1887 Volu'me Number 1 ·3 Issue dedicated to Education, Work and Lifelong Education

The Journal of the Faculty of Education The University of Malta

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1-- Education and Worker :

Obstacles and Opportunities Godfrey Baldacchino

Introduction Advantages n paper, the case for worker co­ operatives can be made with a num­ ber of- powerful political, social, ducational provision has always been economic and psychological argu­ an integral component of the strategy ments. Democratic control and for development. , managementO can avoid the dichotomy of interests which inspired one of the earliest exam­ between managers and managed and the normative ples of a worker cooperative in an in- conflict that this can generate (Fox, 1971). This is dustrialE setting, was in its very essence an educ­ costly in terms of reduced motivation and in keeping ational movement. For every Owenite, education untapped a vast resource: The workers' own initia­ in its technical and cooperative aspects was a vitally tive and decision-making powers, nurtured by the important matter and a requisite for practical suc­ direct experience of work. Worker cooperatives cess (Cole, 1944, p. 71). Yet, within a few years;ihe can also be seen as "schools of democracy": The Owenite-inspired worker cooperatives in Britain, institutionalised practice of democratic partici­ as with other innumerable attempt at worker co­ pation at the workplace is in itself an educational, operation worldwide which followed, had fallen vic­ self-supporting and self-generating process: the tim to either liquidation or transformation into pri­ more one participates, the better one : participates. vate or state . Thus, participation forces individuals to be free via socially responsible action, and provides for the Apparently, education via the actual experience political and economic liberation of men and women of cooperation, along with training in cooperative (Vanek, 1975). In contrast to pervasive social forces and technical skills, has not been enough to ensure and experiences, worker cooperatives offer the worker cooperative success. This article will pro­ promise of self-control, elevating work to a more pose a strategy for worker cooperative promotion fulfilling, emancipatory experience: After all, work in which education is seen as a necessary but not is central to most people's lives, not simply as a $ufficient ingredient. It will also highlight in the condition of survival, but as a potential avenue process the crucial difference between the objec­ towards self-actualisation (Maslow, 1954) and as a tives and consequences of education as "schooling" bestower of self-identity (Berger, 1963) . Worker and those of a "counter-hegemonic" education. cooperatives also make possible the combination of economies of scale (enjoyed by large-scale enter­ prises) and the preservation of the pride of skills and Definition craft (often associated with small-scale self­ employment). Their economic performance suggests higher marginal productivity of labour orker cooperatives represent one with respect to capital which therefore increasers of the more elaborate forms of the incentive to create even more employment cooperative organisation. They opportunities than do conventional firms (Cable & are production units which are Fitzroy, 1980). The issue of employment creation owned and controlledby their own or preservation is indeed the major contemporary workersW under a variety of forms. A widely accepted, reason for considering worker cooperatives loose definition suggests that worker cooperatives seriously as viable alternatives to provide employ­ embody a number of principles: ment. Poor Performance Workers are (or can become) members of the firm by nominal holdings of share capital. hile the above case may appear Formal provision exists for direct participation in formidable, the long-term survival the firm 's control and management by the rates of worker cooperatives and worker-members. their levels of internal democratic - Control is autonomous, usually on the basis of management have both been dis- one member, one vote. appointinglyW low in practice. Most worker coopera­ Worker-members share in the firm's surplus. tives have failed to survive; and, of those which did, - Capital is rendered a fixed and limited return. most failed to uphold their democratic principles of

20 Promoting Social Change worker control and egalitarianism. However, con· romoting social change is much easier signing worker cooperatives to the dust heaps of said than done: After all, the environ­ utopic dreams would imply turning a blind eye to mental variables to be changed are fun­ those fEw existing cases of impressive cooperative ctional expressions, developed over success.! time, of a particular social history and setsP of power relations, not so easily dislodged. A number of strategies can be advanced for Education has been indicated as being a spear­ improving the economic chances of success for heading force for such a transformation -a powerful worker cooperatives. The provision of education is instrument which could bring about the desired one such option: Training programmes in manage­ change under conditions of broad social consensus ment, administration and accountancy would gene­ (Spear, 1982, p. 45). Such a reformist, incrementalist rate a higher level of managerial competence among model however, tends to have only a limited impact. cooperative members; training sessions in Where social institutions harbour values and atti­ group dynamics, committee procedure, the history tudes alien to those of cooperation, as is often the and practice of worker participation and industrial case, then an incrementalist educational strategy is sociology would provide the skills and the know­ likely to serve the interests of the dominant power ledge needed for effective democratic management. holders. Rather than promoting social change, More broadly, instruction in political science, poli­ education makes it even more unlikely by repro­ tical economy, social psychology and industrial law ducing and strengthening the existing division of would improve the ideological consciousness of labourS. workers generally, making them more capable of Such experiences are supported by a 'political pursuing their interests as workers and as citizens. economy' approach which suggests that education Such an educational strategy has indeed often is not a direct access mechanism for individual social been pursued by centres of worker and cooperative class and power inequalities. Rather, education as education worldwide. "schooling"7 serves to perpetrate the hierarchical division of labour which can be seen as a modern However, economic success will not guarantee variant of the class structure (Bowles & Gintis, the preservation of democratic management: 1976). Rather, there is evidence that, the more successful a cooperative is economically, the more likely it is The major functions of schooling are best un­ to fail socially.2 This is because the worker cooper­ derstood according to this approch as reproduction ative suffers pressures emanating from the wider and legitimation: It reproduces the existing social environment which drive it into either performing a system by socialising the younger generation into "reserve army" role3, which eventually leads to its adequate and appropriate civic and occupational liquidation, or, if the cooperative is economically roles, making them 'good' citizens and 'good' successful, to lead to a degeneration of its internal workers, able to comply with the political and democratic organisation.4 Such pressures emanate occupational demands of their society. In . the from power relations which are legitimized and process, schooling also legitimizes the existing maintained by social institutions and individuals; social and economic relations and power inequal­ from a dominant ideology which breeds values ities, such that power domination persists via alien to cooperativism; and because the social en­ consent and not coercion. vironment provides at best only episodic exper­ A Social Movement iences in democratic participation. Such forces can­ not much be affected by educational provision as oW then, can power relations be described above. transformed and vested interests overcome such that successful wor­ It should therefore come as no surprise that ker cooperatives can be established? most attempts at establishing democratic worker Such conditions may be met via the cooperatives have ended in failure : All too often, existenceH of a progressive "social movement"8. A the effects of the wider context are neglected. It has social movement could prove to be a continuous become increasingly evident that, for cooperatives source of support ' for cooperatives financially, to succeed, in an economic and democratic sense, vocationally and ideologically. It could institution­ then the right strategy is one which counters the alise a power base and therefore provide a basis for effects of the economic, cultural and political en­ legitimating cooperatives within the community at vironment (Fals-Borda, et. aI., 1976). More large while at the same time adapting these to best postively, it ought to be a strategy which promotes a fit the local conditions. A social movement could degree of social transformation in the desired direc­ resolve the tension between continuity and change tion, fostering the emergence of an environment by providing continually relevant responses to local which ideologically, technically and materially sup­ problems by virtue of its dynamic character in the ports the cooperative form of organ isation. face of changing social conditions.

21 Such an approach presupposes'tl number of The promotion of education as the avenue for logistic problems: Firstly, the strategy takes time to the fostering of counter-hegemony remains ' a mature. Secondly, the social movement's power problematic one. The School under pressure from base must be strong enough to withstand hostility economic demands, cultural conditions and power from those who might feel threatened if genuine interests, cannot help but breed non-cooperative cooperativism and worker management take root. values and non-participatory skills. Therefore the Thirdly, it appears contrary to human nature for a avenues for promoting counter-hegemony are best powerful social force to purposely adopt a strategy sought elsewhere. which, if successful, would lead to the generation of democratic consciousness from the experience of . Thus, the cooperative Counter-Hegemony Operationalised movement would, in the long run, tend to become independent of the social movement which ounter- Hegemonic promotion established it in the first place.9 depends on the extent to which experiences of cooperativism and If this willingness on the part of the social action are normalized and movement is assumed, then the tactic for such a legitimized within the wider social strategy aimed at fostering a degre~ of social environment.C For one thing, this involves setting up change should be one of "war of position" - a term worker cooperatives and letting them foster a used by Antonio Gramsci whose in sights are useful cooperative culture from the very experience of in clarifying the role of education and of a social cooperation. It may be true that there is no better movement in the broader process of s6cial educational experience than the actual practice of transformation towards cooperativism (Gramsci, workplace democracy (Poole, 1975, p. 29). 1975). However, the extent to which the participatory The Gramscian Legacy culture can expand is severely limited to the number of actual cooperators. ramsci's central theme of his vision of the functioning of the capitalist Secondly, one can think of ways of promoting system is that of Hegemony: "An cooperative experiences in the wider community. order in which a certain way of life This would create wider spaces where cooperative and thought is dominant, in which experiences can be accrued and, in the process, G legitimized. Elements of local government -be they one concept of reality is diffused throughout society in all its institutional and private civic or religious- can be discerned in most manifestations, informing with its spirit all taste, communities. The institutionalisation of communi­ morality, customs, religious and political principles ty participation however creates structures which and all social relations, particularly in their compete with political clientelism and bureaucratic intellectual and moral connotations" (Williams, centralism. 1960).10 For such a logic of domination to be eroded, it must be replaced by a "counter­ hegemony" which emerges from the organisation Thirdly, one can consider investing in counter­ of the working class and by an investment in hegemonic pedagogical provision out of the School system. Relieved from the constraints imposed by counter-hegemonic education, aimed at develop­ the social structure's reproductive and legitimatory ing proletarian institutions, values and culture. In needs, an out-of-school educational programme this respect, the seeds for a counter-hegemony can be more genuinely directed towards counter­ already exist, since no society is structurally and hegemonic purposes14. In this respect, worker culturally homogenousll. education programmes by political parties, The Gramscian vision of social transformation churches, trade unions and other social can be criticised for focusing exclusively on the movements could be envisaged. If such initiatives political and cultural aspects of proletarian are taken to foster a cooperative culture and to domination; it misses to c'onsider the economic enhance the legitimacy of cooperative production constraints to such a transformation. The among the public at large, and if the number of constraints to such a transformation. The location viable cooperatives also increases, perhaps of any society within the international economic consequently, then dependence on external order appears to constrain significantly any agencies for cooperative education, in terms of departure from the dominant hegemony12. It is technical and cooperative skills as well as in therefore more realistic to propose that social counter-cultural terms, may well decrease in the change be so directed as to lead to a state of" dual long run. In which case, the cooperative sector power" with a cooperative economy and a cooper­ itself would be able to provide and organise its own ative environment in articulation with a non­ educational programmes, independent of external cooperative one 13 . support.

22 Conclusion he support of a social movement in 14 Examples of this include the radical "conscientizing" creating the conditions suitable to pedagogy of Freire (1972) and the recommendations of cooperative organisation has been Vanek (1977) and Levin (1980). recognised as crucial to prevent the degeneration of worker cooperatives (particularlyT if they are economically successful) or References their liquidation (if they are not). Yet, as long as a cooperative movement remains dependent upon Berger, P.L. (1963) Invitation to Sociology: A Humanistic Perspective, New York, Anchor Books. the inspiration, initiative, leadership and perhaps 2 Bernstein, P, (1976) WorkplaceDemocratization: /tsInter­ also the finances of asocial movement, then it nal Dynamics, Kent, Ohio, Kent ·State University Press. cannot rest on a secure base. Rather, the condition 3 Bowles, S. and Gintis, H. (1976) Schooling in Capitalist is ripe for devolving into dependence or outright America. New York, Routledge and Kegan Paul. 4 Cable, J. and Fitzroy, F. (1980) 'Productivity, Efficiency, political indoctrination. The investment in counter­ Incentives and Employee Participation: A Study of West hegemonic education could solve this dilemma German Firms', Kyklos, Vo!. 33, No. l. between autonomy and dependency; it holds the 5 Cole, G.D.H. (1944) A Century of Cooperation, London, promise of leading to a gradual but steady social Alien and Unwin. 6 Fals-Borda, O . et. a!. (1976) 'The Crisis of Rural Cooper­ transformation towards an environment supportive atives: Problems in Africa, Asia and Latin America', in of cooperative culture and structures. J. Nash, et. aI., Eds_: Popular Participation in Social Change, The Hague, Mouton, pp. 439-456. Notes 7 Fox, A (1971) A Sociology of Work in Industry, London, Collier Macmillan. A sample of successful worker cooperatives includes Scott­ 8 Freire, P. (1972) Pedagogy of the Oppressed, translated by Bader in Britain - see Oakeshott (1978, pp. 82-3, 95-8); M. Bergman Ramos, New York, Herder and Herder. Hirondelle in France - Oakeshott (1978, pp. l30-1); and the 9 Gramsci, A (1975) Quademi del Carcere, Torino, Giulio Mondragon Cooperatives in Basque - (Thomas & Einaudi. Logan, 1982). 10 Hoffman, J. (1984) The Gramscian Challen.qe: Coercion 2 A condition known as Gide's Paradox - see Pryor (1983, and Consent in Marxist Political Theory, Oxford. Black- p. 162). well. 3 The 'reserve army' condition in a capitalist economy acts to 11 IIIich, LD. (1972) Deschooling Society, London, Calder and keep down the general level of wages. The term is usually Boyars. applied to the unemployed but worker cooperatives, along 12 Inayatullah (1.972) Cooperatives and Development in Asia: with certain other forms of employment- part-time, sub­ A Study of Cooperatives in Fourteen Rural Communities contractual, piece-rate -tend to perform the same function. of Iran, Pakistan and Ceylon, Rural Institutions and 4 Economic success increases the incentive to limit member­ Planned Change, Vol. 7., Geneva, U.N.R.LS.D. ship in worker cooperatives and to employ ·second-c1ass 13 Kester, G. (1980) Transition to Workers'Self-Manage­ labour; It also makes the cooperative a target of private ment: Its Dynamics in the Decolonizing Economy of Malta, capital which may make lucrative take-over bids or of state The Hague, Institute of Social Studies. control which may decide that the profitable operations 14 Levin, H.M. (1980), 'Workplace Democracy and Educa­ should come within the umbrella of central planning. In tional Planning' in Education, Work and Employment - any case, the effect is that the original cooperators are Vol. II, Paris, UNESCO, International Institute for Educa­ transformed into (or replaced by) private or state tional Planning, pp. 123-216. ownership. 15 Maslow, AH. (1954) Motivation and Personality, New 5 This is clear, for example, in relation to the Comilla Project York, Harper. in Bangladesh where strong educational training pro­ 16 Oakeshott, R. (1978) The Case for Workers' Coops, grammes in managerial and cooperative skills only London, Routledge and Kegan Paul. strengthened the position of well-to-do farmers - See 17 Poole, M. (1975) Workers' Participation in Industry, Inayatullah (1972) . London and Boston, Routledge and Kegan Paul. 6 This is the approach of the so-called "New Sociology of 18 Pryor, F.L. (1983) 'The Economic Production of Cooper­ Education" and of the "Correspondence Theory". atives: A Reader's Guide', Annals of Public and Cooper- 7 Schooling is "the age-speciiic, teacher-related process, ative Economy, Vol. 54, No. 2. . requiring full-time attendance at an obligatory curriculum"­ 19 Spear, R. (1982) 'Some Cooperative Development Stra­ IIIich (1972, pp. 25-6). tegies and Structures in Africa and Asia" Yearbook of 8 A social movement may be defined as a "collective identity Agricultural Cooperation 1982, Oxford, Blackwell, bearing a common field of action and an antagonistic rela­ pp. 37-50. tion to an opposed group" - Touraine (1981). 20 Thomas, H. and Logan, C. (1982) Mondragon: An 9 This is the process of "social objectification" of democratic Economic Analysis, London, Alien and Unwin. management, described by Bernstein (1976) and Kester 21 Touraine, A (1981) The Voice and the Eye: Analysis of (1980) . Social Movements, Cambridge, Cambridge University 10 A detailed analysis of the origin and meaning of Press. 'hegemony' is undertaken in Hoffman (1984). 22 Vanek, J. (1977) 'Education for the Practice of Self­ 11 Wertheim (1974) argues that there is a potential for a Management', in Democracy in the Workplace, Washing­ counter-culture in every society, which is the source of all ton, D.e., Strongforce, Inc. emancipatory movemnents and of social ci,c.!1ge. 23 Vanek, J. Ed. (1975) Self-Management: Economic Libera­ 12 This is argued with respect to Malta in the 1970's by Kester tion of Man. Harmondsworth. PenQuin. (1980, pp. 128-131, 150-3). 24 Wertheim, W.F. (1974) Evolution and Revolution: The 13 '' does not suggest two mutually exclusive Rising Waves of Emancipation, Harmondsworth, Penguin. categories; rather, the notion of articulation denotes a 25 Williams, G. (1960) 'Gramsci's Concept of Egemonia', dynamic relationship. Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. 21, No. 4.

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