Forest Dependence in Rural Based on case studies from Roztochchia, Transcarpathia, and Polissia

Tetiana Zhyla, Ihor Soloviy, Andriy Zhyla, Anastasiya Rudych, and Roman Volosyanchuk

October 2014

This publication has been produced with the assistance of the . The content, findings, interpretations, and conclusions of this publication are the sole responsibility of the FLEG II (ENPI East) Programme Team (www.enpi-fleg.org) and can in no way be taken to reflect the views of the European Union. The views expressed do not necessarily reflect those of the Implementing Organizations.

CONTENTS List of tables ...... 4 List of figures ...... 4 Executive summary ...... 5 1. Introduction ...... 11 1.1 Forests and forest use in Ukraine ...... 11 1.2 Rationale ...... 12 2. Methodology ...... 13 2.1 study area ...... 13 2.2 Method of sampling ...... 14 2.3 Number of households ...... 14 2.4 Timeline ...... 15 2.5 Field implementation and problems ...... 15 2.6 Local unit conversion ...... 15 3. Study area characteristics ...... 15 3.1 Brief history of villages ...... 15 3.2 Demographics ...... 17 3.3 Infrastructure availability ...... 18 3.4 Economic data ...... 18 3.5 Major economic activities ...... 18 3.6 Seasonal calendar ...... 19 3.7 Major markets and market access ...... 20 3.8 Major land cover and land uses ...... 20 3.9 Description of conservation areas ...... 22 3.10 Tenure and governance ...... 22 3.11 Government and other development/conservation projects ...... 23 3.12 Calamities ...... 24 3.13 Other relevant issues ...... 24 4. Results and discussion ...... 26 4.1 Income share by source ...... 26 4.2 Frequency and value of forest products ...... 28

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4.3 Fuelwood ...... 33 4.4 Cash and subsistence of forest products ...... 34 4.5 RFI over income quintiles ...... 37 4.6 RFI over asset groups ...... 39 4.7 Most Important Products ...... 42 5. Conclusion ...... 43 6. References ...... 45

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List of tables Table 1. Number of households ...... 14 Table 2. Local unit conversion ...... 15 Table 3 Age structure ...... 17 Table 4 Gender specificity ...... 18 Table 5 Seasonal calendar ...... 19 Table 6 Forest dependence ...... 42

List of figures Figure 1. Ministries and agencies involved in forest management structure in Ukraine ...... 12 Figure 2. Research regions on the map of Ukraine...... 13 Figure 3. Income shares by source – Roztochchia...... 26 Figure 4. Income shares by source – Transcarpathia...... 27 Figure 5. Income shares by source – Polissia...... 27 Figure 6. Income shares by source – all regions...... 27 Figure 7. Most common forest product by value in Roztochchia, % ...... 29 Figure 8. Most common forest product by frequency in Roztochchia, % ...... 29 Figure 9. Most common forest product by valueTranscarpathia, % ...... 30 Figure 10. Most common forest product by frequency in Transcarpathia, % ...... 30 Figure 11. Support for beans (Phaseolus) ...... 31 Figure 12. Christmas tree made from branches ...... 31 Figure 13. Most common forest product by value in Polissia, % ...... 32 Figure 14. Most common forest product by frequency in Polissia, % ...... 32 Figure 15. The share of the cost of fuelwood in total income, % ...... 33 Figure 16. Cash and subsistence of forest products in Roztochchia, (total value), USD (PPP)...... 34 Figure 17. Cash and subsistence of forest value in Roztochchia, (total value), USD (PPP)...... 34 Figure 18. Cash and subsistence of forest products in Transcarpathia, (total value), USD (PPP) ...... 35 Figure 19. Cash and subsistence of forest value in Transcarpathia, (total value), USD (PPP) ...... 35 Figure 20. Cash and subsistence of forest products in Polissia, (total value), USD (PPP) ...... 36 Figure 21. Cash and subsistence of forest value in Polissia, (total value), USD (PPP) ...... 36 Figure 22. Forest income over income quintiles, USD (PPP)/Region 1 “Roztochchia” ...... 37 Figure 23. Forest income over income quintiles, USD (PPP)/Region 2 (Transcarpathia)...... 38 Figure 24. Forest income over income quintiles, USD (PPP)/Region 3 (Polissia)...... 39 Figure 25. Roztochchia: Cash and Subsistence Forest Income (assets) and RFI ...... 40 Figure 26. Transcarpathia: Cash and Subsistence Forest Income (assets) and RFI ...... 40 Figure 27. Polissia: Cash and Subsistence Forest Income (assets) and RFI ...... 41

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Executive summary

Introduction

The forested area of Ukraine is unevenly distributed between four distinct temperate forest regions: the Carpathian mountain forests, the northern forests (Polissia), the forest steppe and the steppe zone. The dry mountain forests of the Crimea trend towards Mediterranean climatic conditions and are often classified as a separate forest region. The total area of the Ukrainian forest fund (i.e. lands designated to forestry) is 10.87 million ha. The total forest cover is 15.7% and varies from 3.7% in Zaporizhzhia and Mykolaiv regions to 51.4% in Transcarpathia. The total growing stock of wood is 1.8 billion m3 and the average annual wood increment is 4 m3/ha. Ukraine has deep-rooted historical traditions, experiences and capacity in relation to forest management. Because of the heterogeneity of climatic conditions, differences in historic development and characteristics of economic activities in different regions of Ukraine there are various traditions regarding forest management. Today, Ukrainian forests are managed by state enterprises and are mainly under public ownwership, belonging to different ministries and agencies (Figure 1.). The majority of forests (66% of the country’s forests) are managed by the State Forest Resources Agency. Collection of all non-timber forest resources is free of charge. People do not need permission to collect mushrooms and berries for subsistence use. According to the law, if people need firewood or wood, they must pay the forest enterprises in order to receive a permit - a special ticket required for the execution of every tree harvesting operation.

Methodology The study has been conducted in three regions of Western Ukraine. Region 1 “Roztochchia” is characterized by plains, and located in the western part of the country ( region, Yavorivsky district, villages Seredkevychi and Smolyn); Region 2 “Transcarpathia”, where the Carpathian mountains are located, is in the south-western part of Ukraine (Transcarpathian region, Velykobereznianskyi district, villages Zahorb and Strychava); Region 3 “Polissia” is characterized by plains, and is located in the north-western part of Ukraine (Rivne region, Bereznivskyi district, villages Kolodyazne and Bystrychi). In every region, two villages were studied. In “Roztochchia,” 60 interviews were conducted randomly in 60 households. In “Transcarpathia” 50 interviews were conducted and in the last region, “Polissia,” 40 interviews were conducted. Focus-group surveys were held in each village as well.

Area of the study Region 1: Seredkevychi and Smolyn. These villages are located in the Yavorivskii district, of the Lviv region, in the western part of Ukraine. There are forest and agricultural lands near both villages. The village of Seredkevychi is the settlement number 1 in our study. The village took the current name Seredkevychi in the 1850’s. Before this, it was called Ulytsko-Seredkevychi. References of Ulytsko-Seredkyvychi date back to 1830i. The area of Seredkevychi is 3.8 km2. Its geographical coordinates are 500 09’ 17”N 230 32’ 51”E. There are 753 inhabitants and 210 housholds in this village. The village of Smolyn is community number 2 in our study. The village was founded in the 13th century. The area of Smolyn is 2.43km2. Its geographical coordinates are 500 09’ 18” N 230 27’ 45” E. Both villages, Seredkevychi and Smolyn are covered mostly by plains. The hills

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in the region are about 320-370 meters high in altitude, with the average altitude being 316 meters. These villages are situated on the main European watershed. Seredkevychi and Smolyn are located in a rural area, which is typical to the region. Agriculture is the main occupation (activity) for local population. Historically, average residents in the village of Smolyn have larger plots of land than in Seredkevychi (about 25-30% more). The villages of Seredkevychi and Smolyn are situated in Lviv Region. Forest cover in this region is 28.5%. The forested land is owned by the Regional Landscape Park “Ravske Roztochchia”ii and makes up an area of 19,103 hectares. This area is classified as protected area under category Viii according to IUCN. And forest enterprise “SE Rava-Ruska forestry” manages the forests and monitors activities such as harvesting operations. Region 2: Zahorb and Strychava. These villages are located in the territory of the Velykobereznianskyi district, of the Transcarpatian region, in the southwestern part of Ukraine. The surrounding area is mostly coverd by forest (this province has the highest forest coverage in Ukraine, reaching up to 51.4%). The village of Zahorb is rural settlement number 3 in our study. The village was founded in the 16th century. Its geographical coordinates are 49° 0′ 48″ N, 22° 39′ 46″ E. The area of the village is 36,547 km2. The average altitude in the village is 526 meters. The landscape is mountainous and by it’s altitude, Zahorb is classified as a “mountainous village”. According to Ukrainian law, additional payments (called “mountain payments”iv) are added to inhabitants’ pensions, scholarships, and salaries from the state budget. Residents collect berries in the forests surrounding the village. Village of Strychava is the rural settlement number 4 in our study. The village was founded in the 17th century. Its geographical coordinates are 48° 57′ 43″ N, 22° 29′ 29″ E. The average altitude is 378 meters. Village area is 9,9 км2.The type of territory is mountainous as well, but the “mountainous” status is not officially confirmed since the altitude does not exceed a threshold set by the legislation. Region 3: Kolodiazne and Bystrychi. These villages are located in the Bereznivskyi district, in the Rivne region, in the northwestern part of Ukraine. In the Polissia region, forests are the dominant land use in landscape (forest cover is 36.4%), but agricultural land use is prominent as well. The village of Kolodiazne is the rural settlement number 5 in the study. The village was founded in early 15th century. Its geographical coordinates are: 500 55’ 00” N 260 53’ 01”E. Its area is flat. The average altitude is 178 meters. The area of the village is 1,35 km2 . The village of Bystrychi is the rural settlement number 6 in the study. The village was founded in the 17th century. Its geographical coordinates are: 500 52’ 56” N 260 54’ 21”E. The territory is flat and swampy. The average altitude is 178 meters. The area of the village is 3,93 km2. Bystrychi and Kolodiazne are situated in the agricultural region, so farming is the main occupation (activity) for the local population. There is electricity in all of the villages. Gas is only available in the region of “Polissia”. Running water supply systems have only been established in the village of Smolyn (region 1). In the other two regions, there is no central water supply system. According to the International Labour Organization (ILO), the official unemployment level in the Lviv region is 7.5%, in the Transcarpathian region unemployment is at 8.2% and in the Rivne region it is 10.3%.v Migration was observed in each of the studied villages. Residents typically migrate seasonally to work in , in as well as in other regions of Ukraine. The predominant sectors these migrants work in are seasonal agricultural (men and women), construction (men), service sector (women). According to data from the Ministry of Social Policy of Ukrainevi the poverty datum line (percent of people living in poverty) in Ukraine in 2013 was 24.7%. In Lviv region it was 28.9%, in Transcarpathian region, it was 20.6% and in Rivne region it was 49.1%. The core economic activity in all regions is the work in the household and are engaged in subsistence farming. Currently, most people in rural areas care for their own plots of land and produce mostly hay for cows and horses, potatoes and other vegetables, wheat and oats.

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Agriculture is mostly developed in the plain regions (“Roztochchia” and “Polissia”). Agriculture is underdeveloped in mountainous regions such as “Transcarpathia”, due to of the unfavourable conditions of the terrain and low fertility. There is high forest cover in all three regions, which allows community members to collect mushrooms, berries and other resources from their nearby forests. Often these products are collected both for further sale as well as for their own needs. In regions No.2 and No.3 there are the commercial collection points for the collected bilberries. For some people in the villages, non-wood forest resources are a very significant source of income. Land use in Ukraine is subject to law and regulations specific to the land category. The specifications of forest land use are defined in the Forest Code of Ukraine (2006), and specifications of the lands of agricultural designation are defined in the Land Code (2006). Community members are not permitted to harvest timber from the forest. Residents are permitted to access the forest to collect boughs that do not exceed 3 cm in diameter. Residents are allowed to collect non-wood products such as mushrooms and berries without any preliminary permits. Large-scale collection requires a permit. Access restriction to protected areas depends on the status of the land conservation category of the plot. Within the protected area in region 1 (category 5 according to International Union for Conservation of Nature), there are no restrictions on picking mushrooms and berries. Within region 2, in the protected area of “Uzhanskyi” National Nature Park, there is a higher degree of protection, although the collection of berries and mushrooms is allowed in the “economic” (commercial) zones. The commercial zone on the territory of “Uzhanskiy” National Nature Park was established to meet the needs of the park, and includes the lands that are supervised by the Park but managed by other land users.vii Access is restricted only to the strictly protected areas (”core zone”), but the local population does not use these areas anyways as they are located in remote areas where mushrooms and berries do not grow. The Ministry of Ecology and Natural Resources of Ukraine implements conservation projects through state (national) and regional programs. Their priorities are based on the Law of Ukraine “On main foundations (strategy) of the state environmental policy of Ukraine for the period until 2020.” Many conservation projects have been implemented through international and national, regional and even local NGOs. For example, a regional project implemented by the WWF launched in March 2011, aims to prepare the Delta for possible impacts of climate change. Many of the development projects which have been implemented by international organizations in Ukraine (UNDP, CIDA, USAID, SIDA and other agencies, foundations) strengthen the capacity of local governance and the rural population. Not many of these projects are oriented directly toward the forest sector. A recent project related to the forest sector is a project entitled “Consolidation of forest policy in Ukraine”viii supported by FAO and lead by the Forest Resource Agency of Ukraine and aims to improve dialogue between various stakeholders to discuss issues of forests and forestry in Ukraine and the development of a conceptual roadmap for the forestry sector in Ukraine.

Results The income structure of local inhabitants in the three study regions (Roztochchia, Transcarpathia and Polissia) is relatively homogenous. The structure of income is as follows: 36% of total income comes from “other income” sources, which consists mainly of pensions, scholarships for students, maternity allowance and support to families with more than two children, and remittances from relatives. Income from animals (33%) is the next important source of income (meat, cottage cheese, milk, eggs etc.). The third most important source of income is wage income (25%). (This source of income is important because many people living in these rural regions who cannot find employment work abroad.) The next source of income is agricultural income (12%), which comes mostly from the sale of potatoes, apples, wheat, beans, etc. Forest income (5%)

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includes blueberries (43%), mushrooms (28%), wild strawberries (10%), tree branches (4%), blackberries (4%), firewood (2%). Income from business is 3% and comes mostly from trade and carpentry. Net income from livestock is negative. This is because households that own livestock derive very little cash income from this activity. Fuelwood is an essential product for local population survival. In most cases we did not include firewood in forest income because people must pay for fuelwood and cannot harvest wood from the forest on their own. Therefore, it is a cost for them rather than a source of income. In the communities where gas heating is not available, people use fuelwood for heating and cooking. They do not have a viable alternative, as other forms of fuel such as coal and liquefied natural gas are too expensive. Liquefied natural gas is used occasionally in the summer for cooking, but this accounts for a very small percent of fuel consumption. Berries and mushrooms make up most of the communities’ revenue from the forest. Villagers collect these products both for sale and for household consumption. The most common forest product by value in all regions is blueberries (43% in Roztochchia, 43% in Transcarpathia and 42% in Polissia). Berries are used for jam, freezing for future use, drying in small quantities, for baking, for raw consumption in the summer as well as for gifts for friends and relatives in cities. Mushrooms (25% in Roztochchia, 25% in Transcarpathia and 37% in Polissia) is secondary to berries. They are collected for sale, household consumption (to prepare mushroom dishes and dry and can for the winter) and are also used as gifts. Communities sell these products more than they consume them. Blueberries are the most popular product for sale and household consumption. They are a traditional forest product for which there is always a high demand therefore price does not affect demand or consumption. Inhabitants sell the forest products that are in demand. Mushrooms are the second most popular product. They are traditionally used in cooking, especially during lent. Mushroom dishes are very popular and during winter holidays large quantities of marinated mushrooms or dishes made of dried mushrooms are consumed. Fresh mushrooms are sold well into the summer and the fall and dried mushrooms are sold during the winter. Other berries such as wild strawberries, blackberries and raspberries are also used for household consumption and sale. All these forest berries are tasty and rich in vitamins and are therefore very popular. All income groups (quintiles) use forest products for household consumption (subsistence) approximately in equal measure in Roztochchia. People traditionally consume large amounts of mushrooms and berries regardless of their level of income. Forest products are sold by each quintile, because in each quintile, there are several households that sell large quantities of these products. Practically all those, who have the time and desire to work, collect berries and mushrooms for sale. In Region 2 (Transcarpathia), all quintiles use forest products for household consumption and sell for cash. The wealthier Quintiles 3, 4 and 5, consume more. For these quintiles, forest income is not as important as it is for the poor, which is why they do not spare these products. The poorest quintile (1) and the medium quintile (3) sell less of these products. The poorer quiltiles are more dependent on forest income – Quintile 2 collects a lot of berries and mushrooms for sale. In Polisia, similarly to the first two regions, all quintiles use approximately the same amounts of forest products for household consumption. The fourth quintile (made up of villagers for whom forest income is the most important) sells the most forest products. The wealthier portion of the population can use these products mostly for their own needs because they receive income from other sources and do not rely on the sale of the products to support their livelihoods. The wealthy quintile is the least dependent on forest products (as seen in the graphs provided). The share of forest income of the total income is the smallest here. The wealthy, as compared with the poor, derive more income from other sources (such as stockbreeding, and wages). Consumption of forest products is approximately the same in all quintiles in each region.

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This is due to the fact that people in this regional traditionally consume mushrooms and berries. Regardless of their level of income, mushrooms and berries remain popular food items in forest dependent communities. People gather berries and mushrooms more than they need for their own consumption in all regions. Blueberries, wild strawberries and mushrooms are the most expensive forest products and are considered delicacies (not main food products) and are therefore sold over other products. The sale of these products helps community members buy other food items, household cleaning supplies and clothes. For many families the sale of these products is a good way to supplement income.

Conclusions The key factor that influences community forest dependence is the availability of resources. If berries and mushrooms are available, the villagers will collect them, regardless of their income level. In many cases, the inhabitants would purchase mushrooms and berries in markets or grocery stores (which does happen in rare cases) if they had the means to do so, but the economic growth that is necessary to allow this to happen is improbable. Migration is observed in the mountain villages (in Transcarpathia) (e.g., the village of Zahorb with 186 households, of which 25 have been abandoned, and this process is continuing). There is an opportunity to develop hang-gliding as a tourist attraction in the village. This development would improve the welfare of the community. Moreover, this activity does not have a serious impact on the environment. The forest resources that are accessible to the villages are used primarily for filling income gaps for local families. However, this seems to be a neverending cycle; as soon as one income gap is filled, another appears. Forest related income is very important, specifically for large families. During the collection season, a family can earn enough to buy essential school supplies (e.g. clothes, shoes, and books, stationary) from the sale of the berries and mushrooms they collect. Villagers collect mushrooms and berries for the following reasons. In Ukraine, there is free access to non-timber forest products – almost all forests are owned by the state and mushrooms and berries can be collected (within protected areas, collection is allowed in designated areas). A “forest ticket” must be obtained in order to collect NTFP for sale (i.e. commercial use). Forest products are always in demand and may be sold at markets or sold to procurement centres in the villages. In Ukraine, mushrooms and berries are consumed regularly and are an important source of seasonal income. Forest products (firewood, berries, mushrooms), agricultural products and stockbreeding related products are the most vital products for local populations. Firewood for heating and cooking is a vital resource. Mushrooms and berries are essential for household consumption and sale and are very important seasonal sources of income. Agricultural and livestock products are used for household consumption and sale as well. For some households (especially in Region 1) these products are the main source of cash (if nobody in the household receives pensions or is employed, their main income comes from agriculture). In the two regions where there is no gas supply, the use of firewood will remain constant. In the third region the amount of firewood will increase, because the price of gas is constantly growing. Dependence on mushrooms and berries is also stable; even if income rises, people will not give up this share of their total income. Mushrooms and berries are a traditionally staple food item and a commodity that is always in demand at the market. Forest income as a portion of the annual income is smaller than the portion from agricultural income, but based on the time allocated, the former is a faster source of income. While people receive more income from income sources such as agriculture, they require more time and effort. The amount of blueberries may change in Transcarpathia (Region 2) due to climate change, which will, in turn, lead to losses in this income source. There is a high probability that in this case the villagers will collect blueberries in other

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regions. The amount of blueberries may also decrease in Polissia (Region 3), due to damages to forest as a result of intensive collection methods. Cranberry crops may also decrease, because of the effects of climate change (if the climate becomes drier, the marshes where these crops grow may be threatened). However the share of income from cranberries gathered in the studied villages is not large. The impacts of climate change and harmful intensive harvesting practices are challenges facing sustainable non-wood forest resource management. The effective management of these resources is essential to forest conservation and local community wellbeing and resilience in turn.

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1. Introduction

1.1 Forests and forest use in Ukraine

The forested area of Ukraine is unevenly distributed between four distinct temperate forest regions: the Carpathian mountain forests, the northern forests (Polissia), the forest steppe and the steppe. The dry mountain forests of the Crimea trend towards Mediterranean climatic conditions and are often classified as a separate forest region. The total area of the Ukrainian forest designated to the forest fund is 10.87 million ha. The total forest cover is 15.7%. The growing stock of wood is 1.8 billion m3 and the annual wood increment – 4 m3 per hectare. Forest cover varies from 3.7% in the Zaporozhzhia and Mykolaiv regions to 51.4% in Transcarpathia. Because of the heterogeneity of climatic conditions and varying types of economic activities among the population in Ukraine, there are a number of different traditions with regard to forest management, which is why the most wooded and most dependent on the forest communities are in the Western and Northern parts of Ukraine. In this study, we studied regions located in Western Ukraine. Forest cover in these regions is following: • Transcarpathian region-51.4% (region number 1 in our study); • Rivne region-36.4% (region number 3); • Lviv region-28.5% (region number 2) With the exception of some remote areas in the Carpathians or Polissia, the vast majority of forests in Ukraine have been damaged from intensive human impacts. These territories are mostly located in the region 1 (Primeval Beech Forests). Forests in the regions 2 and 3 have been restored by natural and artificial means. There is an observed general trend in woodlands and forests in Ukraine toward a permanent increase of their total area. However, at the same time, the share of mature forests is reducing. Ukraine has long historical traditions, experiences and capacities in forest management. Ukrainian forests are currently managed by state enterprises that mainly belong to different ministries and agencies (Figure 1.). The majority of forests, (66% of the country’s forests) are managed by the departments of the State Forest Resources Agency

State Forest Resources Agency

68.3% Ministry of Agricultural Policy

Ministry of Defense

Ministry of Emergencies 24.0% Ministry of Ecology and Natural Resources 3.1% others 0.8% 1.6% 2.2%

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Figure 1. Ministries and agencies involved in forest management structure in Ukraine

The main objectives of the State Forest Resources Agency are: • to implement state policy on forest and hunting management, protection and conservation of forests, sustainable forest management, conservation of forest resources and game animals; • to improve the efficiency of forest and game management; • to administer, regulate and control forest and hunting management; • to develop and implement national, international and regional programs to protect forests, improve their , implement sustainable forest management and reforestation, management and restoration of game animals, development of hunting and forest management planning.

Although legislation in Ukraine defines forest ownership as shared among state, municipal and private bodies, in practice, state forest ownership dominates. While municipal ownership could be a basis for ‘community forestry’ practices and restoration of traditional uses of forest-related resources, the public has a limited role in forest-related decision-making (Soloviy and Cubbage 2007). Unlike countries in Central , property restitution was not considered in Ukraine (or in other countries of the former ) during the process of reforming forestry in the years following the fall of the USSR. This was due to various historical circumstances in the different regions of Ukraine and the public’s fear that forest management would not be sustainable in privatized forests. This, combined with a lack of forestry skills in the private sector, has restricted private forest ownership and management to very limited areas in the country. There is a need in Ukraine to conduct more forest research, train foresters, and raise public awareness about the value of traditional natural resource uses and forest protection (Adamovskiy and Soloviy 2013). There have been significant impacts on the forests of Ukraine related to the fact that the decision making process around forestry enterprise activities is not fully transparent. In recent years corruption schemes by the government have infiltrated the forest sector and other sectors as well. For example, Ukraine is one of the large exporters of roundwood in Europe, but the wood processing and furniture industry is not sufficiently developed which leads to the loss of added value of forest sector. Since the 2014 revolution, the government has made efforts to combat corruption but significant progress has not been made. The collection of non-timber forest resources is free to the villagers and permits are not required to collect mushrooms and berries for subsistence needs. According to the law, if people need firewood or wood - they must pay the forest enterprises in order to receive a permit - a special ticket required for any harvesting operations.

1.2 Rationale

There is growing awareness of the importance of NWFPs and other services that are not reflected in statistics. But while there is a high willingness to pay for NWFPs, the amount demanded does not match the amount supplied (Cesaro et al 1995). The importance of this socio-economic research is considerable in these areas because the local population has been traditionally using these forest resources for centuries. The forest also contributes to many community members’ sense of identity. Forested areas are the main source of forest products for the urban population as well. In particular, mushrooms and berries are traditionally popular food items in the region. For the survey, we selected regions where agriculture is underdeveloped due to poor soil fertility in the region number 1 (Seredkevychi and Smolyn) and due to poor climatic conditions, topography and low soil fertility in the region number 2 (Zahorb and

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Strychava). There are more favorable conditions for intensive agriculture in region number 3 (Kolodyazne and Bystrychi), however agriculture is underdeveloped here too. Limited employment opportunities and the difficulties associated with travelling from marginal forested areas to major regional centers (Lviv, Rivne, Uzhgorod) are common to all these regions. This limits the opportunties of finding well paying jobs, according to the Ukrainian standards. In the face of these challenges, a considerable part of the rural population find work abroad or sell wood and non-wood forest products for additional or even basic income. We have tried to identify forest functionality given this socio-economic context using the framework of this survey.

2. Methodology

2.1 Study area

Figure 2. Research regions on the map of Ukraine.

The study was conducted in three regions of Western Ukraine. Region 1 “Roztochchia” – plain, the western part of the country (Lviv region, Yavorivsky district, villages Seredkevychi and Smolyn); Region 2 “Transcarpathia” – the Carpathian mountains, the south-western part of Ukraine (Transcarpathian region, Velykobereznianskyi district, villages Zahorb and Strychava); Region 3 “Polissia” – plain, the northwestern part of Ukraine (Rivne region, Bereznivskyi district, villages Kolodyazne and Bystrychi).

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The location of the study regions is shown in Figure 2.

2.2 Method of sampling Western Ukraine is the most forested region of the country. The study was carried out in three regions on the West Ukraine. “Transcarpathia” is the southwestern part, “Roztochchia” – western part, and “Polissia” – northwestern part. These regions correspond to the following criteria of natural zone representation (Ukrainian Carpathians, forest and steppe regions, Polissia) and representation of the regions with different forest cover: 28.5% in the Lviv region (“Roztochchia”), 36.4% in the Rivne region (“Polissia”), and 51,4% in the Transcarpathian region (“Transcarpathia”). The western part of Ukraine is the most forested part of the country. The study was conducted into the following regions of the Western Ukraine: "Transcarpathia" (southwest), "Roztochchia" (west), and "Polissia" (northwest). The study regions represented all natural zones in the western part of Ukraine (Ukrainian Carpathians, Forest-steppe, Polissia) and provided a representation of regions with respect to forest cover. The study regions are three major regions that supply most of the Western Ukraine forest non-wood products markets (specifically, mushrooms and berries). The non-wood forest products from these regions can be found at farmers markets in all major cities, which are the regional centers of Western Ukraine. In 2014, berries collected by the local populations were procured by intermediary parties and exported to Slovakia (region 1). In every region studied, 2 villages were surveyed. In region № 1 (“Roztochchia”) 60 interviews were randomly conducted in 60 households. In region № 2 (Transcarpathia) 50 interviews were conducted randomly and the in last region № 3 (Polissia), 40 interviews were conducted. Focus group surveys were held in each village as well.

2.3 Number of households

The number of households in each village is presented in table 1.

Table 1. Number of households Regions Name of the Code of villages Number of villages households

Roztochchia Seredkevychi 71 30 Smolyn 72 30 Transcarpathia Zahorb 73 30 Strychava 74 20 Polissia Kolodyazne 75 10 Bystrychi 76 30

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2.4 Timeline

1. Seredkevychi: 26.05.2014 - 05.08.2014 2. Smolyn: 16.06.2014 - 18.08.2014 3. Zahorb: 07.07.2014 - 12.08.2014 4. Strychava: 10.06.2014 - 14.06.2014 5. Kolodyazne: 14.08.2014 - 28.08.2014 6. Bystrychi: 04.07.2014 - 22.08.2014

2.5 Field implementation and problems

The implementation of the survey in the field was relatively seemless, with few impediments. One of the few problems that arose was that some individuals surveyed could not recall exact details. Because most people surveyed do not have an exact record of finances, only a select few knew the exact amount of profit they were receiving from their household activities. Due to these inaccuracies, the surveyors would help the individuals go through their finances to determine the exact amount. The average farmer in these villages typically does not count his farming expenses and often does not see the need to do so because growing vegetables and producing livestock products is difficult. Many poor farmers in the region traditionally use bio- agriculture and subsistence farming to grow their crops. This process is typically done on very small farms without using large amount of fertilizers, pecticides, herbicedes, insecticides, fungisedes or growth hormones for cattle.

2.6 Local unit conversion

Local unit conversion is shown in the table below. Table 2. Local unit conversion Local unit Conversion A bucket of berries 6 or 7kg A bucket of mushrooms 4 or 5kg A glass of peas 200g A cart load of manure 500kg A great trailer of manure 3500kg A small trailer of manure 600kg A cart load of hay 800kg A cart load of straw 400kg A meter of hay 100kg

3. Study area characteristics

3.1 Brief history of villages

SEREDKEVYCHI The village of Seredkevychi is settlement number 1 in our study. The first record of the village is a historical note about the local church that dates back to 1958ix. The village was called Ulytsko-Seredkevychi before the village adopted its present name, Seredkevychi in the 1950’s.

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References to Ulitsky-Seredkyvychi date back to 1830x. It is located in the territory of the Yavoriv district, in the Lviv region, in the western part of Ukraine. Its geographical coordinates are 500 09’ 17”N 230 32’ 51”E. The dominant landscape type in the area is plain. The hills are about 320-370 meters high with an average altitude of 316 meters. The area of Seredkevychi is 3,8 км2. There are many ravines and gullies. This territory is situated on a main European watershed. It is located in rural area, where agriculture is the main occupational activity, which is typical to the region. SMOLYN The village of Smolyn is community number 2 in our study. The village was founded in the 13th century. It is located in the territory of the Yavoriv district, in the Lviv region, in the western part of Ukraine. Its geographical coordinates are 500 09’ 18” N 230 27’ 45” E. The territory is covered mostly by plains. The hills are about 320-370 meters high with an average altitude is 316 meters. There are many ravines and gullies. The territory is within a main European watershed. It is located in a rural area, therefore agriculture is the main occupation (activity) for local population. The area of Smolyn is 2,43km2. If we compare plot sizes in Smolyn with Seredkevychi, the poorest segment of the population own the bigger farm plots (about 25-30% more than the wealthier segment) in the village of Smolyn. ZAHORB The village of Zahorb is rural settlement number 3 in our study. The village was founded in the 16th century. It is located in the territory of the Velykobereznianskyi district, in the Transcarpatian region, in the southwestern part of Ukraine. Its geographical coordinates are 49° 0′ 48″ N, 22° 39′ 46″ E. The landscape type in Zahorb is mountainous and is therefore categorized as a “mountainous village”. According to the Ukrainian law “On the status of mountain settlements in Ukraine”, inhabitants of these villages are given additional payments that are added to their pensions, scholarships, and salaries of its inhabitants from the state budget (these payments are called “mountain payments” and provide an additional 20%+ to inhabitants’ pensions, scholarships, and salaries). The average altitude in the village is 526 meters. Village area is 36,547 km2. Local people pick berries in the mountain forests near the village. Mt. Cheremkha (with a height of 1130 meters), part of the massif in the Ukrainian Carpathians neighbors the village. The village is 7km long. There are stark social contrasts in Zahorb, mostly caused by differences such as location. The wealthier part of the village is located near the railway line and in the valley, which was formed by the Uzh, the largest river in the region at 133km in length and a basin of 2750 km2. But higher up and closer to Mt.Cheremkha the households are poorer and the life of the villagers there is more difficult. Villagers in this part of the village collect blueberries more often. STRYCHAVA The village of Strychava is rural settlement number 4 in our study. The village was founded th in the 17 century. It is located in the territory of the Velykobereznianskyi district, in the Transcarpatian region, in the southwestern part of Ukraine. Its geographical coordinates are 48° 57′ 43″ N, 22° 29′ 29″ E. The type of territory is mountainous, however the “mountainious” status is not officially confirmed. The average altitude is 378 meters and the village area is 9,9 км2. Strychava is a small but picturesque village, and is located 3km up river from the river valley Oh (in Ukrainian called Uzh). KOLODIAZNE The village of Kolodiazne is rural settlement number 5 in our study. The village was founded in th early 15 century. It is located in the territory of the Bereznivskyi district, in the Rivne region, in the western part of Ukraine. Its geographical coordinates are 500 55’ 00” N 260 53’ 01”E. Its landscape is flat. The average altitude is 178 meters and the village area is 1,35 km2 . Kolodziane is situated in the

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agricultural region and therefore agriculture is the main occupation (activity) for the local population. BYSTRYCHI The village of Bystrychi is rural settlement number 6 in the study. The village was founded in the 17th century. It’s located in the territory of the Bereznivskyi district, in the Rivne region, in the western part of Ukraine. Its geographical coordinates are 500 52’ 56” N 260 54’ 21”E. The landscape is flat and swampy. The average altitude is 178 meters and the village area is 3,93 km2. Bystrychi is situated in the agricultural region, which is why farming is the main occupation (activity) in the village.

3.2 Demographics

Migration abroad was observed in each of studied villages. Many people migrate from regions 1 and 3 to Poland, Russia and other regions of Ukraine to find work. People who migrate from region 2 also go to the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary. The predominant work type abroad is: − seasonal agricultural – men and women; − construction – men; − service sector – women. The age structure of the population is presented in Table 3. Table 3 Age structure Seredkevychi Smolyn Zahorb Strychava Kolodiazne Bystrychi Age Quantity Age Quantity Age Quantity Age Quantity Age Quantity Age Quantity 0- 0-7 89 107 0-2 13 0-2 20 0-2 51 0-2 166 10 11- 7-9 32 126 3-5 17 3-5 12 3-5 96 3-5 161 19 10- 20- 51 193 6 6 6 2 6 19 6-7 121 14 34 15- 35- 43 196 7-9 12 7-9 12 7-9 46 8-9 110 17 54 18- 55- 10- 10- 10- 10- 30 30 30 12 63 215 19 59 14 14 14 14 60 20- 15- 15- 15- 15- 170 and 110 16 3 57 120 34 17 17 17 17 > 35- 18- 18- 18- 18- 220 16 10 68 84 54 19 19 19 19 55- 20- 20- 20- 20- 34 118 50 294 659 59 34 34 34 34 60 35- 35- 35- 35- and 84 154 65 278 699 54 59 54 54 > 60 55- 55- 55- 36 and 55 157 149 59 59 59 > 60 60 60 and 111 and 305 and 477 > > >

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The correlation between the amount of men and women, the amount of inhabitants and households in each village is given in the table below. Table 4 Gender specificity

Name of Gender composition Number of Number of village Women, % Men, % inhabitants households Seredkevychi 50,2 49,8 753 210 Smolyn 50,7 49,3 762 170 Zahorb 49,1 50,9 259 186* Strychava 47,3 52,7 241 68** Kolodiazne 51,04 48,96 1443 390 Bystrychi 51,5 48,5 2961 900 * While there are 186 households, 25 of them are empty (unoccupied). ** While there are 68 households, 16 of them are empty (unoccupied).

3.3 Infrastructure availability

There is electricity in all villages. Gas is only available in the region of Polissia. There is no available gas supply for heating in the two other regions. People use liquefied petroleum gas instead. On average, 1 or 2 cylinders of liquefied petroleum gas are used per household per year. Running water supply is only available in the village of Smolyn (region 1). There is no central water supply in the other two regions.

3.4 Economic data

The official level of unemployment according to the International Labour Organization (ILO) in Ukraine was 7.7 % (for rural populations, it was 8.1%) in 2013. In the Lviv region the figure was 7.5%, 8.2% in the Transcarpathian region and 10.3% in the Rivne region.xi According to official figures, individuals who own plots of land are considered employed. Thus, if we do not consider owners of these plots of land unemployed, the level of the unemployment is higher in the villages we examined. Income from agriculture is low therefore, people seek work in major cities or outside of Ukraine. The majority of the population work in their households or work temporarily abroad and in big cities of Ukraine. According to data from the Ministry of Social Policy of Ukrainexii in 2013, the poverty datum line in Ukraine was 24.7%. In Lviv region it was 28.9%, 20.6% in Transcarpathian region and 49.1% in the Rivne region.

3.5 Major economic activities

The core economic activity is work done in households. After the disbanding of co-operative farms following the fall of the USSR, local authorities proportionally distributed parcels of land (shares) among the members of these cooperative farms. Now most people working on their own plots of land. These plots are used mostly to: • produce hay for cows and horses; • grow potatoes and other vegetables; • produce wheat and oat.

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People cultivate wheat, potatoes, carrots, beets. They are also engaged in cattle breeding (cows, pigs and hens). Agriculture is more developed in the plain regions (“Roztochchia and Polissia”), in mountainous regions like “Transcarpathia,” agriculture is underdeveloped, because of terrain conditions and low fertility. All three regions have high forest cover so picking mushrooms, berries and other resources in the forest is a common practice in these villages. Residents collect these resources both for sale and subsistence needs. In regions No.2 and No.3 there are the collection points for bilberries. For some people in these villages, non-wood forest resources are a very significant source of income. The manufacturing industry is not concentrated in the regions studied. There are only a few places to work in the studied villages. Therefore, a significant part of rural population goes abroad or move to the major cities in Ukraine to earn an income. The number of positions available in the villages is as follows: Seredkevychi: school – 35, the local authority the village council – 4, the heath post – 2, several shops – 5. Some people work in the forestry sector (generally about 50 positions); Smolyn: school – 36, the local authority the village council – 4, the heath post – 2, various shops – 4, village club – 1, library – 1. Some people (3 men) work in the forestry and 10 men work on the farm (generally close to 60 total); Zahorb: school – 4, the local authority self-governing Council – 5, the health post – 2, shops – 3, the village club – 1, the library – 1 (generally about 20); Strychava: school – 18, the local authority self-governing Council – 5, the health post – 5, shops – 2. (generally about 60); Kolodiazne: school – 40, shops – 6, the sawmill – 20 (generally about 66); Bystrychi: Secondary Educational Complex "School I – III levels –preschool educational institution" – 90, the local authority self-governing Council – 8, the post office – 4, the rural library – 1, the rural clinic – 10, the House of Culture – 2; Bystrytskyi forestry – 65, 5 shops – 9, 3 cafes – 9 (generally about 194).

3.6 Seasonal calendar

Based on individual observations and respondent feedback a seasonal calendar was generated showing the activities by month of the local population. Table 5 Seasonal calendar Month Activity Forest: birch sap harvest. March Agr.: ploughing and fertilizing (manuring) the ground. April-May Agr. planting: potatoes, beets, carrots, onions, garlic, beans, etc. May-June Agr.: weeding in the plots Forest: collecting blueberries - late June (if the blueberries grow higher in the mountains, they ripe later), wild strawberries, raspberries, collecting the first June mushrooms. Agr.: making the hay, which is mowed and dried the whole summer. Forest: gathering blueberries, blackberries, raspberries and mushrooms. July Agr.: Harvest hay Forest: gathering blackberries, mushrooms and cranberries August Agr.: Harvest hay. Start collecting potatoes. September- Forest: Collecting mushrooms, cranberries October Agr.: Collection of potatoes, beets, carrots, beans, apples, pears and so on. October- Forest: gathering mushrooms. November December- Forest: sale of dried mushrooms January

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3.7 Major markets and market access

Region 1: Rava-Ruska is the nearest market (for all products: agricultural, forest, livestock) and is located19 km away from Seredkevychi and 17 km from Smolyn. The fare for a round trip to the market is approximately 2 US dollars. The most popular market is in Novoyavorivsk. The distance to this market is 37 km from Seredkevychi and 33 km from Smolyn. The population in Novoyavorivsk is about 30 thousand people. The fare for a round trip is nearly 3 US dollars for both villages. Residents use the market in Yavoriv as well (Yavoriv is the district centre, with a population of 13 thousand people), 30 km from Seredkevychi and 26 km from Smolyn. The forest products are mostly sold in Novoyavorivsk and in Lviv. Although these locations are far away from the villages, it is a target market, with a population of over 700 thousand people). But these products are also sold in Yavoriv and less often sold in Rava-Ruska (a small town where the market operates only once a week). There is no procurement center to collect mushrooms and berries in the village. Region 2: The nearest market for all products (agricultural, livestock, and forest) is in the centre of the district in Velykyi Bereznyi. Velykyi Bereznyi has a population of 7 thousand people. It is 27km from Zahorb and 8km from Strychava. The fare for a round trip to the centre is 2.5 US dollars for Zahorb and 0.25 US dollars for Smolyn inhabitants. Another big market is in the regional center of Uzhgorod. The distance to Uzhgorod is 68 km from Zahorb and 50 km from Strychava. The population of Uzhgorod is over 115 thousand people. The fare of the round trip is 5 US dollars from Zahorb and 1.25 US dollars from Strychava. The distance to the nearest train station and bus stop is 4km on foot from Zahorb and 3 km from Strychava. The sale of forest products is also done directly in the village through procurement centers. According to the responses of the local people, they have already gathered and sold about 2 tons of various forest products this year (2014). The residents sometimes sell blueberries and cranberries on the border to Slovakia where they can sell the products for a higher price. The inhabitants also go to Velykyi Bereznyi and to Uzhhorod to sell their collected berries and mushrooms. Region 3: The market for agricultural and forest products (the nearest and the most popular among the poorest sector of the population) is in the center of the district, Berezne which is 15km from Kolodziane and 18km from Bystrychi. The fare of the round trip is 1.20 US dollars and 1.70 US dollars, respectively. Residents use the market in the city of Rivne as well. Rivne is the regional center and is located 77 km from Kolodziane and 80 km from Bystrychi. The fare for a round trip is 4.80 US dollars and 5.30 US dollars respectively. Residents use the market in Kostopil as well. Kostopil is 52 km far from Kolodziane. Forest products are the most frequently sold products at the markets in Berezne (its population over 13 thousand people) and in Rivne (population near 250 thousand people). They are rarely sold in the bigger villages of this district (because the market operates only once a week here).

3.8 Major land cover and land uses

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Region 1: There are forests and fields near both villages. The forest cover is 28.5% in the region. Deciduous forests (beech, oak, hornbeam), coniferous (pine) and mixed forests (beech and pine) are dominant in this region. Fields are used intensively for hay and crop production (40% for hay, 23% for potatoes, 21% for cereal crops, and 16% for others). Large areas of fields that border Seredkevychi are currently not used for agricultural production. The forest cover is restoring itself more and more and there are a lot of wild strawberries available, which is an important source of income for local people. The owners of the agricultural land are the local inhabitants (the typical size of a plot is 1.75 hectares in Seredkevychi and 2.5 hectares in Smolyn). There are 100 hectares of open land in Seredkevychi. This land is partly used as pasture and could be transferred to the poor residents for farmland. There are no large farms in the area that are interested in leasing this land because either there is not enough land for the plot to be productive or the villagers are hesitant to let any “strangers” cultivate it. In the village of Smolyn there are large farms that lease farmland to the poorer residents. Each household in the village has a plot of land. If villagers do not want to cultivate the land themselves, they can rent it out. There there a large-scale farm in the village that uses the land owned by other villagers and rents it. The forested land is owned by the Regional Landscape Park, “Ravske Roztochchia.” Forested area covers 19,103 hectares and is considered protected area under category V according to IUCN. The forestry enterprise “SE Rava-Ruska forestry” manages these forests and related activities including harvesting operations. The residents are not authorized to harvest timber for fuel. This activity is considerd illegal logging and is punishable by law. Despite the illegality however, harvesting still takes place. Region 2: The surrounding area is mostly covered by forest (forest coverage in the Transcarpathian region) is 51.4%. This forest tree species include beech, fir-beech, fir-spruce, fir, beech sycamore, and hornbeam beech forests. There is a large agricultural area in the region as well. A part of this agricultural land is unused. Collective farms that existed before the fall of the Soviet Union have been disbanded and are now only partially regulated. Local inhabitants own the agricultural land (the typical size of a plot of land in the villages is 1.14 ha) and other land is used to make hay, graze cattle and restore the forest. Local farmers harvest wood from the recently restored forest on the abandoned agricultural land. Open land near the villages is subject to allotment and is partly used as pasture for cattle. Forested land is owned by: • Uzhansky NPP, category V according to IUCN. It is a protected natural area. • Forest Enterprise "SE Velyky Bereznyy Forestry" – forestry enterprise that oversees all forestry management operations, including wood harvesting; • Enterprise Agrolis -forestry enterprise that performs all forestry management operations, including wood harvesting; The population is unauthorized to cut timber. As an illegal activity, it is considered a crime punishable by law. However, despite the illegalities, inhabitants sometimes cut trees for their households needs (construction, fuel etc.). Region 3: In the Polissia region, forests are the dominant land use type (forest cover is 36.4%). Agricultural land use is common as well. Coniferous forest (pine) and mixed coniferous-deciduous (oak-pine) forests dominate the landscape. The local inhabitants own the agricultural land (the typical size of a plot of land in the village is 1.93 ha in Kolodyazne and 2.15 ha in Bystrychi). A small part of agricultural land currently is not being used. Some of this land is abandoned agricultural land and some has been afforested. Currently there are no large farms that would like to lease these lands. This may be due to the low productivity and profitability of the land and the threat of soil

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depletion (international companies with agricultural holdings often grow industrial bioenergy crops that deplete the soil, e.g., rapeseed). The forested land is owned by a unit of the Bystrytsky Forestry Enterprise called "Sosnivskyi forestry." The residents are not authorized to cut the trees. In the case that such a case is registered, the residents must pay a fine, according to the law.

3.9 Description of conservation areas

Region 1: Smolyn and Seredkevychi are located near the protected area zone. The protected area in this territory is known as the Regional Landscape Park “Ravske Roztochchia” and is considered a category V protected landscape by the IUCN. Its area is 19103 hectares. It extends over 30 km from east to west with a maximum width of approximately 10 km. The area was established as a protected area in 2007. The main reason for the establishment of the protected area was to preserve the pine, beech, unique pine-oak-beech natural forests, the meadow and the areas that are characteristic of this region. The park “Ravske Roztochchia” is also a part of the international Ukrainian-Polish biosphere reserve “Roztochchia”, which was created to preserve valuable natural historical and cultural complexes and objects. Limitations: fuelwood can only be collected in designated areas and cutting the trees is prohibited. People are permitted to collect mushrooms and berries in this area. Region 2: The protected area near the villages of Zahorb and Strychava, Uzhansky National Park was established in September 1999 to protect the areas of the upper basin of the river Uzh. This area is a protected area under IUCN category IIxiii. Uzhansky NNP currently covers 39159 hectares of land. The park is the part of the International Polish-Slovak-Ukrainian Biosphere Reserve "Eastern Carpathians".

Limitations: fuelwood can only be collected in designated areas and cutting down the trees is prohibited. The level of access to the national park depends on the zones. National park consists of 4 zones: • the strictly protected (core) zone - the access to the territory is forbidden; • controlled recreation zone – access is only permitted on designated paths; • stationary recreation zone – hiking and camping on the territory is permitted; • economic zone - picking mushrooms, berries, medicinal plants, collecting hay is permitted; People gather mushrooms and berries where it is permitted. Region 3: There are no protected areas in the neighbouring territory. The nearest protected area is the Nadsluchanskyy regional landscape park in category IUCN V. Its area is 17211 hectares. This park is located in the valley of the Sluch River. It was established in 2000. The Hubkivskyy castle a historical monument lies within the territory of the park. People from the villages of Kolodiazne and Bystrychi do not collect any non-wood forest products from this area.

3.10 Tenure and governance

Land use in Ukraine is subject to the legal constraints, depending on the land category. The specifities of forested land use are laid out in the Forest Code of Ukraine (2006) under the lands of

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agricultural designation usage in the Land Code (2006). The Ministry of Agrarian Policy and Food of Ukraine (http://minagro.gov.ua/) is the regulatory body that develops and implements national forest land use and agricultural land use policy. Forested and land designated for agricultural use are under the purview of this Ministry. The State Agency of Forest Resources of Ukraine is in charge of forested land. The State Agency of Land Resources is in charge of lands designated for agricultural use. Protected areas are under the authority of the Ministry of Ecology and Natural Resources of Ukraine, which controls the environmental protection legislation process. In all three regions the local rural population owns their plots of land on which they can cultivate any crops. They are not allowed to sell their plots, change the designated use of the land (plant forest trees) or pollute the soil. In the case that these rules are violated there will be a warning or a fine, and, in some cases, people who violate these rules will bear criminal responsibility. Residents are not authorized to harvest timber from the forest. They may access the forest to collect boughs that do not exceed a 3 cm diameter. They are allowed to collect non-wood products such as mushrooms and berries without any preliminary permits except for industrial procuring provisions, which requires a permit. Access restriction to protected areas depends on the level of protection assigned to the plot . Within the protected area in region 1 (category 5 according to International Union for Conservation of Nature), there are no restrictions on the collection of mushrooms and berries. Within region 2, the protected area of “Uzhanskyi National Nature Park,” there is a higher degree of protection (although the collection of berries and mushrooms is allowed in the economic zone as in any ordinary commercial forest). Access is only restricted in the protected area, but the local population does not use these areas to collect forest products anyways because they are hard-to-reach areas where mushrooms and berries do not grow.

3.11 Government and other development/conservation projects

The Ministry of Ecology and Natural Resources of Ukraine implement conservation projects through state (national) and regional programs. The priorities of these projects are based on the Law of Ukraine “On the main foundations (strategy) of the state environmental policy of Ukraine for the period until 2020” which was ratified by the Ukrainian Parliament in Dec 21, 2010, N 2818-VIxiv and Government decision from May 25, 2011, N 577-р “On approval of the National Plan of Activities on natural environment protection for 2011-2015”xv. Programs include the National Program on River Dnipro Rehabilitation in the period until 2021, State Program for National Ecological Network Formation 2000-2015, activities in the framework of the Carpathian Convention in 2014: development of the documents for the Fourth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties: preparation for the signing of the Protocol on sustainable transport to the Carpathian Convention, the approval of the Strategic Action Plan for the implementation of the Protocol on Sustainable Forest Management should be mentioned. Many conservation projects are implemented by international and national, and also regional or even local NGOs. For example a regional project, which aims to prepare the Danube Delta for possible impacts of climate change was launched by the WWF in March 2011. The three-year project “Climate proofing the Danube Delta through integrated land and water management” involves Ukraine, and . The project was implemented with the support of the International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River (ICPDR). The WWF Project “Climate Forum East” aims to build the capacity of civil society to engage in the policy-making process and contribute to the political agenda on environmental governance and climate change. Launched in January 2013, the Climate Forum East unites six countries - Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Moldova and Ukraine. Each country will establish and reinforce existing national

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networks of civil society organizations. These networks will develop national climate vulnerability assessments, identify the most vulnerable sectors and groups in each country and suggest concrete recommendations for decision-makers and civil society to address adaptation gaps.xvi The majority of the projects implemented by Ukrainian NGOs are aimed more at environmental education, engaging in efforts to prevent climate change and its negative impacts, energy efficiency strategies, waste management strategies and improving environmental laws. Not many projects are aimed at the implementation of practical solutions to landscape and biodiversity conservation of specific areas. Many of the development projects implemented by international organizations in Ukraine (UNDP, CIDA, USAID, SIDA and other agencies, foundations) strengthen local governance and the capacities of the rural population. Not many of them are oriented directly toward the forest sector. One of the recent projects is a project supported by FAO titled “Consolidation of forest policy in Ukraine”xvii lead by the Forest Resource Agency of Ukraine. The project started in October 2013 and aims to improve dialogue between various stakeholders to discuss issues of forests and forestry in Ukraine and the development of a conceptual roadmap for the forestry sector in Ukraine.

3.12 Calamities

In the spring of 2013, a hailstorm destroyed the cereal crops in Region 1. In 1995, the agricultural land in all regions was divided (fragmented) into smaller plots.

3.13 Other relevant issues

Based on the results of the study (individual observations, responses in the focus group), the following observations were made: Seredkevychi This is an agricultural region. Most households have horses. In other regions there are less horses per household. The majority of the income gained from the forest comes from the sale of wild strawberries. The quantity by volume of wild strawberries collected is fewer than the amount of blueberries residents collect but because strawberries can be sold for a higher price– the lowest price is $3.8 and the highest price is 6$ per liter, strawberries bring in a larger revenue. The people there gather more wild strawberries than any other village of the district. They pick them in the areas surrounding the village, on agricultural plots that are not in use. It is common for children in the region to sell wild strawberries on the main highway in the district. The scale of blueberry collection is similar to that of the rest of the Yavoriv district. Blueberries are harvested in the forests near the village and sometimes people drive to Richky (a village that is 25 km away from Seredkevychi, near Rava-Ruska) to collect blueberries. Firewood is not included in people’s income. It is instead considered an expense among the population. In general, villagers do not have the right to harvest firewood in the forest. But there have been cases when local people working in temporary positions within the forestry sector (eg, planting or cultivating trees) don’t receive their salary in cash but receive wood as payment instead. Of course these transactions are done informally (and illegally) and people are hesitant to talk about it. The territory of the Yavorivskyi Military Training Center, which is not far from Seredkevychi, was a popular place for residents to gather mushrooms. But the Center is also a military testing site. Since 2014, in connection with the Russian aggression in the Eastern Ukraine, regular military trainin operations have being conducted continuously there and consequently, entry into the forests of the Yavorivskyi Military Training Center was practically fully prohibited, and thus, residents from Seredkevychi were unable to collect mushrooms.

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Smolyn This is an agricultural region as well. Farmers living here mainly grow potatoes and cereal crops. The highest income the people receive from the forest comes from the sale of blueberries. The scale of blueberry collection is typical for the region. Blueberries are harvested in the forest near the village or in the village of Richky (which is 25 km far from Smolyn, near the town of Rava- Ruska). The villagers of Smolyn gather relatively large quantities of blackberries. There is a collection point in Smolyn where people sell their blackberries and receive $ 0.50 per kg. This year, they collected 400 kg of blackberries from the residents. The inhabitants of Smolyn gather mushrooms as well. The villagers gather mushrooms in Yavorivskyi, which is 8 km from Smolyn. But entry to Yavorivskyi is prohibited due to reasons mentioned above. Zahorb This is mountainous region. A paved road leads to the village, where there is the traffic during the all year. But the paved road ends in the middle of the village and the rest of the road is unpaved. Due to these conditions, it is virtually impossible to drive there in rainy weather. Many houses (about 25) in the village are abandoned. About 15 of the households receive regular vists of relatives or children. This village is largely dependent on the forest (especially on the collection of berries: blueberries, small amount of cranberries, blackberries, and strawberries). The blueberries are the most important product in the woods. Because these products are so valuable, there is a procurement centre in this village. According to regulations, people can gather blueberries on Mt. Cheremkha and collect them using special tools. People can gather up to 40 liters per day, but they usually gather about 20 to 30 liters. On top of Mt. Cheremkha there is a 10 hectare field of blueberries. The difficulty with blueberry collection however is not the collection itself, but rather the act of transporting them to the village. This territory is not rich with mushrooms. The villagers mainly collect and use mushrooms mainly for subsistence needs and often gather mushrooms in other areas. Firewood. There is no gas pipeline in the village. So wood is the main source of fuel. People buy firewood. Firewood is not part of their income, but is part of their expenses. The price of the firewood varies: 1m3 of unchopped firewood that is not transported to the lumberyard costs $5 1m3 of firewood that is chopped and brought to the lumberyard costs $20. In some cases, firewood is taken from villagers’ uncultivated fields. In these cases the firewood is included in income. Water. There is no running water in the village. The villagers get water from wells, and some residents make water catchment systems that run down from the forest to their homes. The main agricultural product is potatoes. The villagers use potatoes for their subsistence needs: consumption, feeding their animals, and for sale (this is rare and only done if there are extra potatoes that can be exchanged for mixed fodder). They also feed potatoes to pigs, because they cannot cultivate most cereal crops (due to the unsuitable climate). They cannot grow corn either because wild boars will destroy the crops. Many villagers complain that often a third of the land where the potatoes are planted is dug out (often by wild boars). To protect their crops, people often keep their dogs near their fields overnight. Other crops include: carrots, red beets, beans, onions, cucumbers, some tomatoes, and corn (there is not always enough to last for the whole year, so villages may buy more). Villagers cultivate oats as well and the crop is mowed for hay. In the village there is only the primary school, where the director has the intention to create a museum of folk life in order to preserve the culture and traditions of previous generations. During the study period, we were shown the material that has been collected for the future museum. On the top of Mt. Cheremkha there is a military cemetery dating back to . Mt. Cheremkha is the site of many battles in the First World War. Long trenches across the top of the mountain are still clearly visible. According to researchersxviii 654 soldiers are buried here. The cemetery consists of 19 war graves (12 individual and 6 mass graves). The names of 13 Austro-

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Hungarian soldiers buried here are known. The military cemetery was likely founded in 1916-1917. There are four rows of tombs. On either side of the front row, there are six individual graves. There are also two mass graves. This cemetery has been kept in a good condition, but it was likely destroyed in the 1950’s during the construction of a former Soviet Union state border strip. Strychava The village is largely dependent on forest resources. These villagers mostly pick blackberries, blueberries and wild strawberries. For gathering blueberries the peasants must go to the region called Black Mlaky and to Mt. Stinka, which is 9km far away from the village. Because of the effort it requires to reach these places, those who have time and are in good health gather blueberries. Blueberries grow at altitudes of 60-700 m. They can be found partly on the Ukrainian, and partly on the Slovakian sides. There are organized groups of blueberry collectors that have permission from border guards to collect blueberries at the border zone, or “out the strip”, as the locals say. Villagers mostly sell mushrooms and blackberries. There are a lot of blackberries around the village and when there is a good harvest the collection center is open in the village. The situation with firewood, water and agriculture in Strychava is the same as it is in Zahorb. Kolodyazne and Bystrychi This is an agricultural region. Most households have horses and cows. Residents receive the highest income from the forest from the sale of blueberries. The scale of gathering the blueberries is typical for this district. The villagers harvest blueberries in the woods near the village. The inhabitants of Kolodziane do not need firewood as much as residents in other villages, because the village has access to a gas supply.

4. Results and discussion

4.1 Income share by source

The income structure of local inhabitants in the three study regions (Roztochchia, Transcarpathia and Polissia) is shown on the figure below. Region 1 - "Roztochchia": Income by source

35,80 %

19,90 % Oth_inc 5,94 % Wage_inc

32,57 % Biz_inc Anim_inc -13,19 % Net_Liv_Inc 14,53 % Net_Agr_Inc

4,45 % For_inc

Percent, %

Figure 3. Income shares by source – Roztochchia.

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Region 2 - "Transcarpathia": Income Region 3 - "Polissia": Income by by source source

31,9 % 42,3 % 27,1 % 31,9 % 2,3 % 24,4 % -14,8 % 40,2 % -13,7 % 10,4 % 8,3 % 5,2 % 4,5 %

Percent, % Persent, %

Oth_inc Wage_inc Oth_inc Wage_inc Biz_inc Anim_inc Biz_inc Anim_inc

Figure 4. Income shares by source – Figure 5. Income shares by source – Transcarpathia. Polissia.

As seen from the graphs, income by source is similar for all regions.

Income by source, %

36,1 %

25,2 %

3,2 %

32,9 %

-13,8 %

11,7 %

4,7 %

Figure 6. Income shares by source – all regions.

Figure 6 shows income shares by source in the three studied regions. 36% of income comes from “other income”, which consists mainly of pensions (56%), support from government (33%) (scholarships for students, maternity support and support to families with more than two children) and remittances that are sent by relatives from outside of Ukraine to the household (10%).

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Animal income (33%) is the next important source of income, which comes mainly from meat (29%), cottage cheese (21%), sour cream (19%), milk (11%) and eggs (9%). The third most important source of income is wage income (25%). Many people who live in these regions and cannot find employment locally work abroad on seasonal jobs or in the construction and service industries (in Poland, Russia, Czech Republic, etc.) and bring home 50% of wage income. The most common types of work in these communities are teacher (10%) and salesperson (7%). The next is agricultural income (12%), coming mostly from potatoes (64%), apples (7%), wheat (6%), beans (5%), carrots (3%), red beets (2%), cucumbers (2%), and strawberries (2%). Forest income (5%) is the next important source, which includes blueberries (43%), mushrooms (28%), wild strawberries (10%), tree branches (4%), blackberries (4%), firewood (2%) and others. Income from business is 3% - mostly coming from trade (71%) and carpentry (12%). Net livestock income is highly negative. This is because households that own livestock receive only a small percentage of cash income from it. Who is the recipient of each income source? Other income: senior citizens receive pensions, students receive scholarships and women receive assistance from the state for children (there are many large families in villages). Animal income: senior citizens, youth, children, men and women – everyone who can work and does not have any other employment. Wage income: more women than men are employed in the country as teachers, and salespeople. Work abroad is more common for men (seasonal and in the construction industry). Women work abroad less frequently and mainly in the service sector. Agricultural income: everyone who can do the work and is free from studying or from another job (senior citizens, youth, children, men and women). Men do the work that requires hard physical labor (e.g. ploughing) and women carry out the less demanding work (e.g. plant growing). Forest income: berries are collected mostly by women and children and mushrooms are collected mostly by men. Tree branches and firewood are collected mostly by men. Several families have income from businesses they run (mainly trade business and carpentry).

4.2 Frequency and value of forest products

Region 1: Circle diagram in the picture 7 shows the share of income each forest product makes up in the general forest income. The percentage of the populations that gather each forest product (most common forest product by frequency) is shown in the figure 8.

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Region 1 Region 1 Most common forest product by Series1, Most common forest product by value, % Medicinal frequency, % Series1, Series1, Series1, plants, 14, Firewood, Tree Other, 5% 3, 1% branches, 4361.5233, 19, 6% 6% Series1, Series1, Series1, Mushroom Wicker Mushroom s, 97, 33% broom, 21, s, 17905.9, 7% Series1, 25% Series1, Birch juice, Blueberry, 9, 3% 31076.0, Series1, Series1, 43% Raspberry, Wild Series1, 14, 5% Strawberry Series1, Wild Series1, Series1, , 14729.5, Blackberry, Strawberry Blackberry, Blueberry, 20% 4205.1, 6% , 39, 13% 43, 15% 37, 12% Figure 7. Most common forest product by value in Figure 8. Most common forest product by frequency in Roztochchia, % Roztochchia, %

The most common forest product in Region 1 is blueberries (43%). Villagers collect them for sale and for consumption (to make jam, freeze for future use, drying in small quantities, in baking and consuming raw in summer) and also as gifts for friends and relatives in cities. Blueberries from this region are traditionally the most expensive. This is due to two reasons: 1) the berries are clean (no leaves) and are not crushed (because they are collected by hand and not with the use of special tools, as in the other two regions); 2) the berries are organic, so they are in great demand. Mostly women and older children pick them. Mushrooms (25%) occupy the second place. They are collected for sale, household consumption (to prepare mushroom dishes and dry and can for the winter) and also as gifts. Mushroom dishes are part of the national cuisine and are very popular during Lent. Collecting mushrooms is very popular in Ukraine. City residents often go to the woods during the mushroom- picking season as a type of a recreational activity. Mushrooms are collected by both adults and children however men often enjoy collecting mushrooms more than collecting berries. The third common forest product is wild strawberries (20%). These are the most valuable and expensive forest berries in all regions. Wild strawberries are approximately twice as expensive as blueberries. The market price for strawberries is nearly 50-60 UAH per liter. The price for blueberries is from 18-20 UAH to 30 UAH per liter. Collecting strawberries is as difficult as collecting blueberries. But they are more expensive because strawberries contain more vitamins and are more delicious. There are more blueberries than strawberries (the supply of strawberries is always less than blueberries). Wild strawberries are mostly harvested in the village of Seredkevychi on undivided agricultural land (subject to allotment) and in deforested areas. Villagers also dig up wild strawberry plants in the forest and transplant them into their gardens. Wild strawberries are collected for sale, for household consumption (raw and for making jam) and as gifts. Similarly to blueberries, this product is mainly collected by women and older children. Children often sell wild strawberries along major highways of the district. The next important forest product is blackberry (6%). Blackberries are collected for sale, household consumption (to make jam, marmalade, and wine) and as gifts. They are collected only in one place in Region 1 (the village of Smolyn). Most of the collection is done by women and older

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children but they are collected by others as well. The other products are tree branches and young trees stems (2%) which are widely used for making supports for bean crops, raspberries (1.6%) used for eating and making jam, wicker (0.8%) traditionally used to make brooms for house cleaning, birch juice (0.6%) used for household consumption, medicinal plants (0.5%) used for preparing teas, and firewood (0.5%) used for heating. In Roztochchia most people pick mushrooms – 33% of respondents: 15% of them pick blueberries, 13% pick wild strawberries, many people also pick blackberries (12%). Other products like raspberries, birch sap, wood to make bundle brooms and tree branches are picked more seldom.

Region 2: The most common forest products by value (Figure 9) and frequency of collection (Figure 10) are shown below.

Region 2 Region 2 Series1, Most common forest product by value, % Most common forest product by Tree Series1, frequency, %Series1, Series1, branches, Firewood, Red Firewood, 16.0, 6% Series1, 1940.1, 3% bilberry, 10.0, 4% Series1, Wild Other, 12.0, 5% Series1, Series1, 6560.6, Tree Strawberry Other , Red 11% branches, 6% 9.0, 3% bilberry, 6932.0, Series1, Series1, 1998.2, 3% 11% Blackberry Blackberry , 33.0, , 2380.2, 13% 4% Series1, Series1, Series1, Blueberry, Mushroo Mushroom 37.0, 14% ms, 70.0, s, 15011.6, 27% Series1, 25% Blueberry, 25874.2, 43% Series1, Raspberry Series1, Series1, Series1, , 14.0, 5% Medicinal Birch Wicker plants, juice, broom, 12.0, 5% 18.0, 7% 14.0, 5%

Figure 9. Most common forest product by value in Figure 10. Most common forest product by Transcarpathia, % frequency in Transcarpathia, %

The most common forest product in this region is blueberries (43%). Blueberries are collected for sale and for consumption (to make jam, to freeze for future use, to dry in small quantities, for baking, and for consumption in the summer) and also as gifts. Women and older children are the main collectors. There are many collection points in the region. There are regions in the Ukrainian Carpathians where blueberries are harvested in large quantities.

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Mushrooms are the second (25%) most common forest product in Transcarpathia. In most cases this is boletus edulis (porcini). As in Region 1, mushrooms are collected for sale, household consumption (to prepare mushroom dishes, to dry and freeze for winter) and also as gifts. This is a very popular forest product throughout all of the Ukrainian Carpathians. For some families mushrooms are the most important source of income. Mostly men collect them. The next most common product is tree branches (11%). They are used as supports for bean crops and to make Christmas trees and Christmas decorations as shown below.

Figure 11. Support for beans (Phaseolus) Figure 12. Christmas tree made from branches Blackberries (4%) occupy the fourth place. Blackberries are collected for sale and for consumption (to make jam, freezing for future use, drying in small quantities, in baking, and consuming in summer) and also as gifts. Women and children are the main collectors. Red bilberries are also collected in Region 2. They account for 3% of forest income. This plant does not grow in Region 1 (only in Regions 2 and 3). The main use of these berries is household consumption (making jam, fruit drinks and baking) and for sale. The next product is firewood (4%). Firewood is used only for household consumption (for heating and cooking). Men are the main collectors of this product. Other products include wild strawberries (2%), reindeer lichen (2%), Christmas trees (1.8 %), birch juice (1.4%), wicker for brooms (1.1%), nuts (1.4%), raspberry (0.9%) and medicinal plants (0.3%). Out of all the regions, mushrooms and blueberries are gathered the most often in Transcarpathia. Blackberries are the third most collected forest product in Transcarpathia.

Region 3: The most common forest products by value and frequency of collection are shown in Figures 13 and 14.

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Region 3 Region 3 Most common forest product by value, % Most common forest product by frеquenсy, Series1, Wild Wild % Series1, Series1, Strawberry Series1, Other , boar, Series1, Red Other, 4% 20.0, 9% 1069.893, Cranberry bilberry, 4246.316 2% , 1235.7, 5.0, 2% 4, 10% 3% Series1, Series1, Blackberry, Nuts, 5.0, 15.0, 7% 2%

Series1, Blueberry, Series1, 32.0, 15% Series1, Series1, Mushroom Series1, Mushroo Blueberry s, 81.0, ms, Cranberry, , 17450.5, 10.0, 4% 37% 15872.80 42% 8, 38% Series1, Series1, Wild Series1, Raspberry, Red strawberr Series1, Series1, 13.0, 6% Wicker Medicinal bilberry, y, 1131.5, broom, plants, 13, 882.6, 2% 3% 17.0, 8% 6% Figure 13. Most common forest product by Figure 14. Most common forest product by value in Polissia, % frequency in Polissia, %

The most common forest product in Polissya is blueberries (42%). Blueberries are collected for sale and for consumption (to make jam, freezing for future use, drying in small quantities, in baking, and to consume raw in the summer) and also as gifts. Women and older children are the main collectors of this product. There are many collection points in the region. The price of blueberries in this region is the lowest in comparison with the other two regions. This is for two reasons: 1) The berries are mainly collected by special tools, thus, their quality is low; 2) There is low demand due to the risk that the berries may have been collected in a contaminated area (as a result of the Chernobyl disaster). Mushrooms are the second (37%) most common forest product. Similarly to the other regions, mushrooms are collected for sale, household consumption (to prepare mushroom dishes and to dry and can for the winter) and also to be given as gifts. Men are the main collectors. The other kinds of berries found in the region include cranberries (3%), which only grow in this region because of the presence of bogs where cranberries can grow, wild strawberries (3%), and red bilberries (2%). All berries are used for household consumption and for sale. The next forest product in this region is . Hunting is not common in Ukraine. Only in rare cases did people report an income from hunting and typically these people are forestry workers. This activity makes up a significant share of income because prices for wild boar are high. Other common forest products in the region include blackberries (1.6%), firewood (1.5%), raspberries (1.2%), wicker for brooms (1.1%), medical plants (1%), hare (0.7%), nuts (0.6%), sorbus berries (0,6%), pine cones (0.6%), birch juice from birch trees (0,5%), etc. As for the frequency of gathering the products most often collected are mushrooms (37%) and bilberries (15%).

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4.3 Fuelwood

Region 1 (Roztochchia) and Region 2 (Transcarpathia) lack a gas supply. In the Carpathians, many villages lack a supply of natural gas. In Region 3 – Polissia – a gas supply was provided after the Chernobyl accident. However, people are being to use fuelwood in addition to gas more frequently in this region due to the high price of gas. The use of gas will gradually decline in the future as a result of the steady increase in prices and the conflict with Russia. In the communities where there is no gas heating, people use fuelwood for heating and cooking, because they have no alternatives (coal and liquefied natural gas are very expensive). Residents sometimes use liquefied natural gas for cooking in the summer, but this accounts for a very small percent of liquefied natural gas use. Fuelwood is an essential product for survival. The figure below shows the percentage of the total income each village spends on fuelwood.

The share of the costs of fuelwood in total income, % fuelwood, Strychava (Region 2), 4.9% fuelwood, fuelwood, Zahorb Seredkevychi (Region (Region 2), 3.9% 1), 3.2% fuelwood, Smolyn (Region 1), 3.1% fuelwood, Kolodyazne (Region 3), 1.9% fuelwood, Bystrychi (Region 3), 1.6%

Figure 15. The share of the cost of fuelwood in total income, %

In most cases, we did not include firewood in forest income because residents must pay for firewood and are not permitted to collect wood from the forest as they do with mushrooms and berries. Therefore, this is a cost for them rather than a source of income. Only branches that are 3 cm or under in diameter are free and may be collected. The villagers, of course, steal firewood, but they were hesitant to talk about this. According to experts (forestry enterprise employees), 10-15% of villagers steal firewood from the forest. However, those who do steal firewood have an agreement with the foresters whom they pay (less than the official price) for the wood. Foresters are responsible for their territory and are responsible for protecting the area from theft. However, if they can derive income from the theft, they will help villagers steal. Inspection authorities fine foresters if they discover tree stumps - evidence that trees had been chopped illegally. Because of this, foresters employ different tactics to cover up the theft. For example, in pine forests, foresters dig out the tops of stumps and cover the spots with soil. We include firewood in forest income in the following cases: 1) Fuelwood that people harvest on their own, uncultivated agricultural land

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2) When people work in forest enterprises and receive fuelwood as payment. (This is also illegal, thus villagers talked about these transactions reluctantly. Rules about harvesting. A person can buy firewood from forestry enterprises or from a (firewood remaining from sanitation cuttings only). The official procedure is as follows: to purchase firewood, one must apply for an invoice through the forestry unit, which is then paid off at a bank. After that, you must bring the receipt of payment from the bank to the forestry unit, which then provides the firewood. There are different prices for firewood: • From 60 UAH per m3 (67 UAH per m3 as of 1.10.2014) in the mountain region to 130 UAH per m3 (160 UAH per m3 as of 1.10.2014) on the plain. This price is for trees that have been felled and sold directly at the location where they are harvested in the forest (FRANCO forestxix). There will be additional costs associated with cutting the wood into smaller pieces, loading it on a truck and transporting it home. • From 180 UAH per m3 on the plain to 240 UAH per m3 (260 UAH per m3 as of 1.10.2014) in the mountain region. This is the price for trees in the lower timber landing (Нижній склад). The trees have already been cut into pieces 1 m long and loaded on the truck. The price for firewood is different in the village and will be higher due to transportation costs. The demand for firewood has increased during the last few years. Prices have also increased, due to growing demand and increasing gasoline (oil) prices in Ukraine. Prices for firewood rise every 4 months. The last price increase was on October 1, 2014. There is a high probability that prices will rise again over the next 4 months.

4.4 Cash and subsistence of forest products

The graphs below show popularly sold and consumed forest products for each region. Region 1: The figure 16 shows the comparison of sold and eaten forest products by the population. "Roztochchia" "Roztochchia"

Sub_PPP

Cash_PPP Cash, USD (PPP)

Subsistence, USD (PPP)

Figure 16. Cash and subsistence of forest Figure 17. Cash and subsistence of forest products in Roztochchia, (total value), USD value in Roztochchia, (total value), USD (PPP). (PPP).

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Blueberries are the most popular product for sale and household consumption, because it is a traditional forest product for which there is always a high demand. Blueberries are tasty berries that are rich in vitamins. Because they are so popular they are bought regardless of price. Residents will sell any forest products that are in demand. Mushrooms are the second most popular product. They are traditionally used in cooking, especially during Lent. Mushroom dishes are very popular and during winter holidays large quantities of marinated mushrooms or dishes made of dried mushrooms are consumed. Fresh mushrooms are sold well into the summer and autumn seasons and dried mushrooms are sold during winter. Other berries such as wild strawberries, blackberries and raspberries are also used for household consumption and for sale. All these forest berries are tasty and rich in vitamins and are thus very popular. They are consumed raw and are also used for making jam and more rarely to make compote and wine. The other products are used only for household consumption. Birch sap is cheap and is therefore not worth selling at the market. Products such as firewood, tree branches (used as supports for bean crops) and wicker to make brooms are used only for household consumption, and are not sold to city residents because they simply do not need them. Who collects non-wood forest products most frequently? Women and adolescent girls collect berries, when they are ripe in the summer. This is also the time that school and college vacations take place so there is time to collect berries. Men and boys mostly pick mushrooms and are sometime assisted by the women and adolescent girls. A comparison of the share of cash and subsistence income from forest products in this region shows that villagers sell twice as much forest products as they consume (see Figure 17).

Region 2: Figures 18 and 19 show the comparison of the share of subsistence and cash income derived from forest products in Transcarpathia.

"Transcarpathia" "Transcarpathia"

Subsistence, USD (PPP) Sub_US D (PPP) Cash, USD (PPP)

Cash_U SD (PPP)

Figure 18. Cash and subsistence of forest products in Figure 19. Cash and Transcarpathia, (total value), USD (PPP) subsistence of forest value in Transcarpathia, (total value), USD (PPP)

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In Region 2 (Transcarpathia) berries are also the most popular non-wood forest product used for sale and household consumption (mainly blueberries) and mushrooms. The third most popular forest product is tree branches that are used as supports for bean crops and for making Christmas trees (from spruce and pine branches). Christmas trees are popular as both whole trees and trees weaved together from branches, and are a must-have Christmas and New Year’s decoration. Women and adolescent girls traditionally collect berries, while mostly men and adolescent boys pick mushrooms. Anyone who has the time and desire weaves Christmas trees. In Region 2, the share of forest products used for sale and consumption is roughly the same. This is because more mushrooms are consumed in this region (traditionally almost every household collects them) than are sold. Many other forest products are used here solely for subsistence purposes (firewood, medicinal plants, wicker brooms, nuts, birch juice and raspberries). This is an indication of a high forest dependence in this region where a large share of forest income is used for subsistence (the people need these products, otherwise they would have to buy substitutes).

Region 3: Berries and mushrooms are the most popular forest products in Region 3 for household use and for cash. This can be seen in Figure 20. The gap between cash income and subsistence income (Figere 21) from forest products is large, especially as compared to Transcarpathia. This is because more blueberries are sold than consumed, while other berries are mainly collected for household consumption. "Polissia" "Polissia"

Subsistance, USD (PPP)

Cash, USD Sub_USD (PPP) (PPP)

Cash_USD (PPP)

Figure 20. Cash and subsistence of forest products in Polissia, Figure 21. Cash and subsistence of (total value), USD (PPP) forest value in Polissia, (total value), USD (PPP)

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4.5 RFI over income quintiles

Region 1: Forest dependence by quintile in “Roztochchia” is shown on Graph 22. Roztochchia

Average of for_cash_ppp_aeu Average of for_sub_ppp_aeu

Average of RFI RFI Income per aeu (USD PPP)

quinle

Figure 22. Forest income over income quintiles, USD (PPP)/Region 1 “Roztochchia”

As seen in the graph above, all quintiles use forest products for household consumption (subsistence) approximately in equal measure. People traditionally consume large amounts of mushrooms and berries regardless of their level of income. Forest products are sold by each quintile, because there are several households that sell large quantities in each quiltile. Almost all residents, who have the time and desire to work, collect berries and mushrooms for sale. These products are collected less in Quintile 1 because this sector is made up either of senior citizens, for whom collecting is physically difficult. In Quintile 2 there is a high share of income from forest products – there are more people who are unemployed in this group and have enough free time to go to the forest. Products are collected less in Quintile 3, both for sale and household consumption, because this group is made up of agricultural workers (land cultivation) who have little free time to collect mushrooms and berries. Quintiles 4 and 5 consist of the wealthier population, whose main income comes from their work abroad. However, as this work is mostly temporary and not as stable, they periodically go to the forest to collect mushrooms and berries to supplement their livelihoods. Another reason why they sell a lot is that they are used to working and to using every opportunity to earn money. The more villagers work, the wealthier they are.

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Region 2: Transcarpathia Average of for_cash_ppp_aeu Average of for_sub_ppp_aeu Average of RFI RFI Income per aeu (USD PPP)

Quinle

Figure 23. Forest income over income quintiles, USD (PPP)/Region 2 (Transcarpathia).

In Region 2 (Transcarpathia), all quintiles use forest products for household consumption and to sell for cash. However, Quintiles 3, 4 and 5, the wealthier quiltiles, consume more. For them forest income is not as important as for the poorer segment which is why they do not spare these products. The poor quintile (1) and the average one (3) sell less. This is due to the fact that Quintile 3 is made up of employed villagers, who do not have the time to collect and Quintile 1 is made up of senior citizens who do not have enough strength to go to the forest or of individuals who do not work for various other reasons. Quintile 3 has the smallest share of income from forest products because most of the people in this group have permanent jobs in their regions, qualifiying them in the middle- income class. Many do not have time to go to the forest. The poor are more dependent on forest income – Quintile 2 collects many berries and mushrooms for sale. Many residents are large families whose children have grown up so they no longer receive financial support from the state. These children do not yet make their own income, but have time to help the family collect berries and mushrooms.

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Region 3: Polyssia

Average of for_cash_ppp_aeu Average of for_sub_ppp_aeu Average of RFI RFI Income per aeu (USD PPP)

Quinle

Figure 24. Forest income over income quintiles, USD (PPP)/Region 3 (Polissia).

In this region, similarly to the first two, all quintiles use approximately the same amount of forest products for household consumption. The fourth and second quintiles sell more forest products. The difference between the sale of the collected forest product and its consumption in the first, third and fifth quintiles is not sigificant. The make up of the population in each quintile is as follows: Quintile 1 – this quintile represents individuals with the lowest level of total income. Average of RFI for them is higher in comparison with all other quintile except the second. Quintile 2 –for this group the revenue they receive from the forest is their main revenue. Quintile 3 – this quintile does not collect much because they operate a farm or are employed elsewhere. Quintile 4 – people are wealthier in this quintile and gather products seasonally while they are not earning an income. Quintile 5 – people are the wealthiest in this quintile; they collect products less often and the revenue received from the forest is insignificant for them. The wealthier population is able to mostly use forest products for their own needs and does not need to sell because they receive income from other sources.

4.6 RFI over asset groups

The households in each region were divided into three groups according to their assets: poor, medium, rich – in the following manner: • All assets of each household were added up to determine the total asset value for each household; • The assets of each household were divided by the adult equivalent – AEU equivalent. The EUROSTAT equivalent scale is 1.0 for the first member of the household; 0.5 for every

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other adult member; 0.3 for a child under 14 years old.; • All households were divided into three groups – poor, medium, rich – based on the amounts of assets adjusted by the AEU equivalent. The graphs below show the RFI (Relative Forest Income) as an indicator across asset groups in the three regions:

Roztochchia

Average of for_cash_ppp_aeu Average of for_sub_ppp_aeu Average of RFI RFI Income per aeu (USD PPP)

Asset group

Figure 25. Roztochchia: Cash and Subsistence Forest Income (assets) and RFI

Transcarpathia

Average of for_cash_ppp_aeu RFI Average of for_sub_ppp_aeu Income per aeu (USD PPP) Average of RFI

Asset group

Figure 26. Transcarpathia: Cash and Subsistence Forest Income (assets) and RFI

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Polissia

Average of for_cash_ppp_aeu

RFI Average of for_sub_ppp_aeu Income per aeu (USD PPP) Average of RFI

Asset group

Figure 27. Polissia: Cash and Subsistence Forest Income (assets) and RFI

Based on the graphs, we can see that the “rich” quintile is the least dependent on forest products. In this group, the share of forest income in total income is the smallest. The rich, as compared with the poor, derive more income from other sources (animal income, other income, wage income). Consumption of forest products is approximately the same in all quintiles in each region. This is because people traditionally consume a lot of mushrooms and berries. Regardless of their level of income, mushrooms and berries remain popular food items in forest dependent communities. People gather more berries and mushrooms than they need for their own consumption in all regions. Blueberries, wild strawberries and mushrooms are expensive delicacies (not main food products). Because they are profitable, these products are sold and other food items, household chemicals, and clothes are bought. For many families this is a source of supplemental income. In Region 1, people in the second quintile sell fewer forest products. They may be people who work in agriculture (who cultivate on large areas of land and keep large numbers of livestock) and they simply do not have the time to collect mushrooms and berries. The wealthier and the poorer populations sell equal amounts, because they do not have much farm work (they cultivate less land and keep smaller numbers of livestock). The poor do not have big farms because there is either no one to do the work or they do not work for other reasons. The wealthier travel abroad to work and, thus, do not run large farms. However, because work abroad is often temporary, they often collect mushrooms and berries when they are at home. In Region 2 (Transcarpathia), agriculture is less developed and thus, the middle income group collects products from the forest more often. In Region 3, the wealthier segment, residents sell less forest products because they have other sources of income and a lesser need to collect berries and mushrooms. Compared to the other regions, this region is more developed, and residents are less reliant on the forest because they have alternative sources of income (forest income is not an easy income).

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4.7 Most Important Products The role of the forest is essential for all the regions studied. The most important forest product in Roztochchia and Transcarpathia is firewood (these regions have no gas supply). As for berries the most important are bilberries. Table 6 Forest dependence Region Level of Access to roads Gas Marketing Need for forest (transportation supply firewood dependence infrastructure) Do not have forest Needed Region products procurement for Average Normal None 1 centers (have to bring survival the products to the city) Has Forest Products Needed Region High Poor None Procurement Centers for 2 survival Have Has Forest Products Needed Region Low Good gas Procurement Centers 3 supply

Region 1: The level of forest dependence of the two villages is high. There is no gas supply and, thus, firewood is needed for survival (heating and cooking). Firewood is either purchased or received as payment by those who work in the forestry sector (the latter source is not legal). Income from berries and mushrooms is a significant source of seasonal income. If income from agriculture is mostly subsistence income, forest income brings cash. Region 2: The level of forest dependence of the two villages is very high. Firewood is needed, as there is no gas supply. Villagers either purchase firewood or harvest it on abandoned agricultural land. Mushrooms and berries are a significant source of seasonal income for many households in this region. Forest products, similarly to the first region, offer a significant source of income. Forest income in this region is higher than in the two other regions, because agriculture is less developed here and livestock breeding is the most cost intensive. Region 3: Forest dependence is the lowest in this region. The villages have a gas supply and the need in firewood is not high. However, income from the collection of mushrooms and berries remains a significant source of seasonal income. The most important product from Category 1 is firewood. The quantity of this product has remained unchanged in all the regions during recent years. Product 2 – Food products from the forest: the amount of blueberries has decreased in both villages in Polissia (Region 3). This is due to poor collection methods. People collect berries with special tools that damage the plants. The amount of wild strawberries has increased in Seredkevychi due to the emergence of large areas of abandoned agricultural land on which the berries grow. Feed for livestock is not collected from the forest (Category 3); villagers collect animal feed on their own fields. The climate in the region is changing with certainty. However, it has not yet affected the mushroom and berry output substantially (the villagers surveyed reported that the amount of mushrooms and berries has not changed in the last 5 years). Nonetheless, such changes are expected to occur in the near future. This is especially concerning for Transcarpathia (Region 2), where blueberries are the most important product in Category 1. Blueberries grow in the high mountains (e.g., on the top of Mountain Cherymkha at 1,130 m). The upper forest border is

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constantly ascending, with woody vegetation driving out shrub vegetation (blueberries). Climate change is threatening the supply of these berries.

5. Conclusion The key factor that influences community forest dependence is the availability of resources. If there are berries and mushrooms, the villagers will collect them, regardless of their income level. If they were wealthier, they would purchase mushrooms and berries (which does take place in rare cases), however, such strong economic growth is improbable. In the mountain villages (in Transcarpathia), the inhabitants expressed that they would rather migrate than remain in the village because of how demanding life in these mountainous villages is (e.g., the village of Zahorb which has 186 households, 25 of which have been abandoned, and the tendency to abandon houses is continuing). There is a possibility to develop hang-gliding in this village to attract tourism, which would improve the welfare of the community. Furthermore, this sport does not have a serious impact on the environment. The forests are used primarily to fill gaps in income. This cycle seems to never end – as soon as one gap is filled, another one appears. Forest income is very important for large families. During the collection season, a family earns enough on berries and mushrooms to buy what is needed for school (clothes, shoes, and books, stationary). Villagers collect mushrooms and berries for the following reasons: in Ukraine there is free access to non-timber forest products (NTFP) – almost all forests are owned by the state and mushrooms and berries can be collected (on protected areas collection is allowed in designated areas). A forest ticket must be obtained to collect NTFP for sale (commercial use). Forest products are in demand and they may be sold at the market or acquired by procurement centres in villages. In Ukraine, mushrooms and berries are traditionally consumed and are an important source of seasonal income. Forest products (firewood, berries, mushrooms), agricultural products and animal products are vital products for local populations. Firewood is essential for heating and cooking and is a vital resource, berries are used for household consumption and sale, mushrooms are essential for household consumption and sale. Both mushrooms and berries are a very important seasonal source of income. Agricultural and livestock products are important for household consumption and sale. For some households (especially in Region 1) these products are the main source of income (if nobody in the household receives pensions or is employed, their main income comes from agriculture). In the two regions where there is no gas supply, the use of firewood will remain stable. In the third region, the amount of firewood used will increase, because the price of gas is constantly increasing. Dependence on mushrooms and berries is also stable; even if the villagers become wealthier, they will not refuse this share of income in their total income. Mushrooms and berries are traditionally staple food items and a commodity that is always in demand at the market. The share of forest income in the total annual income is smaller than agricultural income, but forest income is easier to obtain. People receive more income from other sources (such as agricultural work, animal husbandry, businesses, etc.) but they invest much more time and effort into, other activities such as agriculture. The amount of blueberries may change in Transcarpathia (Region 2) as a result of climate change, which will, in turn, lead to a loss in this portion of the income. There is a high probability that if this becomes the case, the villagers will collect blueberries in other regions. The amount of blueberries may also decrease in Polissia (Region 3), due to intensive collection methods that damage the forest ecosystem. Cranberry crops may also decrease, because they grow in bogs (thus, if the climate becomes drier, these crops will be more difficult to obtain), however the amount of cranberries collected in the studied villages was not large.

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6. References

Adamovskyy O., Soloviy I. Ukrainian Forest Policy and Forestry: What are the drivers of change? “Changing Forestry & Forest Economics & Policy”. Southern Forest Economics Workers Annual Meeting. Auburn, AL, USA. March 10-12, 2013

Bocharnikov, Vladimir, Andrey Laletin , Per Angelstam , Ilya Domashov , Marine Elbakidze , Olesya Kaspruk , Hovik Sayadyan , Igor Solovyi ,Emil Shukurov , and Tengiz UrushadzeJ, Russia, Ukraine, the Caucasus, and Central Asia. In; Traditional Forest-Related Knowledge: Sustaining Communities, Ecosystems and Biocultural Diversity, A. Parrotta and R.L. Trosper (eds.) World Forests 12, Springer Science+Business Media B.V. (outside the USA) 2012: 251-270

Cesaro, L., Linddal, M. & Pettenella, D. 1995. The economic role of non-wood forest products and services in rural development. MEDIT , 6(2): 28-34.

Soloviy I. P.,. Cubbage F. W. 2007. Forest policy in aroused society: Ukrainian post-Orange Revolution challenges. Forest Policy and Economics 10: 60–69

Photo credit: Andriy Zhyla and Tetiana Zhyla

i http://w1.c1.rada.gov.ua/pls/z7503/A005?rdat1=01.10.2012&rf7571=21626 ii According to the Law "On protected areas" RLP is a "protected recreational institution of local or regional importance, established to conserve the natural state of typical or unique natural complexes and objects, as well as providing conditions for organized recreation of population." [Law Ukraine On Nature Reserve Fund of Ukraine [http://zakon4.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/2456-12] iii A protected area where the interaction of people and nature over time has produced an area of distinct character with significant ecological, biological, cultural and scenic value: and where safeguarding the integrity of this interaction is vital to protecting and sustaining the area and its associated nature conservation and other values.” (https://www.iucn.org/about/work/programmes/gpap_home/gpap_quality/gpap_pacategories/gpap_c ategory5/) iv In Ukraine, the law "On status of mountain settlements in Ukraine" is in action according to which the residents of settlements, located in the mountains receive financial help from the state (pension, scholarship, etc.) and wages are increased by 20%. [http://zakon4.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/56/95- %D0%B2%D1%80] v http://www.ukrstat.gov.ua vi http://www.mlsp.gov.ua/labour/control/uk/publish/category?cat_id=160211 vii http://unpp.com.ua/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=9:2011-02-24-09-08- 12&catid=2:2011-02-24-11-21-10&Itemid=5 viii http://dklg.kmu.gov.ua/forest/control/uk/publish/article?art_id=118709&cat_id=118714 ix V. Slobodian "Churches of Ukraine. Peremyshl eparchy. Lviv-1998. - 864 pages). x http://w1.c1.rada.gov.ua/pls/z7503/A005?rdat1=01.10.2012&rf7571=21626 xi http://www.ukrstat.gov.ua xii http://www.mlsp.gov.ua/labour/control/uk/publish/category?cat_id=160211 xiii According to the IUCN classification of these areas there are 6 categories of the protection status. [https://www.iucn.org/about/work/programmes/gpap_home/gpap_quality/gpap_pacategories/gpap_p acategory2/]. xiv http://zakon1.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/2818-17/conv

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xv http://zakon2.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/577-2011-%D1%80/conv xvi http://wwf.panda.org/who_we_are/wwf_offices/ukraine/projects/. xvii http://dklg.kmu.gov.ua/forest/control/uk/publish/article?art_id=118709&cat_id=118714 xviii http://zakarpattya.net.ua/Zmi/80381-Viiskovi-pokhovannia-Velykobereznianskoho-raionu- Zakarpattia xix According to international regulations (INCOTERMS), this is the price of goods at the location (in this case in the forest), indicated by the seller, not including the cost of loading the goods into the transportation vehicle.

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About FLEG II (ENPI East) Program The Forest Law Enforcement and Governance (FLEG) II European Neighbourhood and Partnership Instrument (ENPI) East Countries Program supports participating countries’ forest governance. At the regional level, the Program aims to implement the 2005 St. Petersburg FLEG Ministerial Declaration and support countries to commit to a time-bound action plan; at the national level the Program will review or revise forest sector policies and legal and administrative structures; and improve knowledge of and support for sustainable forest management and good forest governance in the participating countries, and at the sub-national (local) level the Program will test and demonstrate best practices for sustainable forest management and the feasibility of improved forest governance practices at the field-level on a pilot basis. Participating countries include Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Moldova, Russia, and Ukraine. The Program is funded by the European Union. http://www.enpi-fleg.org

Project Partner EUROPEAN COMMISSION The European Union is the world’s largest donor of official development assistance. The European Commission’s Directorate General for European Neighbourhood Policy and Enlargement Negotiations (DG NEAR) manages the bulk of the Union’s financial and technical assistance to the neighbourhood and enlargement countries. By implementing assistance actions in Europe’s eastern and southern neighbourhood, DG NEAR supports reform and democratic consolidation, and strengthens the prosperity, stability and security around Europe. DG NEAR helps to promote EU values, policies and interests in this region, and to contribute to developing the special relationship of the EU with its neighbouring countries. http://ec.europa.eu/index_en.htm

WORLD BANK The World Bank Group is one of the world’s largest sources of knowledge and funding for its 188 member-countries. The organizations that make up the World Bank Group are owned by the governments of member nations, which have the ultimate decision-making power within the organizations on all matters, including policy, financial or membership issues. The World Bank Group comprises five closely associated institutions: the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and the International Development Association (IDA), which together form the World Bank; the International Finance Corporation (IFC); the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA); and the International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID). Each institution plays a distinct role in the World Bank Group’s mission to end extreme poverty by decreasing the percentage of people living on less than $1.25 a day to no more than 3 percent, and promote shared prosperity by fostering the income growth of the bottom 40 percent for every country. For additional information please visit: http://www.worldbank.org, http://www.ifc.org, http://www.miga.org

IUCN IUCN, International Union for Conservation of Nature, helps the world find pragmatic solutions to our most pressing environment and development challenges. IUCN’s work focuses on valuing and conserving nature, ensuring effective and equitable governance of its use, and deploying nature-based solutions to global challenges in climate, food and development. IUCN supports scientific research, manages field projects all over the world, and brings governments, NGOs, the UN and companies together to develop policy, laws and best practice. IUCN is the world’s oldest and largest global environmental organisation, with more than 1,200 government and NGO members and almost 11,000 volunteer experts in some 160 countries. IUCN’s work is supported by over 1,000 staff in 45 offices and hundreds of partners in public, NGO and private sectors around the world. www.iucn.org

WWF WWF is one of the world’s largest and most respected independent conservation organizations, with almost 5 million supporters and a global network active in over 100 countries. WWF’s mission is to stop the degradation of the planet’s natural environment and to build a future in which humans live in harmony with nature, by conserving the world’s biological diversity, ensuring that the use of renewable natural resources is sustainable, and promoting the reduction of pollution and wasteful consumption. www.panda.org

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