies to create solidarity and increase 7 Ibid.,pp.82-83. loyalty to the cause. Religious fundamentalism, often 8 Radical Islam and International Security edited by Hillel at the heart of radicalization, can be defined as a Frisch and Efraim Inbar, Routledge, London, pp.22-31. belief in an absolute religious truth which is challenged 9 Ibid., pp.40-45. by the forces of evil and which must be followed 10 For details see, Global Terrorism and its Impacts on today in the same way as in the past. Islamic National Security by YasarOnay, Forrign Affairs, fundamentalism stems from Salafism, a socio-political November-December, 2003, New Delhi, pp.54-67. movement that emerged in Egypt in the 19th century 11 Ibid.,pp.69-70. within Sunni Islam, which opposed integration into 12 Ibid., pp.72-73. mainstream Western European societies. Salafists For Subscribers Please always mention your name and complete postal address in capital letters detailing your pin code numbers (telephone numbers, and e-mail IDs if any) while sending your subscrip- tions.

The Role of Radical Islam and Ideological Terrorism in the Ambit of Contemporary World Politics: An Anthology 101 Critically Understanding “West’s War on Terror”: Role of US and Europe Rameez Raja Mir & Manzoor Ahmad Hajam

A Critically and comprehensive understanding of allies in 2001 to combat international terrorism. The geo-politics and causes of ‘War on terror’ is the terrorist attacks on Pentagon building in Arlington, fundamental objective of this paper. It is an Virginia near the seat of US government in attempt to enquire into the causes of War on Terror Washington D.C. and World Trade Centre twin towers to see with-in whether it is really so or it sued into in New-York city on 11 September 2001 by Al-Qaeda enhancing the hegemony of west. Because, since raised intense fear and speculation among American the days of the cold war and even before, the tussle, political elites regarding the possible further attacks conflict and war has been initiated and fought the then US President George W. Bush declared a by the powerful states to establish hegemony. policy of pre-emptive strikes for targeting terrorists and ‘rogue nations’ that harbour terrorists. After the Introduction 9/11 events the US government changed foreign During the Cold War different means have been policy and launched a global strategy campaign against employed, different paths adopted to establish their terrorism. European Union also supported US global hegemony by the two most powerful states of the campaign against terrorism. world, which caused economic instability and arms race, where one state for the balance of power or Incessant West and Muslim Opposition because of the security dilemma was using different Now under new kind of power structure US emerged methods to become militarily powerful. Military power as the only super power; its politics and hegemony in was the most important weapon for the sustainability international relations gave rise to a very new kind of of any state till the end of the cold war. This paper is opposition in the form of terrorism. It all started with going through the journey of international world order policies of the west and its incessant acts to from one of unilateral immediately after the cold war hegemonies the world and to maintain its status of to a current multilateral one. America’s way was one super power with economic imperialism. America’s of challenging opposition and to maintain hegemony policies especially in the Middle East to capture energy for its political and economic interests in the form of resources gave rise to Islamic opposition. ‘War on Terror”. Middle East was highly important for the US Post-Cold war era is being characterised by because of its energy resources, it is also geopolitically the emergence of not only a new world order, but the important it connects Europe and Asia. Russia also emergence of new security threats also, because the entered in the region and both the super powers during conflict based on an idea was no more a characteristic cold war tried to control the region. The Soviet Union of the world order. Global political economy, market invaded Afghanistan (Gibbs 1987) and it has been and regional integration like European Union united defeated in Afghanistan and during the conflict the world where causes and effects are not only intra Mujahedeen has been supported by the US. After national but also international. The scenario developed the defeat of the Soviet Union in Afghanistan, the after the post-cold war effected the enhancement of dissenters also opposed the hegemony of the U.S. terrorism, because it became easy for terrorist Soviet Union with its communist philosophy had organisations to establish networks to further their opposition to religion and therefore the suppression idea into the society (Enders and Sandler 1999). of religious identities of the Islamic people of the Middle East turned rigid with their identities. ‘Global War on Terror’ is a military campaign launched by the United States of America and its 102 World Focus February 2017 Middle East have tribal based societies where The Cold war was contestation to establish their identity is directly associated with their religion, hegemony of one superpower for the furtherance of which is very important to them (Hudson 2001). Attack their interest, because victorious superpower would on the identities of the Muslim world became of the establish its political and economic system and market capitalist agenda of the West, behind which there was across the world. After the Cold War, contestation politics of energy in which the western objective of between the different ideologies in the International the dilution of identities of the Muslim world would fit arena was no more a dominant characteristic of the in. West wanted to influence the perspective of the international system as it emerged after the Second followers of Islam, so that they could easily come World War. The admirers of classical democracy and under their cultural imperialism. capitalist market economy cherished the disintegration f the Soviet Union and end of the Cold War; and the Economic imperialism and cultural America’s apparent economic renaissance during the imperialism go hand in hand and the use of both was late 1990s consolidated its pre-eminent position and dire need of the US to get the benefit of the resources appeared to lock-in its dominance for the foreseeable there. They refused to accept the so called modernity future (Beeson 2004). An era, a dream of world of the West and opposed the western culture and system based on socialist principles perished. It was therefore they became radical opponents of the west a time of the victorious western capitalist bloc, of and the US which gave rise to terrorism. The attack classical liberal democracy with laissez faire as its of September 11 on the WTO is nothing but an political and economic principle or market economy opposition to the economic imperialism of the west. as the economic system which became the final true The agenda of the US could not succeed the way it destination for all the developed countries. After the wanted and consequently gave rise to the opposition Cold War, the world system was characterised by its from those countries where identities of the people influence and hegemony and precisely the desire of were being suppressed (Deshpande 2003). It led to dominance is likely to remain a permanent feature of the formation of those organisations who were not US geo-political ambitions (Tellis 2008-2009). It never only vehemently opposing the west but also radically missed the chance from the year 1991 when it active, and ultimately plunged into terrorism. endeavoured to control world affairs obviously for the sole purpose of its politico-economic interests and Post-Cold War Developments needs. In the post cold war era, emergence of few economically powerful states posed serious threat, Almost all the nations have adopted and not only to the World’s most powerful State that is followed America economic and political system as the U.S; but this trend started to give primacy to the the self-evident truth. Immediately after disintegration economic power over military power. Post-Cold war of the Soviet Union and the end of cold war, the era was characterised by the rise of China as strong triumphalism west proclaimed this event as the ‘end export based economy (Gill and Lardy, 2000), and of history’ (Fukuyama 1992) and the victory of emergence of Europe as an integrated economic liberalism. The west designed “Grand Chess board” system that also gave primacy to the economic power, (Zbigniew 1998), ‘clash of civilisation’ (Huntington which led the emergence of new power centres. The 1996), ‘doctrine of pre-emption’ and ‘New World world system which was uni-polar after the cold war Order’ it started creating. Cold war was a tug of war was emerging and becoming multi-polar; new regional between two super power but now it was a time for alliances were formed and with the advent of nuclear unilateralism and the US waged a new kind of war power few more states were laden with the same called ‘war on terror’ to vindicate its role in the ‘new destroying capacity as well. The Grand Strategy in world order’ and to challenge regional power centres the foreign policy of America was a move to think and institutions which came into existence in the last beyond military power to combat rising power centres two decades after the cold war, because whether more effectively, and therefore as the history of the the United States can maintain its standing as the US foreign policy shows, its claims about “War on sole great power depends largely on the possibility or Terror” are sceptical. otherwise of new great power (Layne 1993)

Critically Understanding “West’s War on Terror”: Role of US and Europe 103 The post-cold war era was different in such before Congress, after days of the attack: “Our grief a way as it originated new system of economic powers has turned to anger and anger resolution. Whether like China, Europe and Russia; especially China’s we bring our enemies to justice or bring justice to our rising importance in Asian affairs represents a major enemies, justice will be done’ (Bush 2001). American change in regional power dynamics in the early 21st President Bush said that “every nation, in every region, century (Sutter 2005). Europe was also emerging now has a decision to make. Either you are with us economically and the focus of the power was no more or you are with the terrorists” (Bush 2001). This military or political but rather economic in post-cold actually brought many changes in the foreign policy war. As far as world order is concerned it was not of United States, but it did not bring any change in possible to challenge the new emerging power centres the grand strategy of the United states which existed in that context America’s strategy of maintaining there since 1945 (Boyle 2008). Therefore the tactics hegemony was no easy task. There was opposition of hegemony to challenge the multilateral world order, also against the imperial policies of the US especially arising out of China’s, Russia’s and European Union in the Islamic world. America took the advantage of rise was a part of the grand strategy played by US the situation and formulated a strategy of new war after cold war, and so it raises suspicion about the called ‘war on terror’ in the context of September 11 claims of waging a war in the name of fighting attack in 2001. terrorism. In the last decade, the War on Terror has been overpowering state like Afghanistan and Iraq, 9/11: Was it a Paradigm Shift? occupying their territory, institution and resources and After 9/11 attack there was a dramatic change in the justifying it to the extent of labelling America as the foreign policy of the US. The first year of the George liberator. Actually America conferred upon itself, the W Bush administration ironically continued the basic duty to act on behalf of the mankind, taking advantage contours of the Clinton administration’s foreign policy. of being a sole superpower. Such an act should have The attacks of September 11 dramatically changed been in conformity with the United Nations, which is that and the Bush administration embarked on a new the responsibility of the Security Council and only in foreign policy in the aftermath of attacks (Caldwell a condition when international peace and security is 2011). America’s strategy to rule through maintaining threatened (Koechler 2002). hegemony is now their future policy, and to be hegemony a state must have the capability to enforce With the emergence of America as a the rules of the system, the will to do so, and a unilateral power and while Japanese economy commitment to a system that is perceived as mutually declined and China emerged as an economic power beneficial: a large, growing economy, dominance in (Friedman 2013), the Soviet Union’s abandonment leading technological or economic sectors, and of confrontation in favour of ‘common security’ paved political power backed up by military power. All these the way for series of unilateral gestures that broke led America to use new ways and methods to the logjam of East-West conflict (Tannewald and intervene in other nations. After the end of the Cold Wohlforth 2005). And in the continuity of maintaining War, American policy makers sought to create a new that unilateralism and hegemony, the war on terror is grand strategy for the United States, but they failed unprecedented in history; and where there is no in this endeavour. As a self-proclaimed ‘policeman’ contender, an unequal one in which the nation against to maintain hegemony which America had which war has been declared is not even willing to successfully built up after the cold war, the US got participate in the combat. There is no opponent but a the reason to believe so because its demise (cold war) victim and a victim without any choice, who has to is commonly associated with the collapse of the Soviet participate to receive the blows and to accept empire in Eastern Europe in late 1989 or the America’s imperialism. The incident of 9/11/2001 disintegration of the Soviet Union and of Communism terrorist attacks in America’s changed the world in 1991 (Muller 2004). politics and the focus of international politics and the focus of international politics greatly. Washington is It all started with George W. Bush calling this change a ‘Paradigm Shift’ (Kuniharu 2003) proclamation about combating terrorism in his speech and giving more legitimacy to the US behaviour and

104 World Focus February 2017 actions. US declared ‘war on terror’ as the free behind establishment of peace and democracy (Rawi countries in west and the US are facing threat to 2009). strategy from rogue weak states. America’s military campaign against Astonishingly, initially the attack by the US terrorism in the form of war on terror led it to intervene on the so called terrorist states was unilateral, and in the land of Iraq directly and Palestine indirectly. later on the extent and compulsion by the powerful The UN was forced to impose sanction on Iraq in nations made the United Nations pass a few 1991 and in the name of WMD; public opinion has resolutions against spread of terrorism which certainly been built up to label Iraq as a terrorist nation which settled the framework for the future war. It took a is planning to develop WMD to harm America and global turn when resolution 1373 has been passed by the West. Palestine met the same fate because after security Council in 2001, which condemned the the launch of war on terror Israel supported by September 11 attack and obligated UN member state America attacked Palestine. to deny finance g, support and safe harbour for terrorist )resolution 1373, 2001). As a consequence America’s Enigma: Al-Qaeda and Taliban by the year 2013 more than 166 countries stopped In order to understand the reality behind the Taliban financing terrorist related assets; and also more than and Terrorism, which challenged America by 300 terrorists, terrorist groups, and terrorist related attacking on their embassies in Tazania and Kenya in entities have been designated under an Executive 1998 and attacked America on its soil on September Order freezing their assets (US Department of State 11, one needs to understand the genesis and evolution 2013). of those organisations which are in the prime debate proposed by America. America named Afghanistan “Now, nine years into the Afghan war, many for shielding Osama Bin Laden and Taliban. American and U.S. allies have grown weary of Afghanistan got united in 1747 and from there after conflict, unsure about U.S. objectives, and uncertain had been facing constant attacks from Britain in their U.S. prospects for success” (Armitage and Berger ‘great game’ to control Central Asia. The Soviet Union 2010). America declared the war not against any with help of coup and Direct military intervention in specific nation but against terrorism in general and 1979, and then after Soviet backed government led so presented a choice before the nation-states that by President Najibullah, started to fight Mujahidin they are either America’s war on terror or with troops which was supported by Pakistan, Saudi Arabia terrorism. “This is world’s fight, this is civilisation’s and America. When Afghanistan was under the Soviet fight; the attack may have taken on American soil intervention, it was also undergoing humanitarian crisis but the whole world had to be mobilized because it (Dupree 1983). But when Moscow left the country was an attack on freedom and civilisation in the whole in 1989, after the Mujahedeen captured Kabul but world’ (Koshy 2003). could not retain it because of internal conflict, emergence of Taliban took place in 1994 which It is nakedly visible that with America’s war captured Kabul from the warring Mujahidin. on terror, occupation, imperialism and neo-colonialism has begun which has but enveloped into an idea America initially supported recruitment of presented as a “just war’ against terrorism. But a radical Muslims from across the world. Osama Bin close scrutiny of America’s interest in those regions Laden is also a recruit who had close connections where war is still being raged will reveal the ugly with the Saudi royal family. His father was a truth behind the war on terror. The claims of peace construction magnate. Thousands of radical Muslims and democracy by the US are completely flawed, had taken training under the Mujahidin. In 1998 the because the government created by the support of Taliban had attacked America embassies in Kenya the US was constituted of those people who were and Tanzania and as a consequence the UN had responsible for the devastation of Afghanistan and imposed sanction on the Taliban. America initially had Karzai’s government. And they are the main obstacle recognised and indirectly accepted the Taliban regime

Critically Understanding “West’s War on Terror”: Role of US and Europe 105 but later on criticised the regime and their leaders eighty percent of Afghanistan. Al-Qaeda after the and imposed many sanctions. September 11 attack, due to pressure from the security community, changed itself out of necessity September 11, 2002 was the day when the in the ensuing years, into a diffuse global network world Trading Centre was attacked in New York. and philosophical movement composed of dispersed Since then America had decided to eliminate the nodes with varying degrees of independence (Rollins problem of Global terrorism, which includes major 2011). changes in the foreign policy of America to accomplish the task and which became the then Though America labelled Al-Qaeda as a American President, George Bush. Terrorism is not terrorist organisation and started a war against it, the new to the world, many countries having the problem history of the genesis of Al-Qaeda shows the reality of terrorism for a long India was never considered of American role in the establishment and seriously by the US. Even people of America identity development of the organisation. America wanted to had been attacked before September 11, 2001. But challenge and fight Soviet aggression in Afghanistan attack with so much intensity and on the land of and to fight Soviet troops and Afghan Marxist troops; America happened for the first time. The war on in the course they developed a force of radical Muslim terror that was triggered by the events of September supported by Pakistan and Saudi Arabia. In 1996, the 11 had no gestation periods such. The state of war group named World Islamic Front for Jihad against was declared by President George Bush and others Jews and Crusaders (WIFJAJC) was formed, which without hesitation (kathe et al 2006). Nine days after later developed into Al-Qaeda, led by Osama Bin the incident, i.e. on September 20, 2001 before the Laden. It started establishing a large base of joint session of the Congress, President of United operations in Afghanistan, where the Islamist States declared ‘Global War on terror’ which is extremist regime of the Taliban had captures power officially known as ‘’Overseas contingency in the same year. Operation,’’ an international military campaign with an objective to curb Al-Qaeda and terrorism from America’s Grand Strategy and Terrorism the face of the earth. But in a long journey of more America’s foreign policy approach of fashioning than one decade, the war has taken many twists and America as the saviour of the world and organizer of turns and is still continuing with changing objectives the new world which began two decades back is still and ways. American president George Bush identified being continued, even more intensely. America started Al-Qeada as the perpetrators of the attacks in New its global strategy to achieve and fulfil its interest had York Washington on September 11 and accused no elements in its strategy which could justify Afghanistan harbouring Al-Qaeda leaders, particularly America’s claim of being the saviour of the world. Osama Bin Laden (Koshy 2003). America justified attack on Afghanistan claiming it as the defender of Taliban, but America had immense Al-Qaeda is a global militant Islamist geopolitical interest in the region which was one of organisation established by Osama Bin Laden in 1999. the most important reasons along with other reasons It consists of network of militants supported by nations such as exploitation of resources, political and like Pakistan, Saudi Arabia and others whose objective economic. With the emergence of Asia as an is ‘Global Jihad” and follows Sharia law. Al-Qaeda important power centre America wanted to show its has been labelled as terrorist organisation by UN, the presence in the region. There is certainly a reason US and in relation to 1998 attacks involving the self-interest of the US which causes on US embassies in Tanzania and Kenya and attack on Afghanistan given its location in the Asian September 11, 2001 attack on America. As a from which US is struggling since 2001 (Rubinovitz consequence America has launched ‘War on terror” 2009). against Al-Qaeda and Osama Bin Laden who is the main commander of the organisation, and accused After attack in 2002 Bush presented National Afghanistan to shield Al-Qaeda and Taliban regime Security strategy in which he focused on the proactive which is an Islamist movement that had captured one measures which were rather part of the US strategy

106 World Focus February 2017 before the September 11 attack (Doyle 2007). because of the worldwide presence of media, which Definition of ‘terrorism’’ is changing according to the is certainly uniting the whole Muslim world. The circumstances and according to will and interest of American cultural hegemony, their opposition to the the states. If terrorism is about instigating terror for Islamisation of the Muslim countries, and sanctions some political ends, if it is about inflicting injuries on against Iraq were the main reasons behind the innocent people, if it is destroying infrastructure and opposition to America (Khan 2002). The war on terror economy of nation, then certainly America’s claim of was not only confined to the border of Afghanistan, enveloping ‘war on terror’ with just cause is seriously where direct military action has taken place and the doubtful. Terrorism has been defined by people perpetrators had no intention to keep it confined only differently and certainly America is also doing the to a single nation. In fact their desire was leading and same thing, because in the definition occupation is compelling them to increase its sphere which is one justified. They are manipulating the definition of the of the essential characteristics of imperialism. Before terrorism according to the wishes and objectives of the attack of September 11, American embassies in the United States. America’s definition of terrorism Nairobi, Kenya and Dar-e-salaam in Tanzania and which is constantly getting changed is doubtful even American people had been targeted by terrorists because terrorism is not a new phenomenon. outside America. Terrorists had never attacked on Terrorism is old as recorded human history, and is the soil of America but this time it was evident that therefore not a new phenomenon to much of the world. the attack was against American policies and its The terrorist attacks on the United Sates on September hegemonic role in international affairs. 11, 2001, however, were devastatingly unique for Americans (Caldwell 2011). This war was In response, America initiated much constructed around the concept of religious extremism, operation in different countries under the banner of which is tending to terrorism as proclaimed by the ‘war on terror’. For instance, in Afghanistan they west. Clash of civilization is the name which have started ‘Operation Enduring Freedom’ along characterises the War on Terror. But close with other three more military operations with an observation can show that religion is actually not in objective to eliminate Al-Qaeda and its affiliates from the midst of genesis of the terrorism; it can work like Afghanistan. The US, NATO and non-NATO forces unifying factor but is certainly not the main cause. also started ‘operation Anaconda’ to destroy any Recent years have seen a hardening of identities possible traces of Taliban and Al-Qaeda. NATO based around ethnic, faith or other communities in launched another naval operation called ‘Operation response to the supposed flattening of local differences Active Endeavour’ which was mainly concerned to by a process of globalisation based on a heavily remove the militant activities from the Mediterranean European and American market capitalist system Sea. ‘Operation Enduring Freedom’ stretched its (Burke 2012). hands to reach towards Africa and there it is called as ‘Operation Enduring Freedom – Horns of Africa’ With the change in policy of the US towards (OEF-HOA). the Muslim countries, the opposition of the Muslim people was getting stronger. Initially the US has no In the Sahara region of Africa the American unified policy for the entire Muslim world, but a action was named as ‘Operation Enduring Freedom change is seen and the US is now perceiving the – Trans Sahara (OEF-TS) to check militant activity. whole Muslim world as one and relating it only to the USA also initiated military action in Iraq which was Middle East, a focal point of Muslims. When Osama labelled as terrorist nation since 1990 by the time Iraq Bin Laden challenged America by saying that he hates invaded Kuwait. Fall of the Taliban was very America because it supports Israel, the US attracted important and a major gain for the United States making an alliance with Israel. Initially America had because it reduced Al-Qaeda’s chance of security no major role in the Israel-Palestine conflict but later access to the large training camps and worldwide on they started playing major role by favouring Israel. network and consequently it lost the ability to conduct The US also came in contact with organisations like intercontinental operations (Evera 2006). Hamas. Now the world is completely changed

Critically Understanding “West’s War on Terror”: Role of US and Europe 107 Assessing Grand Strategy and social gains are the basic elements of terrorism. America projected definition of the “War on Terror” Now the question is how the fear factor perpetrated contains not evens a single element of realism and by American is different, how the violence is different yet it plunged into the war to apparently save the and whether there is any kind of intimidation faced world from the scourge of terrorism which is so by America or it has any political objective. devastating according to America. What Bush means to say is that this is what America realised on 9/11 American influence in west Asia, Iraq and following which it waged a full-fledged war. But in Palestine Conflict were the most important causes reality, the war on terror is a method of America’s behind the September 11 attack. Humanitarian crises global strategy. We now come to the question of what and sanctions provided the fertile land for the is meant by global strategy. It means increasing its development of terrorism. In the name of justice and hegemony all over the world; it also means that terrorism the war on terror is taking life of millions in whosoever will come in the way will be crushed and the devastating nations and filling the belly of that is exactly what is happening since 9/11. This is imperialist and capitalist nations in this world of from where the agenda begins but this war against globalisation. This new world order is going to tend something which is poisoning as a big problem in front the whole system in their favour so that the world of the world or America. And America is not in any will be ruled by few and will have no resistance. Let way interested in solving the very serious problems us re-order this world around us (Koshy 2001). These of this world. War on terror has nothing to do with words by Tony Blair in his address to the labour party the fight against the global problem of terrorism but it conference on October 2, 2001indicates the clear is the biggest act of terror in the world and which has intention behind initiation of the war, rest of the claims no comparison in the world. It has all the elements of by him like to uphold human dignity and social justice terrorism effects and which is not only the killing of were mere blatant lies. This world of globalisation innocent and destroying material but also destroying where economic interest is pursued through military the sovereignty and independence of humanity. intervention is their politico-economic interest served by the use of NATO forces in reordering the world. Various American institutions and intellectuals Weather it was Iraq, Afghanistan or any other nation give the fundamental definition of terrorism. The it was clear that anybody who is going to oppose the terrorism has been by many thinkers differently like American polices and interest is going to be a part of ‘the illegitimate use of force to achieve a political enemy alliance, which would be considered a major objective when innocent people are targeted’ (Laqueur threat to international security. Serbia war and NATO 1987). The US Department of Defence defines intervention in Kosovo and Yugoslavia in the name of terrorism as the calculated use of Unlawful violence humanitarian crisis is nothing but the western dream or threat of violence to inculcate fear; intended to of an undivided Europe because of the geostrategic coerce or to intimidate governments of societies in need of integration of southeast Europe including religious or ideological.’ Within this definition there Balkans and Serbia. Oil factor is one of the most are three elements: violence fear and intimidation. important reason for war and which is going on in According to FBI, “Terrorism is the unlawful use of specific areas like west Asia and Central Asia and force or violence against persons or property to the Gulf war was another example of oil war because intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian oil is one of the important resources especially when population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of technology and development is wholly based up on social and political objectives. oil and natural resources. The US has proclaimed that the NATO will quit and the responsibility will be The U.S. Department of state defines transferred to the ISAF and ANSF and also set 2015- terrorism to be premeditated politically motivated 2024 as the transformation decade (Mikes 2012). It violence perpetrated against non-combatants by sub- seems their claim that ISAF forces will leave national groups or clandestine agents usually intended Afghanistan is sceptical because it is not complete to influence an audience. America’s political class withdrawal; some portion of forces will still be present believes that fear, violence, and intimidation for political there; NATO role will change but not completely as

108 World Focus February 2017 it will stand by its commitment that there should no and other against terrorism. Where the crusader is resurgence of terrorism in Afghanistan. Therefore defining the enemy, because enemy is not clear and NATO will be there to check and provide training not certain, anyone can be made enemy. Presently because it is not easy for the ANSF to check the theatres of operation are Iraq and Afghanistan; resurgence of militants. “NATO declared an intention Somalia has been attacked; under the same rhetoric to provide sustained practical support to Afghan threats has been issued against Iran and North Korea security institutions to improve their capacity to (Staines 2007) European Union is supportive of war counter threats and contribute to regional security on terror observing its implication on the intra Europe (Miker 2012). Therefore, the role of the NATO forces integration and seeing the common history, culture, is changing but not their participation. The United inters. It has derived massive public support in favour States and other donors continue to implement various of American action in Afghanistan (Golino 2002). infrastructures projects-Particularly for water power Recognising terrorism as a serious threat to the world and roads (Katzman 2013). in general and European Union in particular decided for the collective action with the objective to prevent, European Union’s Support protect, pursue and respond to terrorism. The United States is not alone in the war, as alliance is a European Union focuses on four ways to combat vital part of the war on terrorism (Bayman 2006). It terrorism in its counter terrorism strategy. It begins is only spear heading those politico-economic with the building of national capabilities and sharing interests, envisaged by the capitalist nations. The US best practices and knowledge to achieve that got unprecedented support in the history of alliances objective. EU counter terrorism strategy also of war and the most ardent and strong supported both considers cooperation among the European countries military and ideologically was United Kingdom. The as one important component to combat terrorism. Prime Minister of Britain emphasized on some Developing common capability is another important specific objectives of the war on terror which is way for the EU to fight terrorism but most important representing and spearheading the politico-economic is to have international partnership which stretches interests of capitalism and capitalist nations, so all to be a member of NATO and western security those nations who had their interests being fulfilled structure. by the American war on terror started to support it. The unipolar world order that has existed since the References 1.Armitage, Richard and Sameul Berger (2010), “US Strategy for Pakistan and Afghanistan,” Independent Task Force collapse of the Soviet bloc has now been transformed Report No. 65, New York: Council on Foreign Relations. 2. Beeson, Mark (2006), “The Rise of the ‘Neocons’ and the Evolution of American Foreign Policy,” in VediHadiz (ed.), Empire, neoliberalism, and Asia, London: Routeledge. in the course of events of 1989 and post-September 3. Boyle, J Michael (2008), “the War on terror in American grand strategy,” International Affairs, 84(2): 191-209 4. Burke, Jason (2012), The 9/111 Wars, Britain: Penguin Group. 11 2001, into and order that divides the world along 5. Bush, George W. (2001), “Address to a joint session of Congress and the American people,” September 20, 2001, (online web) Accessed 12 July 2013 www.whitehouse.gov/news/release/2001/09/20010920-8html the lines of loyalty or allegiance with United States 6.Caldwell, Dan (2011), Vortex of Conflict: Us Policy Toward Afghanistan, Pakistan and Iraq, California: Stanford University Press. 7.Deshpande, J.V. (2003), “Muslim Worlds Dilemma” What Went Wrong? The Clash between Islam and Modernity as the imperial hegemony (Koechler 2002). To in the Middle East by Bernard Lewis,” Economic and Political Weekly, (38)45: 4761-4762 8. Doyle, Richard B. (2007), “The US National Security Strategy:Policy, process, Problems,” Public Administration increase the alliance and hegemony, America needed Review, (67) 04: 624-629 9.Dupree, Louis (1983), “Afghanistan in 1982: Still No Solution,” Asian Survey, (23)2: 133-142 10. Evera, Stephen Van (2006), “Assessing U.S. Strategy in the War on Terror,” The ANNALS of the American to add new enemies which America did by changing Academy of Political and Social Science, 607 (01): 10-26 11. Friedman, George (2013), beyond the Post-Cold War World,” Geopolitical Weekly, Stratfor Global Intelligence, the very definition of terrorism. And the definition Accessed on 13 April 2013 URL: Http:/ www.stratfor.com/weekly/beyond-post-cold-war-world 12. Fukuyama, Francis (1992), The End of History and the Last Man, London: Penguin. came to include any nation which is opposing war on 13. Gibbs, David (1987), “Does the USSR have a ‘Grand Strategy’ Reinterpreting the invasion of Afghanistan,” Journal of Peace Research, (24) 04: 365-379. 14. Gill, Bates and Nicholas Lardy, (2000), “China: Searching for a Post-Cold War Formulae,” The Brookings Review, terror. America initially proclaimed that Afghanistan (18)4: 15-18 15. Hudson, Michael (2001), “the Middle East,” Political Science and Politics, (34) 04: 801-804 is supporting Taliban and terrorists and their leader 16.Huntington, Samuel P. (1996), The Clash of Civilisation and the Remaking of World Order, Peguin. 17.Katzman, Keneth (2013), “Afghanistan: Politics, Elections and Governemnet Performance,” CRS Report for Congress. Osama Bin Laden. America also named two other 18.Koechler, Hans (2002), The War On Terror: Its Impact on the Sovereignty of States and its Implications for Human Rights and Civil Liberties,” Lecture delivered at International Ecumenical Conference on Terrorism in Globalised nations supporting terrorism as Iraq and North Korea. World, Place 19.Koshy, Ninan (2001), The War on terror: Reordering the World, New Delhi: LeftWord. But later on America included those nations who 20.Kuniharu, Kakhara (2003), “the Post-9/11 Paradigm Shift and its Effects on East Asia,” Institute for International Policy Studies. IIPS Policy Paper 292E, Tokyo, January 2003. 21.Laqueur, Walter (1987), the Age of Terrorism, Boston: Little Brown developing weapons of mass destruction WMD in 22.Layne, Christopher (1993), “The Unipolar Illusion: Why New Great Powers will Rise,” International Security, 17 (4): 05-51 the ambit of terrorism supporting regimes, but this 23.Muller, John (2004), “What was the Cold War About? Evidence from Its Ending,” Political Science Quarterly, 119(4): 609-631 24.Rawi, Marium (2009), “Afghan Women, Violence and Abuse of Human Rights,” in Mondira Dutta, (ed.), Emerging strategy of increasing the sphere of enemies went Afghanistan in the Third Millennium, New Delhi: Pentagon Press. 25.Rollins, John, (2011), UN 4385th Meeeting, Adopted by the Security Council on September 28, 2001. further and included any nations which is against 26.Rubinovitz, Ziv (2009), Geopolitics and American Policy on Use of Force: Somalia, Rawanda and Afghnaistan Copared, University of Hafia, Accessed 12 July 2013 URL: http;//papers.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1643871 America or the west. The war on terrorism has clearly 27.Staines, Deborah (2007), “Interrogating ‘War on terror’ Paradigm, in Deborah Staines (ed.) Interrogating the War on Terror: Interdisciplinary Perspective, Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing 28.Sutter, Robert (2005), “American Grand Strategy from the Cold War’s End to 9/11: Debating American Grand redefined the world into two blocs one with terrorism Strategy after Major War,” Orbis 53(4): 611-627. 29.Tannewald, Nina and William C. Wohlforth (2005), “Introduction: the Role of Ideas and the End of Cold War,’ Journal of Cold War Studies, 7(2), 3-12 Critically Understanding “West’s War on Terror”: Role of US and Europe 109 Liberation Theology as an ‘Ethical’ Intellectual Discourse: Engaging with the Post-Secular Moment in Post-9/11 Afghanistan Prasanta Kumar Sahu

Introduction vindicating Islam against its distortion and The historic event of 9/11 reminded Brendan Simms, demonization in the contemporary world. a Professor at Cambridge University, of the words of poet William Butler Yeats: ‘All changed, changed Understanding Post-Secularism utterly - a terrible beauty is born’. What has changed The Context of Post-9/11 Afghanistan Despite wishful after 9/11? And which terrible beauty was born in thinking about the diminished role of religion in an the wake of it? The 9/11 attacks questioned the increasingly secularized modern world, the rise of ‘secular modernity’ underlying contemporary world religious extremism and the growing religiosity in politics, instilled a demonic image of Islamic social and political life have formed a curious ground civilization, and provided a launching pad to US-led for recent intellectual engagements. Jürgen Habermas war on terror [Islamic terror?] in Afghanistan. The (2006, 2008, 2009, and 2010) proposes a new concept ‘terrible beauty’ born out of these catastrophic – post-secularism – to address ‘the continued developments was a post-secular world laden with existence of religious communities in a continually devastating clashes between so-called Islamic- secularizing environment’. Charles Taylor (2007) uses terrorist and secular-democratic forces. While the the term ‘post-secular’ not to designate an age in idea of eliminating terrorism and spreading democracy which the declines in belief and practice of the last was beautiful, the permanent labelling of certain forces century have reversed. He states: ‘[By post-secular], as ‘terrorist’ and the others as ‘democratic’ was I rather mean a time in which the hegemony of the terrible. In this backdrop, the vacuum left by religion mainstream master narrative of secularization will be in the West’s secularized environment was filled by more and more challenged’. William E. Connolly Huntington’s clash of civilizations thesis which not (1999, 2011) further explains: ‘[In a post secular only became instrumental in legitimizing US-led world], there is more rapid introduction of minorities military operations and fuelling the US arms industry, of multiple types – including religious, spiritual, ethnic, but also in validating an equally Manichaean and racial, gender practice, and sensual disposition – on violent jihadist worldview endorsed by a few orthodox the same territorial space...the formation of multiple Islamists. Against the essentially aggressive and lines of connection across these spaces of difference mutually reinforcing worldviews generated by is crucial to a generous ethos of engagement in a Huntington and the Jihadists, the idea of an ‘ethical’ post-secular society’. Talal Asad (1999, 2001, and intellectual discourse stands in contestation. This 2003) clarifies the essential co-existence of religiosity paper attempts to explore the viability of a ‘post- and secularity from a post-modernist standpoint and Islamic liberation theology’ as just such an ethical concludes: ‘The secular is a ‘Siamese twin’ of religion. intellectual discourse. The paper is divided into three One cannot be understood without the other’. sections. The first section outlines the post-secular nature of the post-9/11 Afghan scenario. The second If post-secularism implies the persistence of section examines the role of various politico-religious ethnicity and religion in a secular world, then how discourses in deepening this crisis situation. The third can the case of post-9/11 Afghanistan inspected from section assesses the prospects of the post-Islamic a post-secular lens? Ever since its inception as a liberation theology in transforming this situation. The modern nation-state in 1747, ethnicity and religiosity paper concludes that the ‘humanistic’ re-interpretation have remained central to the political dynamics of of Quran by post-Islamic social forces would not only Afghanistan. Afghanistan accommodates some pave the way for transforming the post-9/11 Afghan twenty nine million people who are divided into more crisis but would also be a crucial step towards than twenty ethnic groups. Of these ethnic groups, 110 World Focus February 2017 the prominent ones are Pashtuns, Tajiks, Uzbeks, The current US involvement in Afghanistan Hazaras and Nuristanis. The unequal power relations is the long-drawn result of its attempt to counter the between these groups have historically acted as a influence of an ‘atheistic’ Soviet-style communism in source of serious conflict. In fact, none of the ethnic Afghanistan in the late 1970s. The Soviet intervention groups share the hegemonic position of their Pashtun in Afghanistan in 1979 had a destabilizing impact on compatriots. In addition to ethnic cleavages, there is both national (Afghan) politics and global politics. Its a religious divide between the Shia Hazara population atheistic orientation threatened the hegemony of the and the predominant Sunni population of the rest of Pashtun Islamists at the national level and its Afghanistan. If Hazaras constitute a minority group communist commitment generated insecurity for US on religious grounds, the more alienated are the hegemony at the global level. The national response Nuristanis who were known as ‘kafirs’ or infidels to the presence of Soviet troops in Afghanistan was before being converted to Islam. While ethnic more or less reactionary. The anti-secular Islamist conflicts have largely shaped the domestic disputes forces strongly reacted against the ‘infidelity’ of the in Afghanistan, the interference of foreign powers Soviet-backed Leftist government of Afghanistan. has more often than not elevated the status of domestic Claude Bruderlein (2002) writes: ‘In the face of the ethnic conflicts to actual or potential international Soviet invasion, both the rural population and sectors wars, some of which are seen as exemplification of of disenchanted urban technocrats rallied around the ‘clash of civilizations’. call for jihad or a religious war, similar to those which had been evoked in response to earlier colonial The spectre of a clash of civilizations invasions…Secularism was portrayed as the hidden between ‘Islam’ and the ‘West’ has frequently loomed goal of the Leftist intellectuals in power’. In response after 9/11 and the subsequent US-led war on terrorism to this Leftist attempt to secularize Afghanistan, a in Afghanistan. Ziauddin Sardar and Merryl Wyn new group of Pashtun Islamists emerged who Davies (2004) asked: ‘Is it surprising that many in resented the reformist agenda of the Left. These the West see today’s war on terrorism as the prelude Islamists gave birth to the Mujahideen movement to a renewed clash of civilizations?’ William Kristol which mobilized the rural and urban Afghan social and Robert Kagan (2001) declared that the post-9/11 forces against the secular-Leftist and foreign Afghanistan was going to resemble the clash of controlled PDPA (People’s Democratic Party of civilizations everyone had hoped to avoid. This view Afghanistan) government of Afghanistan. gained strength when the perpetrators themselves presented the 9/11 attacks as ‘jihad’ or Islamic holy The Soviet presence not only jolted the war against Christians and Jews (Commins, 2010; national political climate of Afghanistan, but also Wedgwood, 2002), and the then US President George proved to be an alarming development in global W. Bush reiterated the same spirit by using the word politics, especially in the suspicious political ‘crusade’ with its connotations of a Christian holy atmosphere unleashed by the Cold War. The US war against Muslims (Acharya, 2002). The war in viewed the Soviet invasion as an expansionist gesture Afghanistan still continues. However, the present US of communism which could adversely affect the President Barack Obama has declared an end to clash prospect of a world order based on capitalist of civilizations (Tristam, 2009). After the completion hegemony. In its attempt to offset the Soviet influence of Operation Geronimo, which caused the demise of in Afghanistan, the US began to support the Pashtun al-Qaida leader Osama bin Laden, Barack Obama Islamists or the Mujahideen who had been already announced that his country would never be at war organizing themselves against the Soviet-backed with Islam (Lakshman, 2011]. However, the outraged Leftist regime. However, the US support to Islamic organizations like Jamaat-e-Islami and Mujahideen was short-lived and came to an end with Jamaat-ud-Dawah declared Osama bin Laden as a the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. While the ‘Martyr of Islam’ and called upon Muslims to rise up collapse of Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War against the US (SadiaMe, 2011). reduced the importance of Afghanistan as a venue for furthering US hegemonic goals, it deprived the Mujahideen of their common enemy. In the absence

Liberation Theology as an ‘Ethical’ Intellectual Discourse: 111 of a common enemy, the Pashtun-dominated political be segregated, with separate buses for men and organizations of Mujahideen became separated, women. Men must grow beards and wear a thereby causing a split in the national hegemony of turban…Women and girls must wear the burqa’ Pashtuns (Saikal, 2006). (Hiro, 2002).

The split in national hegemony created space The Taliban and al-Qaida believed that turning for several fragmented counter-hegemonic struggles the clock backwards would not only lift Afghanistan wherein different non-Pashtun ethnic groups began from the abyss of civil war but also combat the anti- to make their separate efforts to challenge the Islamic forces operating at the global level, thereby traditional Pashtun hegemony in Afghan politics. Dilip paving the way for global Islamic hegemony. Amin Hiro (2002) writes: ‘with the common enemy [Soviet Saikal (2006) writes: ‘Initially, the Taliban leaders Union] finally gone for good, long-standing rivalries announced that their desire was to bring peace to between four major ethnic groups re-emerged. Afghanistan by disposing of all Mujahideen factions. Having enjoyed autonomy, stemming from access to But as the militia’s territorial control expanded, its large quantities of weapons and money, in their political-ideological agenda made it explicit that their decade-long struggle against the Leftist regime, the ultimate goal was to transform Afghanistan into a non-Pashtun minorities were not prepared to let the pure Islamic Emirate as a prelude to achieving wider Pashtun hegemony, stretching back to 1747, re-assert regional objectives.’ The wider regional objectives itself. With Kabul now controlled by Tajik, Uzbek and included waging jihad for liberating Muslim lands from Hazara fighters, and with the Defence Ministry run the control of infidels and uniting all Muslims within a by Masoud [a Tajik], the ethnic minorities were in a single community – ‘ummah’. The Afghans, who strong position to frustrate Pashtuns’ attempt to were desperately looking for peace after facing a become the ruling group’. While the ethnicity-based long civil war, chose to accept the alternative offered civil war for establishing national hegemony in by the Taliban and al-Qaida, even if it meant Afghanistan remained inconclusive, the US distanced reaffirming the Pashtun hegemony in Afghan politics. itself from Afghanistan’s domestic affairs. The Afghans gave consent to the rule of Taliban and al-Qaida in their desperation to come out of the The lack of unity between non-Pashtun ethnic difficult situations created by civil war, whereas the minorities prevented them from effectively US provided humanitarian assistance to the Taliban challenging the Pashtun hegemony in Afghanistan. regime as its policy towards Afghanistan had shifted While the non-Pashtuns failed to effectively govern back to its more traditional posture of benign neglect Afghanistan, the Pashtuns, now reorganized under (Lansford and Covarrubias, 2003). While the domestic the aegis of Taliban and al-Qaida, established an policies of Taliban did not pose any direct threat to alternative Islamic regime. The Taliban and al-Qaida US hegemony in global politics, its increasingly evoked ‘Sharia’ as the ‘moral’ basis of their aggressive and ambitious foreign policies certainly governance. The Taliban and al-Qaida began to run did. The US ambassador Michael Sheehan (2000) madarsas that focused on the teaching of a strictly stated: ‘The Taliban provides safe haven for Osama puritanical Islam based on the orthodox and bin Laden and his network. Because of the room, medievalist interpretations of Deobandi and Wahhabi which the Taliban gives him to operate, bin Laden Islamic schools. Claiming to be informed by the has created a truly transnational terrorist religious maxims of Islam, the Taliban and al-Qaida enterprise...Threat posed by bin Laden illustrates the called for establishing peace through restoring pre- challenges we face as non-state terrorism becomes modern social relations. On the 28th of September more prevalent’. The US, that initially had no objection 1996, a day after Taliban came to power, Radio to the rise of Pashtun hegemony under the leadership Shariat – the renamed Radio Kabul- broadcast the of Taliban and al-Qaida, gradually became critical of following decrees in accordance with Sharia: ‘Any it as its violent tendencies were no longer restricted person with firearm must deposit it at a military post to the frontiers of Afghanistan but had started or the nearest mosque. Girls and women are not affecting the global peace. The terrorist attacks of 9/ allowed to work outside home. Public transport will 11 added fuel to this longstanding anguish of the US

112 World Focus February 2017 and the declaration of war on terror in Afghanistan appeal to ‘class consciousness’, it finally began was its explosive consequence. In this secular war making appeals to their ethnic, tribal and regional against Islamic terror, the US sources propagated the identities. Asta Olesen (1996) interrogated: ‘was the clash of civilizations doctrine to breed support for their appeal to Islam and tribal code by the PDPA regime government, while the Taliban/al-Qaida disseminated in Afghanistan mere rhetoric and ‘window dressing’ a similar Jihadist ideology to generate consent for or did it represent a real attempt at integrating Islamic their ideal of ummah, thereby affirming the post- and tribal elements in the regime’s ideological secular nature of the post-9/11 Afghan crisis. A critical discourse?’ Whatever might be the case, Oleson analysis of the politicoreligious discourses generated concluded that the PDPA discourse did not manage by different Afghan regimes can reveal the deepening to command much support on its own because the roots of this post-secular Afghan crisis. personal credibility of PDPA leadership, at least as ‘good Muslims’, was too tainted before they could Politico-Religious Discourses: The Deepening alter the picture by incorporating the Islamic content of Post-Secular Afghan Crisis in their discourse. The PDPA discourse did not only The past thirty years of war in Afghanistan have seen lack Islamic content, but it also held no promise for the gradual and heavy politicisation of religion political benefit to the structurally dominant group of (Borchgrevink and Harpviken, 2010). Highlighting the Pashtuns. The head of the PDPA regime, Babrak religious overtone of the political discourses generated Karmal, was a non-Pashtun and therefore was by different Afghan regimes, Sinno (2010) comments: fiercely disliked by the Pashtun majority. The Soviets ‘The strategic use of religious language and symbols tried to correct this mistake by replacing Karmal with brings additional advantages in this traditional society Najibullah, a Pashtun. However, before Najibullah and may have tipped the balance in a number of the could win widespread support, the PDPA was over- brutal conflicts that have plagued the country since exposed as an organization of infidels. The PDPA 1979 (Sinno, 2010). A careful reading of the Afghan regime, which managed to survive for 14 years on history suggests that any political discourse is well the basis of Soviet aid, finally collapsed in 1992 after received by the majority of Afghans if it possesses the withdrawal of the Soviet forces from Afghanistan two features - First, a strong reference to ‘Islam’; in 1989. second, a promise for political benefits to ethnic Pashtuns. The awakening of Islamic content to derive The PDPA regime was followed by political benefits for Pashtuns enables any political Mujahideen rule. In fact, the Mujahideen managed discourse to capture the ‘social imaginary’ or what to enter into the political mainstream by exposing the Arkoun (1988) calls the ‘social imagery’ of Afghans. atheism of PDPA and its attachment to the atheistic Since the prevalence of Islam and the dominance of Soviet Union (Maley, 1999). In contrast to the ethnic Pashtuns mark the historical continuity in attempted imposition of ‘Godless’ Soviet-style Afghan politics, they remain crucial in determining Marxism by the PDPA regime, the Mujahideen the Afghan social imaginary. The political discourses claimed to establish an Islamic State of Afghanistan, that have competed to capture this social imaginary thereby developing a religiously charged and therefore – the Soviet-backed PDPA discourse, the Mujahideen comparatively superior political discourse. The discourse, the Taliban/al-Qaida discourse and the US- Mujahideen discourse was rich not only in terms of backed clash of civilizations discourse – have Islamic content but also in terms of its political reinforced the centrality of ethnicity and religiosity in attractiveness for ethnic Pashtuns. The Mujahideen, Afghan politics, thereby granting an unrelenting whose leaders were highly respected for their religious character to post-secular Afghan crisis. credentials, were a coalition of seven Sunni groups mostly comprising of Pashtuns along with some Tajiks, The content of PDPA discourse was Uzbeks, Hazaras and Nuristanis. Six of the seven essentially Marxist in character. It placed the ‘class Mujahideen organizations were dominated by struggle’ on top of its agenda, thereby initially Pashtuns (Saikal, 2006). However, the Mujahideen neglecting any reference to Islam. When the PDPA failed to deliver the promise of clear political benefit found it difficult to mobilize the Afghans through an to Pashtuns over and above its non-Pashtun members

Liberation Theology as an ‘Ethical’ Intellectual Discourse: 113 as the latter refused to accept the Pashtun dominance but also to attack all the Western countries led by the during the civil war. Moreover, the Mujahideen US. Thus the Taliban/al-Qaida discourse was designed coalition committed the blunder of excluding a major to activate Islam for fighting against a larger and more Pashtun organization led by Gulbuddin Hikmatyar, powerful opposition. Second, the Mujahideen thereby further breeding dissatisfaction and division discourse presented the Soviets as kafirs/infidels/ amongst the Pashtun majority. The intra-Pashtun atheists who had little respect for the believers of conflict prevented the leaders of Pashtun dominated Islam, whereas the Taliban/al- Qaida discourse organizations to take a united political stand. The projected the Western countries not just as infidels or moderate Islamism propagated by Mujahideen non-believers but also as ‘Zionist-Crusaders’ who discourse proved incapable of binding the Pashtuns were the traditional enemies of the believers of Islam. together, thereby lasting for a brief period of four Therefore, the Taliban/al-Qaida discourse was framed years and paving the way for the extreme Islamism to deal with a more dangerous opposition that was of Taliban in 1996. not just disrespectful but also historically driven by the spirit of animosity against Islam. Third, the The Mujahideen’s claimed Islamic rule was Mujahideen discourse sought to mobilize the Afghans rapidly upstaged by the Taliban’s extremist bearing diverse ethnic affiliations, whereas the Taliban medievalism in the name of Islam. Highlighting the discourse contained a heavy dose of ‘Pashtunwali’ – Islamic appeal of the Taliban/al-Qaida discourse as a a code of conduct exclusively followed by the major reason behind its immediate popularity, Olivier Pashtuns – and reflected an ‘anti-Shiite’ orientation, Roy (1999) asserted: ‘The rise of the Taliban from thereby targeting only the Pashtuns, not the other 1994 onwards suggests that the appeal of Islam for ethnic groups, as its potential audience. The Taliban/ building a new political order has not faded away.’ In al-Qaida discourse was more focused and intense in line with Roy’s assertion, Larry Goodson (2001) terms of its capacity to attract the structurally highlighted the ‘religious piety’ and ‘shared Pashtun dominant group of Pashtuns. Fourth, the Mujahideen ethnicity’ of Taliban as the most telling factors behind discourse tried to direct the Afghans for ousting the its rise. Likewise, Abdulkader H. Sinno (2008) opined Sovietbacked regime and establishing an Islamic state that any explanation of the rise of the Taliban must of Afghanistan, whereas the Taliban/al-Qaida explain how they mobilized the Pashtun. The discourse aimed at raising all the believers of Islam, statements of Roy, Goodson and Sinno reveal that both within and without Afghanistan, to fight for the Taliban/al-Qaida discourse not only successfully removing the Western interference from internal incorporated a radical Islamic appeal but also proved political affairs of all the Muslim states of the world. politically promising to Pashtuns, thereby satisfying Unlike the Mujahideen discourse, the Taliban/al-Qaida both the criteria for capturing popular appeal in discourse was more ambitious as it was formulated Afghanistan. However, what remains unclear in the to conduct a transnational project. observations of these scholars is the distinctiveness of the Taliban/al-Qaida discourse that made its Islamic The circumstantial factors attending the two appeal more convincing for the ethnic Pashtuns than discourses can be compared at two levels – domestic the one presented by its predecessor, the Mujahideen. and global. At the domestic level, the situation attending A comparative study of the ‘content’ and the Mujahideen discourse was marked by the weak ‘circumstantial factors’ of the respective political political credentials of Soviet-backed Najibullah discourses of Mujahideen and Taliban/al-Qaida can regime, whereas the circumstance facing the arrival throw some light in this regard. of Taliban/al-Qaida discourse was defined by the eroded political legitimacy of mutually warring A comparison of the contents of these ethnicities of Mujahideen. In contrast to the discourses discloses the following points of departure. Mujahideen discourse, the Taliban/al-Qaida discourse First, the Islamic appeal of Mujahideen discourse was offered greater prospect for political benefit to ethnic directed against one country – the Soviet Union, Pashtuns as it promised the riddance of and victory whereas the Islamic appeal of Taliban/al-Qaida over not just the foreign Soviet force but also the discourse was meant not only to destroy America domestic non-Pashtun forces comprising the warring

114 World Focus February 2017 factions of Mujahideen. The Taliban/al- Qaida modernizers in uplifting their miserable living discourse found a ready purchase amongst the conditions. Pashtuns also because it ignited the hope for resolving their age-old ‘Pashtunistan issue’, whereby they have The factors explaining the influential impact been demanding an independent or semi-independent of Taliban/al-Qaida discourse also provide clues for statehood for themselves. The recent political understanding the popularity of the clash of developments suggest that the expectation aroused civilizations discourse formulated by Huntington (1993, by the Taliban/al-Qaida discourse was not baseless. 1996) and backed by the US. In fact, the discourses Syed Saleem Shahzad (2003) has reported a recent generated by Taliban/al- Qaida and Huntington reflect meeting between Afghan President Hamid Karzai a striking resemblance. While the Taliban/al-Qaida and the Pashtun leader of Pakistani Awami National discourse established the West as the enemy of Islam Party, Khan Abdul Wali Khan, to discuss theissue of and intended to mobilize the Muslims around the world Pashtunistan. So long as the Taliban/al-Qaida to safeguard their pious Islamic lands from Western discourse manages to keep the hope for concretizing intervention, the civilizational discourse inversely the dream of Pashtunistan alive, it is likely to retain matched these propositions by presenting Islam as the most intolerant and aggressive civilization that its appeal amongst the Afghans. posed greatest threat to the West. The civilizational At the global level, the Mujahideen discourse emerged discourse advised the West to protect itself from when the Soviet Union and its Marxist model of Islamic demons by exploiting the differences between governance was collapsing, whereas the Taliban/al- the non- Western civilizations and by maintaining the Qaida discourse originated when the US and its superiority of the West. While the Taliban and al- capitalist model of development was being declared Qaida appealed for Islamization, Huntington called as triumphant. While the comparatively weaker Soviet for Americanization. Both the discourses emerged opponent of the Mujahideen discourse was not around the mid-1990s, uttered the language of religious stimulating enough to bind the Afghans for long, the war and fed upon their mutual enmity. The common hegemonic tendencies of the US has continued to violent thrusts of both the discourses continue to thrive remain sufficiently challenging to provoke an ongoing upon their capacity to accept and reinforce each other. protest by Taliban and al-Qaida. Besides the Huntington (2001) himself admitted this reality in an provocations unleashed from the hegemonic interview with Nathan Gardels. He said: ‘The terrorist tendencies of the US, the resurgence of Islamic actions of Osama bin Laden have reinvigorated fundamentalism under the leadership of Taliban and civilizational identity. Just as he seeks to rally Muslims al-Qaida can be attributed to the general decline of by declaring war on the West, he has given back to secular modernity. Fred Halliday (1996) writes: ‘The the West its sense of common identity in defending Islamist movements, although themselves itself. determinedly committed to taking and using state ’However, it cannot and should not be power, are above all revolts against the policies – overlooked that the sense of common ‘civilizational’ authoritarian, secular and intrusive – of the identity has better served the interests of the US than modernizing state…The inability of these [secular] that of the Afghans. The ‘civilizational’ identity states to meet either the economic expectations or emphasized upon by Huntington has granted the US the cultural aspirations of their people has provided ‘a profound ideological-political-diplomatic gain by the context in which Islamist movements have enabling it to subordinate the UN and to create an developed’. Until and unless the internal problems of ‘international coalition’ of states, many of which are these countries are reduced, different variants of themselves guilty of practicing terrorism. It has also Islamism are likely to retain their appeal. It is no allowed the US to have a military-political entry in wonder that the extreme vision of Islamism Central Asia on a depth and scale that it never before propagated by the Taliban/al-Qaida discourse has had’ (Achin Vanaik, 2004). By contrast, the activation become immensely popular amongst the Afghans who of ‘civilizational’ identity by Taliban and al-Qaida has are disillusioned by the efforts of various Afghan not been able to deliver anything better than a war- torn inheritance for the Afghans where they feel

Liberation Theology as an ‘Ethical’ Intellectual Discourse: 115 ‘insecure’ in all the possible connotations of the term. ritual…Muslim civilization would be enriched by the The Afghans who believe in the Taliban/al-Qaida revival of a certain type of philosophy which could discourse are bound to succumb to the intellectual supplement the Quran’s ancient religious and spiritual insights of Huntington’s thesis which endorses the confidences’. The critical social forces of Afghanistan same worldview in a reverse guise. The popularity must revive the philosophical underpinnings of Quran of al-Zawahiri’s text – ‘Knights under the Prophet’s while designing the alternative discourse. Banner’ - amongst the Afghans, that presents a The adherence to such an Islamic philosophy would worldview comparable, but in reverse, to Huntington’s not only provide a check on the hubris of religious thesis, supports this argument (Gilles Kepel, 2004). power, but also lay the foundation for an all-inclusive The Afghans who are trapped in the vicious cycle Afghan dialogic community. The philosophical generated by these two destructive discourses have approach to Quran would advocate ‘inter-faith’ simply not been able to bring an end to their tragic discussions on Islam, thereby also creating ample state of affairs and to tap their constructive potential space for a passionate dialogue between followers for building an alternative ethical intellectual discourse of religious, spiritual and secular Islamic traditions. for transforming the post-secular Afghan crisis. An open dialogue between various Islamic and non- Islamic voices would differently inform the common Post-Islamic Liberation Theology: An consciousness of the Afghans (Sohail, 2010). The Alternative Ethical Intellectual Discourse common consciousness raised by the cross- What is ‘ethical’ about an intellectual discourse? For fertilization of varied Islamic interpretations would analytical purpose, a discourse that has the potential transcend that concept of Islamism which sees it as to accommodate the excluded social voices and to an exclusivist and totalizing ideology, thereby facilitate comparatively peaceful social relations of promoting a ‘post-Islamic’ current that would espouse production can be considered as ‘ethical’. What could inclusion and pluralism. According to Asef Bayat be the source of such an alternative ethical intellectual (2008), ‘post-Islamism is not anti-Islamic or secular; discourse in post-9/11 Afghanistan that currently a post-Islamist movement dearly upholds religion but stands at a crossroad marked by complex exchanges also highlights citizens’ rights. It aspires to ‘a pious of civilizational and Jihadist discourses? Since the society within a democratic state’ in which all Quran – the founding document and scripture of Islam Muslims and non-Muslims could enjoy access to – has historically commanded the deepest influence certain basic rights. and widest appeal in Afghanistan, it should be evoked in the process of formulating an alternative ethical As opposed to the Islamism that has been intellectual discourse. However, the Quranic traits of ‘the political language not just of the marginalized but the alternative discourse must challenge the particularly of high-achieving middle classes who saw obscurantist interpretation of Islam propagated by their dream of social equity and justice betrayed by orthodox Pashtuns and popularized by the US media. the failure of both capitalist modernity and socialist This can be done by presenting the Quran as a broad utopia’ (Bayat, 2008), the post-Islamic ideology would philosophical tradition rather than a narrow religious develop itself as the language of those Muslims and doctrine. Shabbir Akhtar (2008) writes: ‘An important non-Muslims who have been the victims of Islamic intellectual deficit in the modern house of Islam is the fundamentalism. The inward-looking orientation of lack of a living philosophical culture that could post- Islamic ideology would not only highlight the influence its narrow religious outlook…The Quranic deficits of capitalism and socialism but also expose hermeneutics should not simply be a close domestic the loopholes of Islamic orthodoxy. Discussing the attention to the text aimed solely at extracting what failure of Islamic movements in uplifting the general is useful to believers…the Quran is intended to be economic conditions, Gilbert Achcar (2008) writes: revelation addressed to humankind, not merely a fixed ‘All these [Islamic] movements are clothed in religion body of laws and morals…Muslims should be alert but they have their source in economic causes; and to inter-faith reservations about their yet, even when they are victorious, they allow the old scripture…Without the spiritual introspection that economic conditions to persist untouched. So the old philosophical insight brings, religion is no more than situation remains unchanged and the collision

116 World Focus February 2017 [between different Islamic forces as well as between criminals. These criminals divided the Afghans who Islamic and non-Islamic forces] recurs periodically’. were otherwise always united against the foreigners. The periodic recurrence of collisions generates a Najla Ayubi, the Director of Asia Foundation in Kabul, criminalized war economy like the one that exists in condemns the Taliban for killing the Afghans and not post-9/11 Afghanistan. The criminalized war economy the ISAF officials. Saifuddin Saihoon, a Professor at has left the power holders as unaccountable to most Kabul University, criticizes the excessive dependence Afghan people as they were under previous regimes. of the Afghan government as well as Afghan civil Most of the population are left to fend for themselves, society on foreign funds. He ridicules the Afghan in conditions of greater security (Rubin, 1999), but government for being ‘injected against’ the criticisms without a development agenda. The post-Islamic coming from the Afghan people. Abdul Latif Rasif, a ideology has to learn from these past mistakes and judge at the Kabul Court, opines that 70 percent of call for the establishment of alternative social relations the people of Afghanistan are against the Karzai of production that are capable of undercutting the government. The Karzai government forces itself on recurrent pattern of war economy and disbursing the the judiciary in order to cover its corrupt political reconstruction aid in such a way that builds reciprocity practices. The widespread political corruption is between state and civil society. adversely affecting the activities of Afghan civil society. He says that the lawyers and judges of Who are the potential propagators of post- Afghanistan are organizing themselves against the Islamism in today’s Afghanistan? And how could post- politically corrupt Karzai regime. Wahid Paikan, the Islamism help them in producing a unified ‘ethical’ BBC journalist in Kabul, holds that the people in counter-hegemonic discourse and alternative social Afghanistan might not be educated but they are relations of production? The propagators of post- experienced as they have long been attending the Islamism could be those Afghans who are disillusioned ‘war university’. They do not see any progress and by the corrupt political practices of both the Taliban continue to live an insecure life. They are guided by and the US backed . Many Afghans an anti-Karzai sentiment and they want the foreign initially viewed Northern alliance as an alternative to forces to leave. Taliban, but now they stand betrayed in the light of growing closeness between these two organizations. Though diverse social forces in Afghanistan Daud Razmak, the leader of the Afghan Solidarity are critical of the corrupt political practices, their Party, states that he never contested the elections in critical voices are not well organized. Andeisha Farid, post-9/11 Afghanistan because he believed that the the Director of the Afghan Child Education and Care Northern Alliance would rectify the wrongs done Organisation (AFCECO), an NGO that works for during the Taliban regime. He therefore supported the upliftment of the children of Afghanistan, points the Northern Alliance government from outside. out that Afghan civil society has become a playground However, his beliefs were proved wrong and now of many NGOs funded by foreign donors, not all of his party aims at securing the independence of them are free from corruption. Even the corrupt Afghanistan not only from the foreigners but also from government officials are running their own NGOs the mafias working inside and outside the Northern (The daughter of well-known warlord Rashid Khan Alliance regime. Maduda (name changed), an activist runs an NGO for women’s empowerment in Herat!). associated with the Revolutionary Association of the Farid concludes that there is no unified civil society Women of Afghanistan (RAWA), identifies the movement in Afghanistan. Post-Islamism could Northern Alliance, Taliban and foreign forces as three potentially act as a philosophical adhesive for binding enemies of the Afghans. She criticizes the secret ties the fragmented critical voices of the Afghan dialogic between the US-backed Afghan government and the community, thereby contributing towards the formation Afghan opium cultivators which constitute the basis of a unified civil society movement backed by a of the criminalized war economy. Bulqis Roshan, a unified counter-hegemonic discourse. The unified Senator from Farah province, comments that the counter-hegemonic discourse could more effectively people in power in Afghanistan are the former mobilize those critical social forces which are either apathetically silent or systematically excluded.

Liberation Theology as an ‘Ethical’ Intellectual Discourse: 117 Though Post-Islamism presents a viable demands for banning the opium cultivation, prohibiting philosophical basis for an alternative ‘ethical’ the drugs and arms trade, developing crop-substitution intellectual discourse, its potential to foster an mechanisms, finding alternative means of livelihood alternative social relations of production seems weak for opium farmers, devising alternative sources of at least in the short-run. Given the complex and income for landless labour, women and returning constantly shifting power nexus between various refugees, tracing alternative ways for financing hegemonic forces in post-9/11 Afghanistan, the Afghan state activities, decentralizing the governance building of alternative social relations of production structures and incorporating the opinions of local appears to be a herculean task. Nonetheless, a shuras (councils) in the official process of planning preliminary post-Islamic agenda for achieving this goal and service provision, thereby placing the poor could draw inspiration from Michael Lowy’s idea of Afghans at the centre of the production and re- ‘elective affinity’. Lowy (1996) evoked the term production process. The marriage of post-Islamic ‘elective affinity’ to explain the Christian liberation ideology with pro-poor social relations of production theology that allowed Christianity to turn into the in Afghanistan might appear to be a distant dream. institutionalized ideology of communistic utopianism However, the political agenda for realizing this distant in Latin America. Guided by the Latin American dream would not be incompatible with the Quranic experiment of elective affinity, the critical social maxims. The ideas of struggle, charity and forces in post-9/11 Afghanistan must strive to emancipation are already enmeshed in the Quran construct a post-Islamic liberation theology that could which states: ‘And what will explain to you what the permit Islam to breed such governmental institutions steep path is? It is the freeing of a slave from bondage, that could redress the grievances of the poor Afghans or the giving of food in a day of famine to an orphan and genuinely work for transforming their miserable relative, or to a needy in distress. Then will he be of conditions of existence. those who believe, enjoin fortitude and encourage kindness and compassion’. The humanistic re- Contrasting the differential strategies adopted interpretation of the Quranic verses by the post- by the Islamists and the Christian liberation Islamic counter-hegemonic forces in Afghanistan theologians, Asef Bayat (2008) writes: ‘While would not only aid in the transformation of post-9/11 Islamists aimed to Islamize their society, polity and Afghan crisis, but would also vindicate Islam against economy, liberation theologians never intended to its distortion and demonization by both Muslim and Christianize their society or states, but rather to non-Muslim hegemonic aspirants of the contemporary change society from the vantage point of the deprived. world. Liberation theology, then, had much in common with humanist, democratic, and popular movements in Latin References Acharya, Amitav (2002). ‘Clash of Civilizations? No, of National Interests and Principles’, Available America, including labour unions, peasant leagues, at http://www.cpdsindia.org/clashofcivilizations.htm [Accessed May 31, 2013] Achcar, Gilbert (2008). ‘Religion and Politics Today From a Marxian Perspective’, Socialist Register, student groups and guerrilla movements, with whom 55-76. Akhtar, Shabbir (2008). The Quran and the Secular Mind: A Philosophy of Islam, Routledge. it organized campaigns, strikes, demonstrations, land Asad, Talal (2003). Formations of the Secular: Christianity, Islam, Modernity. Stanford University Press. occupation and development work’. While the narrow Bayat, Asef (2008). ‘Islamism and Empire: The Incongruous Nature of Islamist Anti- Imperialism’, Socialist Register, 38-54. religious outlook of Islamists in Afghanistan made Bruderlein, Claude (et. al.) (2002). ‘The Role of Islam in Shaping the Future of Afghanistan’, Peace Initiatives, 8:1-3, 44-49. them more interested in Islamizing the Afghans and Connolly, William E (1999). Why I Am Not a Secularist. University of Minnesota Press. Goodson, Larry P (2001). Afghanistan’s Endless War: State Failure, Regional Politics, and the Rise less interested in uplifting the backward economy of of the Taliban. University of Washington Press. Habermas, Jürgen (2008). Notes on Post-Secular Society. New Perspectives Quarterly, 25:4, 17– 29. Afghanistan, the broad philosophical orientation of Halliday, Fred (1996). Islam and the Myth of Confrontation, I. B. Tauris. post-Islamists can help them in prioritizing their goals Hiro, Dilip (2002). War Without End: The Rise of Islamist Terrorism and Global Response, Routledge. Huntington, Samuel P. Summer (1993). ‘The Clash of Civilizations?’ Foreign Affairs, 72:3, 21-49. in accordance with the needs of the poor Afghans. Kepel, Gilles (2004). The War for Muslim Minds: Islam and the West, Belknap Press. 12 Lakshman, Narayan (May 3, 2011). ‘U. S. Forces Kill Osama bin Laden’. The Hindu. Unlike the case of Latin America, Afghan civil society Lowy, Michael (1996). The War of Gods: Religion and Politics in Latin America, Verso. Maley, William (ed.) (1999). Fundamentalism Reborn? Afghanistan and the Taliban. Hurst and Company. has not attained a higher level of cohesion and lacks Olesen, Asta (1996). Islam and Politics in Afghanistan, Curzon Press. Saikal, Amin (2006). Modern Afghanistan: A History of Struggle and Survival, I. B. Tauris. well organized popular movements. However, the Sardar, Ziauddin and Davies, Merryl Wyn (2004). American Dream, Global Nightmare, Cambridge. Sinno, Abdulkader H (2008). Organizations at War in Afghanistan and Beyond. Cornell University post-Islamists could make a beginning towards the Press. Sinno, Abdulkader H (2010). The Strategic Use of Islam in Afghan Politics. In Riaz, Ali (ed.) Religion establishment of pro-poor social relations of and Politics in South Asia. Routledge. Taylor, Charles (2007). The Secular Age. Harvard University Press. 13 production by blending the tenets of Islam with the Vanaik, Achin (2004). US Perspectives in a Global and South Asian Context: Before and After 11 September. In Haidar, Salman (ed.) the Afghan War and its Geopolitical Implications for India. Manohar.

118 World Focus February 2017 The Growth of Religious Radicalism and Terrorism in Pakistan Shivani Sharma

Religious radicalism and terrorism has been their country. Their , along with the Afghan one of the most serious predicaments confronting the refugee camps became military training centres, Pakistani society. The inability of the elites of the where serving Sunni and Wahaabi military officers country to define the Pakistani nation in non-religious, trained recruits, primarily underage pupils. The geo-cultural terms has allowed Islam to endure as increased Wahabi-Sunni influence in the state created the most important marker of the Pakistani identity. the culture of intolerance not just for the outside Therefore, religious radicalism and terrorism in Pa- powers but also against people who did not subscribe kistan has been a common practice. However, the to their puritanical brand of Islam. post- 9/11 period has witnessed a new tide of ex- tremism in Pakistan and is often viewed as “the Zia’s Islamisation programme gave rise to a world’s most dangerous place”1 wave of sectarianism in Pakistan. Demands were raised to declare Pakistan as a Sunni state, where Historical Background the Shias should be declared as non-muslims (Shah Until the late 1970s and early 1980s, radicalism and 2006: 617). The increasing influence of Saudi based militancy in Pakistan was not a very rampant phe- group, Sawadi Azam, gave birth to a terrorist Wahabi/ nomenon and was virtually associated with periodic Sunni organization in Pakistan, the Sipah-e-Sahaba sectarian violence. Pakistan being a multi-cultural and Pakistan (SSP), which is presently actively involved multi-ethnic heterogeneous society faced the prob- in sectarian violence in the country. lem of sectarianism from its early years of indepen- dence. However, the incidents of militancy increased Hassan Abbas explains this phenomenon by in the late 1980s during the 1979 Islamisation referring to groups like the (SSP), Jaish-e-Muhammad programme initiated by General Zia. His active sup- (JM), Harkat-ul-jihad ul Islam (Huji) and Harkat-ul- port to the Afghan war gave rise to a wave of Is- Mujahedeen (HUM) as Punjabi Taliban. Punjabi lamic radicalism in the Afghanistan-Pakistan region. Taliban, according to Abbas, are a loose The decade- long conflict in Afghanistan in 1979 gave conglomeration of members of banned militant groups the Islamic extremists a rallying point and a training of Punjabi origin-sectarian as well as those focussed field in which 35,000 young Muslims from around on the conflict in Kashmir. In the post- 9/11 period, the world joined the Afghan war against the Soviet these groups have developed strong connection with forces. Framed as part of the global jihad against Tehrike-Taliban Pakistan, Afghan Taliban and other communism, the war resulted in the opening of many militant groups in the Federally Administered Areas religious seminaries and madrasas in Pakistan, which (FATA). were used to produce Jihadi literature, mobilise public opinion on religious lines, and recruit and train Jihadi The role of Pakistan as a frontline state in forces against the Soviets. the war against the Soviet Union had a major fallout on its state and society. After the war more than 2.8 Being a frontline state to the US, the main million Afghan refugees stayed back in Pakistan and task of engineering Jihad was given to the Pakistani with the aid and support of the Pakistani army, especially its intelligence wing, Inter Services establishment, were later used as proxies to counter Intelligence (ISI). The Pakistan religious parties, India on the Kashmir front and to gain strategic depth which had a strong base in the areas bordering in Afghanistan. Thus, Jihadi forces became more Afghanistan (North West Frontier Province and rooted and active in Pakistan promoting local and Baluchistan) started recruiting volunteers for jihad in regional movements. Ironically, as long as Islam

The Growth of Religious Radicalism and Terrorism in Pakistan 119 remains the most potent referent, it will certainly emit Islamic ideology is often exploited by the strong Islamist impulses, which will indirectly global jihadists on the premise of the decline of Islam legitimise the operation of some of the factions of relative to its past or the persistent attacks on Muslims radical Islamic groups in Pakistan. by an anti-Islamic alliance of crusaders, Zionists and apostates. The discursive construction of religious Pakistan has a long history of religious ideology is further employed to create a new identity radicalism where militant groups and organizations for their adherents by offering them membership in a operating within Pakistan enjoy relative impunity and globalised community of likeminded believers and in immunity from the state apparatus. However, these order to wage jihad against the non-believers. organizations often strive for different political and religious objectives and sectarian affiliations. Before The Rise of Radicalism in the post-9/11 Period deliberating upon the dynamics of radicalism and The spillover effects of the war in Afghanistan in terrorism in Pakistan in the backdrop of 9/11 attacks, 1979 gave birth to a new breed of terrorist groups it is imperative to broadly classify and categorise the and radical elements in the tribal areas of Pakistan. various existing militant organizations operating within In the wake of 9/11 attacks, the growth of such groups Pakistan: increased, particularly after the launch of “Operation Enduring Freedom”, by the US and NATO forces in • Groups that have traditionally focussed on Kashmir. October 2001 against the Afghan Taliban and the Al- This category includes Deobandi organizations such Qaeda groups operating in Afghanistan. The military as Jaish-e-Mohammad (JM), Harkat-ul-Mujahideen might and power of the Western forces in the Afghan (HUM); Ahle Hadith organizations such as Lashkar- region compelled the Afghan Taliban leader, Mullah e-Taiba (LeT); and those groups under the influence Omar, to opt for non-conventional means of warfare of the Jamaat-e-Islami (JI) such as Al Badr and against the Americans. Therefore, in order to find a Hizbul Mujahideen (HM). new operational base, the transnational terrorist • Groups that have traditionally been sectarian in organizations chose to opt for a tactical retreat, nature. These include the anti-shia Lashkar-e-Jhangvi preparing itself for the sustained guerrilla warfare (LeJ) and Sipah-e-Sahaba Pakistan. Both are under against the Western coalition forces and their local the sway of the Deobandi organization, Jamiat-e- allies. Ulema Islami (JUI). • Anti-state militant groups. Most prominent is the In search of finding operational bases to Muttahida Quami Movement (MQM) and its continue their fight against the American forces, breakaway organizations such as Tehrike-Taliban thousands of Afghan Taliban, Al-Qaeda members and Pakistan, which perpetrate violence against the state their foreign affiliates such as groups from Uzbeks, in pursuit of their political objectives (Fair: 2009). Tajiks and others sought refuge in Pakistan’s Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA), which in spite of Although Islamic radical groups are often being part of the Pakistani state follows a distinct viewed as monolithic, they are far from being colonial traditional values and system . As a result, homogenous in outlook, religious belief or strategies the centre of gravity of terrorist activities shifted from and tactics that they employ to achieve their goals. Afghanistan to Pakistan’s FATA. While Afghanistan Oliver Roy explicates the phenomenon of religious remained a battlefield, core Al-Qaeda members, with militancy under two elements: the first element the help of the Taliban, created FATA as the global incorporated the “call for the return of all Muslims to headquarter of radicalism of like-minded groups. the true tenets of Islam” and the second element advocates a “defensive jihad” against the enemies of The strategy for preparing guerrilla forces Islam. The militant Islamists, therefore, is a term used and the geographical and cultural proximity made the to describe those groups or individuals advocating FATA emerge as a hotbed of militancy in Pakistan. Islamist or neo-fundamentalist ideological goals Thus, it was the influence of the foreign jihadi groups primarily by violent means, which often is termed as in Pakistan which led to the “Talibanization” of the Jihad. Pakistani society2. Talibanization is also spreading to

120 World Focus February 2017 other agencies in FATA where NGOS, schools and opposition to the international intervention in other buildings have been threatened. In Khyber Afghanistan, tribal bonds and a shared religious agency, adjoining Peshawar, Mufti Munir, a JUI-F- outlook facilitated the sanctuaries of Afghan Taliban linked Deobandi cleric, enforced a parallel justice and Al-Qaeda across Pakistan. In the process a system through his militia, the Lashkar-e-Islami (Army number of tribal militias, initially referred to as of Islam). Policing his area and airing hard line ‘Pakistani Taliban’, emerged in the FATA in order to religious and sectarian teachings through FM radio challenge the government’s anti-terror policies by stations, the head of the Lashkar use radio as a medium providing protection to their foreign guests. to communicate to the people and for issuing warning for the strict adherence of Islam and its principles. A new trend of Islamism has been witnessed Talibanization has also crept into settled districts. Local in the Pakistani state in the post- 9/11 period. The clerics inspired by and with having links to local religious political parties, the ‘old Islamists’ who have militants and the Taliban try to emulate Taliban style portrayed themselves as harbingers of Islam, are now rule (International Crisis Group Report 2006)3. been sidelined by the ‘new radicals’. The political parties have been at the vanguard of the Islamic The militants in the FATA and the NWFP movement in Pakistan and have played a major role have painted their struggle in Islamic terms, which in determining the discourse about the place of religion has resulted in the formation of many new militant in Pakistan and the means of creating an Islamic state. groups within Pakistan and the existing ones siding These parties for long have been acting within the with the ongoing Al-Qaeda’s war against the enemies parameters of the state to consolidate the religious of Islam. The settlement of the militants in the character of the Islamic state of Pakistan. provincial areas of NWFP and FATA had serious implication on the tribal setup of these areas where However, the trend is seen to be shifting. As the traditional power holders, the maliks, lost their compared to the ‘old Islamists’, the new radical groups autonomy at the hands of the new militant groups. have begun to perceive the present Pakistani state as an enemy of Islam especially after it joined the The shift in the power structure -from the US- led war on terror. The new radical groups, which political administration to the army and from the maliks are primarily associated with religious parties, have to the militants and the new status of the mullahs as created a niche for themselves largely due to their arbitrators between the tribes and state gave involvement in Afghanistan, Kashmir and in assurance to the local Taliban who became an perpetuating sectarian politics in Pakistan. They now alternative authority in the region and claimed attempt to define and enforce their strand of Islam in leadership. The tribal society, thus, has got reshaped the Pakistani society. The old Islamists, represented around the militants, specially the new Taliban mainly by the two major political bodies - Jamaat-e- leadership, which is accessible and has been efficient Islami and the Jamiat-ul-Ulama-i-Islam, are gradually to build a power base with the population, particularly sliding into a political decline in terms of their influence among the young tribal and the disadvantaged sections and hold on the new generation of Islamists. of the society. State Responses to Terrorism On the other hand, the Pakistani state’s Radical Islamist groups in Pakistan are most decision to side with the international community in accurately and collectively defined as groups that seek the fight against terrorism bode ill with the majority major changes in Pakistan’s political, and societal of Pakistanis who continue to regard the American order and support violence to achieve those changes. intervention in Afghanistan as an act of aggression Paradoxically, the Pakistani state, especially the army, against a brotherly Islamic country. The change in has supported the functioning of most radical Islamic the state policy, the crackdown on religious groups groups on a wider stage equipping and training them and withdrawal of state patronage to religious leaders, when necessary and providing overall political and their parties, and madrasas have led to frustration strategic guidance to them. Thus, Pakistan has a long and anger within the Islamist groups. Strong public history of providing training and seeking support from

The Growth of Religious Radicalism and Terrorism in Pakistan 121 the radical and violent Islamic groups to achieve their •Safeguard the cause of Kashmir. political objectives. •Ensure country’s security from external threats. •Revive Pakistan’s economy. The Pakistani state first exploited the radical Islamic groups in 1970-1971 during the East Pakistan The reasons listed by General Musharraf for crisis, when it called on to the right-wing Islamic joining the war on terrorism reflected less of a concern militants, notably the student wing of the JI, to for and commitment to combating terrorist activities. terrorize, torture, and murder the Bengali nationalists. Instead they projected the concerns over the damage The military rule of Zia-ul-Haq extended unstinting it would inflict on Pakistan in case of its refusal to support to the Islamic groups by providing massive join the Western forces. arms and economic support to oust the Soviets from Afghanistan. “Freedom fighters” were transformed However, as an immediate measure to into as a consequence of the joint present itself as a coalition partner, a campaign was collaboration between the Pakistani army and the undertaken by Pakistan to expand the number of anti- American Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). The terrorist courts to strengthen existing anti-terrorism CIA’s covert support to the “Islamic Jihad” operated mechanisms. According to the report submitted to mainly through the Pakistani ISI. The two billion aid the United Nations Security Council’s Counter provided to the Zia regime by the US in lieu of training Terrorism Committee in December 2010, Pakistan the Islamic rebels intensified the involvement of state implemented a number of measures to prevent and forces in fuelling radicalism in Pakistan4. Though, in suppress terrorism8. the process of rendering support to the Afghan militancy, Pakistan itself went through a process of During September-October, 2001, eleven radicalisation. The Afghan refugees were trained by new courts were established in the NWFP and four the Pakistani establishment and were diverted to in Sindh. The US State Department in 2001 bracketed support the militancy in Kashmir. The incessant state some of the Pakistan based organizations and groups support to the rebel Islamic forces has led to an under the “foreign terrorist organization” category increased militancy and radicalisation in the Pakistani (FTO), a status that freezes all assets of the society. Historically, radical groups in Pakistan have organizations in order to curtail the support for terrorist been more of a tool of the state than a serious threat activities and pressurising the groups to get out of to it5. terrorist business9. Thus, under US pressure, and in yet another bid to strengthen the legal regime and to The attacks of 9/11 brought a paradigm shift ensure rule of law, the Pakistani government issued in the military-militant nexus. The Pakistan the “Anti-Terrorist (Amendment) ordinance” on government’s decision to make a reversal of its policy November, 16, 2002. The amendment led to the on Taliban caused a breakup of their long-standing banning of six terrorist organizations, namely Jaishe- relationship6 .The reversal in the Taliban policy was e-Muhammad (JeM), Lashkar-e-Toiba (LeT), Sipah- not appreciated in the military circuit, especially in e-Sahaba (SSP), Tehrik-e-Jafria Pakistan (TJP), the ISI wing which had to undo its policy of supporting Tehrik-e-Nifaze-Shariat-e-Muhammadi and Tehreek- militancy and draw back its support to the jihadi e-Islami10. groups. General Musharaf in his September 19, 2001 address to the nation provided justifications for its Despite the policy actions undertaken by the policy reversal. He noted, “Pakistan is facing an Pakistani government, the country’s record in dealing extremely delicate situation and its decision may have with such radical groups has been highly duplicitous. far reaching repercussions for the country. Our not The disbanding and banning of such radical joining the war would enable India to get US on its organizations have had no impact on the membership, side and declare Pakistan as a terrorist state”7. He leadership and finances of these operational groups. professed four reasons for choosing this course of The banning usually implies a name change or a policy: temporary suspension of operations. For example, •Secure Pakistan’s strategic and nuclear assets. Lashkar-e-Toiba under the leadership of Hafiz Saeed

122 World Focus February 2017 was banned and regrouped under a new name of the world” and noted that the US operation illustrates Jammat-ud-Dawa (JuD) which claims it to be a the resolve of the international community including “humanitarian charity” organization. The US has now Pakistan to fight and eliminate terrorism (The Express blacklisted JuD as a FTO, yet the group functions Tribune May 3, 2011)16. Deep concerns and openly in Pakistan11. reservations were raised in over the US operation in Pakistan without prior information or Hence, Pakistan’s commitment to battle the authorization from the government. The presence of radical elements in the society has always been seen Al-Qaeda chief, Osama Bin Laden in Pakistan raised with suspicion by the international community. There apprehensions amongst the international community, has been a close alliance between the Pakistan especially amongst Americans who concluded that establishment and the radical elements. Washington Pakistan’s failure to combat terrorism went beyond has shown distrust towards Pakistan’s security its law enforcement agencies and armed forces apparatus, especially the ISI, because of its alleged incompetence. support to the Taliban by providing weapons, ammunition, intelligence and even direction to suicide Though, the Pakistan-Taliban groups and their bombings. Joseph Dunford, Commander of the US movement are politically rejectionist i.e. they tend to and NATO forces in Afghanistan, noted that the dismiss the legitimacy of the Pakistani state, either Afghan Taliban and the Haqqani network have for ideological reasons or because of the state’s sanctuaries inside Pakistan and there are intelligent ostensible failure to live up to its Islamic political reports about their links with the ISI12. US Military commitments. Pakistan’s support to the US has Chief Admiral Mullen calls the Haqqani network as brought the state under severe attack by the former a “veritable arm” of Pakistan’s Intelligence Agency13. allies of the state. Haji Omar in South Waziristan, He alleged that the ISI supported the Haqqani network who claimed to be the head of Pakistani Taliban in the September 11 truck bomb attacks, as well as stated: an assault on the US embassy. The Military Chief noted, “We have other credible intelligence that the “I am not against Pakistan nor is Pakistan is ISI were behind the June 28 attack against the Inter- against me. If Pakistan goes against me, I will go Continental Hotel in Kabul and a host of other smaller against Pakistan. America is against us, America and but effective operations”14. Moreover, the documents its friends. We have started jihad against them. In made available by Wikileaks suggest that Pakistan, every country where they are being brutal, we will an ostensible ally of the US, allows representatives try to do jihad against them. They have become united of its spy service to meet directly with the Taliban in to finish Muslims and God willing, we will unite to secret strategy sessions to organize networks of finish them. This process will continue”17. militant groups that fight against American soldiers in Afghanistan, and even hatch plots to assassinate The statement explicitly made it clear that Afghan leaders 15(The New York Times July 25, the Pakistan Taliban will not hesitate to take on 2010). Pakistani state if it acts against them. General Musharraf recognised the new threat and admitted Zahid Hussain, a distinguished Pakistani that the centre of gravity of terrorism has shifted from journalist, cites evidence of two former ISI Directors, Al-Qaeda to Taliban and it is a more dangerous General Hamid Gul and Javed Nasir’s involvement element because it has roots in people and is more in Islamist radical movement linked to the Al-Qaeda organized (Brussels Conference 2006)18. and the Taliban. However, the presence of Osama Bin Laden in his fortified compound in Abbotabad, The tussle between the militants and the near the Pakistan military station on May 1, 2011, Pakistan government over the Lal Masjid attack raised many hard questions about Pakistan’s indicated the expanding influence of Islamists from commitment to combat terrorism. The initial response the hinterland to the heartland of Pakistan. The by the Foreign Office described Bin Laden’s death students of the seminaries attached to Lal Masjid took as, “a major setback to terrorist organizations around control of a public library in February 2007 in protest

The Growth of Religious Radicalism and Terrorism in Pakistan 123 against the government’s move to demolish some of terrorism and extremism is becoming an existential mosques constructed illegally on government lands threat to the Pakistani state, the state authorities in Islamabad. The government’s direct intervention introduced the National Counter Terrorism Authority through a direct military operation codenamed Act, 2013 (NACTA). NACTA coordinates and ‘Operation Silence’ flushed out the militants from the prepare comprehensive national counter terrorism mosque, which led to the death of one of the Maulana strategies and review them on a periodical basis. siblings, Abdul Ghazi Rashid. The attack by the state were retaliated by the militants in the form of bomb Moreover, realizing the potential of the rise blasts, suicide attacks, throughout Pakistan. Despite of radicalism and terrorism in the country, the army operations being well co-ordinated with support Pakistani state for the first time came up with its of the American intelligence, the Pakistani state has National Internal Security Policy (NISP) in 2014. It failed to adopt any clear-cut policy to tackle the envisages both soft and hard interventions included whirlwind it unwittingly nourished through its policy in their comprehensive response plan and combined of active encouragement of radical forces as an deterrence plan respectively. The policy recognizes instrument of its foreign policy vis-a-vis Afghanistan the significance of a national narrative in its and Kashmir. framework to eradicate extremism and terrorism and adopted a five-prolonged counter-terrorism approach Since the emergence of the Pakistani Taliban to dismantle, contain, prevent, educate and reintegrate. and the growing militancy, Islamabad has entered into NISP offers the first integrated sweep of the a handful of peace deals with factions belonging to challenges and solutions from a civilian perspective the group in attempts to placate the militants. which is a departure from the vaguely defined threats Resorting to the peace process, many peace treaties facing “Islamic Pakistan” from obscure or imagined were inked between the Pakistani government and sources outside Pakistan. It also identifies gaps the militant groups such as the Shakai Peace between the state’s responsibilities and actions and Agreement in 2004, Sarogha Peace Agreement in offers solutions to address these deficiencies. The 2005, Waziristan Accord, and Swat Valley peace policy is the first time acknowledgement by the state agreement. The peace initiatives undertaken by the of the real threats of terrorism, extremism and Pakistani government over the years have proved to militancy from policy formulation front and aims at be a failed proposition. All the agreements were signed performance enhancement of existing apparatus and by the government from a weak position which filling the capacity gaps. Many other institutions and permitted the militants to achieve significant plans such as the Cabinet Committee on National concessions. Moreover, most of the peace accords Security, Pakistan Protection Act 2014, and National were followed by the failed military operations against Action Plan were also executed. the militants which are a testimony to the failure of military. Reaching out to the militants in the negotiation Conclusion process, gave the rogue elements in the society an Religious radicalism and terrorism pose a great equal status as a party vis-a-vis the state apparatus, challenge to the Pakistani state forces as well as to which solidified support for the Taliban among their the society. Since the 9/11 attacks the shift in the followers. It also suppressed the voices of resistance theatre of war on terrorism to Pakistan has caused a from civilian populations living under their authority. widespread wave of militancy and radicalism. The incidents of militant and sectarian clashes are on the Counter-Terrorism Measures rise and the major impact seems to have been on the In order to deal with the growing threat of religious state forces, the early supporter of the radical forces. radicalism and terrorism, Pakistan state undertook The religious politicking by the foreign and the many policy changes. Pakistan’s National Assembly indigenous radical groups in the post-9/11 period have passed a “Fair Trial Bill” 2013, which authorised the caused widespread challenges to the Pakistan state. Pakistani state to intercept private communications Efforts to combat radicalism must entail not only the in order to find indiscriminating evidence against the strategic calculation and necessary resources but also terrorists19. However, having realised that the menace political will. The establishment’s pre-occupation with

124 World Focus February 2017 maintaining jihadist proxies to be used for geo-political establishment had developed into a “parallel structure”, wielding enormous power in all aspects of government. The direct co- purposes and its selective terrorism policy of ‘Good’ operation between Pentagon and Pakistan establishment benefitted and ‘Bad’ Taliban stays as the single greatest barrier the ISI, which became a clumsy, hydra-headed institution within Pakistan. to dismantling the militant infrastructure in Pakistan. 6 Hammond, Jeremy, “Newly Disclosed Documents shed more Moreover, despite receiving enormous amount of light on early Taliban offers, Pakistan Role”, Foreign Policy Journal, counter-terrorism assistance from the US in the wake 20th September 2010, [Online: Web] Accessed 21st October 2013 URL: http://www.foreignpolicyjournal.com/2010/09/20/newly- of 9/11 attacks, terrorist organisations continue to disclosed-documents-shed-more-light-on-early-taliban-offers- operate with impunity in Pakistan. Thus, it is argued pakistan-role/. Post Soviet invasion, Pakistan establishment contended that the Taliban are most reliable proxy in Afghanistan that in order to combat radicalism, the politicians and and Kashmir. Pakistan refused to hand over Taliban forces and military leaders must overcome a culture of solipsistic Osama Bin Laden to the US despite the UN resolution of directing the Taliban to close all terrorist camps in Afghanistan. A Pakistani infighting and ruminate upon its selective official told the US that “Pakistan will always support the Taliban”. discriminatory terrorism policy. The policy change towards Taliban would prompt rebellion acrossNWFP and FATA, including both sides of the Pashtun- dominated Pakistan-Afghanistan border. References 7 “Text: Musharraf Rallies Pakistan”, BBC News, 19th September Abbas, Hasan (2006), “Pakistan’s drift into extremism: Allah, the 2001, [Online: Web] Accessed 11th September 2013 URL: http:// Army and America’s war on terrorism”, New York: M.E. Sharp. news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/monitoring/media_reports/ Behuria, Ashok( 2007), “The Rise of Pakistani Taliban and the 1553542.stm. Response of the State”, Strategic Analysis, 31(5): 699-724. 8 The UN Report on Counter Terrorism Committee [Online: Web] Fair, Christine et al. (2009), “Pakistan’s war within”, Global Accessed 21st January 2014 URL: http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/ Politics and Strategy, 51(6): 161-188. UNDOC/GEN/N07/424/67/PDF/N0742467.pdf?OpenElement. Gunaratna, Rohan and Nielsen Anders (2008), “Al-Qaeda in the 9 “Foreign Terrorist Organizations”, US Department of State, tribal areas and beyond”, Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, 31(9): Bureau of Counterterrorism, [Online: Web] Assessed 6th April 2014 775-807. URL: http://www.state.gov/j/ct/rls/other/des/123085.htm. Haqqani, Hussain (2005), ‘Pakistan: Between Mosque and Military’, 10 “Anti-Terrorism (Amendment) Ordinance, 2002", South Asia Lahore: Vanguard Press. Terrorism Portal, [Online: Web] Assessed 2nd March 2014 URL: Hussain, Zahid (2007), Frontline Pakistan: The struggle with http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/pakistan/document/ Militant Islam, London: I.B. Tauris. actsandordinences/anti_terrorism_ordin_2002.htm. Mufti, Mariam, Religion and Militancy in Pakistan and Afghanistan, 11 “US blacklists Pakistan’s Jamaat-ud-Dawa”, Aljazeera, 26th June Centre for Strategic and International Studies, June 2012, 2014, [Online: Web] Assessed 26th June 2014 URL: http:// Washington. www.aljazeera.com/news/asia/2014/06/us-blacklists-pakistani- Pattanaik, Smruti, (2011), “‘Old’Islamists and ‘New’ Radicals: islamic-charity-20146261127191358.html. Understanding the Politics of Religious Radicalisation in Pakistan 12 “ISI has links with Haqqani Network”, Deccan Herald, 16th April and its implications”, Strategic Analysis, 35(4): 581-594. 2013, [Online: web] Assessed 21st December 2013 URL: http:// Rashid, Ahmed (2010), “The situation in Pakistan”, Asian Affairs, www.deccanherald.com/content/326528/isi-has-links-haqqani- 41(3): 367-380. network.html. Seth, Jones (2007), “Pakistan’s Dangerous Game”, Survival, 49(1): 13 Haqqani network is one of the members of the allied faction that 15-32. are fighting the US and NATO troops in Afghanistan. It is an Ziring, Lawrence (2003), Pakistan at the crosscurrent of History, Afghan insurgent organization and maintain safe heaven in North London: One world Publications. Waziristan. It is a useful ally and proxy force to the Pakistan Zaidi, Syed Manza Abbas (2009), “Hating the Taliban, hating the Security Establsihment in protecting their interests in Afghanistan. US: Trajectories of Pakistan’s anti-Americanism, American “ISI has links with Haqqani Network”, Deccan Herald, 16th April Foreign Policy interests: The Journal of the National Committee 2013, [Online: web] Assessed 21st December 2013 URL: http:// on American Foreign Policy, 31(6): 376-388. www.deccanherald.com/content/326528/isi-has-links-haqqani- network.html. 14http://www.aljazeera.com/news/asia/2011/09/ Endnotes 2011922151047307196.html 1 “Pakistan: The World’s most dangerous place”, The Economist, 15 “Pakistan aids insurgency in Afghanistan, Reports Assert”, The 3rd January 2008, [Online: Web] Accessed 15th October 2013 URL: New York Times, 25th July 2010, [OnlineWeb] Assessed 12th April http://www.economist.com/node/10430237 2014 URL: http://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/26/world/asia/ 2 Talibanization refers to the political and social process following 6isi.html?_r=0. or imitating the political system, religious laws and life style of 16 “CIA exploited intelligence leads given by Pakistan”, The Express Taliban. The are the Mujahideen forces which were formed Tribune, 3rd May 2011, [Online: Web] Assessed 15th November during the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan. 2013 URL: http://tribune.com.pk/story/160925/cia-exploited- 3 “Pakistan’s Tribal Areas: Appeasing the Militants”, International intelligence-leads-given-by-pakistan/. Crisis Group Report, 11th December 2006, [Online: Web] Accessed 17 “Interview Haji Omar”, The Frontline, [Online: Web] Assessed 12th October 2013 URL: http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/ 3rd June 2014 URL: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/taliban/ asia/south-asia/pakistan/125_pakistans_tribal_areas militants/omar.html. ___appeasing_the_militants.pdf. 18“Afghanistan hits at Musharraf over Taliban Remarks“, Afghan 4 Chossudovsky, Michel, “Al-Qaeda and the “War on Terrorism”, News Center, 14th September 2006, [Online: Web] Assessed 10th Global Research, 20th January 2008, [Online: Web] Accessed 7th October 2013 URL: http://www.afghanistannewscenter.com/news/ November 2013 URL: 2006/september/sep142006.html. http://www.globalresearch.ca/al-qaeda-and-the-war-on-terrorism/ 19 “The Investigation for Fair Trail Act I of 2013”, NACTA, 7718. [Online: Web] Accessed 13th June 2014 URL: http://nacta.gov.pk/ 5 With CIA backing and US military and economic aid to Pakistan Download_s/Rules/Investigation_for_Fair_ during the 1979 war, to Pakistan, the Intelligence wing of Pakistan Trial_Act_I_of_2013.pdf The Growth of Religious Radicalism and Terrorism in Pakistan 125 The Rise of Women’s Islamism in West Asia Sumaiyah Ahmed

Introduction: This paper presents the picture of Arab and Muslims Islamic activism in the form of Islamic movements women’s joining the Islamist parties in the region and has been the product of recent centuries and this new become the part of radicalization debate. Their phenomenon is perceived by different people with becoming a part of Islamist process challenges the different names, various adjectives and distinct dominant understanding that Islamism is necessarily phrases like Islamic fundamentalism, radical Islam, anti-women or women cannot be radical. This article Islamism, Islamic movements, Islamic activism or deals with Muslim women’s activism in major Islamic sometimes religious terrorism etc. The remarkable movements in Arab countries and their role in shaping feature of the newly rising forces of Islamism since their base in the Islamic movements. To do that, some the end of the nineteenth century is their contribution important movements of the Arab world have been to socio-political changes in one way or other in the selected and a brief account of women’s activism in Islamic countries. Women are attracted in large such movements is presented here. numbers towards these Islamic forces despite the fact that their approach towards women is considered The Rise of Women Islamists negative by many secularists and feminists, however, The rise of women’s activism in Islamic movements they find in those movements a space where they has not only strengthened the position of those Islamic can press to better the status of women within an movements that have chosen to participate in the legal Islamic framework which is very much close to their political processes in their countries but it has also own religio-cultural societies. When Muslim women unleashed great debate on the status, role and rights decided not to lag behind, the Islamic movements also of Muslim women within an Islamic framework. At responded by paying attention towards the women a time when Arab women’s position and their status cadre but in both oppressive and progressive forms. was subordinate to men, Islamic movements appear Therefore popular Islamic movements in the Muslim as a ray of hope for them from where they can gain populated countries like the Muslim Brotherhood their public roles as well as understand their true status (MB) in Egypt, Party for Justice and Development in the Islamic framework by reconstructing their view. (PJD) in Morocco, National Islamic Front (NIF) in Their joining the Islamist politics should be seen in Sudan, Islamic Action Front (IAF) in Jordan, Jamaat the context of the changing political and economic Islami al-Hind (JIH) in India, Nahdlatul Ulama (NU) conditions which have created new social realities in Indonesia, Sisters in Islam (SIS) in Malaysia etc. and have influenced and shaped the Islamic paid particular attention towards women in order to movements, Muslim families are the primary answer the global concerns and pressures. institution to become the front of the Islamist politics. In the Muslim countries where the Islamic movements The remarkable feature of the newly rising were in the realms of religio-political activism, they forces of Islamism since the end of the nineteenth extensively evolved and moderated their ideologies century is their ability to influence and mobilize the by debating and re-evaluating the Sharia principles socio-political discourses in one way or other in the to accommodate the popular votes of both men and Islamic countries, more particularly, the Arab Islamic women alike. countries. As modern discourses, secularism, modernism, reformism or even socialism have been Studies show that while Islamic movements challenged by the Islamist forces, political Islam has embrace women’s participation as an Islamic value, emerged as both as a nationalist, anti-western and they have generally not been including women in their conservative force where the current debate is now organizational structure as they do with men because restricted to liberal, moderate and radical Islamists. on the one hand they accept the belief in gender 126 World Focus February 2017 equality but on the other they reject the belief in among women and to instruct them in the ideal ways equality in all spheres and advocate for separate of raising and educating Muslim children. The Muslim spheres. Women’s struggle in the Islamic movements, Sisters reinforced Islamic social norms by creating a not only challenge the socially engrained traditional system of home visiting for selected women who norms but also opens up the way of Ijtihad (research) were unable to attend public meetings. The Muslim in understanding the gender roles with pragmatic Sisterhood was formed simply as a committee made views in accordance to the egalitarian Islamic up of the wives of Muslim Brothers in Cairo. Muslim teachings. The table below shows some of few major Sisters trained its recruits in food processing, canning, Islamic movements in the Arab world: as well as sewing, the products of which were marketed by the committees of the organization. In Table: Islamic Movements and Women governorates, the committees of these women’s agencies undertook the task of improving health Islamic Movement Establishment Country Women’s Front conditions for the poor by directing them to public Muslim Brotherhood 1928 (Ikhwan [Brothers]) Egypt Muslim Sisters [MB](Ikhwan al-Muslimun) 1937 (Akhawaat [Sisters]) (Al-Akhawat al- health facilities and other charitable organizations. Muslimaat) Hezbollah(Hizb Allah) 1982 Lebanon Women’s Organization (Al-Hayaat al-Nisaiyyah) Hamas(Harkat al- During the late 1940s and 1950s, however, Muqawama al-Islamiyyah) 1987 Palestine Hamas Women the Brotherhood entered a phase of deadly National Islamic Front [Female] Leaders of confrontation with the socialist and nationalist Nasser [NIF](al-Jabhah al- 1989 Sudan Renaissance(Raidat al- Islamiyah al-Qawmiyah) Nahda) government. The anti-Brotherhood purge ended up Islamic Action Front [IAF] 1992 Jordan Women’s Group with a large number of detention of Muslim Brothers (Jabhat al-’Amal al-Islami) and seizer of its infrastructure. After much of the Party for Justice and Development [PJD] 1997 Morocco Women’s Section organizational capability of the Muslim Brotherhood (Hizb al-Adalah wa al-Tanmia) was weakened, the Sisters group remained effectively active in supporting the families of the jailed and exiled Muslim Sisters (Al-Akhawat al-Muslimaat ) of members of the Muslim Brotherhood and maintained the MB: the basic organizational activities albeit in a very The Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt was initially started secret and cautious way. by Hasan al Banna in 1928 as reformist movement which would have reached the grass roots level of As the Muslim Brotherhood leaders and societies. As its popularity grew, support from members were jailed, other conservative groups came conservative women increased and eventually the in support of the Muslim Brothers without officially women branch of MB Akhawat al-Muslimaat becoming the part of the movement.Zeinab al-Ghazali (Muslim Sisters) was announced in 1937. This women for example, founded the Society of Muslim Women branch was rather more active and popular because (Jamiat al-Sayyidat al-Muslimaat) in 1937. Despite the Muslim Brotherhood faced several rounds of bans Hasan al Banna’s repeated efforts to get her group and its leaders were jailed and their women remained merged with the Muslim Brotherhood Zainab Al active. According to Talhami (2001), by 1948, fifty Ghazali agreed to cooperate with Al Banna without a branches of Muslim Sisters were established formal merger. In 1948 when the government heavily throughout Egypt and the committee of each Sister’s came down against the Brotherhood and seized all group elected a female president, a vice-president, a its assets, Zainab al Ghazali’s women’s association secretary, and a treasurer. came to rescue Muslim Brotherhood and many of its members and activists decided to work under her Labibeh Ahmed was the first head of the leadership The Society also played a crucial role as women’s auxiliary of Muslim Brotherhood founded the emissary to the wives and families of the in 1937, known as the Muslim Sisterhood (al-Akhwat imprisoned Brothers (al-Ghazali 1972). At the time al-Muslimaat) (Talhami 2001). Ahmed herself was of first phase of the crisis, women activists like Zeinab attracted to the Brotherhood because of its resources al-Ghazali, Hamida Qutb, Aliyya Hasan al-Hudaibi, and charitable works. Although Islamic groups Ghada Ammar, Amina Qutb and many others rose to normally ignore gender issues, the Muslim Sisterhood was founded especially to spread religious education

The Rise of Women’s Islamism in West Asia 127 prominence and their stories of being the subject to very strong show, but government mechanism state torture mobilized many young women that time. eventually ensured her defeat. However, her candidacy set an important precedent (Hafez 2003). President Sadat’s period came with some The Brotherhood put forward a small number of openness and restrictions on Islamic groups were women candidates in subsequent parliamentary and relaxed both to counter the dominant Nasserist and local elections, although none had made it into office socialist forces within state institution and to start a but the strong showing of Makarem al-Deiry, the liberalization process. Although Sadat released the Brotherhood female candidate in 2005 parliamentary Muslim Brotherhood members from prisons, the elections has its own significance. In 2005, despite movement remained still illegal and banned. Women’s government efforts, the Brotherhood secured an activism, however, declined after 1960s as there was unprecedented 88 seats. Women played an important lack of a defined structure through which Sisters work role as organizers, activists, and vote mobilizers in could be managed, and therefore, women’s activism the majority of Brotherhood electoral campaigns kept a very low profile and consisted mainly of (Abdel-Latif 2008). individual activities. In the 2007 party platform, there was an Islamic radicals from al Jam’a Al Islamiya, emphasis on women’s rights. The Brotherhood splintered from Muslim Brotherhood in agitation to presented a vision based on what the document state repression and its recognition of State of Israel, described as “complete equality” between men and assassinated President Anwar Sadat on 6 October women, while preserving their different social roles. 1981. When Hosni Mubarak took office, he It also stressed the need to empower women to maintained Sadat’s policy towards Islamist forces acquire their rights in a way that does not conflict without using much state repression. The relationship with the basic value system of the society. The between the state and the Brotherhood did not document referred to the “dominating negative social undergo any radical shift during the early years of view regarding women” and the need to change it by Mubarak’s rule. The Brotherhood continued to expand campaigning to make the society fully aware of in universities and professional syndicates, recruiting women’s rights in all fields, not just in education both men and women and built relationships with (Muslim Brotherhood 2007A). segments of the population across the social spectrum mainly through charitable work. The women’s division How women influenced the Islamism? slowly began to resume its activities during the mid- In March 1994, the Muslim Brothers issued definitive 1980s and helped greatly to reinforce the image of statements on women’s rights and party pluralism. the Brothers as an active social force (Karam 1998). The former statement articulated their belief in the rights of women both as candidates for public office The 1990s, however, Hosni Mubarak (except for the highest executive office) and as voters. launched major clampdown against the Islamic forces. But for the first time in Muslim Brotherhood’s history, Between 1995 and 1996, hundreds of Brothers were ideas developed by the comparatively young members arrested through the years old charge of plotting to of the Muslim Brothers were officially and publicly overthrow the regime. But the results of 2000 adopted only in 2004 by their General Guide parliamentary elections, surprised the government and Mohammed Mahdi Akef (2004-2010). This was the the international community because the Muslim starting of the acceptance of more young voices of Brotherhood candidates, notwithstanding all the group regarding women. Then came the Islamic restrictions, managed to secure seventeen seats in group’s argument that Islam’s general rules have parliament. From women’s activism perspective, this never aimed at subjugating women, but that those election was more important and successful for principles have sometimes been distorted by social Islamic parties. The Muslim Brotherhood brought and cultural norms that have weakened the actual several women candidates against the government teachings of Islam and persist despite the spread of candidates. Women candidates of Muslim Islam. The official document of Muslim Brotherhood Brotherhood like Jihan al-Halafawi demonstrated a (2007A) states: “women make up half of society and

128 World Focus February 2017 they are responsible for the nurturing, guidance and faced by the Shia community. The movement then reformation of the subsequent generations of men developed plans to offer medical care, hospitals, and women. The general rule therefore is equality electricity, and water supply. It also paved roads, built between men and women”. It allows women rights housing, managed sewage systems, set up gas stations, to vote, be elected, to occupy public and governmental operated schools, nurseries and sports centres. It is posts, and work in general. But it has been the history widely agreed that such Islamic community activities that women attached with MB have been raising their often outdo their secular counterparts. Later, voice to be more included in the general frame of Hezbollah became a moderate Islamic social MB but due to security reasons, till the 2011 Uprising movement, which had active political branches. In they were not formally included as the members of keeping with Lebanon’s generally secular culture, the movement. Hezbollah recognized and promoted women’s rights more strongly than other groups. Not only was that The sit-ins in demonstrations through Hezbollah’s social support networks were run by Kifayah (Enough) movement to stop President women but most of its grassroots works in terms of Mubarak for his next term in Egypt show how strongly education, welfare system, fund raising etc. were Muslim Brotherhood women were emerging as a either run by women completely or largely. So the social force as half of the demonstrators were role of women extended far beyond their roles as women. By the time Arab uprisings swept the Arab wives and mothers, raising children and instilling in streets, the Muslim Brotherhood was facing an them the culture of resistance. internal challenge over how to accommodate the emerging and increasing women voices within Islamic Apart from the social welfare activities, ranks. The newly established political party of the women activists in Hezbollah had been engaged in Muslim Brotherhood Freedom and Justice Party organizing programs to teach women about their rejected the claims that women would suffer if Muslim rights. Hezbollah women’s organization al-Hayaat Brother assumed power in Egypt. They claimed that al-Nisaiyya, organizes courses at its branch offices MB has been evolving its ideology regarding women to teach women their legal rights under the Lebanese and it is adopting the synthesis of both Islamic and Constitution and in Islam. In private conversations modernist aspirations of the society so it can become and in their teachings, Hezbollah’s women recognize the pioneer in developing the model of an ideal Islamic that women’s rights are often violated but also stress system giving justice and equality to all sections of its that Islam is in no way the cause of the injustices society. inflicted upon women in its name. Rather the prevalent cultural norms are the main culprits behind women’s Women activists from brotherhood political inferior status. Women’s organization of the party FJP Manal Aboul Hassan, Hoda Youseff, and movement is changing rapidly; it started off as part Ezza al-Garf became the face of the women activism of the movement’s charity arm, engaging in social of their Islamic party. These women leaders convinced and community service outreach, but evolved a great the Muslim Brotherhood to pass some rules for the deal since then. One of the women Hezbollah parliamentary elections which required a woman nominated was Ghazwa Farahat, who was selected candidate to be in one of the four prominent positions as a member of the social unit of al-Ghobeiry of every party’s list of candidates. This stirred a huge municipality in Southern Beirut on Hezbollah’s ticket. controversy as the more conservative elements of She was the first female candidate the movement Egyptian political system slammed the FJP for making nominated on its electoral list in 2006. it a law and the radical elements reacted angrily. In sum, women in Lebanon have begun to Women’s Organization (Al-Hayaat al-Nisaiyyah) demand greater authority for themselves in the society of the Hezbollah: and interestingly it is Muslim women, involved in Hezbollah was established in 1982 in Lebanon and it Islamic movements like Hezbollah, who are raising is a Shiite Islamic movement. During the 1980s, their voices more efficiently than other secular or Hezbollah began gradually to address social problems liberal groups. They are successful to some extent in

The Rise of Women’s Islamism in West Asia 129 slowly evolving their role and getting their voices and generated by the movement as well as the nature of views more and more weightage within the movement their mobilization of women can give a clearer picture and also outside of it. of the reality.

Hamas Women of the HAMAS [Harkat al- Hamas had moderated its positions on women Muqawama al-Islamiyyah]: to appeal to more secular Palestinians and female In Palestine, Islamic activists have grown in voters. As far as the political participation of importance since 1980s. They also have great support Palestinian women is concerned, Hamas first from Palestinian women as throughout the recent nominated 13 female candidates in the 2006 elections. Palestinian history, women have enormously The 2006 Palestinian national elections in the West supported all the resistance groups against Israel. Bank and Gaza Strip resulted in the largest increase Hamas denotes Arabic abbreviation of Harkat al- ever of women members of the Palestinian Legislative Muqawama al-Islamiyyah (Islamic Resistance Council (PLC). After the ballots were tallied, six Movement) and as an individual Arabic word it also women from Hamas, eight from Fatah, and three from means ‘enthusiasm’ or ‘zeal’. The organization was democratic political parties became members of the established in 1987 during the first Palestinian uprising PLC. This leaves a strong message to the anti-Hamas known as Intifada, with the goal of regaining the factions who claim that Islamic movements like Palestinian lands from Israeli occupation. Women are Hamas are uniquely oppressive to women, sticking attracted towards Hamas in great numbers firstly to rigid ideologies which prescribe for them a because it has become a powerful party in state subordinate role. politics through which women can actually work, and secondly, because Hamas, like other Islamic groups Despite women’s empowerment being elsewhere, has created a network of schools and advocated by Hamas activists, only a few women clinics that helped many women enormously (Peteet could reach its decision making bodies. Hamas 1992: 59). remained stuck between its ideology of maintaining the separation of gender and newly adopted slogans Jamila Shanti, one of the Hamas’ elected of women’s empowerment. But it cannot be denied female members of the Palestinian Legislative Council that even partly, the change of attitude within Hamas said: “there are traditions that say that a woman has affected the structure of the Islamic movement should take a secondary role and that she should be by allowing more and more women in several roles. at the back, but that is not Islam. Hamas will scrap many of these traditions and women can be seen [Female] Leaders of Renaissance (Raidat al- going out and participating” (Johnson 2006). Thus, Nahda) of the NIF: the work of Islamic activist women, especially within Always close to Egyptian politics, Sudan has had a Hamas, deserves to be recognized and engaged with. Muslim Brotherhood presence since 1949 when the For many of women Islamic activists, Hamas is first branch of the Sudanese MB organization attractive because they offer the hope of alternative emerged. Then an offshoot of the Sudanese branch forms of social organization that put the human being of the MB, the Islamic Charter Front grew during and the community, rather than the market and the 1960s, with Islamic scholar Hasan al-Turabi consumer at the centre of life. Hamas’ changing views becoming its Secretary General in 1964. The Islamic on a long term truce with Israel, on forms of Charter Front (ICF) was renamed several times and resistance, and the role of women in society are presently it is being called the National Islamic Front examples of how an Islamic movement like any other (NIF). Turabi has been the prime architect of the social movement responds to the real circumstances NIF as a modern Islamist party. He worked within of the society of which Hamas is also a part. Hamas the Institutions of the government, which led to a strives to construct a moral society based on family, prominent position of his organization in the country. so its gender ideology and religious ideology cannot NIF supported women’s right to vote and ran women be separated. Thus in order to gain better insight into candidates. This Islamic movement mainly came into the neglected gender ideology of Hamas the texts existence due to the socio-economic, political as well

130 World Focus February 2017 as religio-cultural situations of Sudanese state during recognition and a message and place in the society. the post-independence period. They were definitely more active in our election campaigns than men. Most of our social work and A civilian coalition with the help of segments charitable work was done by women. They are now of the military, overthrew the General Nimeiri’s even in the popular defence forces……it is natural military regime which had been in power since 1969, now in Sudan…… of course, I don’t claim that the overthrow in 1985 is popularly known as intifada women have achieved parity….in business…. There (uprising). Later, the civilian government dominated is a question whether women will ever be present in by the Ansar sect (followers of Mahdi) under the equal numbers in all domains of public life …. In the leadership of Sadiq al-Mahdi, head of the Ummah universities, they join all faculties. Sometimes, they Party, established an Islamic Government, which led do it deliberately to prove a point. Most of them won’t in installing the NIF (National Islamic Front) practice engineering when they leave school... Government in 1989. In their attempt to gain power, (Lowrie 1993). the NIF supporters have projected a modern Islamic image which suggests something forward looking. The Although the progressive steps taken by the NIF’s attempt to look modern or be modern has meant NIF in moderating the gender Islamic ideology and reference to processes that would generally consider then mobilizing women were quite impressive, secular; however this modern outlook was carved especially when one note the strong voices coming out of the Islamic understanding of MB of which for proper status and role women should have in the Hasan Turabi was a great admirer. Emergence of society from the women’s group in the NIF headed Islamic Banking, Islamic science, education etc. by Wisal Mahdi (Hasan al-Turabi’s wife). Despite appealed educated sections of Sudanese society. Al-Turabi’s claim that women entered the political arena “with a vengeance because they had been Re-imagining Muslim women as public deprived”, most of the activism did not emerge through servant as well as vanguard of the Islamic movement the agitation of women themselves. Moreover, there required a great deal of reinterpretation of traditional has not yet emerged strong feminist Islamic voices Islamic understanding and reconfiguration of identity that might challenge those government policies that politics. They need to move away from patriarchal curtail the free activities of women. gender discourse of family and religion and also to project Islam as liberator of women and oppressed Women’s Group of the IAF: sections of the society. The NIF fulfilled this high When Jordan gained its independence in 1946, Islamic need of re-imagination of Islam in which it movements began to form under relatively liberal reconstructed Islamic ideology of gender and policies of the founder of the state King Hussein. separated Islamic identity from that of Arab identity. The Muslim Brotherhood was established in Jordan These distinctions clearly marked the difference in 1948. The creation of the state of Israel and the between the patriarchal religious views as Arab 1948 War resulted in the union of the two banks of society and the progressive view within the the river in the years 1949 and 1950. Hence it created framework of Islam. In this way, women can be new political and socio-economic realities, which in convinced that Islam that was taught to them in the turn allowed certain political reforms to crystallize past via Arab culture or convention or custom, is not into a new constitution for Jordan in 1952. The 1967 the same as the Islam that will take them forward. War that resulted in the Israeli occupation of the West Al-Turabi himself speaks of the liberation of women: Bank (of the Jordanian river) imposed a new reality that affected all walks of life, political, social and In the Islamic movement….women have economic. A resurgence of Islamic movements took played a more important role of late than men. They place throughout the 1970s, in parallel to the decline came with a vengeance because they had been of the secular, nationalist and leftist movements after deprived and so when we allowed them in the the 1973 War with Israel, the economic boom movement, more women voted us (NIF) than men attributed to the oil industry and the martial law because we were the ones who gave them more imposed throughout most of the Arab world. In 1988,

The Rise of Women’s Islamism in West Asia 131 Jordan faced stifling economic hardship that resulted Thus, Islamic women activists are slowly but in high unemployment and severe poverty. steadily progressing in the ranks of IAF. However, when the leadership tries to continue to balance Historically, one can clearly trace the rise ideology with pragmatism, it gives the way to and emergence of Islamic women activists in public evaluating women’s participation on a case by case life in Jordan along with the democratic transformation basis and advancing women only when strategically which followed the severe economic crisis in Jordan useful and beneficial. in 1989. The 1990s witnessed a characteristic change in the way society looked at the women as traditional Women’s Section of the PJD: alliances began to crumble due to national, regional The Party for Justice and Development (PJD) was and international developments. The state began to officially founded in 1997 by Abdelkarim al-Khatib take initiatives to integrate women into national and it was the merger between the People’s strategies; Islamic parties began forming women’s Democratic and Constitutional Movement (MPDC) committees; and society began to move towards a and the Islamic movement known as Islamic Youth more sensitive consideration and understanding of (Chabiba Islamiyyah). Parties based solely on women’s rights. Thus, a new era began to emerge in religion are banned in Morocco, but PJD considers the history of Jordanian women. itself a party that adopts teachings of Islam to work towards a more modern, democratic, and prosperous The trend of the emergence of Islamic Morocco. As the Party adapts to political realities, its movements in Jordan started with the MB. Later, the platform has evolved from ideological symbolic calls Islamic Action Front (IAF) also known as Jabhat for greater integration of Islamic values to pragmatic al-Amal al-Islami (Arabic) grew out of Jordan’s MB. calls for development and alleviation of The two overlap in membership and outlook but are unemployment. The PJD has sought to integrate not synonymous. In fact the relationship between the women into the party in increasing numbers as they two has changed a lot by the time. The party’s general seek to attract new voters and project an image of a assembly is open to every male and female Jordanian modern, moderate Islamic party (Sadiqi 2006). citizen over 18 years of age (Hanieh 2008). Women and women’s issues in the discourse of the IAF have PJD has offered women a number of been in a stage that can best be described as under opportunities, including the creation of a PJD women’s debate and negotiation. According to Taraki (1996), committee, an emphasis on voting as an Islamic efforts are underway to redefine the role of women obligation and the seating of the greatest number of in the context of the movement and the party as this women in the parliament of any political party. Despite issue is considered to be the one most open to debate greater female participation as members and leaders and most open to experimentation and examination. within the movement, challenges to greater integration According to the party leadership women constitutes are not completely elevated. On one hand, the Party approximately 10 percent of the total membership. A mandates that 15 percent of all internal seats to be women’s sector, headed by a committee of 10 held by women, whereas, on the other hand it created women, represents women within the party and separate women’s section which is viewed by some recruits new female members (Clark 2004). In 2003, to be limiting if not marginalizing women’s the IAF leadership broke with the prevailing tradition participation and isolating ‘women’s issues’ to women within the society in general and party particular, by only to consider and address. nominating Hayat Musimi, a Shura Council member of the party since 1994, as one of its 30 candidates in Reforms in the Family Law (Mudawwana) June 2003 Parliamentary elections. She also won from became a very problematic issue between the Islamists the Zarqa municipality but not under direct and other reformers. While many ulama and Islamists, competition, rather on the basis of some kind of strong among the urban masses and university women quota. Later on, in the 2007 elections again, campuses, opposed the plan, many female Islamic the party nominated two more women but none of activists favored family law reforms and, however, them won. all groups now use Islamic language. According to

132 World Focus February 2017 Bruce Maddy-Weitzman: Like Allal al-Fasi, the new Carniege Papers, [Online: Web] Accessed 19/08/09, URL: generation of reformers seeks to reconcile Islam with http://www.CarniegeEndowment.org the modern world, and to show that the very notion Al-Ghazali, Zeinab (1972), Ayyam min Hayati (Days of My of progress in fact derives from the principles of Life), Cairo: Darul Etesaam. Islam. However….. the plan’s formulators and Hafez, Sherine (2003), The Terms of Empowerment: Islamic supporters were more interested in seeking religious Women Activists in Egypt, Cairo: American University Press legitimization for their essentially modern, secular in Cairo. project than in genuinely engaging Islamic sources in Hanieh, Hassan Abu (2008), Women and Politics from the a real dialogue. Sociologist Fatima Mernissi is an Perspective of Islamic Movements in Jordan, Amman: exception in this regard. However, her radical Friedrich Ebert Stiftung. reformulation of Islamic texts to promote democracy Johnson, Alan (2006), “Women Ponder Future Under and women’s rights has not resonated widely (Maddy- Hamas”, BBC, 3rd March 2006, [Online: Web] Accessed Weitzman 2005: 401). 16/01/10, URL: http://www.news.bbc.co.uk/2hi/ middle_east/4767634.stm Although the women’s section is flourishing in the PJD, the strategy of setting up parallel gendered Karam, Azza (1998), Women, Islamisms and the State: tracks within the party (which at least five other Contemporary Feminisms in Egypt, UK: Palgrave political parties have also done) to Morocco’s longer Macmillan. term goals of gender integration is often been Lowrie, Arthur L. (ed.) (1993), Islam Democracy and the questioned. Bassima Haqqaoui, a PJD Member of State and the West: A Round table with Dr. Hasan Turabi, Parliament, affirms that women should, just as men, Monograph no. 1, pp.46-47, Tampa, Florida: The World engage in all debates that effect society, not just issues and Islam Studies Enterprise. that affect them as women (Rapp 2008). Though it is Maddy-Weitzman, Bruce (2005), “Women, Islam and the true that other parties have also adopted similar Moroccan State: The Struggle over the Personal Status initiatives, but until women are integrated into the Law”, Middle East Journal, (Summer) 59 (3): 395-410. more mainstream discourses, these discussions will Muslim Brotherhood (2007), “The Role of Muslim Women continue at the margins. in an Islamic Society” [Online: Web] Accessed 03/07/09, URL: http://www.Ikhwanweb.com/article.php?id=4914 Conclusion: Peteet, Julie M. (1992), Gender in Crisis: Women and the Islamic activism of women, particularly, in the Islamic Palestinian Resistance Movement, New York: Columbia movements seems to be strange from the perspectives University Press. of the thinkers who view suspiciously towards Rapp, Laurel (2008), “The Challenges and Opportunities everything attached with Islam and who perceive Moroccan Islamist Movements Pose to Women’s Political Islam to be radically oppressive to women, sticking Participation”, Centre for the Study of Islam and to rigid ideologies which prescribe for them a Democracy, [Online: Web] Accessed 13/12/09, URL: http:/ subordinate role. However, despite the fact that /www.csidonline.org/9th.../Laurel_Rapp_CSID_paper.pdf women’s presence in the Islamic movements and Sadiqi, Fatima (2006), “Morocco’s Veiled Feminists”, parties, so far, has not resulted in an influential or Project Syndicate 2006, [Online: Web] Accessed 13/12/09, vocal role for women in their parties yet their presence URL: http://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/ is neither insignificant nor unsuccessful. Women are sadiqi1/English - still serving as early risers as well as role models for Talhami, Ghada Hashim (2001), “Women and Philanthropy other women. Their entry into influential decision making bodies is started providing and will provide a in Palestinian and Egyptian Societies: The Contribution learning opportunity for women as party players and of Islamic Thought and the Strategy of National Survival” reformers. in Kathleen D. Mc Carthy (ed.) Women, Philanthropy and Civil Society, New York: Indiana University Press. References Taraki, Lisa (1996), “Jordanian Islamists and the Agenda Abdel-Latif, Omayma (2008), “In the Shadow of Brothers: for Women: Between Discourse and Practice”, Middle The Women of the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood”, Eastern Studies, 32 (1): 140-158

The Rise of Women’s Islamism in West Asia 133 Examining the Role of United Nations in Defining Terrorism Afroz Ahmad

Introduction terrorism, it’s very first effort to define terrorism was In recent times, Terrorism has become a global threat in 1937 “Terrorism Convention” organized by the and also a national threat in most of the nation states League of Nation, this Convention was concerned bringing out interesting debates. Terrorism has been only with transnational terrorism caused by non-state a significant debatable subject in world community actors thus avoiding the controversial issue of since September 9/11 attack. After this attack, there terrorism by state actors. It defined “acts of was a subsequent increase in the terrorist attacks in terrorism” in Article 1 as categorised “acts of many parts of the world, which initiated a new kind terrorism” means criminal acts directed against a of international debate on the issue: whether terrorism State and intended or calculated to create a state of is a global threat or a national threat or both? Answer terror in the minds of particular persons, or a group to this question is very complicated, because there is of persons or the general public.1 It was the first no general consensus on the topic, the well-known Convention for the Prevention and Punishment of axiom “my freedom fighter is your terrorist” explains terrorism, this Convention was signed by twenty-four the problem in the best possible way. This lack of states, but approved by only one, India in January consensus, and growing number of terrorist attacks 1941 and responsibility for the treaty was not passed shocked not only the United Nations (UN) but also to the UN in 1945.2 The UN debate to define many other states and non-state actors around the international terrorism was generated after the 1972 world. These increasing terrorist incidents have been attacks, Israel’s Lod airport and Munich Olympic a serious challenge to UN in maintaining the Games disaster which resulted in the death of more international peace and security. The counting number than 35 people, the General Assembly to confront of terrorist incidents called upon the UN to play an the issue of terrorism.3 important role in defining terrorism. However, the question is what has been the UN role to define In response the General Assembly passed a Terrorism? resolution 3034 (XXVII), “Measures to prevent international terrorism which endangers or takes UN Role to Define Terrorism innocent human lives or jeopardises fundamental After the 9/11 attack, for the first time in the UN freedoms, and study of the underlying causes of those history, the then Secretary-General Kofi Annan said forms of terrorism and acts of violence which lie in that Terrorism is a global threat. It calls for a misery, frustration, grievance and despair, and which united, global response. To defeat it, all nations cause some people to sacrifice human lives, including must take counsel together, and act in unison. That their own, in an attempt to effect radical changes”.4 is why we have the United Nations (Annan 2001). The theme itself unclear and the UN member states After 9/11, UN and the world community accepted were divided on the issue, the polarization of positions terrorism as a global threat. It is very interesting to resulting from the division of the world into the West, know how UN played a role in defining terrorism the the Soviet Bloc, and the Non-Aligned States UN is an international organization with a membership exacerbated the division over terrorism.5 of more than 193 States. After the Second World War the objective of establishing UN was global While the UN General Assembly was dealing peace and security. The UN edifice of promoting with the problem of defining terrorism, it was also international peace and security was laid on the trying to dig out the root cause of terrorism and was League of Nations. The League of Nations may be also devising means which would help in the prevention considered as the pioneer organisation to define of terrorism, in response several draft proposals were

134 World Focus February 2017 submitted by different member states, but no terrorism and differentiate between terrorism and consensus could be reached on a definition of freedom fighting. This conference was very terrorism and every state defined terrorism keeping successful that member states agreed to identify in view their own interests. The Non-Aligned Group international terrorism with crime, and future plan was (Algeria, Congo, Democratic Yemen, Guinea, India, proposed. However taking note of the Secretary Syria, Tunisia, Tanzania, Yemen, Yugoslavia, Zaire, General’s report of the conference the UN General and Zambia) defined international terrorism as ‘acts Assembly condemned all acts of terrorism except of violence committed by individuals or groups which those fighting for the right to self-determination against did not involve directly or indirectly state action. This foreign and tolerant regimes as criminal, majority of should be not, however, affecting the inalienable under member state adopted this resolution but remarkably colonial and racist regimes.6 France, Greece, Haiti, the US and Israel voted against the resolution. Thus Iran, Nigeria, Venezuela made separate presentations after fifteen years long discussion, debate and counter- on the definition of terrorism. The French proposal deliberations in member states, finally the UN came described international terrorism as a heinous act of to the conclusion that all acts of terrorism are barbarism committed in the territory of the other State. criminal.9 Greece proposal submitted distinguished terrorism and freedom-fighting, and defined, in its proposal, Thus arose the new debate is it an accurate international terrorism as criminal acts of violence definition of international terrorism? UN came to the against innocent persons committed in the territory conclusion and described all acts of terrorism are of a third state with the aim of putting pressure on criminal? Answer this question. If terrorism was any disputant or for personal satisfaction. Haiti analysed as a concept and this definition is not correct. included political aspirations in the definition and Iran The connection between terrorism and criminals could added violence against freedom movement also as be recognized but identify the two as one would be acts of international terrorism. Haiti’s proposal confusing. Criminals do not have to achieve the described every threat or act of violence committed political objective and are not motivated by any by a person or group of persons on foreign territory ideology unless there is a good proof in connection or in any other place under international jurisdiction between international terrorism and criminals, against any person with a view to achieving a political generally criminal’s aim is to acquire individual wealth objective also as acts of international terrorism. Iran or achieve a personal goal for example revenge. added violence against freedom movement also as acts of international terrorism. Nigeria and Venezuela After the fall of Berlin wall and the end of too held similar views, any threat or act of violence the cold war reduced the ideological war and the which endangers or takes innocent human lives, or withdrawal of US and USSR support for radical jeopardizes fundamental freedoms, committed by an groups in the Middle East region, permitted the individual or group of individuals on foreign territory, General Assembly more positively announce the on the high seas or on board an aircraft in flight in the illegitimacy of terrorism in all conditions. Since the air space to the open or free seas for the purpose of second world war till 1994 the journey of UN wasn’t instilling terror and designed to achieve a political goal fruitful as it couldn’t generate an agreed upon as acts of international terrorism.7 definition of terrorism but the there was a consensus on the nature of terrorism. Convinced of the As a result of such controversial views the desirability of keeping under review the scope of house was divided. Therefore no resolution on the existing international legal provisions to combat definition of international terrorism could be adopted. terrorism in all its forms and manifestations, with the Then after six years the committee was suspended aim of ensuring a comprehensive legal framework from 1973 until 1976, during which time responsibility for the prevention and elimination of terrorism, for the terrorism issue fell to the General Assembly’s seriously declares the following.10 Sixth Legal Committee.8 The matter continued suspended until 1987 the Secretary General organised The States Members of the United Nations international conference to define International solemnly reaffirm their unequivocal condemnation

Examining the Role of United Nations in Defining Terrorism 135 of all acts, methods and practices of terrorism, as facility, a public transportation system, an criminal and unjustifiable, wherever and by infrastructure facility or the environment; or whoever committed, including those which (c) Damage to property, places, facilities, or systems jeopardize the friendly relations among States and referred to in paragraph 1 (b) of this article, resulting peoples and threaten the territorial integrity and or likely to result in major economic loss, when the security of States.11 purpose of the conduct, by its nature or context, is to intimidate a population, or to compel a Government Acts, methods and practices of terrorism or an international organization to do or abstain from constitute a grave violation of the purposes and doing any act. principles of the United Nations, which may pose a threat to international peace and security, After the September 11, 2001, UN came very jeopardize friendly relations among States, hinder close to define International terrorism, the Ad Hoc international cooperation and aim at the Committee on terrorism’s discussion on a destruction of human rights, fundamental Comprehensive Convention against International freedoms and the democratic bases of society.12 terrorism. This Convention ,US, European Union EU Criminal acts intended or calculated to provoke and many other countries agreed to a compromise to a state of terror in the general public, a group of a definition proposed by Australia, but the 56-member persons or particular persons for political Organization of the Islamic Conference rejected purposes are in any circumstance unjustifiable, Australian compromise definition because it did not whatever the considerations of a political, excepted national liberation movements fighting philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic, religious foreign occupation, Syria, Lebanon and others states or any other nature that may be invoked to justify argue, that resistance by the Palestinians against them.13 Israeli occupation is legal.17

Most of this paragraph is the repetition of The UN General Assembly and Ad Hoc the 1937 terrorism convention that was drafted under Committee on terrorism rise the number of issue the League of Nation. Define “international terrorism” related to terrorism, the Ad Hoc Committee on debate was reignited after the establishment of second terrorism sage that “terrorism was regardless of Ad Hoc Committee on terrorism in 17 December whether or not the violent acts carried out by 1996 by the GA resolution 51/210 on terrorism and individuals, group and organization could be labelled the UN GA Sixth Committee. After taking charge it terrorism, whether certain activities of state executed was drafting a number of conventions about many by their government should also be covered by the aspects of terrorism, including a Comprehensive term. It turned that the majority of state which wanted Convention on International terrorism. This Ad Hoc to arrive at a common definition of terrorism, committee on terrorism has been discussing a draft preferred to limit the application of the term to Comprehensive Convention on International terrorism individuals and groups. However, a number of states for more than ten years. While most articles of the and observers regard themselves as victims of state- drafts have been completed, finalization is held up by, or state-sponsored terrorism.18 inter alia, the question of definition.14/15 At the present stage the following UN Ad Hoc Committee However the Ad Hoc committee encountered on Terrorism: Informal Text of Art of the Draft serious difficulties finding solution on the four Comprehensive Convention.16 important aspects: the issue of the definition of terrorism.19 1. Any person commits an offence within the meaning (1)The issue of differentiating between terrorism and of this Convention if that person, by any means, the right of peoples to self-determination and to unlawfully and intentionally, causes: combat foreign occupation. (a) Death or serious bodily injury to any person; or (2)Whether or not the term “terrorism” should apply (b) Serious damage to public or private property, to the actions of Governments/States in the same way including a place of public use, a State or government that it applies to the actions of non-State groups.

136 World Focus February 2017 Whether or not to include the activities of national Boston College International and Comparative Law Review, armed Volume 29 | Issue 1 (3)Forces related to their potential use of nuclear 6 Prabha, Kshitij (2000) “Defining terrorism, Strategic weapons (since atomic weapons are almost by definition terrifying). Analysis”, 24(1) 125-135, 7 (4)The issue of the relationship of the comprehensive Report of the Ad hoc Committee on International Terrorism convention to existing and future counter-terrorism 1973 http://legal.un.org/avl/pdf/ha/dot/A9028.pdf treaties. 8 Young Reuven (2006) “Defining Terrorism: The Evolution of Terrorism as a Legal Concept in International Law and These are the principal contentious issues Its Influence on Definitions in Domestic Legislation”, within the United Nations which stand in the way of Boston College International and Comparative Law Review, arriving at a universal definition of terrorism. Volume 29 | Issue 1 Conclusion 9 UN GA Resolution 42/159, 1987. http://www.un.org/en/ The problem of finding agreement on a universal ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/42/159 definition on terrorism is, at this stage, more a political 10 UN GA Resolution 49/60, 1994 http://www.un.org/en/ than a legal or semantic problem. In a way, more ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/49/60 than two thirds of all Member States of the UN have 11 Paragraph 1 UN GA resolution 49/60 already not accepted a common definition. The latest 12 report on the UN web is of 2011. The progress is Paragraph 2 UN GA resolution 49/60 13 unsatisfactory. Members of various political hues are Paragraph 3 UN GA resolution 49/60 still divided over what could be the exact definition of 14 Report of the Ad Hoc Committee established by General terrorism. This diversity of opinion and multipolarity Assembly resolution 51/210 of 17 December 1996http:// of the term itself are major reasons of disagreement. www.un.org/documents/ga/docs/57/a5737.pdf It is a term that has multiple meanings and no 15 UN GA Resolution 51/210, 1996, http://www.un.org/en/ meanings at all at the same time. Keeping in view ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/51/210 the above mentioned fact this Herculean task of 16 defining terrorism seems to be undone in the near Report of the Ad Hoc Committee establ future. ished by General Assembly resolution 51/210 of 17 December 1996http://www.un.org/documents/ga/docs/57/ Footnotes a5737.pdf 1 League of Nations (1937),“Convention for the Prevention 17 M. Lederer (2002), Annan hopes U.N. will approve and Punishment of Terrorism” World digital Library,https:/ comprehensive treaty against terrorism” Strikes Back /dl.wdl.org/11579/service/11579.pdf Sbsun. Com Friday, January 25, 2002 http://lang.sbsun.com/ 2 YoungReuven (2006)“Defining Terrorism: The Evolution socal/terrorist/0102/25/terror17.asp of Terrorism as a Legal Concept in International Law and 18 Schmid, Alex (2004). “Terrorism the Definitional Its Influence on Definitions in Domestic Legislation”, Problem”Case Western Reserve Journal of International Boston College International and Comparative Law Review, Law Volume 36 Issue 2 Volume 29 | Issue 1 19 Symposium: “Combating International Terrorism: the 3 Alona E. Evans and John Norton Moore (1973), “Toward Contribution of the United Nations” Vienna International Legal Restraints on International Terrorism”, the American Centre 3 and 4 June 2002http://www.un.org/law/counsel/ Journal of International Law, Vol. 67, No. 5 english/remarks.pdf 4 UN GA Resolution 3034 (XXVII) 1972. http://www.un.org/ documents/ga/docs/27/ares3034(xxvii).pdf 5 Young Reuven (2006) “Defining Terrorism: The Evolution of Terrorism as a Legal Concept in International Law and Its Influence on Definitions in Domestic Legislation”,

Examining the Role of United Nations in Defining Terrorism 137 Contributor’s Profile Prof. Snehalata Panda Former Emeritus Professor, Deptt. of Political Science, Berhampur University, Berhampur, Odisha Dr. B. Srinivas, IPS IPS officer of 1990 batch belonging to Jammu and Kashmir Cadre and is presently on deputation to NTPC as Chief Security Officer . He has handled a number of sensitive assignments in Kashmir valley and gained expertise in Counter Terrorism and Counter intelligence . He received his Doctorate in Industrial Sociology before joining Indian Police Service . Dr. Arunoday Bajpai Associate Professor and Head, Deptt. Of Political Science, Agra College Agra Dr. Alok Kumar Gupta Associate Professor, Centre for Political Studies, Central University of South Bihar, Gaya, Bihar Dr. Sailaja Gullapalli Research Associate, Gandhi Smriti and Darshan Samiti, New Delhi Dr. Sudhanshu Tripathi Associate Professor, Political Science, M.D.P.G. College, Pratapgarh (UP), Dr. Sanghamitra Patnaik Associate Professor, School of Law, KIIT University, Bhubaneswar Pratip Chattopadhyay Assistant Professor of Political Science, University of Kalyani, Nadia, West Bengal Dr. Amulya K Tripathy Editor, Odisha Journal of Political Science and a senior analyst of International Relations, Odisha Dr. Bhawna Pokharna Senior Lecturer, Deptt of Political Science, Govt Meera Girls College, Udaipur, Rajasthan Dr. Saleem Ahmad Assistant Professor at Department of Political Science, School of Humanities & Social Sciences, Galgotias University, Greater Noida Dr. Mohor Chakraborty Assistant Professor in Political Science, South Calcutta Girls’ College (Affiliated to Calcutta University), Kolkata Dr. Onkar Sadashiv Pawar Assistant Professor, Dept. of Defence and Strategic Studies, Bhonsala Military College, Nashik, (M.S.) Pankaj Chaudhary Astt. Professor ,Campus law Centre, Faculty of Law , University of Delhi Dr. Pratyay Dutta Lecturer Vidyasagar Evening College, University of Calcutta, Kolkata Rameez Raja Mir Research Scholar, European Studies Centre, Pondicherry University, Pondicherry Manzoor Ahmad Hajam Research Scholar, UMISARC, Pondicherry University, Pondicherry Prasanta Kumar Sahu Research Scholar, School of International Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi Shivani Sharma Research Scholar,South Asian Studies,School of International Studies,Jawaharlal Nehru University Sumaiyah Ahmed Assistant Professor in Department of Islamic Studies, Jamia Hamdard (University), New Delhi Afroz Ahmad Research Scholar at Centre for Security Studies, School of International Studies, Central University of Gujarat 138 World Focus February 2017 World Focus: 2009-2016

· January 2009 Japan in World Affairs* · February 2009 Chile : Democracy & Development* · March 2009 China* · April 2009 Pakistan · May 2009 India and West Asia: Development Perspectives · June 2009 NAM: India & Egypt* · July 2009 Developments in Sri Lanka* · August 2009 Central Asia: The Global Flashpoint* · September 2009 Environment & Sustainable Development* · October 2009 India-Brazil-South Africa (IBSA) ·Nov-Dec. 2009 (Annual Number) Dynamics of India’s Foreign Policy ·January 2010 Af-Pak: Anti-Terror Strategies ·February 2010 Changing Bangladesh: New Leap Forward* ·March 2010 Climate Change: Beyond Copenhagen* ·April 2010 US & South Asia* ·May 2010 India: An Economic Power ·June 2010 Why is Gandhi relevant even today ? ·July 2010 Revisioning SAARC* ·August 2010 Russia in the changing World* ·September 2010 China Today* ·October 2010 Re-whetting India’s Look East Policy* ·Nov.-Dec. 2010 (Annual Number) Emerging India’s Foreign Policy* ·January 2011 Rabindranath Tagore* ·February 2011 Buddhism in the Contemporary World* ·March 2011 Disaster Management in India* ·April 2011 South China Sea Dispute: Emerging Developments* · ·May 2011 India & Neighbours (Series One) ·June 2011 India’s Neighbourhood Policy: Harmony & Development (SeriesTwo) ·July 2011 US Policy Responses to Developments in the Arab World* ·August 2011 Mahatma Gandhi & Gandhism* ·September 2011 Contemporary China* ·October 2011 Re-emergence of Russia in the horizon?* ·Nov-Dec.2011 (Annual Number) India’s foreign Policy: Perspectives & Prospects* ·January 2012 Pakistan at Crossroads* ·February 2012 Growing Indo-Bangladesh Relations* ·March 2012 SAARC & India* ·April 2012 Re-energizing India - Nepal Relations* (Series I) ·May 2012 Nepal in Transition* (Series II) ·June 2012 Changing Equations in Asia-Pacific & ASEAN Region ·July 2012 Contemporary Korean Peninsula ·August 2012 Swami Vivekananda’s Vision: Lessons for the 21st Century* ·September 2012 China Today ·October 2012 A Glance at India’s Economic Growth* ·November 2012 (Annual Number) UPA & India’s Foreign Policy (Series-1)* ·December 2012 (Annual Number) UPA & India’s Foreign Policy (Series-2)* ·January 2013 Asian Maritime Diplomacy* ·February 2013 India & European Union* ·March 2013 Energy Security: Indian Perspectives* ·April 2013 Dr. B.R. Ambedkar & Social Justice: A National & Global Perspective* ·May 2013 Environment and Sustainable Development* ·June 2013 India & West Asia* ·July 2013 India & Neighbours* ·August 2013 M.N. Roy: The Veteran Indian Internationalist* ·September 2013 India and Afghanistan * ·October 2013 India & Myanmar Relations* ·November 2013 Global Governance & Decentralization* ·December 2013 (Annual Number) India’s Foreign Policy* ·January 2014 Indian Diaspora* ·February 2014 Climate Change* ·March 2014 China in a changing * ·April 2014 Philosophical Thoughts of Buddha, Gandhi & Dr. Ambedkar: Contemporary Relevance* ·May 2014 Ethics & Indian Civilizational Thought: Global Implication* ·June 2014 India & ASEAN* ·July 2014 Disaster Management in India* ·August 2014 India’s Economic Growth* ·September 2014 India & Neighbours * ·October 2014 India’s Quest for Energy Security* ·November 2014 (Annual Number) India’s New Foreign Policy (Series-1)* ·December 2014 (Annual Number) India’s New Foreign Policy (Series-2)* ·January 2015 Oil Diplomacy in Central Asia & West Asia* ·February 2015 Environmental Diplomacy and Sustainable Development* ·March 2015 Makers of Modern India* ·April 2015 India’s Economic Diplomacy* ·May 2015 Energy Security Needs of Rising India* ·June 2015 India & China Relations* ·July 2015 Conflict Zones of the World* ·August 2015 India & Neighbours* ·September 2015 Regional Diplomacy: SAARC, ASEAN & BRICS* ·October 2015 Climate Change* ·November 2015 India’s Foreign Policy - Series 1* ·December 2015 India’s Foreign Policy - Series 2* ·January 2016 Global Politics of Oil in West & Central Asia* ·February 2016 Terrorism and Geopolitics* ·March 2016 India and East Asia* ·April 2016 India’s Economic Diplomacy * ·May 2016 Disaster Management & Mitigation* ·June 2016 Global Turmoils: Peace & Conflict Management* ·July 2016 Ethics in the Contemporary World* ·August 2016 India & Neighbours* ·September 2016 India’s Maritime Diplomacy and China Silk Road* ·October 2016 Climate Change* ·November 2016 India’s Foreign Policy: Series -1* ·December 2016 India’s Foreign Policy: Series -2* ·January 2017 Russia and the World*

* Hard Copies available RNI No. RN34710/80 No. RNI

(E)-20/5264/2017-2019 - Posting date 19-20 every month)

D. No. (DL

Edited/ Owned/ Published and Printed by G. Kishore Babu from B-49 (Ground Floor), Joshi Colony, I.P. Extn., Delhi-110092 and Printed at Meenakshi Press 4857/24, Ansari Road, Dariya Ganj, New Delhi - 110002