DOCSLIB.ORG

History of Pharmacy

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
History of Pharmacy History of pharmacy From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Das Buch des Lebens by Marsilius Ficinus, Florence 1508. The history of pharmacy as an independent science is relatively young. The origins of historiography pharmaceutical back to the first third of the s. XIX which is when the first historiographies that while not touching all aspects of pharmaceutical history is the starting point for the final start of this science. Until the birth of pharmacy as an independent science, there is a historical evolution from antiquity to the present day that marks the course of this science, always connected to the medicine. [edit] Prehistoric pharmacy Paleopharmacological studies attest to the use of medicinal plants in pre-history.[1] The earliest known compilation of medicinal substances was ARIANA the Sushruta Samhita, an Indian Ayurvedic treatise attributed to Sushruta in the 6th century BC. However, the earliest text as preserved dates to the 3rd or 4th century AD. Many Sumerian (late 6th millennium BC - early 2nd millennium BC) cuneiform clay tablets record prescriptions for medicine.[2] [edit] Antiquity Ancient Egyptian pharmacological knowledge was recorded in various papyri such as the Ebers Papyrus of 1550 BC, and the Edwin Smith Papyrus of the 16th century BC. The earliest known Chinese manual on materia medica is the Shennong Bencao Jing (The Divine Farmer's Herb-Root Classic), dating back to the 1st century AD. It was compiled during the Han dynasty and was attributed to the mythical Shennong. Earlier literature included lists of prescriptions for specific ailments, exemplified by a manuscript "Recipes for 52 Ailments", found in the Mawangdui tomb, sealed in 168 BC. Further details on Chinese pharmacy can be found in the Pharmacy in China article. Dioscorides, De Materia Medica, Byzantium, 15th century In Ancient Greece, according to Edward Kremers and Glenn Sonnedecker, "before, during and after the time of Hippocrates there was a group of experts in medicinal plants. Probably the most important representative of these rhizotomoi was Diocles of Carystus (4th century BC). He is considered to be the source for all Greek pharmacotherapeutic treatises between the time of Theophrastus and Dioscorides."[3] The Greek physician Pedanius Dioscorides is famous for writing a five volume book in his native Greek Περί ύλης ιατρικής in the 1st century AD. The Latin translation De Materia Medica (Concerning medical substances) was used a basis for many medieval texts, and was built upon by many middle eastern scientists during the Islamic Golden Age. The title coined the term materia medica. In Japan, at the end of the Asuka period (538-710) and the early Nara period (710-794), the men who fulfilled roles similar to those of modern pharmacists were highly respected. The place of pharmacists in society was expressly defined in the Taihō Code (701) and re-stated in the Yōrō Code (718). Ranked positions in the pre-Heian Imperial court were established; and this organizational structure remained largely intact until the Meiji Restoration (1868). In this highly stable hierarchy, the pharmacists—and even pharmacist assistants—were assigned status superior to all others in health-related fields such as physicians and acupuncturists. In the Imperial household, the pharmacist was even ranked above the two personal physicians of the Emperor.[4] There is a stone sign for a pharmacy with a tripod, a mortar, and a pestle opposite one for a doctor in the Arcadian Way in Ephesus near Kusadasi in Turkey. The current Ephesus dates back to 400BC and was the site of the Temple of Artemis one of the seven wonders of the world, the home of Mark Anthony and Cleopatra, Mary Magdalen and where St Paul read his letter to the Ephesians. [edit] Middle Ages In Baghdad the first pharmacies, or drug stores, were established in 754,[5] under the Abbasid Caliphate during the Islamic Golden Age. By the 9th century, these pharmacies were state- regulated.[6] Arabic herbal medicine guidebook De Materia Medica of Dioscórides. Cumin & dill. c. 1334. The advances made in the Middle East in botany and chemistry led medicine in medieval Islam substantially to develop pharmacology. Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rhazes) (865-915), for instance, acted to promote the medical uses of chemical compounds. Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis) (936-1013) pioneered the preparation of medicines by sublimation and distillation. His Liber servitoris is of particular interest, as it provides the reader with recipes and explains how to prepare the `simples’ from which were compounded the complex drugs then generally used. Sabur Ibn Sahl (d 869), was, however, the first physician to initiate pharmacopoedia, describing a large variety of drugs and remedies for ailments. Al-Biruni (973-1050) wrote one of the most valuable Islamic works on pharmacology entitled Kitab al-Saydalah (The Book of Drugs), where he gave detailed knowledge of the properties of drugs and outlined the role of pharmacy and the functions and duties of the pharmacist. Ibn Sina (Avicenna), too, described no less than 700 preparations, their properties, mode of action and their indications. He devoted in fact a whole volume to simple drugs in The Canon of Medicine. Of great impact were also the works by al-Maridini of Baghdad and Cairo, and Ibn al-Wafid (1008–1074), both of which were printed in Latin more than fifty times, appearing as De Medicinis universalibus et particularibus by `Mesue' the younger, and the Medicamentis simplicibus by `Abenguefit'. Peter of Abano (1250–1316) translated and added a supplement to the work of al-Maridini under the title De Veneris. Al-Muwaffaq’s contributions in the field are also pioneering. Living in the 10th century, he wrote The foundations of the true properties of Remedies, amongst others describing arsenious oxide, and being acquainted with silicic acid. He made clear distinction between sodium carbonate and potassium carbonate, and drew attention to the poisonous nature of copper compounds, especially copper vitriol, and also lead compounds. He also describes the distillation of sea-water for drinking.[7] Tacuina sanitatis, XIV century. In Europe pharmacy-like shops began to appear during the 12th century. In 1240 emperor Frederic II issued a decree by which the physician's and the apothecary's professions were separated.[8] The first pharmacy in Europe (still working) was opened in 1241 in Trier, Germany.[citation needed] In Europe there are old pharmacies still operating in Dubrovnik, Croatia located inside the Franciscan monastery, opened in 1317 ; and one in the Town Hall Square of Tallinn, Estonia dating from at least 1422. The oldest is claimed to be set up in 1221 in the Church of Santa Maria Novella in Florence, Italy, which now houses a perfume museum. The medieval Esteve Pharmacy, located in Llívia, a Catalan enclave close to Puigcerdà, is also now a museum dating back to the 15th century, keeping albarellos from the 16th and 17th centuries, old prescription books and antique drugs. A brief history of pharmacology Originating in the 19th century, the discipline makes drug development possible. Pharmacology is one of the cornerstones of the drug discovery process. The medicinal chemist may create the candidate compound, but the pharmacologist is the one who tests it for physiologic activity. A promising compound is investigated by many other scientists—toxicologists, microbiologists, clinicians—but only after the pharmacologist has documented a potential therapeutic effect. This article briefly presents the historical development of pharmacology and some of the basic methods used. Etymologically, pharmacology is the science of drugs (Greek Oswald Schmiedeberg, 1838– pharmakos, medicine or drug; and logos, study). In actual use, 1921. PHOTO: NATIONAL LIBRARY OF however, its meaning is limited to the study of the actions of MEDICINE drugs. Pharmacology has been defined as ―an experimental science which has for its purpose the study of changes brought about in living organisms by chemically acting substances (with the exception of foods), whether used for therapeutic purposes or not.‖ Pharmacology studies the effects of drugs and how they exert their effects. There is a distinction between what a drug does and how it acts. Thus, amoxicillin cures a strep throat, and cimetidine promotes the healing of duodenal ulcers. Pharmacology asks ―How‖? Amoxicillin inhibits the synthesis of cell wall mucopeptide by the bacteria that cause the infection, and cimetidine inhibits gastric acid secretion by its antagonist action on histamine H2 receptors. The main tasks of pharmacologists in the search for and development of new medicines are screening for desired activity, determining mode of action, and quantifying drug activity when chemical methods are not available. Historical development Synthetic organic chemistry was born in 1828, when Friedrich Wohler synthesized urea from inorganic substances and thus demolished the vital force theory. The birth date of pharmacology is not as clear-cut. In the early 19th century, physiologists performed many pharmacologic studies. Thus, François Magendie studied the action of nux vomica (a strychnine-containing plant drug) on dogs, and showed that the spinal cord was the site of its convulsant action. His work was presented to the Paris Academy in 1809. In 1842, Claude Bernard discovered that the arrow poison curare acts at the neuromuscular junction to interrupt the stimulation of muscle by nerve impulses. Nevertheless, pharmacology is held to have emerged as a separate science only when the first university chair was established. According to Walter Sneader, this occurred in 1847, when Rudolf Buchheim was appointed professor of pharmacology at the University of Dorpat in Estonia (then a part of Russia). Lacking outside funding, Buchheim built a laboratory at his own expense in the basement of his home. Although Buchheim is credited with turning the purely descriptive and empirical study of medicines into an experimental science, his reputation is overshadowed by that of his student, Oswald Schmiedeberg.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Amanita Muscaria (Fly Agaric)
    J R Coll Physicians Edinb 2018; 48: 85–91 | doi: 10.4997/JRCPE.2018.119 PAPER Amanita muscaria (fly agaric): from a shamanistic hallucinogen to the search for acetylcholine HistoryMR Lee1, E Dukan2, I Milne3 & Humanities The mushroom Amanita muscaria (fly agaric) is widely distributed Correspondence to: throughout continental Europe and the UK. Its common name suggests MR Lee Abstract that it had been used to kill flies, until superseded by arsenic. The bioactive 112 Polwarth Terrace compounds occurring in the mushroom remained a mystery for long Merchiston periods of time, but eventually four hallucinogens were isolated from the Edinburgh EH11 1NN fungus: muscarine, muscimol, muscazone and ibotenic acid. UK The shamans of Eastern Siberia used the mushroom as an inebriant and a hallucinogen. In 1912, Henry Dale suggested that muscarine (or a closely related substance) was the transmitter at the parasympathetic nerve endings, where it would produce lacrimation, salivation, sweating, bronchoconstriction and increased intestinal motility. He and Otto Loewi eventually isolated the transmitter and showed that it was not muscarine but acetylcholine. The receptor is now known variously as cholinergic or muscarinic. From this basic knowledge, drugs such as pilocarpine (cholinergic) and ipratropium (anticholinergic) have been shown to be of value in glaucoma and diseases of the lungs, respectively. Keywords acetylcholine, atropine, choline, Dale, hyoscine, ipratropium, Loewi, muscarine, pilocarpine, physostigmine Declaration of interests No conflicts of interest declared Introduction recorded by the Swedish-American ethnologist Waldemar Jochelson, who lived with the tribes in the early part of the Amanita muscaria is probably the most easily recognised 20th century. His version of the tale reads as follows: mushroom in the British Isles with its scarlet cap spotted 1 with conical white fl eecy scales.
    [Show full text]
  • Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical Sciences, and Administration, Other | Fall 2021-22
    Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical Sciences, and Administration, Other | Fall 2021-22 Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical Sciences, and Administration, Other ● BMS 321: Pathogenesis of Infectious Diseases ● BMS 343: Biochemical Foundations of Therapeutics ● BMS 344: Physiological Foundation of Therapeutics ● Medc 317: Pharmacogenetics and Pharmacoimmunology ● Medc 318: Chemical and Biological Terrorism ● Medc 416: Intro to the Principles of Med Chem I ● Medc 417: Intro to the Principles of Med Chem II ● Medc 418: Neuroscience Principles of Drug Abuse ● Medc 419: Special Topics in Oncology ● Medc 541: Problems in Medicinal Chemistry ● Medc 542: Problems in Medicinal Chemistry ● Mspe 591: Medication Safety Practice Experience ● Phad 393: Learning & Teaching: A Professional Elec ● Phad 394: Intermed. Biostatistics for Pharmacists ● Phad 395: Pharmacy Ethics ● Phad 396: Marketing for Community Pharmacists ● Phad 397: Survey of Medication Nonadherence ● Phad 478: History of Pharmacy ● Phad 492: Current Issues in Health Care ● Phad 495: Techniques of Pharmaceutical Sales ● Phad 496: Principles of Pharmaceutical Marketing ● Phad 497: Personal Finance for Pharmacists ● Phad 541: Problems in Pharmacy Administration ● Phad 542: Problems in Pharmacy Administration ● Phad 543: Seminar in Current Health Topics ● Phad 544: Seminar in Current Health Topics ● Phar 432: Concepts in Pharmaceutical Biotechnology ● Phar 433: Pharmaceutical Industry ● Phar 435: Pharmaceutical Stability ● Phar 436: Product Development ● Phar 541: Problems in Pharmaceutics ● Phar 542: Problems
    [Show full text]
  • Unani Pharmacy and Pharmacology
    International Journal of Human and Health Sciences Vol. 05 No. 03 July’21 Review Article: Contribution of al- Zahrawi (Albucasis) in the field of Pharmacy and Pharmacology with respect to his treatise Kitab al-Tasreef Mohd Akhtar Ali1, Mohd Danish2, Hamiduddin3 Abstract Abūl-Qāsim Khalaf ibn ʿAbbās al-Zahrāwī Latinised as Abulcasis or Zahravius, lived between 936–1013 AD. He was born and raised in Al-Zahra a suburb of Córdoba (Arabic: Cortoba) in Spain. He was a famous surgeon, a talented pharmacist and a capable pharmacologist. Zahrawi is very famous for his surgical contribution, but this work explores his pharmaceutical and pharmacological contribution with respect to his treatise Kitab al-Tasreef. He served as the court physician to Caliph ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān III an-Nāṣir (912–961 AD). He wrote his famous book “Kitab al-Tasreef li-man ‘ajaza ‘an al-ta’lif” (The Arrangement of Medical Knowledge for one who is not able to compile it) around the year 1000 AD after fifty years of clinical experience. This book is also a chief source for indicating pharmaceutical contribution of al-Zahrāwī apart from the field of surgery. Twenty seven volumes, from Volume 3 to 29, of thirty volumes of the book Kitab al- Tasreef are related to Unani pharmacy and pharmacology. Ibn Abī Uṣaybiʿa (1203-1270 AD) remarked him only as an expert of pharmacy and pharmacology. Al-Zahrāwī devoted his entire life and genius to the advancement of pharmacy, medicine and surgery. He sketched a few drawings of pharmaceutical instruments and mentioned their use in his book.
    [Show full text]
  • Editorial Udc: 615:378 Doi: 10.18413/2313-8971-2017-3-4-3
    Pokrovskii M.V., Avtina T.V., Zakharova E.V., Belousova Yulia V. Oswald Schmiedeberg – the “father” of experimental pharmacology. Research Result: Pharmacology and Clinical 3 Pharmacology. 2017;3(4):3-19. EDITORIAL Rus. UDC: 615:378 DOI: 10.18413/2313-8971-2017-3-4-3-19 Mikhail V. Pokrovskii1 Tatyana V. Avtina T. OSWALD SCHMIEDEBERG –THE “FATHER” OF Elena V. Zakharova EXPERIMENTAL PHARMACOLOGY Yulia. V. Belousova Belgorod State National Research University, 85 Pobedy St., Belgorod, 308015 Russia Corresponding author, 1e-mail: [email protected] “Our tribute to the memory of the Teachers and those who were pioneers of pharmacology is an invaluable gift to our descendants” Abstract Biography. Oswald Schmiedeberg (1838-1921) was a son of a bailiff and a maid of honour, the eldest of the six children in the family. He was born and educated in the Russian Empire. Scientific activity. All his life he was completely devoted to science, making experimental pharmacology an independent scientific discipline, and was able to bring it to the international level. O. Schmiedeberg studied the action of muscarine and nicotine, digitoxin, hypnotics and analeptics. He was the first to introduce the concept of ―pharmacodynamics‖ and ―pharmacokinetics‖ of a drug. With his participation, the world‘s first pharmacological journal was founded, which is still published today. Science school. Working for many years at the University of Strasbourg, Schmiedeberg managed to educate about 120 students – professors from 20 countries of the world, many of whom later founded experimental pharmacology in their countries, for example, Abel in the USA, and N.P. Kravkov in Russia.
    [Show full text]
  • 1 Evolution of Drug Discovery
    1 1 Evolution of Drug Discovery 1.1 Antiquity Adam and Eve lived in paradise and did not know disease nor suffering; when they were expelled they discovered misery and disease. It is not surprising that throughout history man has searched for remedies to fight against disease. Historically speaking, man has explored nature to satisfy two major needs – food and herbs for alleviating pain and suffering. Ancient civilizations had comprehensive treatises where herbs or mixtures of them rep- resented the ‘‘corpus therapeuticum’’ to alleviate and treat disease. One of these compendia was the Ebers Papyrus. Egyptian culture already used a range of herbs from medicinal plants that were described in the Ebers Papyrus that was dated about 1550 BC. The papyrus was purchased in Thebes in 1872 by German Egyptologist Dr. George Ebers who had recognized its content and extraordinary value. It incorporates about 800 prescriptions written as hieroglyphics for over 700 remedies. It is preserved at the University of Leipzig (Figure 1.1). B. Ebbell produced a good translation in 1937 [1]. Most of the Egyptian names of drugs and ingredients, at least a third, have been identified with drugs and active principles that appear in current formularies and recipe books. In addition to recipes for purgatives, it also mentions some alkaloid plants as well as essentials oils, turpen- tine, cedar wood, soothing balms for skin problems, and many other prescriptions. Fragrant resins of Boswelia trees growing on the southern coast of Arabia such as frankincense (also known as olibanum) and myrrh were prized by Egyptian embalmers. Later, they were cited in the Bible, and have been used along with other balsams and gums throughout the centuries as deodorants and antiseptic drugs.
    [Show full text]
  • The Development of Concepts of Mechanisms of Anesthesia
    1 The Development of Concepts of Mechanisms of Anesthesia Donald Caton and Joseph F. Antognini INTRODUCTION Even before Morton's demonstration of surgical anesthesia in Boston, on October 16, 1846, phy­ sicians and scientists had begun to explore mechanisms by which drugs affect the central nervous system. In large part, this was an outgrowth of a revolution in therapeutics that had begun in wake of the Enlightenment. As philosophers and politicians threw out old patterns of religious, political, and economic thought, so physicians discarded a system of medical practice that had been in place for almost fifteen hundred years. Modem medicine began during this era and with it new disciplines such as physiology, pharmacology, and biochemistry (1). The discarded system of practice, called "Galenic Medicine", for the early Greek physician who established it, maintained that the body was composed of four elements (earth, air, fire, and water), which combined in various proportions to produce four humours (blood, black bile, yellow bile, and phlegm). Health was a state in which humours stayed in proper balance: disease a condition in which that balance had been upset by some internal or external disturbance. Physicians were to discern the character of the imbalance and institute appropriate restorative measures such as bleeding, purging, or cupping (2,3). In the centuries following Galen's death, physicians modified his original scheme in response to new discoveries in other areas of science. As engineers began to exploit hydraulics, for example, physicians attributed all disease to fluctuations of hydrostatic pressure. After the discovery of elec­ tricity, they exchanged hydraulics for energy imbalance to explain disease.
    [Show full text]
  • Early Drug Discovery and the Rise of Pharmaceutical Chemistry in a Classic Monograph (Figure 5)
    Drug Testing Historical and Analysis Received: 15 April 2011 Revised: 28 April 2011 Accepted: 28 April 2011 Published online in Wiley Online Library (www.drugtestinganalysis.com) DOI 10.1002/dta.301 Early drug discovery and the rise of pharmaceutical chemistry Alan Wayne Jones∗ Studies in the field of forensic pharmacology and toxicology would not be complete without some knowledge of the history of drug discovery, the various personalities involved, and the events leading to the development and introduction of new therapeutic agents. The first medicinal drugs came from natural sources and existed in the form of herbs, plants, roots, vines and fungi. Until the mid-nineteenth century nature’s pharmaceuticals were all that were available to relieve man’s pain and suffering. The first synthetic drug, chloral hydrate, was discovered in 1869 and introduced as a sedative-hypnotic; it is still available today in some countries. The first pharmaceutical companies were spin-offs from the textiles and synthetic dye industry and owe much to the rich source of organic chemicals derived from the distillation of coal (coal-tar). The first analgesics and antipyretics, exemplified by phenacetin and acetanilide, were simple chemical derivatives of aniline and p-nitrophenol, both of which were byproducts from coal-tar. An extract from the bark of the white willow tree had been used for centuries to treat various fevers and inflammation. The active principle in white willow, salicin or salicylic acid, had a bitter taste and irritated the gastric mucosa, but a simple chemical modification was much more palatable. This was acetylsalicylic acid, better known as Aspirin, the first blockbuster drug.
    [Show full text]
  • Chemistry and the 19Th-Century American Pharmacist*
    Bull. Hist. Chem., VOLUME 28, Number 1 (2003) 9 CHEMISTRY AND THE 19TH-CENTURY AMERICAN PHARMACIST* Gregory J. Higby, American Institute of the History of Pharmacy In his piece on “The Emergence of Pharmaceutical Sci- domestic medical chores including administering simple ence,” John Parascandola wrote, “the . community teas or laxative preparations purchased from apothecar- pharmacy never played a significant role in this country ies or general stores. To operate successfully, apoth- in the development of the . sciences, as it did in Eu- ecaries needed to understand rule-of-thumb chemistry rope where many practicing pharmacists made impor- to manufacture common preparations and popular com- tant scientific discoveries in the backroom laboratories pounds. They also had expertise in handling related of their pharmacies (1).” It would be difficult to dis- items usually lumped together with drugs, such as dyes, agree with this well reasoned conclusion; yet anyone oils, and paints. who examines the American pharmacy literature of the Doctor’s shops were probably just as prevalent in 1800s will be struck with the vast number of notes and the early 1800s. Self-styled physicians—there were no articles on a broad range of scientific subjects. Chemis- effective laws regulating medical or pharmaceutical try was a favorite topic of pharmacy writers and back- practice—diagnosed and dispensed medicines in an en- of-the-shop investigators. Some of the roots of this vironment that was not much different from that of an interest and activity are explored in this short paper. apothecary’s shop. In fact, men often went back and forth between the two occupations, depending on their The Beginnings of American Pharmacy comfort level.
    [Show full text]
  • The Rise of Professional Pharmacy in Islam
    THE RISE OF PROFESSIONAL PHARMACY IN ISLAM by SAMI HAMARNEH THE emergence ofprofessional pharmacy in medieval Islam as a separate entity from medicine has followed almost the same pattern of development as that which modelled other branches of the health field during this period. But difficulty arose from the fact that there was no clear governmental legislation to prohibit the pharmacist from diagnosing and giving medical treatment to his customers or to restrict the physician from compounding and dispensing drugs to his patients. The charlatan and uncultured from both professions," not only in rural areas but also in cities, prevented pharmacy from attaining professional status. Nevertheless, in larger hospitals and centres close to governmental supervision retail pharmacists as well as those in hospital and government service enjoyed recognition and prestige. The seventh century saw the institution and the expansion of the Arabic empire and the wide spread ofthe new faith, Islam, as the spiritual force behind it. In the early eighth century, Arabic military power reached its climax under the Umayyad dynasty in Damascus. Then the Abbasids took over (750-1258), and the centre ofactiv'ity moved from Syria to Iraq, where a new era ofcultural progress shortly started. Under Caliph al-Mansufr (754-75), medicine as well as other fields oflearning had a strong impetus to develop. With no discrimination for reasons of race or faith, the Caliph encouraged physicians, astronomers, mathematicians, architects and other learned men to cultivate their talents and help to advance intellectual pursuits. Notwithstanding, the first eight years of al-Mans.ir's reign were spent in labouring to stabilize and consolidate the Empire.
    [Show full text]
  • La Obra Farmacológica De Amalio Gimeno Y Cabañas (1850-1936)*
    Memoria IMV 1979_2009 ok:Memoria IMV 1979_2009 ok.qxd 29/9/2010 15:28 Página 159 159 La obra farmacológica de Amalio Gimeno y Cabañas (1850-1936)* José L. Fresquet Febrer La situación de la terapéutica farmacológica en la segunda mitad del siglo XIX Durante el siglo XIX las que llamamos ciencias de la naturaleza y la medicina, esta última tanto en sus aspectos biológicos como sociales, iniciaron un cambio decisi- vo. Las transformaciones tuvieron lugar en los aspectos conceptuales y también metodológicos. En el terreno de la biología, por ejemplo, esto permitió acabar con la crisis en la que habían entrado los sistemas interpretativos. En esta mudanza jugaron un papel fundamental diferentes aspectos sociales y económicos, especial- mente un importante cambio institucional. En el campo de la farmacología se produjeron dos hechos de gran transcenden- cia: el descubrimiento progresivo de los principios activos de los remedios vegeta- les y la línea que inició Magendie de investigar la acción de los fármacos mediante la experimentación en animales. Esto fue posible en buena medida a que la quími- ca reconstruyó su metodología y penetró en el estudio de la composición de los seres vivos.1 Uno de los principales escenarios donde tuvieron lugar estos cambios fue Fran- cia. A mediados del siglo XIX Alemania irrumpió con fuerza en la investigación far- macológica. Sin embargo, en el país vecino también surgió un movimiento que * Del proyecto de trató de moderar el excesivo optimismo que tenía lugar en los laboratorios. Una investigación HAR2008-04023. cosa era la fisiología, y otra, la farmacología. La terapéutica debía racionalizarse para los defensores de esta idea, es decir, adaptarse al enfermo.
    [Show full text]
  • History of Pharmacy
    History of Pharmacy • Sumerians: • The development of cuneiform writing on clay tablets during the third millennium BC included lists of drugs obtained from animals, vegetables and mineral origin that were used in the management of diseases, and prescriptions with details of the ingredients used in their compounding. Many of the drugs listed were cited as having multiple uses since ailments were thought to be different manifestations of a condition. The use of medicines was carried out by priests (ashipu) and physicians (asu) • Egyptians: • The Ebers Papyrus is a document dating back to 1550 BC, which described prescriptions and modes of administration of drugs including gargles, inhalations, suppositories, ointments and lotions. Many of the drugs listed were included in the Sumerian documents. The use of medications was carried out by priests. Imhotep who is regarded as the earliest physician, was the High Priest of Heliopolis • Chinese: • In China, a comprehensive theory for diagnosis and treatment was developed. Manuscripts on silk and bamboo describe the use of drugs of animal and plant origin. The text Huangdi Neijing listed the basic principles of pharmaceutical drug use in the third century BC. Shengnon Bencao Jing outlined basic theory of Chinese pharmacy. • Indians: • Ayurvedic medicine was first described around 800 BC. It's based on the belief that health and wellness depend on a delicate balance between the mind, body and spirit. It also uses some compounds of herbs, metals, or minerals. Some products contained levels of lead, mercury, and/or arsenic that exceeded the standards for acceptable daily intake. • Greeks & Romans: • Just as the Egyptians revered Imhotep as the god–physician, the Greeks worshipped Asklepios as their god of healing.
    [Show full text]
  • KREMERS FILES for the HISTORY of PHARMACY a CLASSIFICATION SCHEME School of Pharmacy University of Wisconsin Madison, Wisconsin
    KREMERS FILES FOR THE HISTORY OF PHARMACY A CLASSIFICATION SCHEME School of Pharmacy University of Wisconsin Madison, Wisconsin 53706 Issued July 1, 1958 Revised January 1, 1960 Revised July 1, 1971 Revised July 1, 1973 Revised January 1, 1998 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page INTRODUCTION . 1 SCOPE OF THE KREMERS FILES FOR THE HISTORY OF PHARMACY. 1 OWNERSHIP OF THE COLLECTION. 1 NATURE OF THE COLLECTIONS'S CONTENTS............ 1 ORGANIZATION OF THE FILES........................... 2 USE OF THE COLLECTION . 2 PRESERVATION CONSIDERATIONS....................... 4 OUTLINE OF MAIN CATEGORIES . 7 KRF CLASSIFICATION SCHEME . 9 SECTION A: GENERAL REFERENCES AND TOOLS . 9 SECTION B: PRE-1600..................................... 14 SECTION C: TOPICAL--1600 ONWARDS.................... 16 SECTION D: RELATED MATERIALS NOT IN SECTIONS "A" , "B" or "C" .............................. 46 1 INTRODUCTION SCOPE OF THE KREMERS FILES FOR THE HISTORY OF PHARMACY This vertical file collection contains materials of all kinds that cannot readily be organized on library shelves. Collected since the late nineteenth century, mainly for historical value, the Kremers Files are primarily pharmaceutical in nature, although they also include a small amount of material on related sciences and professions. Geographically, they are American in emphasis, but they are also international in scope since they contain a wide range of information on other countries. The files are arranged post-1875 for the most part, but also contain representative secondary sources on earlier historical periods. Although this collection contains some interspersed manuscript material, the user should see the "American Institute of the History of Pharmacy Collection" in the State Historical Society of Wisconsin for the principal cumulation of American pharmaceutical manuscripts.
    [Show full text]