The Technology of an Ancient Civilization

THE TECHNOLOGY OF AN ANCIENT CIVILIZATION

Written by Tommy Matthews Illustrated by Rae Mendiola Greek Geeks: The Technology of an Ancient Civilization

Author: Tommy Matthews Illustrator: Rae Mendiola

ISBN Print: 978-1-63260-414-9 ePub: 978-1-63260-415-6

855.200.SNAP www.snaplearning.net

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. This book contains material protected under International and Federal Copyright Laws and Treaties. Any unauthorized reprint or use of this material is prohibited. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system without express written permission from the author / publisher. Table of Contents

A Fateful Plunder...... 4-8

A Significant Discovery...... 9-11

A Most Learned Man...... 12

Conclusion...... 13

Additional Source...... 14

Close Reading Check...... 16

Writing...... 18-32

Rubric...... 33

Quick Writes...... 34

References...... 36 A FATEFUL PLUNDER The following selection is a fictional account of the looting of Syracuse taken from the writings of a young Roman.

1 From the earliest stages of my life, I have been fasci- “Caesar, your father is home!” I hear my mother 3 nated with how things work. I like to build small and exclaim from the kitchen. simple machines. I also have an inclination toward math. The manner in which numbers and their calcu- I jump up and run to the living room where my 4 lations create sophisticated contraptions has always father is standing. He looks tired and weary, but been of interest to me. I am thirteen years old now proud and satisfied. but I hope that one day I will invent something that will change the world. “It is over,” he announces, hugging my mother. 5

2 I am glad that I live in Rome. I feel that this is a place He speaks of how exhausting the fight has been and 6 where great things are created and discovered. We how the Greeks almost outsmarted us. After relaying are the best in the world at almost everything. I miss his story, he looks at me and confides, “I have to go my father. I have only seen him once in the last six back one more time. However, this time not to fight, months. He has been battling the Greeks in the state but to collect.” of Syracuse. I have heard that the city has very advanced machines and techniques that have made it difficult for us to get inside. Though I am scared, I hope that I will be able to see these mechanisms, or at least hear about them from my father.

4 7 In return, I ask, “To collect what?” strong against my face as I peer out into the endless sea of blue. I can hear the oars slapping against the 8 My father responds, “Gold, jewels, statues, anything water as we move closer to the Greek city. I manage we want... and as much as we can carry! It will be dif- to get hold of a wax tablet and bring it along so that I ficult and dangerous, but I would like you to come on can draw, or make note of what I see. the voyage with me.” “We are very close now,” my father tells me. 13 9 I could not believe my ears. This will be my chance to see and study the marvelous machines I have heard I get excited and walk toward the front of the ship. 14 about! And who knows what else I may find. Silhouetted against the bright blue sky is a great wall that surrounds much of the city. As we get closer, I 10 “Yes! I really want to go! Sounds like an adventure!” notice that throughout the wall there are large arm- I shout. like projections hanging over the edge toward the sea. The projections are wooden and have ropes dangling 11 “Good,” he replies with a smile. “We leave in a couple to the water. of days.”

12 A few days later, I am on a giant galley ship with the pungent smell of sea salt all around me. The wind is

5 ANCIENT CRANE

CATAPULT

REFLECTIVE MIRROR

15 “What are those?” I ask my father, pointing to using the reflection of the sun. I also begin to wonder the mechanisms. if enough heat could be concentrated by one mirror to ignite a fire on a ship. I share this thought with my father 16 “Ah. Those are one of the many defense mechanisms we and he informs me that there were many mirrors atop had to overcome. The dangling rope with a hook at the the wall at the beginning of the battle. These mirrors end of it would grab our ships and lift them out of the were effective defense mechanisms, and in rare cases, water, either tipping them over or dropping them back when the weather was conducive, caused fires to erupt into the sea.” on the ships. I again draw a little sketch of how the sun and mirrors together create a weapon of light and heat. 17 I am stunned at the sight of these giant arms hanging dauntingly over the walls. I make a quick sketch of the We finally arrive at the shore and moor our vessel. My 19 device on my tablet. “Whoever designed this was bril- father and I cross the beach and enter the city. Men from liant,” I mutter to myself. other Roman ships are gathering whatever valuables they can find. Looking up toward the massive wall to 18 Suddenly, I am blinded for a moment by an extremely my left, I spot another contraption. This one I recog- bright flash that emanates from over the city wall. After nize. It is a catapult, though it seems to be much more recovering my sight, I look back and see that there is a complex than I had imagined. It is wooden with large large mirror pointed toward the sea. I realize immedi- wheels and an oversized bowl to hold a projectile. I also ately that this is another defense mechanism designed make a sketch of this. to blind and distract enemies aboard their ships by

6 20 After wandering through the great city all day helping the position of the pointers move on the dial below. carry statues and artifacts back to our craft, I am filled I open the back door and see two additional large with awe at what I have experienced. I wonder about bronze dials, each with one pointer, and many more the men who created these machines. Perhaps, it was Greek inscriptions. There are two smaller dials inside only one man who designed them. the top dial, and one inside the bottom. I am amazed by this device and quickly become obsessed with de- 21 It is time to return to the ship. As I head toward the termining its function and operation. shoreline, I stumble over an object projecting from the sand. After regaining my balance, I turn and spy “It looks like there’s a storm coming,” I hear one of the 23 a wooden box. I am not quite sure what to make of it, crew members call out. so I bring it aboard our galley to study. My father enters the cabin and I show him the 24 22 Sitting inside the cabin of the ship, I examine my dis- device. “This is incredible,” he announces, studying covery. There are two doors, one each on the front the mechanism. and back of the box. I open the front door and see a large bronze dial with needlelike pointers. However, “The Greeks have so many complex machines 25 I cannot read the Greek inscriptions. Above the and devices, Father,” I say. “Who conceived all dial is a crank. I turn the crank slightly and notice these contraptions?”

7 26 My father lets out a sigh of exasperation. “There and everything in the cabin slides toward the bulkhead. was a great man who lived in Syracuse by the name I hold on desperately to the wooden box, clutching it of Archimedes [ahr-kuh-MEE-deez]. He designed against my chest. The skies darken and the rain inten- the defense mechanisms that pull the ships out of sifies. I scramble to the porthole in alarm. Frightened the water, the reflective mirrors, the catapults, and and anxious, I witness gigantic waves surrounding perhaps, even the device you found. Our general, the ship. Marcellus, had great respect for Archimedes and therefore ordered him not to be killed when we con- My father lunges into the cabin. “Stay inside and hold 30 quered the city. Unfortunately, one of our soldiers on as best you can,” he urges sternly. came upon him, and not realizing who he was, ended his life.” Feeling nauseous from the swaying, I look out the 31 porthole again and see a mountain of water bearing 27 “You may be holding the legacy of one of the world’s down on our galley. I clutch my precious Greek most learned men in your hands,” my father remarks mechanism and tablets closely and shut my eyes as as he exits the cabin. my world turns upside down.

28 I look at the machine and swear to myself that I will Floating alone on a large, wooden plank in calmer 32 discover its mystery and try to carry on the life of Ar- seas, I awaken, clenching only my tablets. chimedes by being a great inventor too.

29 Once out at sea, the rain pours heavily and the wind whips up. Suddenly, the ship tilts quickly to one side

8 A SIGNIFICANT DISCOVERY ROMAN GALLEY MODEL Credit: Rama Credit:

33 During the rise of the Roman Empire, the Romans collected precious statues, pottery, coins, and many conquered many settlements. These conquests in- other artifacts that were of significant value. cluded Greek territories. One group of Romans departed the Greek city-state 36 34 Most notable, was the city-state of Syracuse. This state with an overloaded galley. The craft was heavily was second only to Athens in terms of wealth and weighted by all the stolen goods and the Roman cargo. power. The Romans desired to control Syracuse and Possibly on board was the prototype of a miraculous confiscate any valuables. Therefore, they launched machine the Greeks used to predict the movement of an attack from the sea that lasted eight months. The the planets and moon. During their return voyage to Roman fleet included large galley ships. These vessels Rome, they ran into a powerful storm that ultimately were large wooden ships with tall masts, propelled by forced the ship to the bottom of the sea. rowers with long oars.

35 Due to a staunch defense by the Greeks, the battle was long and difficult. However, the Romans even- tually sacked and looted Syracuse. As a result, they

9 REFERENCE MAP

Atlantic Ocean ROMAN EMPIRE

Black Sea

MAP KEY Rome Roman Empire (40 BC) GREECE bodies of water Aegean locations Sea Syracuse Antikythera wreck

Mediterranean Sea

ANTHIKYTHERA MECHANISM This is the largest intact piece of the Antikythera Mechanism retrieved from the wreck.

Front Back Photo: Marsyas Photo:

37 On a fateful day, between 70 and 50 BC, another large During the 20th century, the objects were inspected 39 Roman galley ship, loaded with cargo, plunged to and studied extensively. This device was a box con- the bottom of the Aegean Sea. This disaster occurred taining gears, wheels, and cogs. According to the re- just off the coast of the Greek island of Antikythera searchers, the machine was created by the Greeks and (ANT-i-ki-THEER-Ə). Due to the efforts of three early appeared to be very advanced for its time. 20th century sponge divers, it is now believed that this is one of the most important Roman shipwrecks Finally, in the 1950s, the purpose of the machine 40 ever discovered. became apparent to scientists and historians. These researchers concluded the mechanism was used for 38 In 1900, a group of sponge divers discovered the the calculation of the motion of planets and stars. The remains of the ship at the bottom of the Aegean Sea. machine was termed the first computer and called the They brought as many artifacts as they could locate to Antikythera mechanism. the surface. One recovered object is now recognized as one of the most interesting and significant discoveries ever. This artifact was a heavily crusted and aged piece of bronze. 10 Why were the Greeks so concerned with eclipses? 43 ANTIKYTHERA MECHANISM One theory holds that, during a total lunar eclipse, a RECONSTRUCTION great battle occurred in Athens. The Greeks were dev- This model is built with the gears exposed. astated and lost many people. Therefore, they began to see eclipses as bad omens and desired to possess the ability to predict them. Thus, the Antikytheria mechanism was constructed.

This ancient Roman shipwreck has provided clues 44 to the technological developments of early western civilization. A few of these inventions are considered by some scientists to be more advanced than modern technology. SOLAR ECLIPSE Photo: Yutaka Tsutano Yutaka Photo:

Photo: Mogi Vicentini Photo: When the moon passes between the Sun and the Earth, and the moon partially or fully blocks the sun.

41 Further investigation in the early part of this century Moon revealed that the device was primarily an astronomical Sun Earth

device. This device measured and predicted the move- umbra ments of the planets and Earth’s moon, with a particular focus on solar and lunar eclipses. Some scientists have suggested that much of the science and calcula- LUNAR tions used by the Greeks was based on a knowledge of astronomy developed by the ancient Babylonians. ECLIPSE Photo: Steve Elliott Steve Photo:

42 The gears and dials of this mechanism predicted the When the moon passes directly behind the Earth into its umbra (shadow). occurrence of an eclipse. Additionally, the device in- dicated if the eclipse would be lunar or solar. Further,

Sun in the event of a lunar eclipse, the color of the moon umbra would be forecast. In essence, the Greeks were fore- Earth Moon telling the future with this invention.

11 A MOST LEARNED MAN LAW OF BUOYANCY If the weight of the water displaced is equal to the weight of the object, it will float. If the weight of the water displaced is less than the weight of the object, the object will sink.

ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE 0 9 1 The bouyant force is equal 8 2 to the weight of the displaced water. 7 3 6 4 5 0 9 1 8 2

7 3 6 4 5

ARCHIMEDES OF 3lb. SYRACUSE 3lb.bouyant force water Archimedes Thoughtful by Domenico Fetti, oil on canvas Fetti, Domenico by Thoughtful Archimedes displaced water displaced water Source: http://physics.weber.edu/carroll/archimedes/principle.htm Source:

45 Archimedes (287 BCE - 212 BCE) is considered the amount of water displaced was proportional to one of the greatest mathematicians and scientists his body weight. He ran into the streets naked, shout- in the history of western civilization. He developed ing “Eureka, I have found it!” to celebrate his discovery. many theorems and inventions that are still widely used today. Following this discovery, he decided to measure the 48 amount of water displaced by the crown and a piece of 46 A famous Archimedes legend concerns a task he was solid gold. Comparing the two measurements, he was asked to perform by the King of Syracuse. Alleged- able to prove the crown was indeed mixed with silver. ly, he was requested to detect whether or not a gold crown was pure or had been mixed with silver. This incident led to his development of the Law of 49 Buoyancy which states that the weight of an object

47 According to the legend, while Archimedes was in is equal to the amount of water it displaces. The Law the bathtub, he noticed that as he entered the tub, the explains how boats and other objects are able to float water rose. After some experimentation, he realized on water.

12 CONCLUSION ARCHIMEDES SCREW In Archimedes' screw, water or any other liquid is carried up the tube by the turning blade.

ALSO KNOWN AS: crank turns the screw the Archimedian screw,

screw pump Jones Ray Photo:

movement of the water Source: http://physics.kenyon.edu/EarlyApparatus/Fluids/Archimedes_Screw/Archimedes_Screw.html Source:

50 Another contribution of the Greek mathematician is Archimedes also wrote extensively about levers and 51 known as the Archimedes Screw. The screw was de- their operation. He exclaimed, “Give me a place to signed primarily to irrigate crops and to remove water stand on and I will move the Earth.” In addition, Ar- from flooded areas. The device consists of a large screw chimedes is credited with creating the first odometer. that turns inside a hollow pipe. This turning draws the He designed a cart which was equipped with a gear that water upward through the pipe and out the top. These would drop a pebble into a box after every mile trav- screws are still used all over the world today in farming, eled. Counting the pebbles at the end of the journey fishing, sanitation, and many other industries. would reveal how many miles one had traversed.

After the gears click a certain amount of times, ARCHIMEDES ODOMETER the device drops a pebble into a box. An odometer shows the distance that a vehicle has traveled.

gears

1 pebble = 1 mile horse or wagon attaches here pebble

road odometer moves this direction Source: http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/ArchimedesGears.htm Source:

13 Additional Source

Directions:Carefully read the passage below.

PYTHAGORAS: The Ultimate Greek Geek by Melvin Cook

Close up Pythagoras (man holding a book) in The School of Athens by Raphael (1509-1511)

1 he Pythagorean Theorem is fundamental to the study of mathematics, especially geometry. The ancient T Babylonians understood the relationship between the hypotenuse of a right triangle and the other two sides. However, it took about 1,000 years for someone to prove it mathematically. That someone was Pythagoras. Over the passage of time, he often has been described as the first pure mathematician.

2 Pythagoras was born on the Greek island of Samos in 569 BC. Well-educated, he was not only interested in mathematics, but also philosophy, astronomy, and music. Various life events allowed him the opportunities to study further in Egypt and Babylon. While in the latter, Pythagoras was said to have “reached the acme of perfection in arithmetic and music and the other mathematical sciences taught by the Babylonians...”

3 Finally, in about 518 BC, Pythagoras settled in the Greek colony of Crotona, in southern Italy. There he founded a religious and philosophical school. Many of his followers also lived and worked there. The group followed strict rules of behavior, dress, diet, and secrecy. They were allowed no personal possessions and ate as vegetarians. Together, Pythagoras and his followers worked on discoveries and theories, claiming no individual credit. They were known as the Pythagoreans.

Pythagoras believed that all things are numbers. Therefore, he concluded, mathematics was the basis for 6 everything. Thus, the physical world could be understood through the study of mathematics. Of particular importance was geometry. Pythagoras considered it the highest form of mathematics.

He also believed that numbers had personalities, characteristics, strengths, and weaknesses. For example, any 7 certain number could be male or female. It could be perfect or flawed. It could be beautiful or ugly.

Because of the secretive nature of the Pythagoreans, history has found it difficult to determine exactly what of 8 their communal work could be strictly attributed to Pythagoras. However, in later writings, the Pythagoreans always credited Pythagoras with, among others, the following theorems:

9 • the sum of the angles of a triangle is equal to two right angles (or 180 degrees) • the Pythagorean Theorem, written as the equation (a2+b2=c2)

PYTHAGOREAN THEOREM

EQUATION c2 a2 +b2 = c2

In a right triangle, the square of the a2 a c hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the b squares of the two other sides.

HYPOTENUSE b2 The side opposite the right angle of the triangle

The work of Pythagoras and his followers certainly has led to a better understanding of such concepts as angles, 10 triangles, area, polygons, proportion, and polyhedral.

11 He was the ultimate Greek Geek.

Directions: Use the passage on the previous pages to answer the questions or complete the tasks.

1. Summarize the text in 50 words or less. Make sure you determine the main ideas in the passage before summarizing. 4 ______

2. Compare and contrast the contributions of Archimedes and Pythagoras to mathematics. Use evidence from the text to support your answer. 4 ______

3. Draw a text feature (map, illustration, chart, diagram, or table). 4

Explain how the text feature helps clarify or contribute to the passage. Use evidence from the text to support your explanation. ______Total: ______

______12

RUBRIC TASK UNDERSTANDING EVIDENCE

No Attempt Student makes no attempt to 0 complete the task.

Student makes an attempt Student demonstrates little or to complete the task but no understanding of the task. 1 Below Basic demonstrates little or no understanding of the task.

Student completes most of the Student demonstrates a limited Student provides limited or 2 Basic elements of the task. understanding of the text. no evidence to support their answer.

Proficient Student completes all elements Student demonstrates an Student supports the answer 3 of the task. understanding of the text. with evidence from the text.

Student completes all elements Student demonstrates a deep Student completely supports Advanced of the task. understanding of the text. the answer with solid evidence 4 from the text.

Your class is preparing for a History Day presentation for middle school students. Your class

presentation will be about the influence of the ancient Greeks. For your part in the presentation,

you need to help teachers, students, and parents better understand the Greek contributions to

Mathematics.

Using the resources in this portfolio, develop a thesis, or controlling idea, to explain the

Greek contributions to Mathematics. Once you have a thesis, select the most relevant information

from more than one source to support it. Then, write a multi-paragraph explanatory article

explaining your thesis. Clearly organize your article and elaborate your ideas. Develop your ideas

clearly and use your own words, except when quoting directly from the sources. Be sure to reference

the source title when quoting or paraphrasing points or facts from the sources.

R.A.F.T. Table

ROLE

AUDIENCE

FORMAT

TOPIC

I am ______. I am writi ng ______for role format

______about ______. audience topic

INTRODUCTION (THESIS Statement)

SUPPORTING Point CITE SOURCE

Title

Page # Paragraph #

SUPPORTING Point CITE SOURCE

Title

Page # Paragraph #

SUPPORTING Point CITE SOURCE

Title

Page # Paragraph #

CONCLUSION

PLAN IT!

OPENING TYPES SNAPPY! Opening Examples

SF STATEMENT / FACT It was August 28, 1963 when Dr. Marti n Luther King Jr. gave a powerful speech to nearly 250 thousand people in Washington, D.C.

? QUESTION Is it fair that one group of people is treated fairly and another group of people is treated unfairly?

Q QUOTE “I have a dream.”

A ANECDOTE It was a hot and humid day in late summer. I sat on the shoulders of my father looking out over a huge crowd of nearly 250 thousand people.

SNAPPY! Opening

LINKING Sentences

THESIS Statement

SAY IT!

SNAPPY! Opening

LINKING Sentences

THESIS Statement

WRITE IT!

READ IT! SF STATEMENT / FACT INDENT PARAGRAPH ? QUESTION L LINKING SENTENCES CHECK IT! Q QUOTE TS THESIS STATEMENT

SNAPPY! Opening SNAPPY! A ANECDOTE

PLAN IT!

SUPPORTING Point

ELABORATE

QUOTE or PARAPHRASE a point from a source CITE SOURCE

Title

Page # Paragraph #

TRANSITIONS Table

1 First To start with 2 The author states To begin with In the ﬁ rst place The text says For example For instance The author says As an illustrati on According to ______,author

SAY IT!

1 Transiti on , 1st supporti ng point elaborate

Transiti on 2 , quote or paraphrase a point from a source

WRITE IT!

READ IT! INDENT PARAGRAPH Q QUOTE

T TRANSITIONS P PARAPHRASE CHECK IT! CS CITE SOURCE SV SYNTACTIC VARIETY

SP SUPPORTING POINT AV APPROPRIATE VOCAB

PLAN IT!

SUPPORTING Point

ELABORATE

QUOTE or PARAPHRASE a point from a source CITE SOURCE

Title

Page # Paragraph #

TRANSITIONS Table

1 Secondly Moreover 2 The author states Notably Another point The text says Additi onally In additi on The author says Furthermore Also, According to ______,author

SAY IT!

1 Transiti on , 2nd supporti ng point elaborate Transiti on 2 , quote or paraphrase a point from a source

WRITE IT!

READ IT! INDENT PARAGRAPH Q QUOTE

T TRANSITIONS P PARAPHRASE CHECK IT! CS CITE SOURCE SV SYNTACTIC VARIETY

SP SUPPORTING POINT AV APPROPRIATE VOCAB

PLAN IT!

SUPPORTING Point

ELABORATE

QUOTE or PARAPHRASE a point from a source CITE SOURCE

Title

Page # Paragraph #

TRANSITIONS Table

1 A third point Furthermore 2 The author states Another point Lastly, The text says A ﬁ nal point Finally, The author says A last point According to ______,author

SAY IT!

1 Transiti on , 3rd supporti ng point elaborate

Transiti on 2 , quote or paraphrase a point from a source

WRITE IT!

READ IT! INDENT PARAGRAPH Q QUOTE

T TRANSITIONS P PARAPHRASE CHECK IT! CS CITE SOURCE SV SYNTACTIC VARIETY

SP SUPPORTING POINT AV APPROPRIATE VOCAB

PLAN IT!

CLOSING TYPES SNAPPY Closing Examples ? WONDER /QUESTION I wonder what Marti n Luther King would think of America today?

M MESSAGE / MORAL Peaceful protests can lead to change.

PS POWERFUL STATEMENT He will long be remembered for his peaceful eﬀ orts to make change.

CC CLEVER CONNECTION The dream lives on!

Restate the THESIS Statement

SUMMARIZE the Supporting Points

SNAPPY! Closing

TRANSITIONS Table

1 In summary, In conclusion, 2 As stated, As discussed, To sum up, In closing, As noted, In other words, To summarize, As shown above, Therefore,

SAY IT!

1 Transiti on , restate or paraphrase the thesis statement Transiti on 2 , summarize supporti ng points SNAPPY! closing

WRITE IT!

READ IT! INDENT PARAGRAPH ? WONDER / QUESTION RTS RESTATE THESIS STATEMENT M MESSAGE / MORAL

EL ELABORATION PS POWERFUL STATEMENT CHECK IT! SUMMARIZE

SSP CLOSING SNAPPY! CC CLEVER CONNECTION SUPPORTING POINT

WRITE IT!

RUBRIC

PURPOSE & States a clear thesis statement, stays on topic ORGANIZATION Logical progression of ideas with syntacti c variety

Has an eﬀ ecti ve introducti on and conclusion

Uses appropriate transiti ons

SUBTOTAL

EVIDENCE & Quotes or paraphrases from sources to support the main idea and ELABORATION supporti ng details

Elaborates the main idea and supporti ng details with examples, personal experiences, or details from the text

Develops ideas clearly using appropriate vocabulary (uses vocabulary from sources)

Style is appropriate for the format and audience (formal and academic)

SUBTOTAL

CONVENTIONS Uses proper spelling, punctuati on, and capitalizati on

Uses correct grammar and sentence formati on

SUBTOTAL

TOTAL SCORE

Dio Cassius. (155-235 A.D.) Siege of Syracuse. Roman History. Retrieved on 30 June 2013 from: http://www.math.nyu.edu/~crorres/Archimedes/Siege/DioCassius.html

Galley. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved on 30 June 2013 from: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/224325/galley

Livy and Plutarch. (59 B.C.-120 A.D.). Death of Archimedes. Retrieved on 30 June 2013 from: http://www.math.nyu.edu/~crorres/Archimedes/Death/Histories.html

Pappas, Stephanie. (2013). Roman Shipwreck Off Greek Island Antikythera May Actually Hold Two Ships. The Huffington Post. Retrieved on 30 June 2103 from: http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/01/07/roman-shipwreck-greek-antikythera-two ships_n_2425868.html

PBS NOVA. Ancient Computers. Retrieved on 30 June 2013 from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ytsyNaW1POY

Polybius. (200-188 B.C.) Siege of Syracuse. Universal History. Retrieved on 30 June 2013 from: http://www.math.nyu.edu/~crorres/Archimedes/Siege/Polybius.html

Images Page 9 Trireme 1 by Rama, CC BY-SA 2.0 http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Trireme_1.jpg

Page 10 Antikythera mechanism fragment (fragment A) by Marsyas, CC BY-SA 3.0 http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:NAMA_Machine_d%27Anticyth%C3%A8re_1.jpg

Fragment A (rear) of the Antikythera mechanism by Marsyas, CC BY-SA 3.0 http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:NAMA_Machine_d%27Anticyth%C3%A8re_4.jpg

Page 11 Antikythera model front panel by Mogi Vicentini, CC BY-SA 3.0 http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Antikythera_model_front_panel_Mogi_Vicentini_2007.JPG

Solar Eclipse 2012 by Yutaka Tsutano, CC BY 2.0 http://www.flickr.com/photos/23208360@N07/7237620042/in/photolist-c2yGhs-c2yFQN-c2yFJs-c2yFDs-dc35bT-c2FhCS-c4iZj1-c4iXCC-c4iR67-c2Xy2E- 98h4hb-c2XxZA-c2GJv1-c2H4Xb-c2B2iY-9312cF-dSzZ1x-c2Gvb9-c2RD9Y-dc35io-c5JiJG-c4xZrQ-934cnG-c3gQHj-c2xCvb-c2xCFN-c2xD2m-c2xCSG-c2xCzb- c2xCLL-c2xCWY-9343mj-9314Uz-92ZZoZ-9347s5-92ZYrT-92ZY4i-9317c4-92ZYRk-9316nH-934e5E-9313R6

Lunar Eclipse by Steve Elliott, CC BY-SA 2.0 http://www.flickr.com/photos/37996649474@N01/411924325/in/photolist-CpdKx-CpdLe-CpdLR-CpdMB-CpdPy-CpdUn-CuCak-CuCfJ-CCG47-CCG49- CCG4a-CCG4b-CCG4c-CCG4d-Djg8z-DYB5o-DYB6t-DYBbQ-DYBdg-DYBfW-DYBgH-DYBhk-DYBj4-DYBk8-DYBkP-DYBnM-DYBop-DYBpE-DYBrB-DYBua-DYBv7- DYBvX-DYBwK-DYBxn-EE5uL-EE5uN-EE5uW-EE5uY-EE5vb-EE5WQ-EE5WS-EE5WU-EE5WY-EE5X3-EE6d5-EE6d9-EE6db-EE6df-EEbdC-LV9v2-2ke5k3

Page 12 Archimedes Thoughtful by Domenico Fetti, oil on canvas, PD-ART http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Domenico-Fetti_Archimedes_1620.jpg

Page 13 Monmouth New Hydro Scheme by Ray Jones, CC BY-SA 2.0 http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Monmouth_New_Hydro_Scheme_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1538784.jpg

[A reconstruction of the odometer developed by Archimedes]. http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/ArchimedesGears.htm

EAN