Funding Higher Education in Sub-Saharan Africa

Also by Damtew Teferra

HIGHER EDUCATION AND GLOBALIZATION: Challenges, Threats and Opportunities for Africa ( senior editor ) HIGHER EDUCATION IN AFRICA: An International Dimension (senior editor ) AFRICAN HIGHER EDUCATION: An International Reference Handbook (senior editor ) SCIENTIFIC COMMUNICATION IN AFRICAN UNIVERSITIES: External Assistance and National Needs PUBLISHING IN AFRICAN LANGUAGES: Challenges and Prospects ( co-editor ) PUBLISHING AND DEVELOPMENT: A Book of Readings ( co-editor ) KNOWLEDGE DISSEMINATION IN AFRICA: The Role of Scholarly Journals ( co-editor )

Funding Higher Education in Sub-Saharan Africa

Damtew Teferra University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

Selection and editorial matter © Damtew Teferra 2013 Individual chapters © Respective authors 2013 Foreword © Philip G. Altbach 2013 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 2013 978-1-137-34577-6 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No portion of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The author has asserted his right to be identified as the author of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. First published 2013 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Palgrave Macmillan in the UK is an imprint of Macmillan Publishers limited, registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS. Palgrave Macmillan in the US is a division of St Martin’s Press LLC, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010. Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies and has companies and representatives throughout the world. Palgrave® and Macmillan® are registered trademarks in the United States, the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries ISBN 978-1-349-46665-8 ISBN 978-1-137-34578-3 (eBook) DOI 10.1057/9781137345783 This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. Logging, pulping and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. A catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. This book is affectionately dedicated to my best mentor and now close professional colleague and partner, Philip G. Altbach, Monan Professor of Higher Education and the director of the Center for International Higher Education, Boston College, Boston, Massachusetts. This page intentionally left blank Contents

List of Tables ix List of Figures xii Foreword xv Preface and Acknowledgements xvii Notes on Contributors xix List of Abbreviations xxiii

1 Introduction 1 Damtew Teferra 2 Crisis of a Rich State: ’s Dilemma in Financing Tertiary Education 13 Victoria Damane and Patrick Molutsi 3 Funding Higher Education in : Modalities, Challenges, Opportunities and Prospects 38 Moges Yigezu 4 Revenue Diversification and Resource Utilisation in Ethiopian Universities 71 Kennedy Munyua Waweru and Sewale Abate 5 Implications of Alternative Higher Education Financing Policies on Equity and Quality: The Kenyan Experience 98 Ibrahim Ogachi Oanda 6 Entrepreneurship as an Alternative Approach to Funding of Public Universities in 130 Thomas Kipkorir Ronoh, Catherine Khakasa Mumiukha and Anthony Kiplangat Sang 7 Challenges and Opportunities of Higher Education Funding Policies and Programs in Madagascar 147 Elysette Randriamahenintsoa 8 Financing Higher Education in : Prospects, Challenges and Opportunities 184 Steven Henry Dunga

vii viii Contents

9 Funding Higher Education in : Modalities, Challenges, Prospects and a Proposal for New Funding Modalities 214 Johnson Muchunguzi Ishengoma 10 Funding of Higher Education in : With Special Emphasis on Donor’s Role and Contribution of National Communities Approaches 247 Mark Bonuke Oboko 11 Funding Higher Education in Uganda: Making the Case for the Liberalisation of Student Fees 276 Jude Ssempebwa and Dalton Elijah Ssegawa 12 Students ’ Perceptions of Financing Public Universities in : Toward a More Sustainable and Inclusive Policy Strategy 296 Gift Masaiti 13 Funding Higher Education in : Experience, Challenges and Opportunities of the Cadetship Scheme 327 John Mpofu, Sylod Chimhenga and Onias Mafa 14 Conclusion 351 Damtew Teferra

Index 365 List of Tables

2.1 Student destinations and volumes 20 2.2 Secondary education certificate achievers and tertiary education student projections 23 2.3 Overall tertiary education funding 26 2.4 Household analysis 29 2.5 Share of institutional resources in the total revenue of public higher education institutions in select African countries 31 3.1 Projected spending on ESDP IV by subsector 44 3.2 Program levels and price groups 48 3.3 Government expenditure and education allocation 50 3.4 Students’ share of higher education costs 51 3.5 Private higher education institutions’ share of enrolment 53 3.6 Distribution of capital and recurrent budget allocations at AAU 56 3.7 Distribution of teaching and support staff at AAU 58 3.8 Salaries as percentage of recurrent budget expenditure at AAU 58 3.9 Budget allocated for food as compared to the total recurrent budget at five major universities 59 3.10 Allocation and expenditure of capital budget at AAU 61 3.11 Budget requests made from MOFED and the pattern of expenditure at AAU 63 4.1 Enrolment in private higher education institutions by level of study 76 4.2 Revenue generated from various revenue sources 84 4.3 Academic staff to student ratios 90 4.4 Academic staff to non-academic staff ratios 91 4.5 The ratio of staff and students to photocopiers, computers and printers 92 5.1 Higher education candidates 108 5.2 Estimated unit cost of academic programs at public universities 116 6.1 First year intake by public and private universities 130 7.1 Public and private higher education institutions 152 7.2 Distribution of expenditures in the education sector 156 7.3 Share of education budget for tertiary education 156 7.4 Transfers by category of expenditure 157 7.5 Additional earnings of faculties/teaching institutions 160 7.6 Public transfers to the University of Antananarivo 164

ix x List of Tables

A7.1 Changing approaches to financial control 178 A7.2 Phasing of the reform activities for higher education 179 A7.3 Timeline for communication strategy development 179 8.1 Budget allocations and shortfalls for chancellor college, Malawi Kwacha 192 8.2 student selections by secondary school type, 2010 195 8.3 Staff qualifications at public higher education institutions 201 8.4 Funding sources 203 8.5 Annual average income and expected annual average income 208 8.6 Comparison of fees at public and private universities 209 9.1 Higher education enrolment 218 9.2 Trends in undergraduate admission rates at the University of Dar es Salaam 219 9.3 Government budgetary allocations to the University of Dar es Salaam v. University budgetary requests 220 9.4 Education sector budget allocation as percentage of total government budget and GDP 222 9.5 Government budgetary allocations by education subsector 224 9.6 Recommended main sources of higher education funding 228 9.7 External-donor support to the University of Dar es Salaam 232 9.8 Government and donor support for the University of Dar es Salaam operating budget 233 9.9 Components of the market model for financing public higher education in Tanzania 239 9.10 Estimated diaspora stocks and savings, selected low-income countries 243 10.1 Public universities 253 10.2 Private universities 253 10.3 Share of education in total government spending 266 10.4 Portion of education budget allocated to tertiary education 269 11.1 Reasons for the underfunding of higher education institutions 284 12.1 Government grants to the university 302 12.2 Academic staff at three public universities 308 12.3 Respondents: distribution by gender 311 12.4 Respondents: distribution by age 312 12.5 Respondents: distribution by study discipline 312 12.6 Respondents: distribution by payment mode for tertiary studies 312 12.7 Questionnaire results: is tax revenue the best way to finance public universities? 313 List of Tables xi

12.8 Questionnaire results: cross-tabulation of views on university financing by payment mode category 314 12.9 Questionnaire results: cost sharing should be encouraged 314 12.10 Questionnaire results: cross-tabulation of views on cost sharing by views on university financing 315 12.11 Questionnaire results: cross-tabulation of views on cost sharing by payment mode category 315 12.12 Questionnaire results: public universities should admit more privately sponsored students 316 12.13 Questionnaire results: cross-tabulation of views on admitting privately sponsored students by payment mode category 317 12.14 Questionnaire results: cross-tabulation of views on admitting privately sponsored students by gender 317 12.15 Questionnaire results: cross-tabulation of views on cost sharing by views on admitting privately sponsored students 318 12.16 Questionnaire results: the government has adequate resources to finance public universities 318 12.17 Questionnaire results: cross-tabulation of views on adequacy of government resources and payment mode category 319 12.18 Questionnaire results: a student loan system should be introduced 321 12.19 Questionnaire results: cross-tabulation of views on student loan system by payment mode category 321 12.20 Questionnaire results: cross-tabulation of views on student loan system by views on adequacy of government resources 322 12.21 Questionnaire results: student perceptions of the current financing policy by payment mode category 322 13.1 University and college enrolment figures in Zimbabwe, 2011 330 13.2 Funds allocated to state universities in the 2011–2012 budget 333 13.3 Marital status of respondents 337 List of Figures

2.1 Projected government revenue from diamonds 21 2.2 Enrolment shares of public and private tertiary education institutions 22 2.3 Tertiary education enrolment projections 23 2.4 Gross enrolment ratio by country of comparison 24 2.5 Public and private expenditure on educational institutions as a % of total expenditure on higher education in selected countries 33 3.1 Total cost of ESDP IV 43 3.2 Student enrolment 45 3.3 Graphic representation of the distribution of capital and recurrent budget allocations at AAU 56 3.4 Percentage of expenditure on salaries and food at AAU 60 3.5 Distribution of used v. unused capital budget at AAU 62 3.6 Graphic representation of the budget requested, approved budget and actual expenditure at AAU 64 4.1 Student enrolment in public universities 75 4.2 Annual recurrent expenditure per student in Ethiopia and three other African countries 78 4.3 Estimated recurrent spending per pupil/student 79 4.4 Education budget and expenditure 79 4.5 Revenue generated, by revenue source 83 4.6a Recurrent budget in relation to total internally generated revenue 87 4.6b Recurrent budget and internally generated revenue committed to recurrent budget 88 4.6c Composition of recurrent budget 88 5.1 Trends in loan recovery, 1985/1986–1994/1995 105 5.2 Trends in loan recovery, 2006/2007–2010/2011 106 5.3 Budgetary allocations to public universities by the Government 107 7.1 Enrolment in public universities 153 7.2 Student enrolments in public and private higher education institutions 153 7.3 Share of education expenditures in GDP and the national budget 155 7.4 Share of education in public expenditures 155 7.5 Composition of recurrent public expenditure in higher education 157

xii List of Figures xiii

7.6 Composition of recurrent expenditure in higher education 158 7.7 Compulsory teaching hours and complementary teaching hours 159 7.8 Number of scholarship beneficiaries 159 7.9 Enrolment in fee-charging programs at public universities 161 7.10 Enrolment at IST Antananarivo 161 7.11 Enrolment at the distance learning centre 162 8.1 Higher education enrolment in Malawi 189 8.2 Enrolment at the University of Malawi 190 8.3 Budget allocation to the University of Malawi (UNIMA) and Mzuzu University (Mzuni) 191 8.4 Distribution of student selection by secondary school type (University of Malawi) 195 8.5 Higher education participation by income group 196 8.6 Duration of job search, higher education graduates and dropouts 198 8.7 Student/Lecturer ratios in selected sub-saharan African countries 200 8.8 Estimates and actual subvention to the University of Malawi 204 8.9 Socioeconomic status of students 205 8.10 Unit cost per expenditure category at the University of Malawi 207 9.1 Trends in undergraduate admission rates at the University of Dar es Salaam 219 9.2 Government budgetary allocations to the University of Dar es Salaam v. University budgetary requests 220 9.3 Education sector budget allocation as percentage of total government budget and GDP 223 9.4 Government budgetary allocations by education subsector 224 9.5 External-donor support to the University of Dar es Salaam 232 9.6 Government and donor support for the University of Dar es Salaam operating budget 233 9.7 Estimated diaspora stocks and savings, selected low-income countries 243 10.1 Student enrolment 254 11.1 Makerere University’s income and expenditure 277 11.2 Distribution of enrolment by gender 277 11.3 Distribution of enrolment by academic specialisation 278 11.4 Makerere University funding sources 285 11.5 Gap between student fees and unit costs of selected programs 286 12.1 Funding estimates, allocations and debts of public universities 305 12.2 Financial status of diploma-granting colleges 306 12.3 Ministry of education budget allocations 307 12.4 Comparative regional budget allocations to education 320 xiv List of Figures

13.1 Age of respondents 338 13.2 Monthly income of respondents’ parents/guardians 338 13.3 Distribution of tuition payment methods 339 13.4 Availability of internet of facilities for lecturers and students 340 13.5 Quality of lectures and tutorials 340 13.6 Availability of journals for students and lecturers 341 13.7 Quality of accommodation for students 342 13.8 Quality of food 343 13.9 Family monthly income influences payment of tuition fees 344 Foreword

Much of Africa is at the early stage of “massification” of higher education. Sub-Saharan Africa, with a few exceptions, enrols less than 10 per cent of a rapidly growing age cohort. This means that in the coming decades Africa will expand enrolments rapidly. Massification is an “iron law” of twenty- first-century higher education everywhere, and it cannot be stopped. Countries must cater to increased demand for access. At the same time, the global knowledge economy demands that at least some universities in each country have research capacity and the ability to work with the top universi- ties worldwide. Thus, Africa faces significant challenges at the top and at the bottom of the academic system. Key to finding solutions are effective funding mech- anisms to support higher education in a rapidly changing environment. This volume makes a significant contribution by providing research-based analysis of alternative financing patterns in a range of African countries. Understanding both possibilities and realities are necessary first steps in finding constructive solutions. Looking carefully and critically at the expe- rience of a range of African examples is probably more useful than taking lessons from the international literature or from other parts of the world. Without a stable funding base, neither access nor excellence can be achieved. One thing is clear: the common African pattern of full state funding to a small number of universities no longer works – if in fact it ever did. “Free” tuition and “free” or highly subsidized accommodation are simply unsustainable. Alternative funding mechanisms must be found, and this volume provides some examples, both negative and positive. The rise of the private higher education sector is taking place in Africa. In fact, private higher education is the fastest-growing segment of higher educa- tion worldwide. The private sector may be necessary, but it involves serious problems in many countries: low standards, lack of transparency and a for-profit approach that places institutional profits above quality or stand- ards. Of course, not all private institutions exhibit these characteristics, but many do. Harnessing the private sector for the public interest is a key necessity. Funding Higher Education in Sub-Saharan Africa provides another key contri- bution to African higher education. If one looks around the world, the region perhaps least served by relevant research literature and analysis of higher education is Sub-Saharan Africa. This book provides evidence-based research on a key theme of higher education policy and research, and it will be useful in informing policy and practice.

xv xvi Foreword

Much more research is needed. The small group of dedicated African higher education researchers needs to be enlarged and the necessary accompani- ments of a research infrastructure – a good journal, appropriate Websites, centres, and institutes – need to be established. Universities need their own institutional research capacity – the ability to generate data on aspects of university management, student issues and other key topics to assist in poli- cymaking and management. Governments need data and analysis to help them shape effective higher education policies. This book makes an impressive contribution to two key areas of Africa’s higher education development: better understanding of patterns of funding and improving the research depth on African higher education. Philip G. Altbach Monan University Professor Director, Center for International Higher Education Boston College, Boston

Preface and Acknowledgements

This book is the outcome of an 18-month research effort to explore, analyse and comprehend the funding and financing state of the higher education sector in the eastern and southern African countries. Motivated to mark and further the debate on the current funding and financing problematic of higher education in Sub-Saharan Africa, OSSREA (Organization for Social Science Research in East and Central Africa) embarked on an initiative to generate research from nine countries, including Botswana, Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe. The themes of the research cover a wide spectrum of the funding dynamics in these countries, from student fees to entrepreneurship, and from cost sharing to the role of development partnerships. The process of producing this book has been somewhat unusual. As part of its capacity-building efforts in social sciences, OSSREA is encouraging researchers, especially young and emerging ones, to work closely with designated mentors in a host of disciplines and fields. The field of funding higher education in Africa has been coordinated and led by Damtew Teferra, founding director of the International Network for Higher Education in Africa, Center for International Higher Education, Boston College, and director of Higher Education Training and Development at the University of Kwazulu-Natal, South Africa. This book is, hence, part of OSSREA’s framework initiatives. The responses this initiative received from African researchers were very encouraging. More than 25 papers were initially submitted for publication. After a careful screening and review process, as well as consideration of space constraints, the number was reduced by half. All the papers selected for publication went through a long process of revision. The close interaction between the “mentor”, the coordinator and the respective researcher(s), provided an excellent opportunity to also further improve the research skills of partici- pants in this project. On the preponderance of evidence that raised higher education as central to innovation and development in the contemporary society, a dialogue is raging on how to enhance and support the hitherto neglected subsector in the region. This book is part of this dialogue and debate. It describes, anal- yses and synthesises the funding dynamics in African higher education. In capturing the scope, extent and magnitude of these changes, it intends to push further the frontiers of our knowledge and understanding in funding and financing higher education in the sub-region. While the papers in this book do not cover the entire Sub-Saharan region, it could easily be deduced

xvii xviii Preface and Acknowledgements that the experience, the developments, the challenges and the prospects, are equally relevant and applicable to other regions as well. The research and publication of this book were made possible thanks to grants by the Danish International Development Agency, the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation, and the Swedish Agency for International Development. The book is a joint initiative of OSSREA and the International Network for Higher Education in Africa, at the Center for International Higher Education, Boston College, Boston, Massachusetts.

Notes on Contributors

Sewale Abate is an assistant professor in Bahir Dar University, College of Business and Economics, Department of Accounting and Finance. He obtained his PhD degree from Andhra University, India, in 2012, masters in finance from Delhi University in 2006 and BA in Accounting and Finance from in 2001. He has served as Assistant Dean for the Faculty of Business and Economics and as Head of the Department of Accounting and Finance and Head of Internal Audit Service of Bahir Dar University. He has also published in the area of higher education finance. Sylod Chimhenga is a student advisor and lecturer at Zimbabwe Open University, Centre for Student Management. He holds an MA in Special Needs Education from the University of South Africa. His research interests lie in Special Needs Education, gender issues and open distance learning. Victoria Omponye Damane was appointed director of Institutional Funding of the Tertiary Education Council (TEC) in 2004. Instrumental in the development of a funding model as well as a methodology for calculating unit costs of tertiary education programs in Botswana, she is a specialist in financing tertiary education. She holds a BA in commerce from the University of Swaziland, an MBA from the University of Bridgeport, Connecticut, and a professional certificate in education finance, economics and planning from Wits School of Education, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa. Steven Henry Dunga is a lecturer in Economics of Education at Chancellor College, University of Malawi. He has a BA in Social Science from the University of Malawi, an MA in Economics of Education from the Institute of Education, University of London, and is currently a PhD student at the School of Economic Science at North West University (Vaal Triangle), South Africa. His research interests include higher education financing, education and poverty reduction, efficiency and equity issues, economics of education and development economics in general. Johnson Muchunguzi Ishengoma is a lecturer at the University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, where he is also a national coordinator of the UNESCO/ IIEP Distance Education Program on Education Sector Planning. He was a Hubert H. Humphrey Fellow at Boston University, Boston, in 1998–99 and is also a member of the Boston University Working Group for UNESCO on the Right to Education in Africa. His research interest areas include the financing of higher education in Africa, particularly cost sharing in higher education

xix xx Notes on Contributors policy and student loans, access and equity issues in higher education, private higher education, and quality assurance in higher education. Onias Mafa is a senior lecturer in the Department of Education at Zimbabwe Open University. His research interests lie in open distance learning, youth issues, land reform and gender issues. He has published extensively in educa- tion, gender and didactics. Gift Masaiti is a lecturer in the School of Education at the . He is currently a senior research fellow at Huazhong University of Science and Technology, China, where he recently completed his PhD in economics of education. His research interests include financing policies of higher education and comparative higher education. Patrick Molutsi was appointed as executive secretary of the Tertiary Education Council (TEC) in 2003. He supervised two major projects on tertiary education policy and a human resource development strategy for Botswana. He was Senior Lecturer at the ’s Department of Sociology and in 1996 was elected Dean of the Faculty of Social Sciences. He holds an MPhil and DPhil in Sociology of Development from Oxford University. John Mpofu is Senior Lecturer at Zimbabwe Open University in the Department of Languages and Media Studies. He holds a Masters of Education from the University of Leeds. His interest in research lies in the area of youth development, land acquisition and distribution, and gender issues. Catherine K. Mumiukha is Lecturer in the Faculty of Education and Community Studies at the Egerton University, Kenya. She holds a PhD in research and evaluation. Her research interests are in the areas of stress management, organizational behavior, adolescence and development. Ibrahim Oanda teaches at the Department of Educational Foundations, , Kenya, and has taken a sabbatical at the Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa (CODESRIA), Dakar, Senegal, where he coordinates a Carnegie-funded research program on “Higher Education Governance and Leadership in Africa”. Research inter- ests include higher education governance in Africa, privatization and corpo- rate trends in public higher education, trends on faculty involvement in academic and institutional leadership and internationalization trends in African higher education. Mark B. Oboko is pursuing his PhD in Educational Policy studies at Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology, Kenya. He holds an MA in Educational Management and Administration and a BTH degree from Bugema University, Kampala. Currently, he is Adjunct Lecturer of Educational Management, Planning and Administration at Bugema University. Notes on Contributors xxi

Elysette Randriamahenintsoa is Lecturer in the English Department, Faculty of Arts and Humanities, University of Antananarivo, Madagascar. She was a Visiting Fulbright African Scholar to the Curriculum and Instruction Department, College of Education, Florida International University, Miami (2006–07). She has a master’s in anglophone literature from the University of Reunion, France, in 2000. Thomas Kipkorir Ronoh is Senior Lecturer on the Faculty of Education and Community Studies of Egerton University, Kenya. He holds MA and PhD degrees in Educational Foundations from Egerton University. He has published extensively in referred journals, won numerous research grants and is a member of numerous professional bodies. Anthony K. Sang holds a PhD in Educational Administration from the University of Cape Town, South Africa. Currently, he is Senior Lecturer and Head of the Department Curriculum, Instruction and Educational Management at Egerton University. He has extensively published in the area of educational administration and economics of education. Dalton E. Ssegawa is a member of Uganda’s National Council for Higher Education. He holds a PhD in higher education planning and administration from the East African School of Higher Education Studies and Development. His research interests focus on the management of the neo-liberal reforms implemented in African higher education and its implications for the quality of higher education. Jude Ssempebwa is a researcher at Uganda Martyrs University. He is editor of the Journal of Science & Sustainable Development, African Researcher and Makerere Journal of Higher Education. His research focuses on international higher education in low- and middle-income countries and on the manage- ment of educational resources in Sub-Saharan Africa. Damtew Teferra is Professor of higher education and leader of Higher Education Training and Development at the University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa. He has been the founder and director of the Inter- national Network for Higher Education in Africa, earlier at the Center for International Higher Education (CIHE), Boston College, now at the University of KwaZulu-Natal, for 10 years now. Teferra was the former director for Africa and the Middle East of the Ford Foundation International Fellowships Program in New York. He was founding (former) Editor-in-Chief of the Journal of Higher Education in Africa and the recently launched International Journal of African Higher Education and the Chronicle of African Higher Education. He is author of Scientific Communication in African Universities: External Assistance and National Needs (2003) and lead editor of the award-winning book African Higher Education: An International Reference Handbook (2003) and other two books: African Higher Education: The International Dimension (2008) and xxii Notes on Contributors

Higher Education and Globalization: Challenges, Threats and Opportunities for Africa (2010) Kennedy Munyua Waweru attended Kenyatta University, Kenya, Egerton University, Kenya and Gulu University, Uganda, for his undergraduate, masters and PhD degrees. He is Senior Lecturer of Finance at Maasai Mara University, Kenya. Before joining Maasai Mara University, he was lecturer of Finance and the Dean of the School of Business at Mount Kenya University. He is the founder and editor of the International Journal of Business and Public Management , and has published in various peer-reviewed international journals. He is the founding chairman of the International Conference for the Advancement of Business and Management Practice in Africa, a bien- nial conference. He serves on the advisory boards of various international journals. Moges Yigezu is Associate Professor of Linguistics in the Department of Linguistics at Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia, where he teaches phonetics and phonology to graduate students. His research interests include phonetics and phonology of the various Nilo-Saharan and Omotic languages of Ethiopia, mother-tongue education, documentary linguistics and sign linguistics. He has published articles in academic journals and contributed book chapters and proceedings articles in these areas. He has also served as chair of the Department of Linguistics, Director of Graduate Studies and Chief Academic Officer for Graduate Program Development and Admissions at Addis Ababa University over the past years. Currently, he is the Chairman of the Assembly of the Academy of Ethiopian Languages and Cultures at Addis Ababa University.

List of Abbreviations

AAU Addis Ababa University ADLI Agricultural-Development-Led Industrialisation BIO-EARN The East African Regional Programme and Research Network for Biotechnology, Biosaftey, and Biotechnology Policy Development CHET Centre for Higher Education and Training CNTEMAD Centre National de Télé-enseignement de Madagascar (National Distance Learning Centre of Madagascar) CODESRIA Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa ESDP Educational System Development Plan ETP Education and Training Policy FDRE Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia FNES Fondation Nationale de l'Enseignement Supérieur (National Foundation for Higher Education) GDP Growth Domestic Product GER Gross Enrolment Ratio GOK Government of Kenya GoU Government of Uganda GTP Growth and Transformational Plan HEIs Higher Education Institutions HELB Higher Education Loans Board HELF Higher Education Loan Fund HEP Higher Education Proclamation HESC Higher Education Strategic Center IST Institut Supérieure de Technologie (Technology Institute) JAB Joint Admissions Board LMD Licence-Master-Doctorat (Bachelor/Master/Doctorate) Bologna Process higher education model for Francophone countries MAP Madagascar Action Plan MFPED Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development MGA Malagasy Ariary (currency unit) MOE Ministry of Education MoES Ministry of Education and Sports MOFED Ministry of Finance and Economic Development NCHE National Council for Higher Education NUFFIC The Netherlands Organization for International Cooperation in Higher Education

xxiii xxiv List of Abbreviations

NUFU The Norwegian Programme for Development, Research and Education n.d. No date n.d.a No data available ODL Open and Distance Learning OSSREA Organisation for Social Science Research in Eastern and Southern Africa SAPs Structural Adjustment Programs SIDA/SAREC Swedish International Development Agency/Swedish Agency for Research Cooperation with Developing Countries SSA Sub-Saharan Africa UNESCO United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation