Masaryk University Brno Faculty of Education

MASARYK UNIVERSITY BRNO FACULTY OF EDUCATION

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

English terminology of classical and rock guitar music:

an analysis

Bachelor thesis

Brno 2016

Supervisor: Author: Mgr. Radek Vogel, Ph.D. Stanislav Kubín

Prohlášení

Prohlašuji, že jsem závěrečnou práci bakalářskou práci vypracoval samostatně, s využitím pouze citovaných pramenů, dalších informací a zdrojů v souladu s Disciplinárním řádem pro studenty Pedagogické fakulty Masarykovy univerzity a se zákonem č. 121/2000 Sb., o právu autorském, o právech souvisejících s právem autorským a o změně některých zákonů (autorský zákon), ve znění pozdějších předpisů.

Brno, 30.listopadu 2016 ...... Stanislav Kubín

Acknowledgement

I would like to thank my supervisor Mgr. Radek Vogel, Ph.D. for his much valued advice, encouragement and patience.

Stanislav Kubín

Anotace:

Tato práce pojednává o terminologii kytarové hry. Zabývá se jak klasickou tak elektrickou kytarou. Shromažďuje nejužívanější fráze pro jednotlivé techniky hry a srovnává je s jejich českými ekvivalenty. Cílem není pouze analyzovat rozdíly mezi českou a anglickou frazeologií, ale také popsat spojení mezi označením a praktickým provedením konkrétních technik. Různé fráze užívané pro oba druhy nástroje jsou porovnávány a rovněž je zkoumán jejich původ.

Klíčová slova: lexikon, lexikální jednotka, fráze, denotace, konotace, význam, slovní druh, kytarová technika, ekvivalent, antonymum, synonymum

Abstract:

This thesis deals with the terminology of playing the guitar. It refers to both classical and electric form of the instrument. The most common phrases used for playing techniques are identified and compared to the terms used in Czech language. The aim is not only to analyze the differences between the Czech and English phraseology but also to describe the connection between the denotation and execution of the techniques. The thesis also compares different phrases used for each kind of instrument and traces the origins of the phrases as well as of the individual words.

Key words: lexicon, lexeme, phrase, denotation, connotation, meaning, word class, guitar technique, equivalent, antonym, synonym

List of Contents

1 Introduction ...... 6 2 Theoretical Part ...... 7 2.1 Lexicon ...... 7 2.2 Theoretical background ...... 8 2.3 Definitions of main terms – Classical guitar ...... 11 2.4 Definitions of main terms – Rock guitar ...... 14 2.5 Definitions of main terms – Common terms ...... 18 3 Practical part ...... 22 3.1 Classical guitar ...... 22 3.2 Classical guitar terms – analysis ...... 28 3.3 Rock Guitar ...... 30 3.4 Rock guitar terms – analysis ...... 37 3.5 Common Terms ...... 39 3.6 Common terms – analysis ...... 46 3.7 Glossary of terms – Classical guitar ...... 48 4 Conclusion ...... 53 Works Cited ...... 54 Appendices ...... 58

1 Introduction Guitar is one of the most popular and versatile musical instruments. It can be heard in any genre from folk and country music through popular, jazz and rock music to classical music itself. I have been working as a teacher of music – playing the guitar to be more precise – for approximately ten years now. I want to connect the knowledge gathered in the field of playing and teaching the instrument to the field of my current studies – English language. This thesis is focused on denotations of guitar techniques and their usage – it deals with the guitar music in the sense of playing the instrument, not in the sense of the music itself. The denotations and phrases are divided into two groups according to the kind of the guitar they are related to: the classical (Spanish) guitar at one end and the electric (rock) guitar at the other. The origin and character of the phrases is discussed. Special attention is paid to the accuracy (or differences) between the execution of the technique itself and the meaning of its denotation in the respective language. One of the aims of this thesis is to determine in which language the denotations are more precise and understandable. The theoretical part deals with lexicology in general and describes tools and viewpoints used in the thesis. It also lists the denotations that are discussed and analyzed in the practical part. The practical part describes techniques used while playing classical and rock guitar comparing their Czech and English equivalents. Some basic phrases and words concerning theory of music and music in general are added in order to make the text more understandable and relevant to the topic. According to my knowledge there is a dictionary related to the lexicon of music in general but there is none considering guitar techniques as a separate subject. There is an English-Czech glossary of terms concerning classical guitar included at the end of the practical part. Nowadays almost all international guitar courses are performed in English language that is why the information may be useful not only for students of English language but for guitar players as well. The thesis can be used as a source of new vocabulary as well as a useful tool for improving communication during guitar courses and master classes. I have studied playing the classical guitar in Conservatoire České Budějovice and became a teacher of the instrument. My main field of expertise is classical guitar but I have also been teaching rock guitar for the last three years. I had been interested in rock music before I studied the classical one and as a matter of fact rock guitar terminology almost exclusively consists of English denotations. I intend to connect these three areas in this thesis.

2 Theoretical Part

2.1 Lexicon According to Collins English Dictionary “lexicon” is “a list of terms relating to a particular subject“ (Collins). The lexicon that is the subject of this thesis was collected during my teaching practise and it concerns guitar playing techniques. The phrases were selected according to their usage and also to their importance. Their order is determined by their connection to the following text which means that the best way how to read the practical part is from the beginning to the end. Any new phrase is either mentioned in the previous text or explained in the next section. Cross references are used throughout the Practical part for better coherence of the whole text. Another factor that was taken into account was the meaning of the phrases and the relation between the precision of the expression in the language and actual execution in case of techniques and possible connotations in case of abstract denotations. Some phrases or words were added with the aim of clarification of other phrases or their more detailed definitions. Only basic concepts are addressed in this thesis to keep it concise but detailed enough at the same time. It is focused on English and Czech equivalents – the Spanish ones are mentioned because without further explanation. The theoretical part deals with linguistic concepts of the phraseology (it gives dictionary meaning and explains the connections among the phrases). The practical part is focused on meanings and explanations of the phrases and on comparison of possible connotations and extra-linguistic connections to reality (e.g. the execution of a playing technique) in both Czech and English languages. That is why the Czech equivalents used throughout the practical part are followed by literal translations in English language – to describe the meaning of the Czech phrases as precisely as possible. The phrases can be divided into three main groups. The first group consists of phrases concerning classical guitar, the second rock guitar and the third group deals with phrases that are used for both types of the instrument plus several concepts from general music theory (with a connection to guitar music in one way or another). The most common or “normal” way of playing is being described which means: right hand is used to “pluck” the strings and left hand is used to “fret” or press them. Special techniques like for example lap or percussive styles of playing are not included (although their bases are).

2.2 Theoretical background The theoretical part deals with denotations of the lexemes. It draws from the data obtained in dictionaries and works with it on a general level. Dictionary definitions are given and attention is paid to the etymological development of the individual words. The practical part then deals more with connotations of the phrases and all their possible meanings with connections to guitar music or music in general. Apart from linguistic analysis it strives to determine which language gives more precise and apt denotations. It draws mainly from my own experience as an active musician and teacher.

Denotation In Basics of lexicology R. Vogel states that, “Denotation is the objective relationship between a linguistic sign (i.e. a naming unit, word) and reality to which it refers. Denotation is a dictionary meaning of lexemes (a dictionary definition)” (Vogel 9). The theoretical part works with such definitions. These are stated and compared to each other in the next chapter. Random house dictionary defines denotation as: The explicit or direct meaning or set of meanings of a word or expression, as distinguished from the ideas or meanings associated with it or suggested by it; the association or set of associations that a word usually elicits for most speakers of a language, as distinguished from those elicited for any individual speaker because of personal experience. (Dictionary.com) Individual lexemes as well as whole phrases are discussed. According to Vogel, “lexeme” as a word is a spoken segment that can be used in isolation (and not the part of such a word i.e. prefix, suffix etc.) (15). In some cases whole phrases are analyzed. “Phrase is a cluster of words smaller than a clause, forming a grammatical unit” (Vogel 15). Majority of the denotations in question are phrases.

Connotation The practical part focuses on connotations of the phrases and lexemes. Vogel defines connotation as the personal aspect of lexical meaning, the user’s real-world experience associated with a lexeme that varies depending on the personal experience of individuals, it can differ from culture to culture, time to time etc. (9). Random house dictionary defines connotation as: a) the associated or secondary meaning of a word or expression in addition to its explicit or primary meaning: A possible connotation of “home” is “a place of

warmth, comfort, and affection”. b) the act of connoting; the suggesting of an additional meaning for a word or expression, apart from its explicit meaning. (Dictionary.com) These and other aspects and meanings are addressed in the practical part in order to determine the connections, differences and concords between Czech and English equivalents as well as their relation to reality.

Synonyms Some of the phrases can be considered synonyms because they describe the same technique or they refer to the same concept. According to Peprník “A synonym is a word or phrase which has the same or nearly the same meaning as another word or phrase” (Peprník 26). We will focus on sameness in meaning as it can further our understanding of the concepts addressed in the practical part.

Antonyms Some of the phrases can be considered antonyms because they describe opposite things. They may refer to some kind of reversed form of a technique or they can describe two contradictory concepts. Kvetko states that, ”Antonyms (in Greek means opposite) may also be defined in a narrow sense as words of opposite meaning or in a broader sense as words that are contrary in their denotational meanings “ (72). We will focus on the broader sense with the aim to establish more connections between individual concepts.

Word classes (Parts of speech) “A word class (or form class) is a group of words behaving in the same way grammatically, particularly morphologically” (Vogel 28). The number of word classes can differ but according to Vogel “Traditional grammars distinguished parts of speech, usually the noun, adjective, pronoun, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction and interjection (and also the numeral and particle in Czech)” (28). For the analysis we will need to define 5 word classes (or parts of speech) nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, and prepositions.

Nouns Vogel states that, “nouns are words used for naming some living creature (person, animal, mythological being, etc.), object (thing, plant, product etc.), place, abstract quality (strength), concept (morpheme), action (a run) etc.” (28). In spite of nouns being the most

common element in both English and Czech vocabulary in question, we will not discuss their further division. The focus will remain on their meaning not their form.

Adjectives We will need a definition and division in case of adjectives. Only the first and the third point will be mentioned as we will discuss only separate denotations and not the whole sentences. Adjectives are words expressing features or qualities of nouns or pronouns. Adjectives can appear in three positions:  attributive – before a noun or pronoun which they (pre)modify (good life)  predicative – they function as subject or object complements after a verb (It seems reasonable)  postpositive – they follow the modified noun or pronoun (usually a compound indefinite pronoun or adverb) (somewhere cheaper, anybody responsible). (Vogel 34).

Verbs Vogel defines verbs as “a word class which expresses an action (play, drive), event (blink, slide) or state (concern, remember)” (36). For the definitions we have to mention one feature of verbs – transitivity. “Transitivity is the syntactic property of verbs characterized by taking a direct object” (Vogel 37). We will come across verbs that can be both transitive and intransitive.

Adverbs Adverbs are elements of clause structure which mostly contribute to the meaning of the verb, but also some other adjacent element like adjective, pronoun, numeral, noun or other adverb (Vogel 39). No further division will be needed for the analysis.

Prepositions According to Vogel “prepositions express a relationship between parts of a sentence, usually as to the time and space” (40). No further division will be needed for the analysis.

2.3 Definitions of main terms – Classical guitar Main terms concerning classical guitar are listed alphabetically in this section. They are provided with lexical definitions (if available). Each lexeme or phrase is supplemented with a short etymological analysis.

Arpeggio Random House dictionary gives 2 definitions: 1. the sounding of the notes of a chord in rapid succession instead of simultaneously. 2. a chord thus sounded Also called broken chord it is a countable noun of Italian origin. It appears between 1735 – 1745 meaning “to play on a harp” (dictionary.com) “Scale” could be considered its antonym as it describes the opposite skill or playing technique (sometimes referred to as playing scales or playing arpeggios).

Nail There are many definitions of this particular word and it is a part of many idioms. We are interested in only one definition concerning a part of our fingertip and that is according to Random house dictionary: a thin, horny plate, consisting of modified epidermis, growing on the upper side of the end of a finger or toe. This word is of Old English origin and appeared before the year 900 (dictionary.com) Nails on the right hand fingers have been used for playing guitar since the times of a classic composer Dionisio Aguado (approximately since the beginning of 19th century). Many disputes had been made about their usage but they have earned a very important place as a tool for tone production in modern classical guitar world.

Planting Planting refers to a modern concept of “right hand preparation”. The pioneer of this method is a contemporary American guitarist Scott Tennant. It means that we return our fingers onto the string (or strings) whenever possible. It correlates with one of many definitions from Random house dictionary to insert or set firmly in or on the ground or some

other body or surface. The word is of Old English and Latin origin appearing before the year 900. (www.dictionary.com)

Rasgueado Sal Bonavita has argued that “A rasgueado is a continuous series of rapid finger strokes of the right hand which blend together to produce a variety of rhythmic strumming effects on the guitar” (nylonguitarist.com). The word itself comes from Spanish as does the technique.

Slur There are more than eleven definitions in the Random house dictionary. Here are the two concerning music: 1. the combination of two or more tones of different pitch, sung to a single syllable or played without a break. 2. a curved mark indicating this. This word is of multiple origins (Middle English, German, Dutch). It appeared between 1595 – 1605 in senses referring to a gliding or smooth transition (dictionary.com) There are two kinds of slur: “ascending” and “descending”. “Hammer on” can be considered a synonym to “ascending slur” and pull off can be considered a synonym to “descending slur”.

Stroke There are more than twenty-five definitions in the Random house dictionary. Here are the three concerning music: 1. a hitting of or upon anything. 2. a striking of a clapper or hammer, as on a bell. 3. the sound produced by this. The word is of Middle English origin and it first appeared between 1250 and 1300 (dictionary.com). There are two kinds of stroke that can be considered antonyms as any tone on the guitar has to be played with either “rest stroke” or “free stroke”.

Sul tasto / ponticello According to Merriam-Webster “sul tasto” means playing “with the bow kept over the fingerboard so as to produce a soft thin tone – used as a direction in music for a stringed instrument” (Merriam-Webster.com). The phrase is of Italian origin as well as its antonym “sul ponticello” which stands for playing very near the bridge (i.e. on the other side of the instrument).

Tremolo Merriam-Webster gives three definitions of this word: 1. the rapid reiteration of a musical tone or of alternating tones to produce a tremulous effect 2. vocal vibrato especially when prominent or excessive 3. a mechanical device in an organ for causing a tremulous effect The word is Italian and comes from Latin tremulus meaning trembling or shaking. The first known use is circa in 1801. (Merriam-Webster.com)

Vibrato Vibrato is defined by Merriam-Webster dictionary as: 1. a slightly tremulous effect imparted to vocal or instrumental tone for added warmth and expressiveness by slight and rapid variations in pitch 2. a way of making small, rapid changes in a musical note that you are singing The word is Italian, derived from the past participle of vibrare which means to vibrate in Latin. The word was firstly used circa in 1876 (Merriam-Webster.com).

2.4 Definitions of main terms – Rock guitar Main terms concerning rock guitar are listed alphabetically in this section. They are provided with lexical definitions (if available). Each lexeme or phrase is supplemented with a short etymological analysis.

Bending As stated in Random house dictionary, “Bend” is a transitive irregular verb (bent). Its meaning is: to pull back the string of (a bow or the like) in preparation for shooting. It is of Old English and Middle English origin and it first appeared before 1000 (dictionary.com).

Distortion / Gain Random house dictionary gives several definitions of the noun “distortion”: 1. an act or instance of distorting 2. the state of being distorted or the relative degree or amount by which something is distorted or distorts. 3. anything that is distorted, as a sound, image, fact, etc. The word first appeared in between 1575 and 1585 and is of Latin origin (dictionary.com). “Gain” has several definitions in the same dictionary. We are interested in the one concerning electronics: a measure of the increase in signal amplitude produced by an amplifier, expressed as the ratio of output to input. The word itself first appeared between 1425 and 1475 and is of Middle English and Middle French origin (www.dictionary.com). “Clean” or “clean sound” can be considered an antonym to these two as they refer to somehow altered sound of the guitar.

Finger / flat picking “Fingerpick” is another entry in Random house dictionary. It belongs to several word classes: noun, also “finger pick” 1. a plectrum worn on the finger. verb (trans.), also finger-pick 2. to play (an instrument, especially a guitar or banjo) by plucking its strings with the fingers or a fingerpick. verb (intrans.)

3. to play a stringed instrument using the fingers or a fingerpick. “Finger” is of Old English origin and it first appeared before 900. “Pick” is of Middle English origin with its first appearance between 1250 and 1300 (www.dictionary.com). “Flat picking” can be viewed as an antonym to “finger picking” as it represents the opposite technique (we use either fingers or flatpick to produce a tone). Random house dictionary gives two definitions: verb (trans.) 1. to play (an instrument) by plucking its strings with a flat pick. verb (intrans.) 2. to play a stringed instrument using a flat pick. The word “flat” is of Middle English Origin and it first appeared between 1275 and 1325 (www.dictionary.com). Random house dictionary contains more than thirty definitions of the word “pick”. Here is the one relevant for this thesis and guitar technique: a stroke with something pointed: The rock shattered at the first pick of the axe. The word “pick” first appeared between 1250 and 1300 and is of middle English origin (www.dictionary.com).

Hammer on “A hammer-on is a playing technique performed on a stringed instrument (especially on a fretted string instrument, such as a guitar) by sharply bringing a fretting-hand finger down on the fingerboard behind a fret, causing a note to sound” (Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia). The opposite technique “pull off” can be considered its antonym while “Ascending slur” is the synonym for “hammer on”. According to Random house dictionary the word “hammer” is Middle English and Old English origin first appearing before the year 1000 (ww.dictionary.com).

Palm muting “The palm mute is a playing technique for guitar and bass guitar, executed by placing the side of the picking hand below the little finger across the strings to be plucked, very close to the bridge, and then plucking the strings while the damping is in effect” (Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia).

“Palm” is defined in Random house dictionary as a noun referring to the part of the inner surface of the hand that extends from the wrist to the bases of the fingers with the first appearance between 1300 and 1350 being a word of Latin origin” (www.dictionary.com). “Mute” is a transitive verb meaning to deaden or muffle the sound of; appearing first in between the years 1325 and 1375 and it is a word of Latin origin (www.dictionary.com).

Plectrum There is one definition of the word “plectrum” concerning music in Random house dictionary describing it as a small piece of plastic, metal, ivory, etc., for plucking the strings of a guitar, lyre, mandolin, etc. and a word of Latin and Greek origin first appearing between 1620 and 1630 (www.dictionary.com). This word has two synonyms “flatpick” or “pick”.

Power chords “In guitar music, especially electric guitar, a power chord (also fifth chord) is a colloquial name for a chord that consists of the root note and the fifth. Power chords are commonly played on amplified guitars, especially on electric guitar with distortion” (Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia). Merriam-Webster defines power chord as a combination of two tones consisting of a root and its fifth that is often used in rock music and dates the first usage of the phrase to the year 1977 (www.merriam-webster.com).

Pull off “A pull-off is a stringed instrument plucking technique performed by "pulling" the finger off a string off the fingerboard of either a fretted or unfretted instrument” (Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia) . The synonym of this term is “descending slur” and the antonym is “hammer on” as it denotes the opposite technique. “Pull” is a Middle English and Old English word first appearing before 1 000 (www.dictionary.com).

Slide The Random house dictionary contains several definitions of the word “slide” in connection with music: 1. an embellishment consisting of an upward or downward series of three or more tones, the last of which is the principal tone. 2. a portamento.

3. a U -shaped section of the tube of an instrument of the trumpet class, as the trombone, that can be pushed in or out to alter the length of the air column and change the pitch. The word was firstly used before 950 and is of Old English and Middle English origin. (www.dictionary.com) We are concerned only with the first definition. The second one is an Italian word for “something between legato and staccato” and the third concerns a brass instrument. The word is also used as a noun for the glass or metal tube used for characteristic sound of blues guitar.

Strumming “Strum” has several definitions in the Random house dictionary and it belongs to several word classes: verb (both trans. and intrans.) 1. to play on (a stringed musical instrument) by running the fingers lightly across the strings. 2. to produce (notes, a melody, etc.) by such playing: to strum a tune. noun 3. the act of strumming. 4. the sound produced by strumming. The word first appeared between 1765 and 1775 and it is believed to be a blend of the words string and thrum [meaning to play e.g. a guitar badly] (www.dictionary.com)

Tapping The Random house dictionary defines “tapping” as: 1. the act of a person or thing that taps or strikes lightly. 2. the sound produced by this. The word known to be used firstly between 1400 and 1450 and it is of late Middle English origin. (www.dictionary.com)

2.5 Definitions of main terms – Common terms Main terms concerning both the rock and classical guitar plus some terms concerning basic concepts of music theory are listed alphabetically in this section. They are provided with lexical definitions (if available). Each lexeme or phrase is supplemented with a short etymological analysis.

Accidentals The Random house dictionary contains these two definitions of the word “Accidental” concerning music: 1. relating to or indicating sharps, flats, or naturals 2. a sign placed before a note indicating a chromatic alteration of its pitch. The word is of Latin and Middle English origin and it first appeared between 1350 and 1400 (www.dictionary.com) There are three types of accidentals in music: sharps, flats and naturals A “sharp” is defined as: 1. a tone one chromatic half step above a given tone. 2. (in musical notation) the symbol ♯ indicating this. The word is of Middle English and Old English origin and its first appearance is dated before the year 900 (www.dictionary.com) There are several definitions of a “flat” (concerning music) in The Random house dictionary: 1. a tone one chromatic half step below another: The flat of B is B flat. 2. (in musical notation) the character ♭, which when attached to a note or to a staff degree lowers its significance one chromatic half step. 3. to lower (a pitch), especially one half step. 4. below the true pitch: to sing flat. 5. (on keyboard instruments, with reference to any given note) the key next below or to the left. The word first appeared between 1275 and 1325 and is of Middle English and Old Norse origin (www.dictionary.com). A “natural” is defined as: 1. a white key on a piano, organ, or the like.

2. the sign ♮, placed before a note, cancelling the effect of a previous sharp or flat. 3. a note affected by a ♮, or a tone thus represented. The word first appeared between1300 and 1350 and is of Latin, Middle English and Middle French origin (www.dictionary.com). A “sharp” and a “flat” can be considered antonyms as they have opposite effect on the note or tone they are associated with.

Fret “Fret” has many definitions. The most relevant for the topic of this thesis are provided by Merriam-Webster dictionary: 1. one of a series of ridges fixed across the fingerboard of a stringed musical instrument (as a guitar) 2. to press (the strings of a stringed instrument) against the frets The word was used in these meanings in between 1500 and 1600 and is most probably of Middle French origin (Merriam-Webster.com). Another meaning is to equip a guitar with frets while making it. “Open string” can be considered an antonym to the second meaning (fretted note X open string note).

Harmonics There many definitions of the word “harmonic”. We are interested in the two of them that concern guitar technique and can be found in the Merriam-Webster dictionary: 1. a flutelike tone produced on a stringed instrument by touching a vibrating string at a nodal point 2. overtone; especially : one whose vibration frequency is an integral multiple of that of the fundamental (Merriam-Webster.com). According to The Random house dictionary the first use of the word is dated between 1700 and 1710 The word “harmonic” first appeared between 1560 and 1570 is of Latin and Greek origin (www.dictionary.com).

Intervals The Random house dictionary gives one musical definition of the word which states that an “interval” is:

the difference in pitch between two tones, as between two tones sounded simultaneously (harmonic interval) or between two tones sounded successively (melodic interval) The word is of Middle English and Latin origin and first appeared between 1250 and 1300 (www.dictionary.com).

Open string Collins English Dictionary defines “open string” as “a string, such as a violin or guitar string, which is not stopped with the finger” (www.collinsdictionary.com). The word “string” has many definitions. According to The Random house dictionary it first appeared before the year 900 and it is of Middle English and Old English origin (www.dictionary.com).

Pizzicato The Random house dictionary lists two definitions: 1. played by plucking the strings with the finger instead of using the bow, as on a violin. 2. a note or passage so played. The word is of Italian origin and was used for the first time between the years 1835 and 1845 (www.dictionary.com)

Scale The word “scale” has many definitions. Musical sense of this word is defined by Random house dictionary as: a succession of tones ascending or descending according to fixed intervals, especially such a series beginning on a particular note: the major scale of C. The word is of Middle English and Latin origin. It appeared between 1350 and 1400 for the first time (www.dictionary.com).

Staccato The Random house dictionary defines “staccato” as: 1. shortened and detached when played or sung: staccato notes. 2. characterized by performance in which the notes are abruptly disconnected:

a staccato style of playing. The word first appeared between 1715 and 1725 and is of Italian origin (www.dictionary.com). “Staccato” and “legato” can be seen as antonyms as they refer to opposite style of playing (legato means tied together while staccato means separately).

Tablature “Tablature” can be described as: any of various systems of music notation using letters, numbers, or other signs to indicate the strings, frets, keys, etc., to be played The word is of Latin and Middle French origin and it first appeared between 1565 and 1575 (www.dictionary.com)

Tuning There are many relevant definitions of the word “tune” in the Random house dictionary. Only the ones most relevant to the topic of this thesis were chosen: 1. the state of being in the proper pitch: to be in tune. 2. to adjust (a musical instrument) to a correct or given standard of pitch (often followed by up). 3. a succession of musical sounds forming an air or melody, with or without the harmony accompanying it. The word is of Middle English origin and it was used for the first time in between 1350 and 1400 (www.dictionary.com)

3 Practical part

3.1 Classical guitar Spanish (or classical) guitar is an instrument primarily used for playing classical music. The main feature is its round body and a wide neck (for an example of a classical guitar see Appendix 1). It is played directly with fingers and nails. They are so important and characteristic for contemporary classical guitar music that some terms connected to the adjustment of the right hand nails are added at the end of this section. Terms connected to playing classical guitar will be discussed in this chapter. They are arranged in accordance with their meaning (not alphabetically) from the most simple ones to more complex ones.

Fingers of the right hand European school of classical guitar music primarily uses only four fingers of the right hand. Spanish flamenco guitarists or for example contemporary classical guitarists like Czechs Štěpán Rak and Pavel Šteidl use all five fingers but in all traditional guitar schools no little finger is used. Each finger has its abbreviation derived from its denotation in Spanish language. These letters are used throughout the notation to suggest which finger of the right hand should be used while the whole words from a particular language can be found in commentaries and methodical explanations. “This exercise involves moving the thumb from string to string” (Tennant 57). The following table contains the sign, Spanish, English and Czech equivalents.

Sign Spanish denotation English denotation Czech denotation p pulgar thumb palec i indice index finger / forefinger ukazovák m medio middle finger prostředník a anular ring finger prsteník e / c extremo / chiquito little finger / pinkie malíček Table 1 – Right hand finger marks and their Spanish, English and Czech equivalents.

Fingers of the left hand Numerals are used as signs for fingers of the left hand. “1” stands for index finger, “2” for middle finger, “3” for ring finger and “4” for little finger. Thumb has no number as it rests

on the other side of the neck of the guitar and is not used in traditional European classical guitar school. The numbers can be quite confusing for pianists (numerals 1 – 5 are used for both right and left hands because both thumbs are used).

Rest stroke “Rest stroke” is a right hand technique used for tone production. One finger plucks a string and then rests on the adjacent one. Simultaneously another finger goes above the string in preparation for the next tone (so the stroke starts above a string). In Czech this technique is sometimes called střídavý úhoz (“alternating stroke”) – the fingers alternate. The Czech equivalent for the rest stroke is literary úhoz dopadem (“stroke by falling”). The Czech denotation emphasizes only the fact that the finger should fall down or land on the adjacent string while there is an indication of the need of relaxation of the finger in the English denotation. Rest means not only to lay down but also to relax. This is exactly what needs to be done, should the technique be executed in the right way. Therefore the denotation in English seems to be more precise.

Free stroke “Free stroke” is another right hand technique used for tone production. The main difference between this and the former one is the fact that the latter starts on the string (not above it). The Czech equivalent úhoz bez dopadu or úhoz volný (“stroke without landing/falling”) is very similar in meaning to English denotation. Both emphasize the fact that the finger does neither land nor rest on any string but is directed toward the palm and then back to the vicinity of the string. Tennant sees the free stroke as “a rest stroke with follow- through” (35). The fingers do alternate as well but in a different way (than in the case of rest stroke). The next finger is “planted” to a string in preparation for the next tone (c.f. Planting).

Arpeggio “Arpeggio” is a term used for playing chords sequentially i.e. the tones are played individually – one by one. The word itself comes from Italian and means “played on a harp”. Czech equivalent would be rozložený akord (a “broken chord”) but the word “arpeggio” is used in Czech too even with the same spelling. As for the execution of the technique it is done by all the fingers of the right hand in a quick sequence to achieve high speed. It is in fact a series of free strokes. The most common sequence is p i m a but any series of chords that are played sequentially can be referred to as “arpeggios”.

Tremolo Tremolo is another right hand technique. It is achieved by a very fast repetition of the same tone. The Czech equivalent is again the same word with the same spelling. The speed is again achieved by sequencing free strokes of all fingers of right hand. The most common sequence is p a m i.

Rasgueado “Rasgueado” is a drum-like sound achieved by strumming or hitting three or more strings at the same time with the back of the nail of your finger or fingers. Tennant describes this technique as being “really more percussive effect than a strum” (44). The basic form is played from the palm outwards (the opposite direction of both rest and free strokes). More complex rasgueados are played by combination of down strokes and up strokes as well as combination of fingers of right hand. This technique is very characteristic for Spanish Flamenco guitar. As for the Czech equivalent of the denotation it is again the same with the same spelling.

Planting Another right hand technique is called “planting”. A finger (or fingers) are prepared on a string (or strings) in advance – right after the previous tone or tones.“Planting simply involves preparing, or placing, a fingertip on a string accurately enough to execute a stroke” (Tennant 35). The result of this technique is not only more stability of the whole hand but also better tone production possibility (“fatter” tone – the finger pushes the string towards the soundboard before plucking it which causes more vibration to the instrument).Continuality to the whole movement is secured by planting (that is why it is used in arpeggios). There are two kinds of this technique: “full” (more fingers are planted at the same time) and “sequential” (one finger is planted immediately after another has plucked a string). The Czech equivalent is příprava (“preparation”). Czech term for “full plating” is současná příprava (“simultaneous preparation”) and it emphasizes the fact that two or more fingers touch the string at the same time. “Sequential planting” translates as následná příprava (“following preparation”) and it emphasizes that one finger comes after another. These two terms are similarly precise even though each language connotes a different thing. The English “plant” is more precise because it suggests the stability of the movement or at least its beginning.

Ascending slur “Ascending slur” is a left hand technique. The tone is produced by hammering a string on the fretboard with a finger of a left hand (i.e. without any assistance of right hand).Tennant understands ascending slur as a quick and clean snap of the finger onto the string (12). The notes played this way sound without any break between them. This technique is called “legato” in both English and Czech languages. It is an Italian word for “bound”. The Czech equivalent is vázaně (“tied” or “bound”) or the word legato is used. In the case of ascending slur it would be legato vzestupné (“ascending legato”). The English word “slur” suggests that the notes should be played as running to each other and even connotes certain unclearness. But the notes must be played very clearly and accurately if the technique is to be executed in the right manner. Denotations legato or hammer on (c.f. Hammer on in the section “Rock guitar”) are therefore more precise.

Descending slur Descending slur is another left hand technique. The tone is produced by plucking the string with a finger of a left hand (i.e. without any assistance of right hand). According to Tennant the finger pulls downwards and into the next string creating a kind of left hand rest stroke (13). This results in legato playing (the notes are played in a smooth and flowing manner without any breaks between them). The Czech equivalent legato sestupné (“descending legato”) and “pull off”– another English denotation – are more precise as they do not suggest either unclearness or inaccuracy (c.f. Pull off in the section “Rock guitar”). Both ascending and descending slurs can be used separately or combined together. They are also used for playing two or more notes in quick succession or to play ornaments (embellishments).

Sul ponticello “Sul ponticello” is not a technique in the literal sense of the word. It is a manner of playing determined by the placement of the right hand – in this case very near the bridge. It changes the timbre (colour) of the tone to a very sharp and piercing one. The phrase is Italian and its Czech equivalent is u kobylky (“near the bridge”). The designation found in notation is “pont.” and it is common for all string instruments. In Czech ostrý rejstřík (“sharp register”) is sometimes used which connotes the character of the sound. Another Czech term is tvrdý rejstřík (“hard register”) because the

strings have the most tension and resistance near the bridge and so they may seem or feel hard.

Sul tasto “Sul tasto” is the opposite of “sul ponticello”. Resulting in very soft and rounded tone this way of playing is achieved by placing right hand as far as above the fretboard. The Czech equivalent měkký rejstřík (“soft register”) is derived from the character of the sound. Both “sul ponticello” and “sul tasto” are used in Czech as well.

Vibrato “Vibrato” is a left hand technique that is used while playing long tones and can be used to prolong the duration of the tone itself. It is an effect produced by shifting the weight of the left hand – a quick, regular and repetitive movement from one side to the other while holding the finger at the same place. The result is slight and regular change of the pitch of the tone. This manner of vibrato is sometimes referred to as the “violin vibrato” as it is used on fretless string instruments like for example violin (c.f. vibrato in the section Rock guitar). The advantage of violin vibrato is the fact that you can use this technique to “vibrate” more than one tone at the same time. The word itself comes from Italian word for “vibrate” and is used in Czech as well as English language.

Nail The material of the strings of Spanish guitar is nylon because they are played directly with fingers and nails which would not endure repeated strokes of metal strings. “Obviously classical guitar employs use of the right hand fingernails to pluck the strings which would not last very long if you plucked an electric or steel-string guitar” (Sharken 84). According to Scott Tennant there are several reasons for playing with nails. It helps to control and secure the string and enhance the volume and tone (30). Nail is the upmost part of a finger. Together with the finger tip it is the very place where the tone production of the right hand takes place. Its length, shape and also firmness are important. The Czech equivalent nehet is used for fingernails as well as toenails. The file or a polisher is used when adjusting the shape and length of your right-hand fingernails. The hedges should be as smooth as possible to diminish the friction between the nail and the string (it also makes the nail more durable). As for you left-hand finger nails – you have to keep

them very short to be able to press the strings with your fingertips.

3.2 Classical guitar terms – analysis The English terms concerning classical guitar were analyzed on the level of individual words. They belong to three word classes and can be divided into: adjectives, nouns and adverbs. The following graph shows the percentage of each element in the vocabulary:

Word classes - English terms Adverbs 12%

Adjectives 35%

Nouns 53%

Graph 1 – Percentage of adjectival, verbal, nominal and adverbial element – English terms concerning Classical guitar.

Their Czech equivalents belong to the same three word classes but with a different percentage:

Word classes - Czech terms

Adverbs Adjectives 10% 14%

Nouns 76%

Graph 2 - Percentage of adjectival, verbal, nominal and adverbial element – Czech terms concerning Classical guitar.

The comparison of the English and Czech equivalents shows that they are quite equal in the number of individual words per term or phrase but the number of individual words is slightly higher in case of English lexicon. Further examination reveals that it is due to the fact that the English denotations of the right hand fingers consist of two-word phrases while Czech denotations (and Spanish as well) are single words. Attributive position is characteristic for the adjectives in English terms (e.g. rest stroke, free stroke) which corresponds to postpositive position of adjectives in the Czech denotations (e.g. úhoz dopadem, úhoz volný). Etymological analysis reveals that the English terms concerning classical guitar originate in Italian, Latin, Spanish, Middle French and Old and Middle English. The following graph shows the percentage of individual languages that had influenced the English terminology of classical guitar.

Word origins - English terms Middle French Spanish 4% 4%

Italian 21%

Latin 12% Old English 46% Middle English 13%

Graph 3 – Origins of individual words plus their percentage in each language (for the list of the words see Appendix 4).

Oldest words are known to be first used before the year 900 (the terms that originated in Old English) and the words that are used for the shortest period of time would probably be “tremolo” or “vibrato” (firstly used in this sense in the beginning of the 19th century).

3.3 Rock Guitar Electric (or rock, jazz) guitar is mainly used for playing these two genres of music. Rock guitars are usually flat and their body can have many different shapes (from the most common stratocaster shape to a machine gun shaped one). Jazz guitars on the other hand have round body – they are more similar to the classical ones in this respect (for an example of an electric guitar see Appendix 2). The neck of the instrument is narrower and the material of the strings is steel (or magnetic alloys). That is why the pick is used although fingers can be used as well. Nails would not last long so alternatives have to be used: artificial nails, fingerpicks or you can just shorten your nails and play without them. Terms connected to playing electric (rock) guitar will be discussed in this chapter. Those mentioned in the previous chapter will be omitted. Those common for both types of the instrument will be discussed in the next chapter. Majority of the terms come from English and they are sometimes used in their original form in the Czech language as well in other languages.

Pick / flatpick (plectrum) A “pick” is a piece of plastic held between your right hand thumb and index finger in order to produce a tone. In its most common form it is shaped like a drop or tear and it is flat. But there are many kinds and shapes of picks (e.g. a three pointed pick used for picking or strumming nylon strings). A number of things can be used as a pick (for example the guitarist of The Queen Brian May used a coin instead of a pick). The Czech equivalent is trsátko (“plectrum” or “strummer”) as it is used for picking or strumming the strings (c.f. strumming).

Picking “Picking” is a right hand technique. In its broadest sense it can refer to playing with fingers (i.e. “finger picking” – a series of free strokes or arpeggios used mainly as an accompaniment for songs) or with a pick/plectrum –“flatpicking”. The third possibility is the combination of fingers and plectrum – “hybrid picking”. The right hand which plucks the strings (either with a flatpick or fingers) is sometimes referred to as “picking hand” for example Nolan and Gill suggest that we should check our picking hand and think of it only as a pick holder – the only motion is from the wrist (8, 5).

Finger picking “Finger picking” can be translated as vybrnkávání (“plucking with fingers”) and then it refers to guitar accompaniment to a song (used in folk music). This technique consists of a series of rest strokes (usually a repetitive pattern) while holding basic chords with your left hand. The English word “pick” is a synonym to brnknout (“pluck”) in Czech. This English equivalent suggests that if the technique of the rest stroke is to be executed properly, the finger should “pick the tone up” (in Czech sebrat) from the string (which signifies movement towards the palm). Tennant suggests that, “When a finger moves straight back into the palm, it is actually moving over a healthy portion of the string surface which enhances the tone” (34). Therefore the English “pick” is more precise than the Czech word brnknout (“pluck”) which suggests only resonating the string with a finger of the right hand.

Flatpicking “Flatpicking” (or just “picking”) is a right hand technique. While producing a tone with a pick there are two kinds of strokes: “up stroke” and “down stroke”. “Alternate picking” means down stroke followed by up stroke followed by down stroke and so on. The Czech terms are: úhoz dolů (“down stroke”), úhoz nahoru (“up stroke”) and střídavý úhoz (“alternate picking”). Very fast alternate picking can produce a tremolo effect (done with a pick). The Czech equivalent of flat picking is úhoz trsátkem (“stroke with a strummer”). They are both similarly precise. “Sweep picking” is a term used for both down and up stroke but two or more strings in a row are plucked at the same direction. According to Nolan and Gill “sweep picking is the technique where your pick moves in one direction across a set of strings; it is the opposite technique of alternate picking” (22). Arpeggios are played this way with a pick as this is the fastest way how to cross the strings (alternate picking requires much more movement). This technique has no precise equivalent in the Czech language – the same term is used or it is referred to as simple úhoz nahoru (“up stroke”) or úhoz dolů (“down stroke”) depending on the direction of the stroke. The English term is more precise as “sweep” suggests that more strings are crossed in one movement while the Czech equivalent tells us only about the direction of the stroke.

Strumming “Strumming” is another right hand technique. It is in fact picking more than one string at a time (usually all six) with alternating down stroke and up stroke (wide range movement). In Mel Bay’s Glossary of guitar terms strumming is defined as “Performed with a pick or the fingers. Generally consists of brushing across 2-6 strings in a rhythmic up and down fashion appropriate to the tune being played” (melbay.com). The Czech equivalent for strumming is trsání and it is derived from the Czech word trsátko (“a pick”) and its most common usage for down and up strokes. This technique is the most notoriously known to the public and it is also the one that any beginning guitar player wants to learn as it is used as an accompaniment for singing. As for precision the English term seems to be more appropriate – it includes the tendency of noisiness when strumming all six strings of the guitar (“strum” also means to “bang out”).

Palm muting “Palm muting” is a right hand technique. The edge of a hand is palced near the bridge directly on the strings during strumming or plucking. As a result the strings resonate less and the tone is not sustained as much. Nolan and Gill have argued that muting means resting the picking hand near or at the bridge of the guitar which anchors the picking hand and results in its greater stability (22). This technique is very typical for metal and heavy metal guitarists. Usually one, two or three strings are muted at the same time and that is in fact one of the reasons for using “power chords” (c.f. power chord at the end of this section) because these are most commonly played on no more than two or three strings. The advantage of this technique is the anchor that is provided by the hand placement – it ensures the usage of the wrist joint (and its relaxation) which is exactly the place where any flatpicking technique should originate when executed in the right manner. The Czech equivalent for muted is tlumené tóny (“muffled tones”). It reflects the fact that the hand covers the strings while the English equivalent speaks of the resulting character of the tone. Both terms seem to be similarly precise while suggesting slightly different thing. None of the terms suggests anything about the right execution of the technique.

Bending “Bending” is a left hand technique. One or more fingers of the left hand are used to press the string against the fretboard and then push it upwards or downwards thus changing the pitch of the produced tone. The pitch can be changed in various ways depending on how

much the string is actually curved – the more it is bent the higher the tone gets – from a “half tone” (or “half step”) bend to “two tone” (or “two step”) bend. A “two step bend” means that the resulting tone sounds two whole steps higher (e.g. C transforms to E) which requires quite a strength in your finger (two or more are usually used together). It also depends on the thickness of the strings and the actual tuning – the lower the strings are tuned the easier it is to bend them. Patrick MacFarlane describes how to execute a bend in three steps: 1. Fret the first note. 2. Pluck the string. 3. Without raising your finger off the fretboard, slide it vertically up or down (parallel to the fret). Bend until you hit the target pitch, which is the second note. (guitarlessonworld.com) This technique is very common in playing solos in rock music. Releasing the string can be added. “Release” means to change the pitch back to the initial tone. Sometimes legato is played by quick bend plus release. This technique produces similar effect in pitch change as the combination of ascending and descending slurs (hammer on plus pull off) but the border between the tones is not so obvious and accurate. The pitch seems to change continuously when a bend is used while it changes all at once with the slurs. The Czech equivalent for bending strings is vytahování or natahování strun (“pushing up” or “stretching” strings). The pitch changes with the tension of the string – the higher the tension the higher the pitch. The strings are in fact tuned by stretching to a proper tension (so that they vibrate on the right frequency). Thus the Czech vytahování (“stretch”) seems to be more accurate than English verb “bend” (ohnout) because while we push the string up we change the tension and thus the frequency (pitch).

Hammer on A “hammer on” is a left hand technique. It is in fact another denotation for “ascending slur” (c.f. ascending slur in the section Classical guitar). The string is struck with a fingertip and “hammered on” or “nailed to” (thus the Czech term příklep) the fretboard. The Czech equivalent is quite close to the English one as both of them describe this tone production technique quite precisely.

Pull off A “pull off” is another left hand technique. It is another denotation for “descending

slur” (c.f. descending slur in the section Classical guitar). The string is “pulled off” (thus the Czech term odtah) by a finger of the left hand. To execute the technique in the right manner you need to press the string slightly into the fretboard and then pull it off downwards which enhances the sound and ensures clear articulation of the pull off. Neither the Czech term odtah nor the English “pull off” reflects that particular feature of the well-executed technique but they both describe the execution quite precisely.

Slide The word “slide” has two meanings. Firstly it is used as a denotation for a left hand technique of producing a tone by a smooth movement (from one fret to another) on the fretboard while keeping the pressure on the string (and thus changing the pitch). This technique can be referred to as “glissando” if performed by a finger or fingers of the left hand. The Czech term for this technique is skluz (“slide down”) but the pitch can be changed to a lower as well as higher tone. The English and Czech equivalents have the same meanings so they can be considered similar in precision. The English word “slide” is in fact more common than Czech skluz. The second meaning is the denotation of the actual thing that is used for playing these “slides”. It is a glass or metal tube that is put on the little finger or ring finger of the left hand and then moved up and down the fretboard (the actual direction is from the right to the left side and vice versa) to produce a very characteristic sound. The famous blues guitarist Muddy Waters is known for usage of this technique and guitar accessory. Initially just the bottle necks were used. “Earlier glass slide were homemade and created from the tops of wine bottles” (Wyatt 4). Nowadays you can buy slides made of metal or glass.

Vibrato “Vibrato” is a left hand technique. This effect is achieved by a series of very quick and short bends upwards and downwards. The disadvantage of this kind of vibrato is that you cannot effectively vibrate more than one string at a time. For vibrating the whole chord (more than one string) a “violin vibrato” (c.f. vibrato in the section Classical guitar) must be used or vibrato bar (an electric guitar accessory that pushes up the bridge of the instrument thus changing the tension and pitch of the strings) can substitute for it. The word itself comes from Italian and it is used both in Czech and English language (c.f. vibrato in the section Classical guitar).

Tapping In this technique right hand is used in the same or similar manner as left hand - it is a combined technique. In its most basic form, the string is hammered on and then pulled off by the right hand thus plucking the string and producing the tone held by left hand. The denotation reflects the fact that the right hand taps the tones on the fretboard. This technique is used in combination with hammer-ons and pull-offs of the left hand to play sequences of very fast tones. Baxter suggests that, “The right hand tapping is the practice of adding hammer-ons and pull-offs using one or more fingers of the right hand (an approach that is usually used in conjunction with left-handed legato playing)“ (Baxter 90). Thanks to the usage of both hands directly on the fretboard much wider tone range is possible (this way tones that would have to be played on two or more strings can be played on just one with the right hand on the right side of the fretboard and left hand on the left). The denotation is used in both English and Czech language – there is no equivalent in Czech. The denotation is derived from the execution of the technique itself (i. e. manner in which the fingers produce the tones).

Distortion / Gain “Distortion” is not a technique but a term connected most closely to rock music. It is a sound produced by guitar effects (accessory that you plug between your guitar and amplifier or some modern amplifiers can have this effect built-in). This is the thing that makes the rock guitar sound different from the clean guitar sound (used in jazz or country music). There are many more effects but this one is the most characteristic for the rock sound. Sokolow describes distortion as “the fuzzy, screaming guitar sound associated with loud rock and metal. It can be produced by electronic effects or by turning up an amplifier (especially a tube amp) so loud that the speakers “break up” or distort the sound” (Sokolow 71). The Czech equivalent zkreslení is the literal translation of English “distortion” and both terms are very accurate – the resulting sound is so much different from the clean one (or natural in case of Spanish guitar) that usage of the “power chords” is not an option but a necessity (c.f. Power chords). In some cases of heavy metal distortions any other tone added to the clean fifth or octave would ruin the whole sound of the chord. The word “gain” is used alternatively for distortion and it reflects the fact that the sound is much more majestic and massive (it gained proportions). The Czech equivalent zkrelsení does not reflect this characteristic.

Power chords “Power chords” are chords (or their parts to be more precise) used in rock music mainly because of the distorted sound. They consist of a perfect fifth – a “half power chord” or of a perfect fifth plus a perfect octave – a “full power chord” (c.f. Intervals in the section Common terms). No third is included because of its dissonant character (it would change the sound of the chord). These have two main advantages for rock guitarists: firstly they are easy to play (only 2 fingers are needed for the basic form) and they can substitute for both major and minor chords (they have no third which is exactly the thing that makes the chord major or minor). The Czech equivalent consists of the same adjective and literal translation of the word chord i.e. power akordy. We can consider the two denotations similarly precise.

3.4 Rock guitar terms – analysis The English terms concerning rock guitar were analyzed on the level of individual words. They belong to three word classes and can be divided into nouns, verbs and prepositions. The following graph shows the percentage of each element in the vocabulary:

Word classes - English terms Prepositions Verbs 9% 9%

Nouns 82%

Graph 1 – Percentage of prepositional, verbal and nominal element – English terms concerning Rock guitar.

Their Czech equivalents belong to two word classes (verbs and nouns):

Word classes - Czech terms Verbs 6%

Nouns 94%

Graph 2 - Percentage of nominal and verbal element – Czech terms concerning Rock guitar.

The comparison of the English and Czech equivalents shows that the number of all the words together is approximately the same but the number of individual words per term or

phrase is different. Further examination reveals that the English terms are sometimes more concise than their Czech equivalents (e.g. flatpicking X vybrnkávání prsty) but they are sometimes formed by two-word phrases (e.g. hammer on / pull off) while their Czech equivalents are single words (e.g. příklep / odtah). But in many cases the denotations are identical i.e. the English terms are used in Czech (e.g. sweep picking). This is very typical for rock guitar phraseology. Etymological analysis reveals that the English rock guitar terms originate in Latin, Middle French, Old French or Middle English and Old English. None of the terms in question originates from Spanish or Italian. The following graph shows the percentage of individual languages that had influenced the English rock guitar terminology.

Word origins - English terms

Old French Middle French 10% 10% Latin 16%

Old English 32%

Middle English 32%

Graph 3 – Origins of individual words plus their percentage in each language (for the list of the words see Appendix 4).

Oldest words are known to be first used before the year 900 (the terms that originated in Old English) and the word that is used for the shortest period of time would probably be “slide-guitar” from 1968. The words themselves are old and used for a long time but the rock guitar terms are young as is the musical genre.

3.5 Common Terms Terms connected to both rock and classical guitar are discussed in this chapter. Some phrases concerning basics of musical theory were also included because of the references in the previous section. Another reason for mentioning them is to make the whole text more understandable for non-musicians. The first part of this section deals with the guitar itself the second with musical theory.

Harmonics Playing “harmonics” concerns both left and right hand. It is an effect created by placing a finger onto a certain place on a string (while plucking it with another finger or pick) in order to produce a tone a certain degree higher than the original one would sound. This degree is dependent on the actual place on the string where the finger (or fingers) is placed. The actual pitch can be predicted according to the rules of physics. There are two basic forms of harmonics: a “natural” and “artificial” one. A “natural harmonic” is produced when the finger of the left hand is just placed above a fret onto a string without any pressure while plucking it with the right hand (finger or pick). This way only certain harmonics can be produced. An “artificial harmonic” is achieved when you fret the string with your left hand (in the same way you would normally do it to produce any tone) while placing the index finger of the right hand above the fret an octave higher on the same string (without any pressure) and pluck the string with the thumb or ring finger of the right hand. This way (when you move both hands accordingly) any harmonic can be produced. Artificial harmonics can be also produced with a pick. The string must be plucked by a very little piece of it (and in fact muffled immediately with the thumb of the right hand). Just a “pinch of a pick” is used and that is why this technique is called “pinch harmonic”. This technique is possible only in combination with distortion (c.f. distortion in the section Rock guitar). The Czech equivalent of “harmonics” is flažolety, flažoletové tóny (“flageolet tones”). It is derived from the character of the sound (it reminds the woodwind instrument called flageolet). In this respect the English term is much more precise as it suggests the connection with harmony and aliquot tones. That is exactly what harmonics are. The “natural harmonic” stands for přirozený flažolet (“natural flageolet”) and it is a literal translation. The word natural (přirozený) refers to the fact that this kind of harmonic is fundamental and it comes from the physical properties of the open string – it occurs on a certain length or distance of the string (with two anchor points – one at the bridge and one at

the tuning peg or more precisely the nut). In case of “artificial harmonic” (umělý flažolet) is this certain length of the string “artificially” created by the distance of the fretting finger and the index finger of the right hand. The terms are in fact literal translations and therefore can be considered similarly precise. The same denotation (artificial harmonic) can be used for “pinch harmonic”. In this case the English term is much more precise as it tells us something about the actual execution of the technique. Another Czech term for “pinch harmonic” is falešný flažolet (“false” or “fake”) harmonic. It refers to the fact that thus created harmonic is not the natural one.

Fret This word has two meanings. The first one is the actual wire that divides the fretboard into individual halftones. As Drozdowski points out, “Pressing a string against a fret reduces the vibrating length of that string to the distance between the pressure point and the bridge, thereby controlling pitch” (Ted Drozdowski). The Czech equivalent is a literal translation (pražec). The second meaning is the actual technique of pressing the string against the fretboard (or a fret to be more precise) with a finger of the left hand. According to MacFarlane “Fretting a note is one of the most basic skills for playing the guitar“ (MacFarlane). There is no equivalent for this word in Czech, fretting would translate as “pressing” (mačkání) the strings. The English word is much more precise as it uses the actual denotation as a verb. It also refers to the fact that it is the “fret” that interacts with the string and changes the pitch.

Open string “Open string” is a term referring to playing a note on a string without fretting it with a finger of the left hand. It is an opposite of a fretted note (c.f. fret). The Czech equivalent is prázdná struna (“empty string”) and it reflects the fact that no finger of the left hand is used. The English word “open” suggests that wider portion of the string is used which is also right because whenever a tone is “fretted” it shortens the length of the resonating string so the strings resonate “most openly” when not fretted at all. That is why both denotations can be considered similarly precise while each connoting a slightly different thing.

Pizzicato “Pizzicato” is a right hand technique. It can be seen as a classical guitar palm muting (c.f. palm muting in the section Rock guitar) and that is one of the reasons why it is included

in this section. In its basic form this technique is executed by resting the edge of the right hand palm very near the bridge of the guitar thus muting a string or strings while plucking tem with a finger or fingers of the right hand. The word itself comes from Italian refers to playing a bowed string instrument (like violin or double bass for example) by plucking the strings directly with fingers (as opposed to using a bow). The Czech equivalent is the same word with the mark “pizz.” used throughout notation. It can be translated as “by plucking” (drnkavě) which refers to the family of “plucked string instruments” (drnkací strunné nástroje) containing guitar, lute, banjo, harp or harpsichord and other string instruments played by plucking the strings with fingers or a plectrum.

Staccato “Staccato” is more a way of playing than a playing technique. It refers to playing very short tones and is achieved by dampening the string or strings shortly after plucking it. It can be done either with a finger or fingers of the right hand (by placing them back on the string or strings) or by placing stretched finger or fingers of the left hand across the strings on the fretboard (thus preventing them from vibrating). In case of rock guitar the edge of the right hand palm is most likely to be used to dampen the strings (because the fingers are busy holding the pick) or the stretched fingers of the left hand as mentioned above. The combination of the right and left hand dampening with strong strokes of a pick is sometimes referred to as “choppy phrasing” (i.e. extreme staccato). The word “staccato” is used in both English and Czech in its original form. It comes from Italian and it means “separate”. “Choppy phrasing” can be translated literally (sekané tóny) but only the word “staccato” is used in most cases in Czech language. The mark for “staccato” is a dot above or below a note (as opposed to a dot after a note which marks augmentation of the note to one and a half of its original value).

Intervals “Interval” is a musical distance between two tones. Bolt in his Music theory for the rock guitarist states that, “The distance in pitch between two notes is an ˊInterval. ˋ” (35). According to this distance there are 8 basic intervals: a “unison” or a “prime” (the same tone), a “second” (the first and the second tone of a major scale), a “third” (the first and the third tones of a major scale) then a “fourth”, a “fifth”, a “sixth”, a “seventh” and an “octave” all derived from a major scale degrees (c.f. Scale in the section Common Terms). There are two

basic types of intervals – “perfect” and “major”. Another three types “minor”, “diminished” and “augmented” are created by altering the basic ones. The Czech equivalents are derived from the Latin ordinal numbers (prima, sekunda, tercie, kvarta, kvinta sexta, septima, oktáva) while the English denotations are in fact English ordinal numbers except for “unison/prime” and “octave” that are derived from Latin as well. Czech basic intervals are divided into “clear” (čisté) which is an equivalent for English “perfect” and “major” in the sense of “grand” or “big” (velké). Perfect intervals include a unison, a fourth, a fifth and an octave. The English denotation “perfect” as well as the Czech denotation “clear” refer to the acoustic properties. The intervals in question are not dissonant at all – they sound perfectly clear. They are “consonant” – the tones sound “together” or in accordance with each other. That is why the Czech denotation “clear intervals” seems to be more precise than the English “perfect intervals”. The remaining ones: a second, a third, a sixth and a seventh are more “dissonant”. The dissonant tones seem to sound “against each other” (unlike consonant ones). In Czech they are referred to as “grand” (velké) which is not as precise as the English “major”. This English denotation does not only reflect the character of the sound but it also reflects the fact that these intervals occur in the major scale (c.f. scale). The English denotation “major intervals” can be considered more precise than the Czech “grand/big” (velké) intervals. Derived intervals are created by altering the distance in pitch between the two tones. By making the distance of the tones in both prefect and major intervals greater “augmented intervals” are created. The Czech equivalent is a literal translation (zvětšené). By making the distance between the tones of the perfect intervals smaller “diminished intervals” are created. The Czech denotation is again a literal translation (zmenšené). These two denotations (“augmented” and “diminished”) can therefore be considered similarly precise both in Czech and English language. With the shortening of the distance between the tones of “major intervals” something different happens. When the distance between the tones of a major interval is made smaller first “minor intervals” are created and then (when making the minor interval smaller) the diminished intervals are created. The Czech equivalent for “minor intervals” is malé intervaly (“small intervals”). This denotation does not seem to be as much precise as the English one which suggests that the “minor intervals” are to be found in “minor scale” (c.f. scale) which is exactly right. That is why the English denotation can be considered more precise.

Scale “Scale” is a certain sequence of tones arranged from the lowest one to the highest. In this sense the Czech equivalent is the literal translation (stupnice). There are two basic kinds of scales in European music – “major” (durová) and “minor” (mollová). A major scale contains all perfect and major intervals. The most well-known scale is C-major (C, D, E, F, G, A, B/H, C) and it is sometimes called “musical alphabet” because many things (including other scales) are derived from it. In Czech musical theory the tone “H” is used for the seventh degree of the scale while in American and British notation the denotation for the same tone is “B”. This can be confusing for Czech musicians as “B” stands for “H flat” in German notation (c.f. Accidentals). In its broader sense “scale” can also refer to playing melody-like passage as opposed to playing arpeggios or chord-like passages (c.f. Arpeggio in the section Classical guitar).

Accidentals “Accidentals” are marks that are used for changing the pitch of a tone a half-step higher or lower (“half-step” or “half-tone/semitone” is the smallest distance in music). There are two kinds of accidentals: “sharp” – changes the pitch to a higher one and “flat” – changes the pitch to a lower one. They both can be doubled (“double sharp” / “double flat”) and then they change the pitch of the tone for two half-tones (i.e. one “whole tone”). A “natural” cancels a sharp or a flat. The accidentals written immediately after a “cleft” (the sign in the beginning of each line) are valid for the whole line while those written throughout notation are valid for one bar only. The following table contains the marks of accidentals and their English and Czech equivalents.

Sign English denotation Czech denotation ♯ / X (or ♯♯) sharp / double sharp křížek / dvojkřížek ♭ / ♭♭ flat / double flat béčko / dvojbéčko

♮ / ♮♮ natural / double natural odrážka / dvojodrážka Table 2 – Accidentals with their English and Czech equivalents

The Czech names for accidentals are derived from their actual shape křížek (“cross”) for a “sharp” and béčko (“be”) for a “flat”. The Czech equivalent of a “natural” (odrážka) suggests that it cancels the sharp or flat (literally “bounces it off”). The English denotations

suggest that a “sharp” should be played in a slightly higher pitch than a “flat” when they are used for marking the same tone. For example C sharp is the same tone as D flat but should be played in a slightly higher than D flat. This is exactly right in case of “just intonation” or přirozené ladění (“natural tuning”) in Czech. Therefore the English denotations can be considered more precise than their Czech equivalents.

Tuning “Tuning” is the act of adjusting the strings of the instrument to the right tension so that they resonate on the desired frequencies. The most common form of tuning with four perfect fourths and one major third (c.f. Intervals in the section Common terms) is referred to as “standard tuning”. There are many other kinds of tunings. One or more strings are tuned to a higher or lower pitch thus enabling different grips to be used and different sounds to be created. “Dropped D tuning” is the most notoriously known to heavy metal players. With this tuning a “full power chord” (c.f. Power chord in the section Rock guitar) can be played with just one finger instead of three which allows much faster shifts of the left hand. “Open tuning” is achieved when all the strings of the guitar are tuned to create a chord (the sound which would otherwise require assistance of the left hand fretting the strings). The fact that the open strings (c.f. Open string) are enough to play a chord is expressed by this denotation. The Czech equivalent (otevřené ladění) is a literal translation of the English one and it draws from exactly that fact. For “dropped D tuning” the equivalent podlazené E nebo D (“lowered E or D”) is used (E is the original string that is lowered to D). Taking the fact that the Czech prázdná struna (“empty string”) is used for English “open string” the English denotations can be considered more precise than the Czech ones.

Tablature In its broadest sense the word “tablature” refers to a form of notation used for Lute music. “Guitar tablature” is essentially another staff with an extra line added below the standard notation. There is a line for each string of a guitar (lower lines for bass strings and higher lines for melodic strings) with numbers. The numbers marks the frets that should be pressed on each string. The tablature can be used as an aid (together with standard notation) or separately with other signs above it that determine the longitude of each tone. The Czech equivalent is a literal translation (tabulatura).

The advantage of the “tablature” is that it is always clear on which string the note should be played. Its disadvantage is its inability to capture more complex rhythmic structures. Nevertheless it is considered a very useful tool by guitarists not willing to learn the standard notation that it has earned its place as a last item of this section (for an example of rock guitar notation with tablature see Appendix 3).

3.6 Common terms – analysis The English common terms (concerning both rock and classical guitar plus a few general terms from the theory of music) were analyzed on the level of individual words. They belong to three word classes and can be divided into: nouns, adjectives and verbs. The following graph shows the percentage of each element in the vocabulary:

Word classes - English terms

Adjectives Verbs 17% 8%

Nouns 75%

Graph 1 – Percentage of verbal, adjectival and nominal element – Common terms (English)

Their Czech equivalents belong to four word classes (verbs, nouns, adjectives and adverbs):

Word classes - Czech terms

Adverbs 22% Adjectives 7%

Nouns 64%

Verbs 7%

Graph 2 - Percentage of nominal and verbal element – Common terms (Czech)

The comparison of the English and Czech equivalents shows that the number of all words is again almost the same. Even the number of individual words in each phrase is similar with the exception of the verb “fret” which corresponds to Czech zmáčknout strunu. Czech language does not share the advantage of English in using some nouns as verbs. Etymological analysis reveals that the English common terms in question originate in Old French, Old English, Latin, Middle English, French and Italian. None of the terms in question originates from Spanish. The following graph shows the percentage of individual languages that had influenced the English rock guitar terminology.

Word origins - English terms

French Italian 9% 18%

Old French Latin 28% 9%

Middle English 18% Old English 18%

Graph 3 – Origins of individual words plus their percentage in each language (for the list of the words see Appendix 4).

Oldest words from this section are known to be first used in 13th century (the terms that originated in Old English) and the word that is used for the shortest period of time would probably be “accidentals” as it has been used in the musical sense since the year 1868.

3.7 Glossary of terms – Classical guitar This thesis is also meant as a tool for improving communication among guitarists during master classes. That is why this glossary has been included. The terms concerning Rock guitar are omitted because they are quite commonly used in Czech language in their English form. Not all the terms mentioned in the sections Classical guitar and Common terms are included - I have collected the lexicon during translation of the book Pumping Nylon – Easy to intermediate repertoire by Scott Tennant. It is an extension of the book Pumping Nylon (by the same author) which is cited on many occasions in the Classical guitar chapter. The book has been very popular with students of guitar throughout the world and it contains many great ideas. That is why I have decided to include the glossary in this thesis as well. It could become an aid for anyone interested in either of the books or anyone interested in a quick view into the world of classical guitar lexicon. For a better transparency the lexicon is organized in both alphabetic and thematic order.

Alphabetic listing:

Accent – přízvuk Fingertip – špička prstu

Adjacent – sousední, přilehlý Flex – ohnout

Adjust – přizpůsobit Follow – následovat, dodržovat

Alternate – střídat Follow-through – dotažení švihu

Arpeggio – rozložené hraní akordu Free stroke – úhoz volný

Ascending slur – stoupající legato (příklep) Fret – pražec, políčko; zmáčknout strunu

Attentive – pozorný Full plant – „plný“ návrat (návrat více prstů současně) Balance – rovnováha, vyvážit, vyrovnat Guide finger shift – změna polohy prstu Bar – takt, taktová čára (výměna polohy)

Burst – výbuch Hammer on – příklep (stoupající legato)

Commensurate – úměrný, odpovídající Harmony – souzvuk, soulad

Depress – stlačit High – horní

Descending slur – klesající legato (odtah) Chord – akord, souzvuk (též struna – bás.)

Detached – odděleně Index finger – ukazovák

Downbeat – první doba, těžká doba Knuckle joint – záprstní kloub

Emphasise – zdůraznit Left hand – levá ruka

Evenness – vyrovnanost Listen for – poslouchat jestli, čekat na zvuk

Exchange – výměna Low – spodní

Extend – natáhnout (prodloužit) Measure – takt

Fatter – hutnější Middle finger – prostředník

Finger – prst Open string – prázdná (struna)

Fingering – prstoklad Palm – dlaň Piece – kus, skladba Pluck – brnkat

Pinky – mlíček Position – pozice, poloha

Plant – zasadit, upevnit Pressure – tlak

Progression – postup Staff – notová osnova

Pull off – odtah (klesající legato) Strike – úder, udeřit

Quarter note – čtvrťová nota String – struna, retěz(it)

Respective – příslušný Stroke – úder, úhoz

Rest stroke – úhoz dopadem Succeed – nastoupit po

Right hand – pravá ruka Tactile – hmatový, dotekový

Ring – doznít, přeznít Thumb – palec

Ring finger – prsteník Tone – tón, zvuk, odstín

Scale – stupnice Track – stopa

Sequentially – následně, souvisle Tranquil – pokojný

Shift – posun Triad – trojzvuk

Simultaneous – současný Tune – ladit

Slur – vyslovovat nezřetelně; hrát vázaně Vibrate – vibrovat, kmitat, chvět se (legato) Volume – hlasitost Solidify – zpevnit, upevnit, sjednotit Warm up – rozehrát se (dosl. zahřát se) Sound – zvuk Workout – cvičení, zkouška Speed – rychlost Wrist joint – zápěstní kloub

Thematic listing:

Dynamics: Measure – takt

Accent – přízvuk Piece – kus, skladba

Adjust – přizpůsobit Progression – postup

Balance – rovnováha, vyvážit, vyrovnat Quarter note – čtvrťová nota

Emphasise – zdůraznit Staff – notová osnova

Evenness – vyrovnanost Triad – trojzvuk

Listen for – poslouchat jestli, čekat na zvuk

Ring – doznít, přeznít Hands, fingers:

Sound – zvuk Finger – prst

Volume – hlasitost Fingering – prstoklad

Fingertip – špička prstu

Guitar: Index finger – ukazovák

Adjacent – sousední, přilehlý Knuckle joint – záprstní kloub

Fret – pražec, políčko; zmáčknout strunu Left hand – levá ruka

High – horní Middle finger – prostředník

Low – spodní Palm – dlaň

Open string – prázdná (struna) Pinky – malíček

Respective – příslušný Position – pozice, poloha

String – struna, retěz(it) Pressure – tlak

Right hand – pravá ruka

Notation: Ring finger – prsteník

Bar – takt, taktová čára Tactile – hmatový, dotekový

Downbeat – první doba, těžká doba Thumb – palec

Chord – akord, souzvuk (též struna – bás.) Wrist joint – zápěstní kloub

Harmony – souzvuk, soulad

Other: Follow-through – dotažení švihu

Attentive – pozorný Free stroke – úhoz volný

Detached – odděleně Full plant – „plný“ návrat (návrat více prstů současně) Fatter – hutnější Guide finger shift – změna polohy prstu Solidify – zpevnit, upevnit, sjednotit (výměna polohy)

Speed – rychlost Hammer on – příklep (stoupající legáto)

Succeed – nastoupit po Plant – zasadit, upevnit

Tone – tón, zvuk, odstín Pluck – brnkat

Track – stopa Pull off – odtah (klesající legáto)

Tranquil – pokojný Rest stroke – úhoz dopadem

Scale – stupnice

Technique: Sequentially – následně, souvisle

Alternate – střídat Shift – posun

Arpeggio – rozložené hraní akordu Simultaneous – současný

Ascending slur – stoupající legato (příklep) Slur – vyslovovat nezřetelně, hrát vázaně Burst – výbuch (zde: impuls) (legato)

Commensurate – úměrný, odpovídající Strike – úder, udeřit

Depress – stlačit Stroke – úder, úhoz

Descending slur – klesající legato (odtah) Tune – ladit

Exchange – výměna Vibrate – vibrovat, kmitat, chvět se

Extend – natáhnout (prodloužit) Warm up – rozehrát se (dosl. zahřát se)

Flex – ohnout Workout – cvičení, zkouška

Follow – následovat, dodržovat

4 Conclusion

The analysis of the lexicon showed similar formal structure of the terms in question in both English and Czech language. The etymological analysis of the English terms revealed the fact that most of the words had originated not only in Old and Middle English but also French, Latin and Italian (the last one is very typical of music lexicon and lexicon concerning theory of music). Comparison of the terms used in Czech and English language points to the fact that most of the terms concerning classical guitar have denotations that correspond with the extra- linguistic reality (in this case the execution of the technique) on the same level – i.e. they are similarly accurate and understandable in the description of the technique itself. Inclination to different connotations is very typical of both languages. For example English “rest stroke” connotes the fact that the finger rests in a relaxed position on the string while Czech úhoz dopadem (“stroke by falling”) suggests that the finger falls and lands onto the string. English Rock guitar terminology is the one that is more concise and precise. For example the term “sweep picking” suggests a movement across more than one string in one direction (in a single sweep) while Czech closest equivalent úhoz nahoru / dolů (“up / down stroke”) only describes the direction of the movement. That may be the main reason why a certain part of the vocabulary is used in its original English form not only in Czech but also in other languages with minor or no changes to the lexemes. The analysis of the common terms revealed interesting differences between Czech and English language. For example the English denotation “major intervals” reflects the fact that these occur in “major scale”. Czech term velké intervaly (“grand intervals”) do not seem to have any connection to Czech denotation for major scale durová stupnice. The English denotations concerning the theory of music are more transparent, descriptive and logical. That enables much easier absorption of certain facts as well as the rules concerning musical theory. This topic could become a subject of further research. One of the aims of this thesis was to connect my three areas of interest (rock guitar, classical guitar and English language) together. It is my belief that it has been accomplished.

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Appendices

Appendix 1: Parts of the instrument – classical (Spanish) guitar

Appendix 2: Parts of the instrument – electric (rock) guitar

Appendix 3: Rock guitar notation with tablature

Appendix 4: Individual words of the analyzed English terms according to their language of origin

Appendix 1:

Figure 1 – Classical (Spanish) guitar and its parts

Appendix 2:

Figure 2 – Electric (Rock) guitar and its parts

Appendix 3:

Figure 3 - Rock guitar notation with tablature

Appendix 4:

Language of Individual words of the analyzed English terms origin French chord, tablature, tapping Italian arpeggio, pizzicato, ponticello, staccato, sul, tasto, tremollo, vibrato ascending, descending, distortion, harmonics, index, palm, plectrum, Latin scale Middle English hammer, slur, thumb, tuning, pick Middle French gain, mute, rest bending, free, finger, little, nail, open, planting, pull, ring, slide, string, Old English stroke Old French accidentals, fret, intervals, power Spanish rasgueado Table 3 - Individual words of the analyzed English terms according to their language of origin