U n i t e d K i n g d o m United Kingdom C o u n t i n g c o n s u m

p Counting t i o n consumption

CO2 emissions, material flows and Ecological Footprint of the UK by region and devolved country

3 © WWF-UK, 2006

All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication can be made without the prior written permission of the copyright holders.

Published by WWF-UK Panda House Weyside Park Godalming Surrey GU7 1XR

ISBN 1 85850 214 4

A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Designed by The Design Pod

Printed by Arrowhead Printing Ltd on Cyclus Offset, a recycled paper made from 100 per cent post consumer waste Contents

Foreword 2

Executive summary 3

1 Learning to count: The Ecological Budget UK project 4

2 Sustainability policy and Ecological Budget UK 6

3 National results: Ecological Footprint, CO2 emissions and material flow analysis 8

4 Regional overview 16

5 Regional analysis

East of England 22

East Midlands 26

London 30

North East 34

North West 38

South East 42

South West 46

West Midlands 50

Yorkshire and Humberside 54

Northern Ireland 58

Scotland 62

Wales 66

6 A framework for sustainable consumption and production 70

7 The future 76

Appendix: Project scope and methods 78

Contact details 80 D R O

W Foreword E R O F

Every generation has new challenges to face, underpin them, and the real impacts on and sometimes these challenges are so great the planet such as the use of material that they quite simply define our time. resources and energy. Living in a world with environmental limits Ecological Budget UK is a giant will define ours. Never before have step in this direction. By providing the we had to face such enormous unintended most comprehensive analysis yet attempted, consequences of our past endeavours: it helps us to track materials, CO2 and consequences that are global in scale our Ecological Footprint through every form and which will require united global effort of production and consumption of the UK to address. economy by industrial sector, geographical Preventing a 2°C rise in the global area and socio-economic group. Under- average temperature will be hugely standing the relationship between the challenging. It will require steering humanity economy and the environment on which on a new course that is as much about it is based is a prerequisite if we are to change and transformation in economies move towards sustainability. and markets as it is in our own lives and I urge the UK government carefully to behaviour. The consensus now is not about consider this analysis, and to use it as one whether we should or could change the way part of the evidence base for creating policy we live, but of the more urgent and immediate and fiscal frameworks which support the questions of when, how and at what cost? long-term transformation of the economy. We cannot embark upon such a In moving to a sustainable future, we will transformative journey unprepared. To bring need to pay as much attention to the stocks the vision of a One Planet Economy – as and flows of materials and energy as we set out in the government Sustainable now do to the stocks and flows of money. Development Strategy – into reality, we need to understand the connection between our lifestyles, the goods and services that

Andrew Lee Director, Sustainable Development Commission

2 Y R A

Executive summary M M U S E V I T U C E X E

Ecological Budget UK provides a administrations and English regions is But it is essential to long-term sustainability, much needed evidence base to better Wales at 5.2 global hectares per person. even if achieved at the distant horizon of understand the important issues of > If the footprint was to be distributed 2050. A Factor Four reduction in resource Sustainable Consumption and Production evenly among the global population, consumption means a year-on-year (SCP). It provides a statistical and scientific the UK is currently overshooting that reduction of -3 per cent in resource flows basis for SCP strategies in the UK at by a factor of three. In other words, and Ecological Footprint. Set against an national and regional levels. It shows if everyone lived like we do in the economic growth rate averaging 2.25 per the total global impact of UK consumption, UK, we would need three planets cent per year, this implies ‘decoupling’ not only by accounting for direct resource to support our current lifestyles. economic and material growth at a rate flows and emissions within the UK, but of -5.25 per cent per year – over twice also by including the manufacture of CO2 emissions the rate seen in recent years. imported products and materials. Ecological > The total carbon emissions from One of the key outputs of the Ecological Budget UK’s three headline indicators – UK production is 10.8 t/cap. Budget UK project, the Resources and CO2 emissions, material flow analysis, > The total carbon emissions from Energy Analysis Program (REAP), provides and the Ecological Footprint can be UK consumption is 11.9 t/cap. an essential contribution to the UK policy used together or side-by-side for > The total carbon emissions in imports evidence base. Following the launch of this different purposes. for consumption is between 10 and report, a five year programme of research The Ecological Budget UK has 30 per cent of the total UK emissions. and development is now taking shape. produced the following headline results. > In terms of carbon emissions, the most This includes a contribution to the evidence resource intensive sectors are the cement base for the One Planet Economy: Material flow industry followed by electricity generation. > The total material input is 15.2 tonnes > The most indirectly resource intensive > national material/energy accounts per person (also described as sector is banking and finance. and budget implications, to be shown tonnes/capita or t/cap). > The consumption type with the highest alongside the fiscal and monetary > Of this total, 26 per cent comes from impact is domestic energy consumption budget, on an annual basis; imports. followed by car use. > a full breakdown of direct, external, > The average household directly > The consumption type with highest embedded and induced impacts of purchases 2.5 tonnes a year and throws impact per £ spent is electricity economic activity, using CO2, material away a tonne of waste each year. generation. flow analysis, Ecological Footprint > 35 per cent of all material goes to capital analysis and other appropriate measures; stocks (new buildings, roads and other This baseline report concludes that it > an investigation of key supply chains infrastructure). would require three planets to support the (e.g. construction, chemicals) for their > 21 per cent of all material is exported. world’s consumption if everyone used as total environmental costs and benefits > 37 per cent of all material ultimately many of the Earth’s available resources on a life cycle/risk management basis; ends up as waste. (“bio-capacity”) as the average UK resident. > an investigation of critical policy options This level of resource use is unsustainable, (e.g. nuclear power) for the total Ecological Footprint and demonstrates the need for a ‘One environmental costs and benefits > The total Ecological Footprint per person Planet Economy’ – an economic system on a life cycle/risk management basis. in the UK is 5.4 global hectares (an area of production and consumption which equivalent to a normal hectare but respects environmental limits while being Ecological Budget UK has taken the first adjusted for average global productivity). financially and socially sustainable. A One step in understanding how the decisions > The highest footprint of all devolved Planet Economy will require a 75 per cent we take every day affect the environment administrations and English regions reduction in resource flows and the around us. It is an essential step in creating is the South East at 6.3 global hectares Ecological Footprint – this is commonly a platform to enable us to move from the per person. known as a Factor Four reduction. current UK ‘three planet economy’ > The lowest footprint of all devolved This is a hugely challenging target. to a One Planet Economy. 3 T N U O

C 1 Learning to count: O T G N

I The Ecological Budget UK project N R A E

L If everyone on Earth had the same consumption patterns as the average UK resident, humanity

1 would need the resources of three planets to support itself. Many government policy-makers, scientists, businesses and citizens are aware of this, and share an interest in moving towards a more sustainable and equitable use of the planet’s natural resources.

Sustainable development – development that meets the needs of people today “Counting consumption” “Stategy for a REAP toolkit – a baseline report One Planet Economy” (Resource and Energy without compromising those of future UK and regional carbon, – a prospectus Analysis Program) material flow & Ecological Building the evidence base Software for modelling & generations – is now an urgent necessity. Footprint in consumpion for moving towards a assessment of consumption and production One Planet Economy in & production However, accurate standardised measures consumption & production are required if the UK’s impact on nature is to be determined reliably. Recognising

this, the Department for Environment, Regional report: Local area Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) has called North East Footprint database for environmental policy decisions to be based on sound evidence that

can be tested for validity, consistency Regional report: Technical reports West Midlands 1 Outline & methods and robustness. 2 Data structure 3 Input-output method However, like most other countries, 4 UK/regional results 5 Scenario model the UK has so far had no comprehensive 6 REAP user manual understanding of which countries, regions, 7 REAP applications “Sustainable communities 8 Strategy for sectors and activities contribute to its in the West Midlands” One Planet Economy environmental impact. Which activities contribute most to CO2 emissions? Where do resources come from or Ecological Budget UK: and research programme for a more end up? What are the environmental a route map joined-up system of national accounts, impacts of trading with other countries? a One Planet Economy comprehensive This missing information is crucial if we The project has four main outputs: spending review, and One Planet are to develop sound sustainable Economy strategies for each sector consumption and production strategies 1 This current baseline report summarises of production and consumption. and policies for the UK. national and regional results – a The Ecological Budget UK project not comprehensive set of physical accounts 3 REAP (Resource and Energy Analysis only provides this much needed evidence (CO2 emissions, the Ecological Footprint, Program) is the project’s software base, but also offers a way to measure and material flow analysis) that reflect the application. It enables interactive core requirements for sustainability. global impacts of resource consumption. access to Ecological Budget UK’s The UK Sustainable Development Strategy Although not a full exposition of the resource accounting data and can itself raises the idea of a One Planet methodology, it does show some assess future scenarios and policy Economy; Ecological Budget UK provides of the most important applications. options in terms of sustainability. the detail and the measuring stick for this. For those interested in a more technical You can learn more about REAP treatment of Ecological Budget UK and at www.sei.se/reap resource accounting than is available The Ecological Budget UK project in this summary report, see the eight was funded by Biffaward and regional full technical reports and publicly partners and jointly fulfilled by WWF-UK, available spreadsheets at the Stockholm Environment Institute www.ecologicalbudget.org.uk. and the Centre of Urban and Regional Ecology at Manchester University. 2 Strategy for a One Planet Economy is a prospectus for continuing research on the question of how to steer the UK economy towards a One Planet Economy. It provides a demonstration 4 T N U O C O T G N I N R A

“The Ecological Budget UK project E L

is a huge advance in measuring the 1 effect of UK consumption”

4 There are also regional applications Ecological Budget UK’s three indicators What does Ecological of the Ecological Budget UK in the all show the indirect effects of consumption North East and West Midlands; along with the direct effects, both upstream Budget UK suggest? an analysis of “sustainable communities” and downstream of any sector or product. in urban regeneration in the West This is particularly relevant in the UK’s This baseline report concludes that it Midlands; and a parallel project in the service-dominated economy, where the would require three planets to support North West which focuses on the effects of resource consumption are the world’s consumption if everyone used benchmarking of business sustainability. often hidden through offsite supply chains. as many of the Earth’s available resources These indicators enable comparisons (“biocapacity”) as the average UK resident. Why is the Ecological between the production side of the This level of resource use is unsustainable, economy (including exports) and the and demonstrates the need for a Budget UK project consumption side (including imports). One Planet Economy – an economic important? Since sustainability involves consumption system of production and consumption as well as production, a full environmental which respects environmental limits while The Ecological Budget UK project is trade balance such as this is essential. being financially and socially sustainable. a huge advance in measuring the effect The indicators presented here also A One Planet Economy will require a of UK consumption, providing a statistical show detailed differences between the 75 per cent reduction in resource flows and and scientific basis for sustainable resource flows and Ecological Footprint of the Ecological Footprint: this is commonly production and consumption strategies local authorities and different social groups. known as a Factor Four1 reduction. in the UK at national and regional levels. We suggest that the Ecological Budget This is a hugely challenging target. Currently, national and regional agencies UK provides the reliable measure of human But it is essential to long-term sustainability, do not have a reliable and comparable demand on nature that the UK government even if achieved at the distant horizon measure of the impacts of their resource has called for in chapter 3 of its Sustainable of 2050. A Factor Four reduction in consumption. This report demonstrates Development Strategy, and we believe that resource consumption means a year-on- how those measures can be constructed this knowledge can and should be applied year reduction of -3 per cent in resource and used in policy-making, and the project directly to policy. flows and Ecological Footprint. features many unique advances. Set against an economic growth rate It shows the total global impact of averaging 2.25 per cent per year, this UK consumption, not only by accounting implies decoupling economic and material for direct resource flows and emissions growth at a rate of -5.25 per cent per year in the UK, but also by including the – more than twice the rate seen in recent manufacture of imported products and years. This reality is the theme of the materials. Ecological Budget UK’s three accompanying Strategy for a One Planet headline indicators – CO2 emissions, Economy, which suggests the next material flow analysis, and the Ecological steps for government, consumers Footprint – can be used side by side and businesses. for different purposes.

1 Von Weizacker, E., Lovins, A.B. & Lovins, L.H., 1997, Factor Four: Doubling Wealth, Halving Resource Use – A Report to the Club of Rome, London, Earthscan. 5 Y C I L

O 2 Sustainability policy P Y T I L I

B and Ecological Budget UK A N I

A The concept of Sustainable Consumption and Production (SCP) was first highlighted at T S

U the Earth Summit in 1992. More recently, the UK government’s framework for SCP has S restated its commitment to address development needs and quality of life issues in ways 2 that respect environmental limits. This chapter outlines how the Ecological Budget UK project supports this agenda.

Ecological Budget UK developed a number The Resource and Energy Analysis To demonstrate the application of REAP of indicators to contribute evidence to the Program (REAP) model has three unique to the UK’s SCP framework, its potential UK Sustainable Consumption and features which make it suitable to contribution to seven key policy areas of Production (SCP) Framework. It developed address SCP: the framework has been identified below. detailed material flow accounts, and carbon > analysis of total impacts of consumption dioxide and Ecological Footprint accounts to meet final demand, not only the by sectors and regions, to understand how emissions and resource use, in the UK; Products policy intervention can contribute to the goal > analysis of inter-dependencies between Strengthening UK and international of a One Planet Economy. These results can sectors and supply chains, which measures to improve the environmental be found in chapter 3. For a full account of show market transformation effects perfomance of products and services, what Ecological Budget UK contributed to in the round; and including improved product design. the material flow analysis, CO2 and Footprint > analysis of material flow at regional accounts, see Appendix. Below we have and local authority levels, enabling Production described how our work relates to specific a closer connection with regional Improve resource efficiency and reduce policy areas in the UK SCP Framework. and local policies. waste and harmful emissions across Chapter 6 takes this further by looking at business sectors. the policy levers to achieve a One Planet The REAP system of accounting opens up Economy by analysing the supply chains new possibilities in comprehensive analysis Consumption in consumption and production for of global impacts (see Figure 1): Influence consumption patterns, including two key sectors. > the “internal” UK emissions accounts proposals for new advice for consumers. The concept of SCP was initiated at the at present include only emissions from United Nations Conference on Environment energy conversion within the UK, as Procurement and Development (UNCED) in 1992. specified by the Kyoto Protocol and its Sustainable procurement in the public It is rooted in the acknowledgement that accounting conventions; sector to make the UK a leader within many of today’s most pressing global > an “extended” account includes aviation the EU by 2009. environmental problems, such as climate and international shipping to and from change, biodiversity loss and deforestation, the UK, which are the fastest growing Innovation are associated with the sheer volume of emissions sources. This wider boundary Support for innovation to bring through resources used in developed countries has been analysed by the Tyndall new products,materials and services. such as the UK1. With the establishment research below; of its framework for SCP,2 the UK > an “embodied” account then tracks Sustainable business government has restated its commitment the goods and products produced Increase transparency, corporate “to deliver continuous economic and social overseas and consumed in the UK responsibility and skills in business progress that respects the limits of the (this is the logic of the consumption- and other organisations. Earth’s ecosystems, and meets the needs based approach); and and aspirations of everyone for a better > an “induced” account aims to measure Waste quality of life now and in the future”.3 the ultimate environmental and social Increased emphasis on reducing waste damage, in terms of deforestation, at source and making use of it desertification, etc. These effects are as a resource. often more uncertain and more indirect, but no less important. The Ecological Footprint is increasingly popular as a 1 UN, 1992, Agenda 21, New York. measure because it has the potential 2 DTI and Defra, Sustainable Development Strategy, 2003 to reflect this more global view, even (available from www.sustainable-development.gov.uk). though its calculations are less certain. 3 ibid, p6. 4 One Planet Development Strategy, available from www.ecologicalbudget.org.uk 6 Y C I L O P Y T Social & I

Overseas International Exported L

environmental Production Distribution Consumption Waste I production transport waste

change B A N Material flows I A T

1 Internal (territorial) impacts S U

2 External (transport) impacts S

3 Embodied impacts 2 4 Induced impacts

Fig 1 Measuring the external impacts of regions

Products Consumption Innovation SCP policy: Strengthening UK and SCP policy: Influence consumption SCP policy: Support for innovation to international measures to improve the patterns, including proposals for new bring through new products, materials environmental performance of products advice for consumers. and services. and services, including improved One of Ecological Budget UK’s strengths While not directly highlighting the product design. is that it has provided the most detailed barriers that exist in achieving resource The REAP program shows improvements analysis of the environmental consequences efficiency gains in new products, Ecological in performance by changing consumer of consumption in the UK to date. The data Budget UK does benchmark the average demand for energy, and the direct and is organised by the standard consumption performance of a sector, allowing indirect performance of service sectors. classification system (COICOP) and gives comparisons to be made with new On a number of fronts, better performance room for a number of analyses helping products entering the market. may or may not be enough to counteract to combine expenditure data with increasing consumption. For instance, a environmental impacts and social welfare Sustainable business refrigerator may become twice as efficient, issues. The Ecological Footprint also has SCP policy: Increase transparency, but have no gain in efficiency, if it is twice great potential to raise awareness, but it corporate responsibility and skills in the size. For some products, most impact remains to be seen to what degree people business and other organisations. occurs during the production phase will change their consumption habits. This is clearly essential; government and others in the use phase. REAP has alone cannot bring about sustainable the ability to identify where in the supply Procurement consumption and production. To help chain a product’s impact lies, thereby SCP policy: Sustainable procurement in with this, the REAP toolkit provides providing valuable insights to improve the public sector to make the UK a leader evidence about industry and raw material product efficiency. within the EU by 2009. supply chains, the effects of innovation, REAP can analyse procurement choices. performance benchmarking and so on. Production Increasingly, as public services are Combined with future work on structural SCP policy: Improve resource efficiency privatised, the first objective for the public path analysis, information from and reduce waste and harmful emissions sector is to minimise short-term costs Ecological Budget UK can help unravel across business sectors. which can work against attempts to invest a company’s supply chain. This provides The Ecological Footprint is a valuable in sustainable procurement. As a good extensive detail of the impact of sector measure of energy and material intensity test of the REAP toolkit, the Sustainable or company activities. In the case of in production. So far, gains in technological Development Commission has a company, control over the input efficiency have just kept pace with rises commissioned SEI to explore the CO2 procurement process then provides the in consumption. With a detailed Footprint of the education sector. Again, possibility of substituting impact-intensive understanding of the direct and indirect the fact that REAP can consider both the suppliers with more sustainable suppliers. material and energy use of production direct and indirect flows of procurement patterns in the UK, Ecological Budget UK is a considerable advancement with Waste data can highlight where intervention can be significant policy application. SCP policy: Increased emphasis on made to achieve the greatest improvement. reducing waste at source and making The need for capturing impacts across the use of it as a resource. entire upstream and downstream supply The One Planet Development Strategy4 chain is of particular importance and has shows that this needs a comprehensive been noted in the Guidelines of the Global Research market transformation programme in each Reporting Initiative (GRI) and by the World key sector. Combining waste data with Business Council on Sustainable A technical description of the research resource input data helped identify Development. Ecological Budget UK has undertaken for the Ecological Budget UK resource-greedy sectors and establish made a major step in understanding this project can be found in the Appendix. where noteworthy changes can be made. down to the sectoral level. 7 S T L U

S 3 National results: E R

L Ecological Footprint, CO2 emissions A N O I

T and material flow analysis A N 2 3 The Ecological Budget UK project analysed the Ecological Footprint, CO emissions and material flows of the UK. Each of these indicators is an important measure of resource flows in the UK economy and offers an insight into how the economy impacts upon the global and local environment. Below is a summary of the results of each indicator.

Ecological Budget UK Abroad this would eliminate many emissions from production, it would do nothing to curb Production emissions UK indicator 1: total global emissions (due to continuing 2 CO2 emissions CO2 emissions consumption). To a much lesser degree, CO emissions from goods from exports K U

s and services from the UK this pattern has occurred within the UK n

o produced i

The UK interacts with the rest of world s as its economy has shifted from heavy

s and consumed i

through trade – exchanging resources, m in the UK industry towards services – a sector which, e n

services, cultures and ideas. In terms of o more than any other, depends on indirect, i t resources, this means importing more than p CO2 emissions The rest of “hidden” resource flows far away from m

u the world

d from imports s

230m tonnes of materials and products a its final consumed product. n

o to the UK o r b and exporting 193m tonnes, exchanging C The current absence of a “CO2 A resources with most countries in the world. emissions from consumption” indicator CO2, emitted when most of these is a shortcoming of present UK monitoring materials and products are produced, approaches, which Defra has recognised. contributes significantly to climate change – Fig 1 CO2 emissions from consumption The Department is working with the and production a fact which is undisputed in the published Stockholm Environment Institute to scientific literature. Highlighted by key This measure does not take into account identify the most appropriate approach political figures in the UK as one of the import-related emissions. The “emissions to constructing such an indicator for the greatest threats to mankind, climate from consumption indicator” includes UK. It is essential that a CO2 indicator that change has risen up the political agenda. the emissions from goods and services accounts for trade and overall consumption The Kyoto Protocol demonstrates consumed within the UK, wherever they be included in the UK’s headline indicators a global consensus that action to reduce come from (UK goods and services for sustainable development. CO2 emissions is a priority. produced + imports – exports). While At present, there is no commonly If they are to be reduced, it is important including import-related emissions in accepted method for calculating embodied to monitor and measure CO2 emissions the estimation procedure, this indicator CO2 emissions of imports. Most frequently, and which human activities cause them. excludes export-related emissions. these embedded emissions are estimated At present, the government measures Each approach has a different application based on the assumption that imports are CO2 physically emitted within the UK’s and there are, of course, advantages and produced with the same economic structure boundaries, as specified by the Reporting disadvantages to both. The production and the same resource efficiency as in the Convention of the COP (Consumption indicator can help pinpoint the drivers UK. Considering that many goods and according to Purpose). The indicator can behind changes in emissions rooted in the services come from regions of the world be described as “territorial emissions” or way the UK provides its goods and services where resource efficiency is lower (and “emissions from production”. The Ecological to final consumers across the world, while therefore emission intensities are higher than Budget UK CO2 indicator also estimates the consumption indicator can help to in the UK), there is a wide consensus that emissions from consumption as well identify drivers behind changes in the ignoring different production technologies as production. Figure 1 juxtaposes these worldwide impact of emissions from the results in an under-estimation of the two methods of allocating emissions. UK’s consumption patterns. Both indicators overseas impact of UK consumption. Emissions from production include all are required to enable informed decisions, Therefore, some authors1 2 have proposed CO2 emissions from goods and services more efficacious and fair policies, models that use specific information about produced in the UK wherever they are and more specific abatement strategies. production processes and efficiencies consumed (either in the UK or exported). Hypothetically, one way to reduce in other countries. In order to establish CO2 emissions from production (territorial a robust indicator for calculating import- emissions) would be to close down all related CO2 emissions, Defra has UK manufacturing, shift it to other countries, then import the goods and services that the UK consumes. However, although 8 Fig 2 CO2 emissions from consumption Fig 3 UK household CO2 emissions from consumption S T

and production L

1.5 U

12 Figure 2 shows S Other the difference in E 10 Government R

CO2 emissions L Capital investment 1.0 8 A p p Household from consumption N a a c c O / /

t 6 t and CO2 emissions I s s T n n o o A i 4 from production. i 0.5 s s s N s i i m 2 The difference is m e e 3 2 2 O due to trade of O C 0 C 0 l t s ) goods and services s .c a n s d e s l n n e e n e le o c e e io io c . o ic o i ic fu t t Emissions from Emissions from n n s m h F rv rv r p p lia s r ip e e e a m m 2 p t e u v s s c u u production consumption that emits CO p c p f t ( s s a fe f q o g r rt n n f o e in o o o o ld e rt e r p c c o l n o s te s sp t/cap t/cap in their production. h a io p a a n n ty s 10.76 11. 81 n t s h a a i a se o a n rc C r r ic G u rs R a u T t tr o e tr P te c H P a le riv E P

commissioned SEI to review existing More than 636m tonnes of CO2 are the most significant, amounting to 179m approaches and to propose an emitted in the UK. On the other hand, tonnes, followed by the transport sector appropriate estimation framework. UK consumption causes 703m tonnes with 114m tonnes and metal manufacturing

This work is continuing. of emissions, both within the UK and 2with 72m tonnes. Recognising that it is insufficient to use in the rest of the world. This is 11 per cent Column 2 reflects the interdependencies only national data for calculating the CO2 higher than emissions from production. of industries, and takes into account the emissions embodied in imports and the Household activities are the single largest industrial supply chains (and resulting CO2 current lack of a standard procedure for contributor to CO2 emissions from emissions) that provide materials for doing it differently, SEI is adopting a careful consumption. Figure 3 provides a production of particular goods or services. estimation approach by taking an average breakdown of what kinds of household The measure assigns emissions to the final of a lower and a higher bound estimate of activities contribute most to the UK’s product or service at the end of the chain. models that use specific information of the emissions from consumption. This is called a “lifecycle” perspective, and different world regions. The lower bound In households, the consumption of gas accounts for all relevant onsite and offsite estimate accounts for specific resource and electricity is responsible for 23 per CO2 flows required to provide for the final efficiencies of 12 economic sectors in eight cent of total CO2 emissions. This is deliveries of the various industrial production world regions.3 The higher bound estimate closely followed by personal transport sectors. Another way to put it is that a of import-related emissions is taken use. Emissions from car purchase, use, lifecycle measure of CO2 from production from the National Footprint Accounts.4 maintenance and repair, and all public only measures the carbon emitted from the Therefore, at first stage there is still transport, account for 21 per cent of total final product delivered to individual significant uncertainty of the scale of issue. emissions (most being from cars). These consumers. Some analyses suggest a “CO2 from two key categories represent nearly 50 per Measuring CO2 onsite versus measuring consumption” indicator is 30 per cent higher cent of total emissions from consumption. CO2 in terms of lifecycle emissions of a than the UK territorial emissions, while Food contributes significantly to CO2 product (including offsite emissions) others suggest a very small variation. emissions from consumption. considerably changes the total emissions Employing the methodology described Combining eating out and food purchased assigned to each sector. For instance, once above, Figure 2 shows the difference of for consumption at home accounts for the energy sector is held responsible only CO2 emissions from consumption and those more than 7 per cent of emissions. for the emissions it triggers by delivering from production. The difference is due to energy directly to consumers, its trade of goods and services that emit Onsite vs. offsite production of CO2 CO2 account drops to 77m tonnes. CO2 in their production. Because industries trade goods and This is a considerable reduction of more services with each other in the process than 100m tonnes, and in terms of lifecycle of producing goods for final demand, it CO2 emissions from production makes is possible to distinguish between onsite the transport sector the single largest production emissions (CO2 emitted directly CO2-emitting sector – around 84m tonnes. 1 Harris, R., 2000, “Methodologies for estimating the levels from an industry’s production centres) and Emissions no longer allocated to the of atmospheric emissions arising from the production of goods imported into the UK”, ONS Eurostat contract No.: offsite production emissions (those emitted energy sector (in this case) are re-allocated 97/09/57/013 Part 1. London, Office for National Statistics. elsewhere to provide goods or services to the other industrial sectors that use 2 Lenzen, M., Pade, L.L. & Munksgaard, J., 2004, for a particular production industry). energy to produce their final goods and “CO2 Multipliers in Multi-region Input-Output Models”, Economic Systems Research, 16:391-412 pp. It is important to note that offsite services. While the energy industry’s 3 Wiedmann, T., Moro, M., Hammer, M. & Barrett, J., 2005, emissions take into account sectoral lifecycle emissions are smaller than its onsite “National and Regional Physical Accounts (Material Flows) for the United Kingdom”. REAP Report No. 4, Resources interdependencies between industries emissions, the opposite is true for most and Energy Analysis Program, Stockholm Environment in their production processes. service industry sectors – wholesale and Institute, York, November 2005. Available at www.ecologicalbudget.org.uk In Figure 4, column 1 displays the retail trade, construction and finance 4 Wiedmann, T., Minx, J., Barrett, J., Wackernagel, M., onsite CO2 emissions of different industrial (“financial intermediation”) for example. 2006, “Allocating Ecological Footprints to Final sectors. As may be expected, onsite While the finance sector emitted only 1.6m Consumption Categories with Input-Output Analysis”, Ecological Economics 56, 2006, 28-48. carbon releases from the energy sector are tonnes of CO2 from its own sites, it caused 9 S

T Lifecycle 10 L CO2 emissions from production (taking U CO2 emissions into account off-site S from production emissions & trade E Code Industry (measured on-site) between industries) The difference 8 R L

A 1-2 Agriculture 8.85 8.03 0.81

N 6

O 3 Fishing 3.27 1.17 2.10 I T ) A 4-5 Mining of energy producing materials 26.07 11.06 15.00 4 p a N c / t 6-7 Other mining 2.79 4.45 1.65 ( y 3 t i

s 2 8-20 Food 17.27 26.73 9.46 n e t n i

21-28 Textiles 9.61 12.90 3.29 2 O

C 0 l t r t s s s n n g r r l l e r 29-30 Leather 1.10 1.21 0.11 e o n o t o a a o e i i i e t t t t s c p p s h i i e s u u a l s s s l i i t b b m n n m i i p & r F r r e a a e t 31 Wood 6.60 1.43 5.17 t r s r n & h t t s s F u i i o c r r r e i o d d I r e c i A r t m s i & l n e a

32-34 Paper 23.61 9.96 13.65 a f , a n - t W G g o n n i r t o e o c N n m I 35 Petroleum products 22.51 15.23 7.27 u e d o C r 36-46 Chemicals 61.09 36.34 24.75 p

y t i c i r t

47-48 Rubber & plastics 24.34 10.24 14.10 c e l E 49-53 Other non-metal mineral products 18.98 6.25 12.72 Fig 5 Top ten shares of offsite CO2 intensities 54-61 Basic metals 71.91 34.66 37.24

62-68 Machinery 30.76 40.58 9.82

69-76 Electricals 34.31 41.83 7.52

77-80 Transport equipment 31.32 51.90 20.58 100

81-84 NEC 43.72 37.15 6.56

85-87 Electricity, gas and water supply 179.07 76.80 102.27 80

88 Construction 6.17 37.83 31.66 60 89-91 Wholesale and retail trade 12.33 69.92 57.58

92 Hotels and restaurants 2.62 32.35 29.73 40 )

93-99 Transport, storage & communication 113.81 84.06 29.74 p a c / t (

100-102 Financial intermediation 1.58 18.81 17.23 y t i 20 s n e

103-114 Real estate 6.50 28.89 22.38 t n i 2

115 Public administration & defence 9.96 32.28 22.32 O 0 C % . s s s s s e e n s c t t e e e e c 116 Education 5.87 16.52 10.65 d o t i i a c t c c c t n n e t i i i i u c a s u v v v v , i f r r r d t u n e s i r e e e f o l c n b t r s s Health & social work s 117-118 7.25 26.13 18.88 a a s o u i l p & t r l e n p r s r a e a i o g o , t o n c g n c n u i g e p C i n e c s n p k p

119-122 Other community activities 7.61 16.12 8.51 i a L g a r n n n n m b & i e i a a l f t r o o t a e B a T y C e c r c y

123 Private households with employed persons --- r a n d , l l a a i s l l l r & i x e u c u t g s n o A n n

Total 790.99 790.99 - i I A H n w O

Fig 4 Onsite and “lifecycle” CO2 emissions from production, by industrial sectors (millions of tonnes) 2001 Fig 6 Top ten shares of offsite CO2 flows

another 17m tonnes of offsite emissions in production chains in the UK economy the highest “hidden” emissions – required other sectors. per £ spent on final demand. While the by their extended supply chains but emitted The offsite emissions in the wholesale and production of non-mineral products, by other sectors. Service industries lead this retail trade sector amounted to about 58m including the “cement, lime & plaster” measure, since they produce little physical tonnes, while onsite emissions were just industry, only triggers a total of about output while heavily relying on intermediate 1 about 12m tonnes. This approach has 13m tonnes of CO2 along its lifecycle, it is inputs from other industries. Per £ spent significant policy relevance. Onsite accounts the most CO2-intensive production process on final demand, 98 per cent of the CO2 help identify target sectors, while lifecycle per £ spent on final products, followed by emissions triggered in the banking and emissions help identify the most important the energy sector and the production of finance sector are triggered offsite. Similarly, supply chains. Information from our inorganic chemicals. Again, this information 96 per cent of emissions from the insurance models can be used to identify the most has a clear policy relevance because and pensions sector are caused offsite, resource-intensive processes within it identifies the most intensive production followed by 93 per cent of emissions for these supply chains. supply chain priority sectors that can be the real estate sector. While the above table reflects the total targeted. Figure 6 estimates offsite emissions triggered by industrial sectors CO2 emissions compared with total lifecycle from two different perspectives, Figure 5 emissions per £ spent on final demand. shows the 10 most CO2-intensive industrial In effect, this shows which industries have 10 S

Supply Demand T L Imports Direct Indirect Direct Indirect Residual material Regional Imports from other material flows material flows material flows material flows flows (incl.trans- Exports U Total production from rest regions Total of household of household of capital of capital formation, stock to rest S

Code Industry supply (2001) of world in the UK demand consumption consumption investment investment changes & waste) of world E R L

1-2 Agriculture 112.20 96.24 15.96 - 112.20 42.22 44.01 2.09 4.45 15.95 3.46 A N

3 Fishing 1.29 0.91 0.37 - 1.29 0.05 0.70 - 0.01 0.36 0.15 O I

4-5 Mining & quarrying 333.03 255.69 77.33 - 333.03 11.24 126.25 2.95 17.45 80.70 94.41 T A

6-7 Other mining 332.78 310.81 21.97 - 332.78 - 42.99 - 3.06 268.01 18.71 N

8-20 Food 99.68 80.22 19.46 - 99.68 42.70 33.42 - 0.65 15.72 7.17 3 21-28 Textiles 5.12 2.39 2.73 - 5.12 2.03 0.90 - 0.22 1.07 0.88 29-30 Leather 0.73 0.05 0.67 - 0.73 0.21 0.11 - 0.06 0.24 0.09 31 Wood 14.80 7.62 7.18 - 14.80 1.32 4.53 0.40 4.80 2.90 0.83 32-34 Paper 25.06 14.34 10.71 - 25,06 0.30 5.61 0.02 5.26 10.52 3.33 35 Petroleum products 19.93 - 19.93 - 19.93 2.50 6.02 - 1.33 11.65 21.72 36-46 Chemicals 47.15 29.06 18.09 - 47.15 2.13 14.21 0.007 3.96 13.80 13.03 47-48 Rubber & plastics 9.27 6.17 3.09 - 9.27 0.73 3.12 0.12 1.70 1.61 1.98 49-53 Other non-metal mineral products 131.47 127.10 4.37 - 131.47 3.24 30.41 5.21 57.85 31.25 3.49 54-61 Basic metals 44.72 31.00 13.72 - 44.72 0.18 9.30 1.88 9.65 8.23 15.46 62-68 Machinery 12.39 8.25 4.14 - 12.39 0.95 1.72 2.58 0.62 4.02 2.47 69-76 Electricals 20.84 17.89 2.95 - 20.84 0.39 2.02 3.26 1.96 11.11 2.07 77-80 Transport equipment 16.87 11.44 5.43 - 16.87 3.88 2.66 2.25 0.51 4.34 3.21

Fig 7 The material flows of the UK economy (millions of tonnes)

Ecological Budget UK and comprises production in the UK and private households directly, while another imports from the rest of the world. All this 33m tonnes occurred indirectly during Indicator 2: material flow data can be viewed on the Ecological production. The remaining 24m tonnes Budget UK website in considerably more were exported or added to the physical While in the past most environmental detail (www.ecologicalbudget.org.uk). stock of the economy. initiatives focused on containing Figure 7’s “Output” shows where Sectors 8 and onwards do not produce concentrated toxins and pollutants, many products were consumed: either directly their own raw materials, but draw them contemporary environmental problems are by households or capital investment, or entirely from sectors 1 to 7. The output a result of the sheer volume of resources indirectly by other industrial sectors higher figures of secondary or manufacturing required by the human economy. The up in the supply chain in order to produce sectors (8-80) show the amount of material flow analysis (MFA) results from their own “output”. Industrial sectors 1 to 7 products provided to the UK economy the Ecological Budget UK catalogue represent the primary sectors, which provide domestically and from abroad. Service the tonnages of material resources needed the raw materials for industrial processes. sectors have been excluded here, because to supply every form of consumption and A considerable proportion of their output they use rather than produce materials production in the UK. Ecological Budget to the UK economy is purchased by other or products. UK’s MFA shows, in terms of volume of industries (called “intermediate demand”). As with most material flow accounts, resources used, why the UK’s Ecological The output side includes waste by construction materials dominate. Footprint is as big as it is. It suggests industrial sectors. Responsible for more than 200m tonnes that, in order to reduce this Footprint, Overall, the total raw material input to of materials in 2001, capital investment5 it is necessary to reduce the volume and the UK economy in 2001 was 664m tonnes. accounts for over a third of UK resource increase the efficiency of resources flowing This figure corresponds with the Office of flows. This highlights the importance of through the economy. To this aim, MFA National Statistics’ (ONS) total, ensuring ensuring at the national policy level that can identify resource-greedy production that these accounts are compatible. These resource efficiency is integrated into new and consumption sectors, at which the accounts, however, go further than the capital investment. government can target efficiency efforts. ONS totals and provide a comprehensive Manufacturing is a lower proportion Figure 7 is a summary of the material breakdown of the resource requirements of the whole UK economy than in the flows of the UK economy by industrial and outputs of each sector, and their past. However, the UK still exports a sectors. The “Input” side documents the destination by final demand category. considerable amount of products – 193m total material input into the UK’s economy The food, beverage and tobacco industry, tonnes – and a considerable proportion of for example, provided 100m tonnes of the materials produced in the UK stay here. products, of which 80m tonnes were domestically produced and 20m tonnes imported. This is the highest output across manufacturing sectors. Some 43m tonnes of these products were consumed by

5 Capital Investment refers to money used by a business to purchase fixed assets (for example land or buildings). 11 Fig 8 Predicted increase in millions of tonnage of waste arisings between 1998/9 and 2020/21 (additional tonnage to 1998/9 position)11 12

S Min Max Municipal Commercial Industrial Special Construction T growth growth solid waste waste waste waste & demolition L Region % annum % annum tonnage tonnage tonnage tonnage waste tonnage Total U S E

R North West 3.00 3.51 4.55 1.72 0.90 0.95 14.74 22.02

L North East 3.00 3.71 1.78 0.54 0.92 0.87 4.41 7.75 A

N Yorkshire & Humberside 2.53 3.00 2.57 1.21 2.31 1.46 2.59 8.85 O I

T West Midlands 3.00 4.00 3.76 0.34 1.27 0.66 3.44 8.90 A East Midlands 3.00 3.56 2.56 0.97 1.44 1.52 3.34 8.49 N London 2.59 4.60 7.04 2.37 0.50 1.09 3.60 13.63 3 East of England 3.00 4.50 4.86 1.35 0.89 1.59 3.91 11.18 South West 3.00 4.13 3.49 0.98 0.71 0.73 3.71 8.98 South East 2.18 3.00 4.76 2.20 1.21 0.11 7.16 15.46 West 3.00 6.00 4.05 0.62 1.22 0.10 1.79 7.78 Total 39.46 12.36 11.40 11.06 48.74 113.08

Many exports are materials that at one point At the regional level, poorer regions (for in their lifecycle were imported. Influenced, example the North East and Wales, which like most countries, by policies supporting also tend to produce more goods than they globalisation and world trade, the UK consume) have far more waste arisings and swaps and transports millions of tonnes disposal shortfalls. This will become more of materials to and from countries around crucial as landfill taxes and transport costs the world. rise, as the local waste trading system gets under way, and as new opportunities Waste in the UK emerge in waste recovery for environmental The UK’s pattern of waste “arisings” (waste technologies8. production) and waste management is Waste arisings have been projected to “On current trends, crucial to understanding its material 2020/21 in the ODPM Companion Guide “metabolism” (how materials flow through to Planning Policy Statement 10: Spatial an extra 113m the economy). The national material flow planning for integrated waste transport accounts show the economy’s material (March 2006).9 The average growth rate tonnes of waste inputs, imports, exports and waste streams. in municipal solid waste for England and This evidence can be applied in various Wales was 3 per cent per year.10 Figure will need to be ways: the first conclusion is that at a 8 provides a summary of each UK region’s conservative estimate, British industry is projected growth rate for waste arisings, dealt with by 2020” putting up to 8 per cent of its gross profit along with a predicted increase into landfill.6 in tonnages of waste needing disposal Waste data at the sectoral level has or recovery from 1998/9 to 2020/21. been derived from the 2002/3 commerical Figure 8 shows that on current trends, and industrial survey compiled by the an extra 113m tonnes of waste will need to Environment Agency (EA). Figures for waste be dealt with by 2020. Of this, 48m tonnes covered a number of industrial and (42 per cent) is mostly inert waste from the commerical sectors. Therefore the total construction and demolition industry, much net production of waste within the grouping of which is reused in aggregates and 6 Cambridge Econometrics & AEA Technology, 2004, was used to determine what proportion construction. For the remainder, if we Benefits of Greener Business, report to the Environment of the EA’s “total group waste figure” convert the regional arisings to tonnages Agency, available at www.reward-uk.org 7 For more information on the approach visit was apportioned to that particular per capita within each region using 2001 www.ecologicalbudget.org.uk industry sector.7 census data, we conclude that, within the 8 Note: Scotland and Northern Ireland operate their own systems and data is pending. next 15 years, each UK resident will 9 This Guide takes details from the Strategic Waste produce 1 extra tonne of waste per annum. Management Assessments (SWMAs) reports on each Most local authorities predict that they will region, based on 1998/99 figures for waste arisings, and predicts increases in waste arisings per region. only have capacity for about 25 per cent Each sub-region has different rates of growth, depending of this to be landfilled by 2021, which will on what was reported in regional reports and the Defra Municipal Waste Survey. mean that many extra facilities must be 10 UK Prime Minister’s Strategy Unit (PMSU), provided to recycle, reuse, recover or Waste Report, 2002. convert this material to energy by that year. 11 A further breakdown of waste arisings can be found on the Ecological Budget UK website (www.ecologicalbudget.org.uk) by municipal, commercial, industrial and special waste. 12 EA predictions. Note: with the exception of municipal waste data, there is a lack of detailed waste data for most waste streams. Agricultural waste growth predictions not available. 13 A global hectare is the same size as a normal hectare and is adjusted for average world productivity. 12 S T L U S

1.4 E

5.4 gha/cap R 1.2 L A 1.0 Government Food & N & other 0.40 drink 1.14 O 0.8 Fixed capital I T s t A e 0.76

n 0.6 Household energy a N

l Home &

p Ecological Footprint energy 1.16 f 0.4 consumption, food Services o 3 Available biological capacity r 0.41 e consumption and b 0.2

m Consumables Travel 0.84 u transport dominate

N 0 0.65 19601965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 the Ecological Fig 9 Humanity’s Ecological Footprint (WWF Living Planet Report 2004) Footprint of the UK. Fig 10 Ecological Footprint of the UK (gha/cap)

Indicator 3: Eliminating overshoot is crucial to the The main components Ecological Footprint long-term well-being of the planet. Unfortunately, overshoot is often not of the UK’s Ecological obvious until it is too late, since natural Footprint (gha/cap) The Ecological Footprint is a calculation capital can continue to be harvested even method that estimates the demand of if it is being used at an unsustainable rate. Home and energy 1.16 human activities on nature. Any sort of For example, it is possible to over-fish and Domestic fuel including gas and resource use – going out for a meal, eventually deplete a local area, but fish electricity, oil and bio-fuel. Also includes flying to Spain, building a house, or even yields might continue even as the system the building, maintenance and repair of paying into a pension scheme, leaves teeters on collapse. dwellings. an Ecological Footprint on the planet. Sustainable development means The Ecological Footprint is a accepting ecological limits and the reality Food and drink 1.14 comprehensive measure of the resources of overshoot. It is not possible to draw on Food and drink purchased for home consumed by a population (the UK, in this ecological services faster than they can be consumption, alcoholic drinks purchased analysis). It measures the balance between replenished and still be sustainable, even if in pubs, restaurants, takeaways, and human demand and nature’s supply. The the consequences aren’t immediate. As it other catering establishments. Footprint calculates how much productive is, the Ecological Footprint of the UK is land and sea is needed to provide the 5.4 global hectares per person13 (gha/cap) – Travel 0.84 energy, food and materials we use in compared with a world average of 2.2 Car fuel, the impact associated with our everyday lives, and how much land gha/cap and an available global biocapacity purchasing and maintaining private is required to absorb our waste. It also of 1.8 gha/cap. On a per person basis, vehicles, and public transport. calculates the emissions generated from the the UK has an Ecological Footprint among oil, coal and gas we burn, and determines the highest 15 countries. This exceeds Capital investment 0.76 how much land is required to absorb them. global ecological limits, particularly as Investment in tangible fixed assets such The Ecological Footprint can be developing countries continue to increase as plant and machinery, transport estimated for individuals, households, their Ecological Footprint and take up a equipment, dwellings and other buildings schools, businesses, cities, regions or larger share of global biocapacity. and structures. countries, and can assess the demand a For this study, the UK Ecological Footprint population is placing on the environment. has been categorised according to different Consumables 0.65 Sustainability requires living within final demand (consumption) categories. Includes durable and non-durable items the regenerative capacity of the planet. Primarily, these involve various kinds of including newspapers, clothing, At present, human demand is exceeding household consumption, but also include appliances, glassware, tools, medical this capacity by about 20 per cent. consumption by government and capital products, audio-visual equipment, This is called “overshoot” (see Figure 9). investment, as seen in the box right. personal effects, etc. In essence, ecological overshoot means the overuse of domestic or overseas land Services 0.41 resulting in overgrazed pastures, depleted Includes education, postal, telephone, fisheries, degraded forests and the water supply, recreation, insurance, accumulation of carbon emissions in the private hospital, financial services, etc. global atmosphere. The Ecological Footprint is an important tool in attempting to Government and other 0.40 understand this phenomenon. Includes the resources used by national and local government, universities and colleges.

13 S T L ) s e U 7.0 r 350 1200 a t S c e E

h 300

l 1000 In general, it is still the case that R a b o

6.0 l

L 250 g 800 the more the UK spends, the n ) A p o i l a l i N c 200 greater its Ecological Footprint. / m a (

h O

5.0 t 600 g I ( n

i

t This sets an interesting challenge r 150 n T i p s s r t o o p o A t r 400 r o o u EF of consumption u when attempting to move towards F

o 100 E E

N l

F f f 4.0 a l o o a c

GDP at market prices i

c sustainable development. To what s s i g 20000

3 50 g n n o l o o o l i Final consumption expenditure i o l l l l o i i c

c degree is it possible to continue E B B E 3.0 0 0 £110 £130 £150 £170 £190 £210 £230 19 611971 1981 1991 2001 economic development, increase Total expenditure (£/cap/wk) household expenditure and reduce Fig 12 Trends in economic growth and Ecological Fig 11 The Ecological Footprint of ACORN types Footprint in the UK the UK’s Ecological Footprint?

The Ecological Footprint of every local authority area in the UK What makes up Combined with funding fromEF per otherACORN projects, type the high Ecological Polynomial trendline the Ecological Budget UK project has Footprints of the South produced an Ecological Footprint for every local authority area in the UK. Figure 13 East and other areas provides an insight into the variation of the surrounding London? Ecological Footprint across the country. All this data, and a detailed description of > higher income means greater access the methodology used to calculate these to resources, particularly noticeable in “There tend to Footprints, is available free of charge at more purchases of furniture, personal www.sei.se/reap and effects and household appliances; be high Ecological www.ecologicalbudget.org.uk > very high travel demand dominated by There tend to be high Ecological Foot- low-occupancy, high-polluting vehicles; Footprints in the prints in the Home Counties and wealthier > regular purchase of new cars: in some London boroughs, and in some rural areas, areas of the South East the Footprint Home Counties and especially the East of England and Cheshire. of buying and maintaining cars is The lower-income areas of Wales, the South higher than the national average wealthier London West, and the “Northern Way” areas in the Footprint for using them; North have lower Footprints. > long-distance exotic holidays more boroughs, and in than once a year; The connection between wealth and > large and often old inefficient homes some rural areas, the Ecological Footprint with low occupancy compared with Even data at the local authority level hides their size; especially the many variations in the UK’s Ecological > heavy reliance on the service sector Footprint. The variation between the largest for eating out, recreational and cultural East of England and smallest local authority areas is 26 per activities; cent. When we look at the Ecological > large gardens that need maintenance and Cheshire” Footprint of socio-economic groups across and treatment; the UK, the group with the largest > more short weekend breaks in the UK; Ecological Footprint has a 40 per cent larger > and

Footprint than the group with the smallest. • a lower Footprint for tobacco;

Figure 11 shows the Footprint of all the • an average Footprint for alcohol; 14 ACORN groups in the UK, highlighting the • an average Footprint for food eaten impacts of different groups in the UK. The at home. challenge of sustainable development is to decouple a high quality of life from a high Ecological Footprint.

14 ACORN – A Classification of Residential Neighbourhoods – is produced by CACI. For more information visit www.caci.co.uk 14 S T L U S E R

L A N O I T A N 3

Total Ecological Footprint including aviation (gha/cap)

4.50 - 4.74

4.75 - 4.99

5.00 - 5.24

5.25 - 5.49

5.50 - 5.74

5.75 - 5.99

6.00 - 6.24

6.25 - 6.49

6.50 - 6.74

Northern Ireland aggregate value 5.56 Scotland aggregate value 5.27

Fig 13 UK Ecological Footprints (England and Wales by NUTS4 District; Scotland and Northern Ireland aggregated)

15 W E I V

R 4 Regional overview E V O

L

A In the past 10 years, the UK government has devolved increasing power to the English N O

I regions, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. As a result, they have more responsibility G

E for delivering the growing sustainability agenda. However, this is difficult without R

4 a region-specific, standardised measure of both local and global environmental impacts and limits. This chapter provides an overview and comparison between different parts of the UK, and sets the direction for a more detailed review in chapter 5.

The Ecological Budget UK project provides strategies and appraisals, it continues to Cities group argued for the case of the eight the most comprehensive understanding increase its global impacts through material largest provincial centres as the gateways yet of the UK’s physical production and consumption and mobility.2 It is clear that and generators of activity for most of consumption, and of the resource flows “more of the same” is unlikely to deliver England.4 Other definitions include the between regions, devolved administrations, solutions to complex and deep-rooted “travel to work” areas, based on 75 per and the rest of the world. This then provides problems, but that new thinking is needed cent self-containment of labour markets, the vital evidence to feed back into future on the potential at the regional level for or “functional urban regions”5. On a larger economic and spatial strategies. linking public, private and community scale there are experiments with inter- sectors.3 regional schemes such as the Northern 1. Why look at regions The Ecological Budget UK project Way and Midlands Way, and the national aims to contribute to this new agenda. By Sustainable Communities plan. and devolved countries? targeting its analysis at the regional level, it The “bio-region” concept applies clearly In some ways, regions and devolved provides a practical yardstick for assessing to more remote territories, where there is administrations are the cornerstones of problems and potential solutions. By looking often a direct fit between river catchments, sustainable development, where there at both the consumption and production natural resources and landscape types. is often a “fit” between physical, social, sides, it brings together the regional In the more urbanised parts of England, economic and political activities. Water economic strategies and spatial strategies bio-regions are often obscured and may catchments, air dispersion patterns, soil which often point in different directions. differ from social or economic units. types and agricultural markets are each However, with new agendas for rural quite clearly defined at the regional level. The UK space enterprise and landscape management, So are urban hinterlands, travel patterns The UK comprises nine English regions such as community forests and local and housing markets. Economic flows, including London, and the three devolved food markets, the bio-regions may industrial profiles, higher education, research administrations of Northern Ireland, emerge once more. and media awareness are strong at this Scotland and Wales. Each has a different The Ecological Budget UK data provides level. Around the UK there is a long history mix of political and economic power, a platform for further research on each of of regional identity, linked with dialects and and each is at the upper level of a local these units, using the detailed breakdowns kinship patterns. government structure of counties, rural of local authorities, supply chains and In general the regional level offers districts, metropolitan boroughs and social group consumption choices. For an opportunity to make new linkages unitary authorities. the moment we focus on the regions and for the sustainable development agenda, In terms of collecting consistent resource- devolved administrations as the main units. between the local and the national scale, use data and developing sustainable where economic and urban policy is often development strategies, dividing the UK in a greater state of flux. The new plethora into regions and devolved administrations

of regional and devolved development is a good starting point. In practical and 1 Sustainability North West (SNW), 2004, Regional agencies, assemblies, government offices, functional terms, other classifications may Governance and Sustainable Development, Manchester, SNW. Available at www.snw.org.uk (as of June 2005). quangos and others are each intended be more useful, and there is an active 2 SDC (Sustainable Development Commission), 2005, to add value at the appropriate level, and debate on how best to organise and plan The next steps: An independent review of sustainable 1 development in the English regions, London, SDC. if properly coordinated could so do. the “UK space”. This applies to the 3 Ravetz, J., 2000, City-Region 2020: integrated planning In practice the rhetoric is way ahead questions highlighted by the Ecological for a sustainable environment, (with foreword by the of the reality: while each UK region or Budget UK project – resource flows, UK Secretary of State for the Environment), London, Earthscan, in association with the TCPA. devolved country produces its sustainability supply chains, total environmental impacts – 4 Office of the Deputy Prime Minister, 2003, The Strategic and their policy implications for economic Environmental Assessment Directive: Guidance for Planning Authorities on applying European Directive and urban development. 2001/42/EC, London, ODPM. For instance, there is a debate on city- 5 ERN (English Regions Network), with RDA Planning Leads regions, or conurbations plus hinterlands, Group, Office of the Deputy Prime Minister, Department for Transport, 2005, Regional Futures: England’s Regions as more natural functional units. The Core in 2030: Final Report. 16 Production emissions

16 W Consumption emissions E 14 I De-materialised V consumption 12 R Dependency/ Post industrial E sustainability V expropriation ) 10 O p

a c L / 8 t ( A

Material De-materialised 2 N O 6 C

intensive production O production 4 I G

2 E R Industrial Service sector 0 4

affluence e d s n st t st t s & e d d s affluence g n d o a s a s d id n n le Material a la n d e e n re s la la a r g la n E W E W la i d e t ve n d o h h d sh r Ir o W a E i L rt th t th i k e c intensive f M o r u u M r b rn S K t N o o o t o m e U o s N S S s Y u h consumption st a e rt a E H o E W N

Fig 1 Regional types and material balances Fig 2 Regional CO2 emissions from consumption and production

Ecological Footprint (gha/cap)

The regional balance of production CO2 emissions from consumption (t/cap) 18.0 and consumption Regional Material Consumption (t/cap) 16.0 Regional economies vary as to their material 14.0 intensity in production or consumption. For instance, Greater London is a high-volume 12.0 material consumer but its economic activity 10.0 is in the service sector, far along the supply 8.0 chain from the material-intensive manu- 6.0 facturing of other more industrial regions. 4.0

In terms of material intensity, there 2.0 are four general types of production/ 0

t t & e s s d n t t s d d consumption balance, as shown in Figure 1: s s id d d n o s s le n n a e re s n n la d a e a la la E W i r la la g n E W t e h h e d d n o h W o Ir 1. a conventional model of industrialised rt th ks b i i L t th c o r r m M M E u u S rn o o u t t st o o e N N Y s s a S S h H a e E rt affluence is seen where both production E W o N and consumption are material-intensive; Fig 3 Regional Ecological Footprint, CO2 emisssions and material consumption 2. if production is material-intensive but consumption is not, this may show the The picture of the UK’s material supply dominance of extractive industries such chains shows clearly a North-South divide, CO2 emissions: as mining or intensive agriculture, which where the northern regions tend to produce consumer and are often associated with poverty more and consume less, while the southern producer regions or dependency; regions consume more and produce less – 3. if consumption is more intensive than as can be seen in the CO2 results for the In general, the South of England production, this may show a service regions (Figure 2). consumes more and produces fewer sector economy which sucks in resources This shows a pattern of burden shifting CO2-emitting resources, and the North from elsewhere, and thereby exports at different scales: between regions, consumes less and produces more. its environmental impacts; and within regions, between wealthy and poor London, for instance, has the lowest 4. low material-intensity for both production communities, between the regions and CO2 emissions from production, but and consumption – as shown in the top devolved administrations of the UK, and is among the highest in emissions right corner of the diagram – represents between the UK and the rest of the world. from consumption. a post-industrial model of sustainability – There is further evidence shown by the the goal of the Sustainable Consumption comparison of the three main measures Net consumer regions: and Production concept. of the Ecological Budget UK – Ecological London, South East, South West, Footprint, CO2 emissions and material flow West Midlands. Also Northern Ireland The interaction of production and analysis, here defined as Regional Material and the East of England. consumption takes place through many Consumption (RMC) after subtracting long and complex supply chains in a exports (Figure 3). Net producer regions & countries: modern economy. The Ecological Budget This shows how wealthy regions such North East, Wales, Yorkshire and UK data can identify these effects which as the South East may have the highest Humberside. Also Scotland, the East are otherwise hidden from view. The service Ecological Footprint but lower material Midlands and the North West. sector may induce higher material flows consumption than others. London is than manufacturing activity – for instance, obviously the most dominated by service financial services demand resources activity, but appears to draw in material at from a long supply chain that includes quite a healthy level. In contrast, the North manufacturing of goods such as paper East has a low Ecological Footprint and and electronics, and extraction CO2, but a higher than average material of resources to make those products. consumption. 17 25.0 W

E The mega-city region I GVA (£1000/cap) V This central powerhouse of the UK R 20.0 Ecological Footprint (gha/cap) E economy includes Greater London, the Ecological Footprint per unit GVA V O

South East and part of the East of England:

L 15.0

A some definitions would include parts of the N South West, East and West Midlands, with O I 10.0

G a population approaching 20 million people, E or a third of the UK. The economy is R generally more service- and knowledge- 5.0 4 based, with the London financial sector at its centre. The population is more affluent, 0

t t & e s s d n t t s d d s s d d d n o s s e n n although this is partly negated by the higher a e re si n n a d a e l a a E W i r a a l n E W a tl l h sh e l l g o h W o re rt th k b id id n L t th c I cost of living. o r r m M M E u u S rn o o u t t st o o e N N Y s s a S S h H a e E rt E W o Many urban households are in flats N (generally more efficient); further away from Fig 4 Regional Footprint/economy intensity the centre, houses are on average larger (generally less efficient). In London itself, Settlements are more in market town and East, Wales and Northern Ireland at the household travel distances are less and village patterns, and the more extended other. The GVA figures appear to have some there is a higher than average proportion travel distances rely on private transport. parallel to the Ecological Footprint figures – of public transport use. This mega city There are problems with second home in other words, the wealthy consume more region also hosts three international airports ownership and housing poverty traps, with greater Footprint than the poor. What that serve most of the UK’s travel demand so more of the local housing tends to is topical here is the ratio of “Ecological and are hubs for overseas travellers. be unimproved and inefficient. Footprint per GVA”, which shows how much There are more extended supply chains impact is caused for each unit of economic coming through to the service sector, and Devolved administrations activity. On this measure, London and the more globalised markets for production Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales each South East are the most efficient, while the and consumption. Much of the physical show a mixture of regional economic and North East and Northern Ireland are the least. landscape is protected, where productive physical types, from large urban areas uses are giving way to leisure and amenity. to remote countryside. In both urban and 2. Linking regional rural areas there are pockets of poverty Industrial or post-industrial regions and historic wealth. There are also consumption and This regional type is more centred on new forms of wealth creation via creative production to policy manufacturing, processing and distribution, and information and communication although local and public services still form technology (ICT) industries. Tourism is one There is a growing aspiration towards the the majority of employment. In large, mixed of the main growth areas, while agriculture ideals of the One Planet Economy, but a conurbations, housing is often smaller and sheds labour and acquires capital. Energy huge gap between the reality of regional in poorer condition, with lower distances production varies – Scotland has much development policy. Most of the regional travelled. In peri-urban and rural areas, hydropower, while Northern Ireland still strategy documents now quote travel distances are higher and there is relies on coal for housing and industry. “sustainability” on every page, but on closer new affluence overlaid on historic poverty. Travel distances are relatively lower, partly inspection, the main agenda still revolves Although there are generally higher due to many local economies that are around “growth.”6 For the UK’s Regional proportions of dependants, material more self-contained. Economic Strategies (RES) this often consumption continues to grow, and retail The Republic of Ireland should naturally means economic growth per se, tempered and leisure services continue to drive be included in any wider picture of the UK, with some social inclusion, while for the economic growth. This regional type is found the more meaningful functional unit being Regional Spatial Strategies (RSS) it means in parts of Wales, Scotland, East of England the British Isles. But Ireland, in contrast enabling, managing and coping with the and West Midlands, North East and North with the UK, is a special case: it has a newly effects of “growth.” West, and Yorkshire and Humberside. industrialising economy, a lower population From the viewpoint of the Ecological density, and a more remote agrarian-based Budget UK project, it is not the quantity Rural/peripheral regions society. Irish data could be included in future but the quality of such growth that is most The more rural and remote territories are versions of the Ecological Budget UK. important – what kind of growth, for whom scattered around the west and north of A further view on these regional types and at what cost. These questions are the UK. While there is more farming and can be seen by comparing the conventional forestry, land-based activity is shifting to measure of wealth in Gross Value Added tourism as the main employer. There are (GVA), with Ecological Footprint as the local production sectors such as forestry aggregate measure of consumption and mineral extraction, but even these impact (Figure 4). are small parts of the rural economy. This shows very clearly the divided UK in terms of wealth and poverty. London, the East of England and the South East are one end of the scale, and the North 18 W explored in depth in the parallel report Many policy-makers have done so. overseas, which increases environmental E I Strategy for a One Planet Economy. Here For instance, the South East England impacts? How can a low-impact, high- V R we present a very simplistic sustainable Regional Assembly has declared its aim quality plan for the future be compared E V O

development growth agenda for the to “stabilise the growth in the South East to the alternatives and implemented?

7 L

UK and its regions, with three measures: ecological footprint by 2016” . This shows The RES theme of resource productivity A > environmental impacts from resource a new kind of thinking about the power is central to this, and can be defined in N O I

use – rapid reduction, measurable with and responsibility of regional and various ways – output per investment, G the Ecological Footprint at a net rate devolved government. per employee, or per tonne of waste or E R of 3 per cent per year; emissions. Energy efficiency and CO2 4 > economic growth, as measured by emissions rates will improve through a monetary activity – a rate which appears 3. Regional economic combination of regulatory power, financial to be self-sustaining for the UK within development – The RES investment, market development and the global economy, currently about technology innovation. It is fair to say that 2.25 per cent long term (including Regional economic issues Regional Development Agencies have only variations between regions); and The RES are produced by the UK’s Regional indirect leverage on most of these factors. > social welfare (quality of life, equity Development Agencies and by devolved An overall agenda for consumption is and inclusion) – high growth, although administrations as a comprehensive action hardly mentioned in the average RES, it recognising this can be difficult to plan that garners both EU and national being taken for granted that rising affluence measure. funding. Each RES is benchmarked against contributes to a healthy retail sector. a series of “floor” targets set by the The typical RES contains a mixture of This development triangle questions many Department of Trade and Industry, and a supply-side and demand-side actions, of the basic assumptions about regional parallel target for sustainable development each of which has some scope for influence development, and helps clarify the basic has been the subject of debate. Most on a region’s material flows and Ecological policy options: regions aspire to perform equal to or better Footprint: > production: further growth in high-impact than the national average, although this > promoting business clusters: these industries and distribution systems, is logically impossible. In reality, the UK have the opportunity for environmental or more resource efficient industries, economy continues to feature long-running technology innovation, low-impact compatible with a One Planet Economy; tensions and conflicts which play out on infrastructures such as waste or sewage > consumption: assumption of high growth the level of regional development policy:8 treatment, employers’ green travel in material consumption, or a sustainable > the large differential in productivity planning, and other features of an consumption agenda. This underlies the (GVA/employed person) between the “eco-industrial park”; success or failure of many regional South and the North and Midlands > enhancing competitiveness and policies: urban renaissance, public shows no signs of reducing; productivity: this involves energy and transport, local food markets and social > there are signs that the major cities material efficiency in industry. It may also inclusion, for example; are beginning to lead GVA growth now extend towards a market transformation > housing: further growth in conventional that office-based service activities are of both supply and demand sides – construction and household energy use, increasingly important; meeting consumer needs in new ways; or more sustainable building patterns; > manufacturing employment will continue > mobilising the knowledge base: this > transport: further growth in traffic and to fall as a result of static output and reflects the shift towards knowledge- road construction, or lower impact modes productivity improvements, with the based innovation, high technology and of transport, with better integration largest direct impacts on the Midlands use of advanced ICT – each of which can between supply and demand; and and parts of the North; be a catalyst in new low-impact patterns > energy, water, waste, etc.: more power > the highest formation rate for high of production and consumption; stations, dams and landfills, or alternative technology companies is in the South, > economic inclusion and mobilising the ways of managing demand with less cost along with the UK’s main concentration labour market: this works at the human and environmental impact. of research and development activity; and scale of training and career support, > hidden unemployment (including long- incentives for graduates, entrepreneurs These and many more policy options term sickness, training and other and intermediate labour markets (the are long and complex issues. However, government schemes) is higher in the latter is particularly relevant where it the aims of growth and development are North than in the stronger economies revitalises the social economy, increasing basic principles that need to be debated, surrounding London. social welfare while reducing material analysed and then put into regional targets. impacts); Regional economic options > sites and premises: this traditional core Valuing the quality of growth more than of economic development is still hugely the quantity raises many questions about relevant to land use, construction rates,

6 See footnote 2 alternative development paths and policy transport demand and other services; 7 SEERA (South East England Regional Assembly), 2005, options. Is an RES focused on economic “Stabilising the ecological footprint in the South East Plan: A report to SEERA by the Centre for Urban & Regional growth alone, or more on growth in quality Ecology”. Available at www.southeast-ra.gov.uk/ of life and reduced environmental impacts? southeastplan/publications/research/ Is the shift towards services dependent on se_footprint_summary_report_july05.pdf (as of June 2005). 8 See footnote 5 increasing imports of material goods from 19 40.0 W

E Regional production I

V 30.0 Imports from rest of the world

R Household demand E

V 20.0 O

L 10.0 A N

O 0 I G

E -10.0 Exports to rest of the world R Total waste (MSW/C&I/C&D)

4 -20.0

st st & e s s d n st st s d d a e e id d d n o a e le n n E ir rs n n la d E a la la W h e la la g n W t e th h s d d n o th h W o Ir r t k b i i E L u t c o r r m M m t u S rn N o o u t t s o o e N Y H s s a S S h a e E rt E W o N Fig 5 Regional mass balance summary (t/cap)

> urban and rural renaissance: these 4. Regional physical and its wider “mega-city region,” agendas contain the economic and which contains some 18.6 million people. employment sides of the spatial development – The RSS > Some city regions in the Midlands, strategies. In each, there is an urge for the North and South West are also policy integration, so that economy, Regional and national spatial issues experiencing increasing economic growth. housing, transport and services all Across each of the regions and devolved At the same time, there are significant reinforce each other; and administrations there are tensions and variations within these city regions. > image and environment: in many RES conflicts about managing growth and The resurgence of core city centres and the environmental agenda might be seen mitigating decline. The current lack of a some outlying towns is in stark contrast as a surface level add-on, although it can national spatial framework is a hindrance – with some inner urban areas and former be argued that image and quality of life for instance, any attempt to plan in the industrial towns which experience severe factors are totally essential in a globalising crucial zone between Bedford and Bristol deprivation and population decline. economy. An important question raised would involve five different RSS with totally There are areas of deprivation in the by resource accounting is to what degree uncoordinated maps and policies. Yet the South, particularly in inner London local environmental improvements are global impact of the UK space largely and the costal towns. achieved by displacing the impacts depends on the ability to cope with these elsewhere – for instance if a local steel regional and national spatial issues.9 In the RSS issues mill closes, and the same amount of steel UK as a whole, there are several issues and The RSS are being produced by the is then imported from overseas. trends of particular importance to future Regional Assemblies and their devolved spatial planning: administration counterparts as a more Looking around the various RES > Climate change, flooding and water comprehensive and responsive strategic documents, their attempt to acheive supply – all influenced by current tool in the spirit of sustainable development. sustainability through these measures often development in the UK – have inter- They are also subject to lengthy processes lacks the ambition or clout needed to meet regional significance. These issues of consultation and sustainability appraisal.10 the challenge of a One Planet Economy. are of greatest relevance in the South, As the main framework for the physical With that in mind, a further set of more and parts of the East Midlands. functioning of the region, they have a strategic measures is proposed in chapter > Changing working practices are leading bearing on its material flows and Ecological 7 of this report to increasing demand for travel, with a Footprint. However, their scope is limited by trend for commuting less often but over policy pressures and industry norms, and greater distances. These pressures are often RSS debate is about the levels and evident in most regions but particularly locations of growth, rather than the quality the South, significantly affecting railways and purpose of growth. These are the key as well as the road network. There is issues that many RSS address: increasing demand for international travel, > housing planning options: the location of which future airport expansion seeks to housing influences transport demand and accommodate. International connections, accessibility to employment and services; including surface access to airports, > transport supply options: regional policy can be a stimulus for city and options include development of new regional economies. infrastructure such as trams or new > The centres of major cities are active motorways, or constraint measures areas of growth. An example is the such as parking charges or road pricing economic success of central London schemes. The EU and the UK government are calling for increased vehicle efficiency, fuel quality and emissions controls; 20 W E I V R E V O

L A N O I G E R 4

> housing construction options: this is Taking sustainable Regions have already taken the initiative an economic sector with potential for in many areas such as renewable energy, increased efficiency in energy and waste. production and sustainable construction and waste Household demand dictates how much consumption forward recovery. They are also beginning to develop energy must be produced, how much in the regions their strategic capacity for evidence- water supplied, and which utilities must based policy, working through regional be provided; In conclusion, this discussion comes back observatories, university partnerships and > energy supply options: this is a topical to the question of “what is a successful industrial collaborations. national debate with growing implications region?” – in other words, “what is a The recently formed SCPNet (Sustainable at the local and regional level, as fossil sustainable region?” The regional footprint Production and Consumption Network) will fuels begin to look increasingly expensive indicator is perhaps the nearest to a single develop and support the use of tools, data and unreliable. Many forms of renewable measure of sustainability when set against and analysis to influence regional decision- energy, particularly biofuel and tidal the long-term targets of the parallel report making in a positive, practical and effective schemes, have impacts on land-use and Strategy for a One Planet Economy. way.13 Ecological Budget UK provides an landscape, while the nuclear alternative The evidence of Ecological Budget UK ideal evidence base and opportunity to take has many risks and liabilities; can also be linked to the wider view on work in this area forward in the regions and > waste management options: this is sustainable develpment, as shown by the devolved administrations, by building on the other end of the pipe to the regional Regional Quality of Life headline indicators.12 existing networks and projects. It will help material consumption shown above. The latest version of these did not include to answer topical regional questions such as: Ecological Footprint and material flow > What level of CO2 emissions are likely The pattern of waste arisings and waste analysis (MFA), as reliable data did not exist in 2020 with current trends in economic transfers around the regions is crucial to at that time. However, no fewer than half the activity and transport growth? understanding their material metabolism. indicators can be seen to be directly related > Which policy measures could reduce Ecological Budget UK accounts show by to Ecological Footprint and MFA in some commercial and industrial waste impacts each sector the overall balance of material way (economic output, housing conditions, by 20 per cent by 2020, given alternative inputs, imports, exports, stocks and waste climate change, air quality, traffic volume, trends in business formation? streams (Figure 5). river quality, land use, household waste, > What is the effectiveness of different This evidence can be applied in various total waste). Future versions of the regional strategies and technology options in ways: the first conclusion is that at a indicators should be refined to show more promoting regional resource efficiency, conservative estimate, British industry is insight into the underlying patterns and and how do we measure it? putting up to 8 per cent of its gross profit causes of these trends. into landfill. At the regional level we can see Meanwhile, promoting Sustainable These and other issues are explored in that some of the poorer regions have waste Consumption and Production (SCP) is now the next chapter on regional and devolved arisings and waste disposal shortfalls way one of five strategic priorities for Defra, and administration issues, and the following in excess of other more wealthy regions. a major theme in Securing the Future, the chapter on the analysis of SCP. This will become more crucial as landfill UK government’s Sustainable Development taxes and transport costs rise, as the local Strategy. Defra also published a set of waste trading system gets under way, and indicators for assessing progress towards as new opportunities emerge in waste SCP in 2005. The regions are being 9 Wong, C., Ravetz, J. & Turner, J., 2000, The UK Spatial recovery for environmental technologies. increasingly called on by central government Planning Framework: a discussion document, London, Royal Town Planning Institute. to provide strategic added value to the SCP 10 See footnote 4 agenda, which is now funded through the 11 Cambridge Econometrics & AEA Technology, 2004, Benefits of Greener Business, report to the Environment Business Resource Efficiency and Waste Agency, available at www.reward-uk.org (BREW) programme. 12 Defra with ONS, 2003, Regional quality of life counts – 2003, available at www.sustainable-development.gov.uk/ documents/publications/rqolc2003.pdf (as of Jan 2006). 13 Materials available at www.scpnet.org.uk 21 D N A L

G East of England N E

F Material flow analysis O

T

S Regional consumption

A Supply Demand

E 77.3 million tonnes Material supplied to Material demanded by the region, Households 41.8 5 the region’s economy other UK regions or the world for consumption Capital investment 13.9 for consumption or production or production Regional production Residual material flows* 21.6 84.6 million tonnes

Imports from Exports to *including transformation the rest of the world the rest of the world stock changes and waste 21.6 million tonnes 11.4 million tonnes Imports from Exports to Regional material inputs and consumption other UK regions other UK regions RMI RMC million tonnes million tonnes 56.8 74.3 133.4 million tonnes 47.6 million tonnes

RMI/cap RMC/cap 24.7 tonnes 8.8 tonnes Fig 1 Material flows of the East of England

Total Ecological Footprint 5.64 gha/cap Home & energy 1.05 Wales 5.20 Travel 1.17 South West 5.24 Yorkshire & Humberside 5.30 Consumables 0.61 North East 5.31 West Midlands 5.36 Services 0.47 Scotland 5.37 North West 5.45 East Midlands 5.47 Fixed capital 0.76 London 5.58 East of England 5.64 Northern Ireland 5.65 Government & other 0.40 South East 6.29 UK Average 5.36 Food 1.17

Fig 2 Regional Ecological Footprints (gha/cap) Fig 3 The East of England’s Ecological Footprint (gha/cap)

Transportation low car occupancy, and high distance Analysis The issue of aviation is of critical importance travelled leads to an Ecological Footprint Material flow to the East of England. Given the region’s for transport that is nearly 40 per cent Reflecting its role as a shipping and airports and its overall affluence, it is not higher than the UK average. transportation hub, the East of England has surprising that its per capita Ecological very high material flows both into and out Footprint for aviation is over 15 per cent Energy of the region. It exports 75m tonnes of higher than the national average. Variation The East of England’s lower than average materials and goods to the rest of the UK; within the region is even more extreme. household energy consumption somewhat more than any other region except the East In 2001, residents from St. Albans – one makes up for its high transport Footprint, Midlands. A considerable proportion of of the wealthiest areas with easy access and brings its total Footprint closer exports are agricultural and food products, to Stanstead, Luton and Heathrow within to average. While the East of England’s totalling over 20m tonnes, and paper Hertfordshire – travelled 235 per cent consumption of electricity is similar to products, totalling 16m tonnes. further by plane than other residents from the UK average, its consumption of gas – The East of England’s imports even more the local authority with the lowest rate mainly used to provide heat – is about than it exports. It relies more heavily on of air travel. 15 per cent lower. The East of England’s the rest of the world to provide all its goods The predominance of semi-rural and, residents buy less electrical and audio-visual and services than the rest of the world in parts, wealthy communities in the East equipment, but have a higher Footprint from relies on it. The East of England’s Regional of England have resulted in the highest private education and weekend breaks Material Consumption (RMC) is also higher CO2 emissions from transport of any region; within the UK. Overall, the region’s than average. Even more so than the South 13 per cent higher than the national per consumption pattern and inflated Footprint East, high transport demands dominate capita average. The impact of commuting reflect a society that is more affluent than the Ecological Budget UK results for the is noticeable, and is intensified by low car the UK average and one that also travels East of England. occupancy for commuting in some areas long distances for work and leisure. (1.1 persons per car in East Hertfordshire). This combination of high car ownership,

22 D N A L G N E 2 CO emissions F Government & fixed capital O

Services T Home & energy S

Hospital services 0.04 A Actual rentals Travel Social protection 0.10 E for housing 0.05 Other services nec 0.06 Imputed rentals Education 0.06 5 for housing 0.12 Accommodation 0.08 Territorial Operation Maintenance of personal Telephone & fax 0.07 emissions & repair 0.12 from production Government transport 0.35 Water supply 0.08 & other 1.16 Insurance & finance 0.25 10.50 t/cap Purchase of UK Av. 10.76 t/cap vehicles 0.44 Recreation & culture 0.09

Emissions UK resident holidays abroad 0.21 from Electricity 1.21 consumption Total 11.97 t/cap 1.05 t/cap UK Av. 0.90 t/cap “Reflecting its UK Av. 11.81 t/cap Transport services 0.73 Consumables Tobacco 0.01 role as a shipping Household tools, utensils & maintenance 0.10 Newspapers, and transportation Food & drink Fixed books & stationery 0.07 capital 1.87 Medical & personal Non-alcoholic products 0.12 beverages 0.04 Gas 1.31 Furniture hub, the East of Alcoholic & furnishings 0.13 beverages 0.07 Private Textiles & footwear 0.18 transport Personal effects nec 0.23 England has very Food 0.36 (car fuel) 1.25 Audio visual & photo equipment 0.14 Household appliances 0.20 Catering high material flows services 0.41 Recreational items & equipment 0.25 both into and out Total Total Total Total Total 0.88 t/cap 2.81 t/cap 3.03 t/cap 2.77 t/cap 1.43 t/cap UK Av. 0.87 t/cap UK Av. 3.10 t/cap UK Av. 3.03 t/cap UK Av. 2.44 t/cap UK Av. 1.46 t/cap of the region.”

Fig 4 CO2 emissions from consumption in the East of England (t/cap)

Overview

Sustainable development > The Regional Economic Strategy (RES) Future implications in the East of England aims to build on these existing strengths Though the sustainable consumption and and also maintain its natural production agenda itself is not directly > The East of England has many distinctive resources as a base for food, farming, visible in the RES, it does address regional cities, large towns, and a and renewable energy. It also seeks renewable energy, rural diversification, and significant rural landscape, and is home to improve workforce skills, business the controversial question of the rate of to around a fifth of England’s market enterprise and productivity, and counter- new housebuilding. Major new public towns. act deprivation and social exclusion. transport is not likely in the foreseeable > With a growing population of 5.4 million, > The region’s high level of growth future, but the continued growth of the the region has one of the strongest and has created increasing pressures Cambridge – Stansted corridor, the fastest growing economies in the UK, on housing, transport, and other northern Thames Gateway, and other and is home to extensive Research and infrastructure and services, while growth areas may bring opportunities for Development activity. per capita levels of public expenditure more integrated sustainable development. > The East contains many of the UK’s are the lowest in the country. Under the current status quo, the increase most important international gateways in demand for personal transport will be and transport corridors. met mostly by private vehicles.

23 D N A L

G Spotlight N E

F O

T S A E

5 Scenarios for waste and transport in the East

The region is currently developing a new Regional Spatial Strategy (RSS) which will The results – the Ecological Footprint of help plan through to the year 2021 for five different waste scenarios in Hertfordshire issues such as economic growth, housing, transport, waste management, and mineral Scenario 1 – RSS targets for recycling + no waste minimisation extraction. The final RSS will be published Continuing to meet existing RSS waste targets will bring a 5 per cent later in 2006. To demonstrate how increase in the Ecological Footprint from 2001 to 2023. Ecological Budget UK data can be applied, we have selected some of the draft RSS Scenario 2 – RSS targets for recycling + Hertfordshire Waste targets related to waste and transport, listed Minimisation Plan the various scenarios they have projected This scenario will decrease the Ecological Footprint by 10 per cent. for meeting those targets, and assessed how these different scenarios would impact Scenario 3 – Hertfordshire Recycling Targets + no waste the East of England’s Ecological Footprint. minimisation strategy If Hertfordshire recycles 50 per cent of its waste and its discarded waste Waste grows by 2.5 per cent (a decrease of the RSS targeted waste growth of 3 per cent) each year after 2012, the Ecological Footprint will decrease The draft East of England RSS1 sets out by 20 per cent. a strategy to reduce the total amount of material that ends up as waste. Scenario 4 – Hertfordshire Recycling Targets + Hertfordshire Researchers affiliated with the Ecological Waste Minimisation Plan Budget UK project undertook an extensive This scenario will bring about a 25 per cent reduction in the Ecological Ecological Footprint analysis of the different Footprint by 2021 but a 5 per cent increase from 2021 to 2023. possible future waste scenarios for the County of Hertfordshire. Hertfordshire Scenario 5 – Hertfordshire Waste Minimisation Plan + Potential represents nearly 10 per cent of the East Best-Practice Recycling Targets (72 per cent of waste by of England’s population, making it a good 2023). statistical sample size for the region as a If Hertfordshire uses our best practises recycling model in their plan, they whole. However it should be noted that will recycle 72 per cent of their waste by 2023, and the Ecological Footprint Hertfordshire is not a representative social will be reduced by 35 per cent. or economic template for the whole of the region, as this would mask key regional Scenarios 1,200,000 variations. This Hertfordshire analysis 1 demonstrates the importance of a waste 2 The existing Waste 1,000,000 minimisation target. Recycling without Strategy (Scenario 4) 3 overall waste minimisation is not highly 800,000 will bring a 5 per cent

) 4 a

effective. As it is, Hertfordshire’s waste h increase in the g

( 600,000

programme (scenario 4) has both a waste F 5 Ecological Footprint E minimisation programme (which the RSS 400,000 from 2021 to 2023. currently does not have) and more stringent 200,000 recycling requirements than the RSS.

0 2001 2007 2013 2019 2025

Fig 5 Ecological Footprint waste scenario results

24 D N A L G N E

F O

T S A E 5

ROGER SCRUTON/COLLECTIONS PICTURE LIBRARY Scenario 5 provides an insight into how Transport recycling and waste generation relate. Results: The projected Even if increased recycling achieves a Again using Hertfordshire as a sample size Ecological Footprint of transport significant Ecological Footprint reduction for for the East as a whole, we will analyze the in Hertfordshire, under a time, an increasing tonnage of total waste impacts of current transport policies on the current policies. will eventually outweigh that. All scenarios Ecological Footprint. The East of England’s Listed below are all the components that demonstrate what would happen in the draft RSS has some measures in place comprise Hertfordshire’s total transport long term if recycling is successful but that might reduce car travel. These include: Footprint. Some components reduce the waste generation continues to increase: (1) target 4, to increase the proportion Footprint or have little effect on it; others an initial dip in Ecological Footprint, but a of people that work locally; (2) target 34, increase it dramatically. This is why the long-term increase. In short, recycling must to increase non-car transport use; and total transport Footprint continues to rise be coupled with a waste minimisation plan target 36, to stabilize car journeys into in the graph (left), a 17 per cent increase in order to reduce the Footprint over the urban areas.2 If Hertfordshire were to from 2005 to 2020. long term. introduce no additional measures on top The projected Footprint under Scenario 5 of those recommended in the draft RSS, 1 If the number of occupants per car suggests that it would be helpful to have an its projected Footprint from travel would is reduced from 1.56 to 1.50, this will even more aggressive waste minimisation continue to increase by 1.1 per cent per bring about a 1.2 per cent increase in plan in Hertfordshire and the East of year, a 17 per cent increase over 15 years. the Ecological Footprint between 2005 England in general. For example, the region and 2020. could work towards a goal of zero waste 1.10 growth after 2012. One controversial but 2 An increase in the total distance 1.05 proven technique to achive this is enforcing travelled by cars will bring about a 1.00 a fee on residents and businesses based on 0.95 21 per cent increase in the Ecological the weight of their waste. In terms of waste, 0.90 Footprint from 2005 levels by 2020.

Hertfordshire is an instructive model for p a 0.85 c / how sustainable waste policy in the East F 3 Increased efficiency in cars and buses

E 0.80 of England might look. 0.75 will reduce the Ecological Footprint 0.70 of transport by 6 per cent from 0.65 2005 levels. 1,200,000 0.60 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 4 Increased use of buses and trains will 1,000,000 bring about a 0.2 per cent increase Fig 7 Projected Ecological Footprint per resident 800,000 given existing Hertfordshire policies in the Ecological Footprint from ) a

h 2005 levels to 2020. g

( 600,000

F The 6 per cent increase in fuel efficiency E 400,000 has done very little in comparison to 5 An increase in the purchasing the growth in the Ecological Footprint of (predominantly second) cars 200,000 through increased mobility (17 per cent per household will contribute to

0 increase in Ecological Footprint). a 3 per cent increase in the Ecological 2001 2007 2013 2019 2025 Footprint from 2005 levels to 2020. Fig 6 Waste scenario 5 6 An increase in the use of taxis will bring about a 0.3 per cent increase 1 See the East of England’s RSS Target 53 at in the Ecological Footprint from http://www.eera.gov.uk/category.asp?cat=120 2005 levels to 2020. 2 See the East’s RSS at http://www.eera.gov.uk/category.asp?cat=120 25 S D N A

L East Midlands D I M

Material flow analysis T S

A Households 31.6 E Supply Capital investment 8.8 Demand 5 Material supplied to Residual material flows* 59.5 Material demanded by the region, the region’s economy other UK regions or the world for consumption for consumption or production or production Regional production Regional consumption 104.2 million tonnes 99.9 million tonnes

Imports from Exports to *including transformation the rest of the world the rest of the world stock changes and waste 8.4 million tonnes 4.5 million tonnes

Imports from Exports to Regional material inputs and consumption other UK regions other UK regions RMI RMC 65.2 million tonnes 73.4 million tonnes 142.5 million tonnes 64.5 million tonnes

RMI/cap RMC/cap 34.1 tonnes 15.4 tonnes Fig 1 Material flows of the East Midlands

Total Ecological Footprint 5.47 gha/cap Home & energy 1.20 Wales 5.20 Travel 1.01 South West 5.24 Yorkshire & Humberside 5.30 Consumables 0.62 North East 5.31 West Midlands 5.36 Services 0.41 Scotland 5.37 North West 5.45 East Midlands 5.47 Fixed capital 0.76 London 5.58 East of England 5.64 Northern Ireland 5.65 Government & other 0.40 South East 6.29 UK Average 5.36 Food 1.07

Fig 2 Regional Ecological Footprints (gha/cap) Fig 3 The East Midlands’ Ecological Footprint (gha/cap)

between socio-economic groups is more for the Footprint of air travel between these Analysis extreme. The group with the biggest two groups is 62 per cent. In contrast, the The East Midlands’ Ecological Footprint and Footprint has one that is 35 per cent larger variation between the Ecological Footprint per capita carbon dioxide emissions from than the smallest. To put this in context, of food is less extreme – about 20 per cent. consumption are very near the UK average. the difference between the largest Footprint Wealth generally leads to a higher individual However, like the rest of the UK, there UK region (the South East, at 5.86 gha/cap) Footprint, but this variation is due less to is significant variation between the and the lowest (Yorkshire and Humberside, essential consumer items such as food than Ecological Footprint and CO2 emissions at 5.00 gha/cap), is around 16 per cent. non-essential optional items such as air of different local authorities and socio- Very distinct differences in consumption travel and high energy use. In light of this, economic groups1. are responsible for variations within the it is possible to lower a population’s A more detailed look reveals significant East Midlands. Energy consumption in Ecological Footprint without threatening differences within the East Midlands. The prosperous enclaves (see Figure 5) the basic quality of life. biggest local authority Footprint is 11 per is 74 per cent higher than in areas of high As a general rule, Ecological Footprint cent larger than the smallest. The difference employment, and the high-low variation and CO2 emissions are higher from a meal

National and regional Ecological Footprints Ecological Footprints of Local Authorities Ecological Footprints of socio-economics groups 2% variation 11% variation 35% variation

6.00 6.00 6.00

5.00 5.00 5.00

4.00 4.00 4.00

3.00 3.00 3.00

2.00 2.00 2.00

1.00 1.00 1.00

0 0 0

e y s s y s , s t K M ff m ld b u e h b g r h n U E li a ie r o v lt r in e ig e c h f o r la a u n rk h m h g h C e c e b o h y s in s p n u w it o u t A s e W s o w l R t o e d w p o r e a m N P m ill e e o k r n Fig 5 Variations in Ecological Footprints in the East Midlands H s A u 26 S D N A L D Home & energy I M

CO2 emissions Government T Actual rentals & fixed capital for housing 0.04 S A

Imputed rentals E for housing 0.08 Services 5 Maintenance Hospital services 0.03 & repair 0.18 Social protection 0.06 Travel Other services nec 0.06 Territorial Education 0.06 emissions Accommodation 0.07 from production Government & other 1.16 Telephone & fax 0.06 11.35 t/cap Electricity 1.17 Operation Water supply 0.07 Overview UK Av. 10.76 t/cap of personal Insurance & finance 0.22 transport 0.33 Sustainable development Recreation & culture 0.10 UK resident Emissions in the East Midlands holidays abroad 0.17 from Purchase of vehicles 0.36 consumption Total 11.80 t/cap 0.90 t/cap > The East Midlands, between the UK Av. 11.81 t/cap UK Av. 0.90 t/cap expanding mega-city of London and

Transport Consumables the former industrial areas of the North, services 0.62 Tobacco 0.01 includes traditional rural communities Household tools, utensils & maintenance 0.10 but increasing intensive agriculture Newspapers, Fixed books & stationery 0.07 and urban commuting. Its three urban Food & drink capital 1.87 Medical & personal centres are Nottingham, Leicester, Gas 1.77 products 0.12 Non-alcoholic Furniture beverages 0.04 and Derby. & furnishings 0.16 Alcoholic Textiles & footwear 0.17 > The East Midlands’ Regional Economic beverages 0.06 Private transport Personal effects nec 0.14 Strategy (RES) is a good example of a Food 0.35 (car fuel) 1.16 Audio visual & photo equipment 0.18 typical UK regional strategy document, Household appliances 0.19 with themes including enterprise, Catering services 0.34 Recreational items employment, transport, tourism and & equipment 0.24 culture, rural development, and urban Total Total Total Total Total 0.79 t/cap 3.23 t/cap 3.03 t/cap 2.46 t/cap 1.39 t/cap regeneration. UK Av. 0.87 t/cap UK Av. 3.10 t/cap UK Av. 3.03 t/cap UK Av. 2.44 t/cap UK Av. 1.46 t/cap > The East Midlands’ Regional

Fig 4 CO2 emissions from consumption in the East Midlands (t/cap) Development Agency seeks to measure economic performance against a Top 20 Index of sustainable at a restaurant than at home. Residents of exporter to other UK regions at 17.59 t/cap. development criteria, which include the East Midlands eat out less often than Overall, it therefore involves most heavily Gross Domestic Product per head, the national average, so CO2 emissions in regional physical trade, shipping 138.7m unemployment rate, differences from eating out are 10 per cent lower than tonnes of materials in and out. between highest and lowest the national average. While this physical trade with other performing localities, and measures UK regions is most pronounced, the East of energy use and waste production. Material flow Midlands’ material exchanges with the rest > There is a long history of environmental The East Midlands contributes substantially of the world are much less developed. initiatives in the region. Leicester was to the weight of the UK’s economy. It has Per capita, both imports and exports rank the UK’s first “Environment City,” the second highest Regional Material Input third lowest among regions, making only Newark and Sherwood had some (RMI) and third highest Regional Material 4 per cent and 2 per cent of the UK’s of the UK’s first low-energy housing, Consumption (RMC), amounting to imports and exports from/to other countries and Nottingham has a sustainable 34.1 t/cap and 15.5 t/cap respectively. respectively. However, this cannot belittle urban transport initiative. About 48 per cent of the physical flows the overall importance of trade. Summing into the East Midlands economy (that continued over the page Future implications The East is, originating within the region) are from Midlands Top 20 Index format for regional material production: at 68.8m measuring sustainable development tonnes total or 16.5 t/cap this is second succeeds in covering a variety of highest on a per capita basis across the UK. sustainable development issues, A further 46 per cent or 15.62 t/cap of the but could be expanded to more RMI indicator stem from imports from other explicitly reflect how ecological limits regions, which is the highest across the UK. and environmental impacts link to However, this is only one side of the East economic growth, social welfare, Midlands’ heavy involvement in regional and quality of life. trade: it is also the biggest material/physical 1 For this example, “Socio-economic groups” are organised by the ACORN Classification – A Classification of Residential Neighbourhoods”. For further information visit www.caci.co.uk. 27 S D N

A Analysis continued L Spotlight D I M

all material exchanges with other regions T

S as well as the rest of the world, the East A

E Midlands still exhibits the highest per

5 capita level of trade at 36.3 t/cap. Low Footprint transport On a net basis, the East Midlands exports more than it imports. Taking into account all trade flows within the UK and the rest of the in Nottingham world, the East Midlands is a net material exporter, with a physical export surplus of 4.3m tonnes. Interestingly, like some other regions and devolved countries, this physical weight of trade activities outweighs the total regional material intake from In contrast to most other cities in the UK, A compact city centre regional production and imports: in other Nottingham is moving towards decreasing Nottingham’s compact city centre reduces words, the East Midlands trades more its per capita transport Footprint. It is very its transport Footprint. This compactness materials than it uses within all production difficult to decouple growth in transport is an intrinsically low-Footprint design that and consumption processes. from a higher transport Footprint and higher many other UK towns also share. When CO2, but Nottingham is attempting to do shops and services are close together, it is this. Its Ecological Footprint for transport easier to walk, cycle or take the bus than to “East Midlands is 36 per cent lower than neighbouring drive. Central Nottingham, for instance, has Rushcliffe, demonstrating how much a an average of 0.7 vehicles per household, trades more Footprint can vary among local authorities compared with 1.1 vehicles for the greater in the East Midlands. Nottingham household. Low car ownership materials than To begin with, Nottingham has a compact always contributes to a lower Ecological city centre that encourages alternatives to Footprint and lower CO2 emissions. it uses within all car transport. In that context, the city and Many UK cities have (or have had) county’s joint Local Transport Plan, a compact, lower Footprint city centre. production and launched in 2001, has developed a new As they work towards sustainability, they transport network that integrates buses, have an advantage over cities that are consumption trams, cars, taxis, walking and cycling. historically more vehicle-focused. An updated five-year plan, to be launched Nottingham city centre’s pedestrian-friendly, processess” in April 2006, aims to continue “reducing car-restricted “Clear Zone”5 – a model that traffic growth and encouraging the use many other UK towns also share – further So far we have mainly expressed of alternatives to the car”.2 enhances the appeal of low-Footprint the regional material flows in terms of Average road traffic in the East Midlands transport options. Economically, walkable production – where the various material has increased by 20 per cent over the last city centres also tend to increase a flows occur. We can also express them 10 years.3 However, over the past seven city’s commercial appeal by attracting in terms of consumption and allocate the years, overall traffic in Nottingham has more people. required domestic and import flows across dropped by 0.4 per cent, and bus and tram various final demand activities. Household use has increased by over 8 per cent.4 activities in the East Midlands, for example, “When shops and are also more material-intensive than the UK average. To provide the goods and services services are close consumed in the East Midlands, 7.6 t/cap or 31.6m tonnes of materials were required together, it is easier through the various lifecycle stages in the production chain. As much as 9.7m tonnes to walk, cycle or or 31 per cent of these were from mining energy-producing materials, another take the bus than 6.3m tonnes from agriculture, hunting and forestry, and 5.5m tonnes from food, to drive” beverages and tobacco.

28 S D N A L D I M

T S A E 5

LONELY PLANET

Travelling to work and Scenarios for the future work travel plans It is estimated that 28 per cent of The way people travel to work affects the Nottingham’s working population is involved transport Footprint. Commuting makes in some sort of travel plan. Assuming that up 20 per cent of Nottingham’s transport the city’s travel plans have had the same Footprint (excluding air travel), and a quarter effect as the average UK travel plan (18 per of all miles driven in cars and vans are miles cent less car travel for people using the driven to work.6 In Nottingham, commuter plan), the transport Footprint of someone C S travel is particularly important, as it is the I involved in a Nottingham travel plan is D

7 O UK’s ninth largest “travel to work” area. T reduced by 10 per cent. Nottingham’s travel O H

Nottingham was a pioneer of the P plans still have room for improvement; the “workplace travel planning” concept in the Soft policies and travel plan at Orange Telecommunications early 1990s. A workplace travel plan is a behaviour change in Temple Point, Bristol8 managed to reduce coordinated effort to promote alternatives commuters’ car mileage by 66 per cent, to driving to work. In Nottingham, this has “Soft policies” contribute to a change using a combination of initiatives such meant greatly improving bus, cycle and in behaviour without major infrastructure as limited parking and parking charges. walking routes as well as promoting car change. Travel plans, car sharing If Nottingham City’s plan were as successful share schemes, offering financial incentives schemes, travel awareness campaigns as this, and the whole of greater for not driving, and implementing car and the encouragement of teleworking Nottingham were involved, the transport park restrictions and charges. and home shopping are all “soft policies” Footprint of the average travel plan Nottingham decided to focus its efforts in which Nottingham has invested. commuter would be reduced by 38 per on a handful of the city’s largest employers. Although there are limits to what they cent. In which case, the total Ecological Now, 25 employers and some 52,000 can achieve, these policies often offer Footprint of Nottingham would be reduced employees promote and use alternative high returns for minimal investment. by 33,000 hectares (gha) – an area almost commuting plans. For example, one study suggests half the size of Greater Nottingham. that having groceries delivered to the home instead of driving to a shop or supermarket reduces the Footprint of grocery shopping by 70 per cent per load delivered. Travel plans have worked effectively in Nottingham and elsewhere, and teleworking generally

reduces car use. 2 www.nottinghamcity.gov.uk/ ltp2_executive_summary_oct05.doc 3 www.sustainable- development.gov.uk/performance/performance.htm 4 www.nottinghamcity.gov.uk/ sitemap/transport_and_streets.htm 5 www.nottinghamclearzone.com 6 Focus on Personal Travel, 2005, DfT 7 Report to the Executive directors, Nottingham express transit, 2002, www.netphasetwo.com/downloads/EXE2404B.pdf 8 Cairns, S., Sloman, L., Newson, C., Anable, J., Kirkbride, A. & Goodwin, P., 2004, “Smarter Choices – Changing the Way We Travel”. Final report of the research project: The influence of soft factor interventions on travel demand. Department for Transport, London, 20 July 2004. www.dft.gov.uk. See report at www.dft.gov.uk/stellent/groups/dft_susttravel/documents/ page/dft_susttravel_027707.pdf. 29 N O D

N London O L

5 Material flow analysis

Supply Regional consumption Demand Material supplied to 105.7 million tonnes Material demanded by the region, the region’s economy other UK regions or the world for consumption Households 60.3 for consumption or production Capital investment 23.4 or production Regional production Residual material flows* 23.0 47.5 million tonnes

Imports from Exports to *including transformation the rest of the world the rest of the world stock changes and waste 22.4 million tonnes 61.7 million tonnes Imports from Exports to other UK regions other UK regions Regional material inputs and consumption 52.0 million tonnes 33.0 million tonnes RMI RMC 145.3 million tonnes 89.7 million tonnes

RMI/cap RMC/cap 20.0 tonnes 12.0 tonnes Fig 1 Material flows of London

Total Ecological Footprint 5.58 gha/cap Home & energy 1.21 Wales 5.20 Travel 0.84 South West 5.24 Yorkshire & Humberside 5.30 Consumables 0.68 North East 5.31 West Midlands 5.36 Services 0.48 Scotland 5.37 North West 5.45 East Midlands 5.47 Fixed capital 0.76 London 5.58 East of England 5.64 Northern Ireland 5.65 Government & other 0.40 South East 6.29 UK Average 5.36 Food 1.21

Fig 2 Regional Ecological Footprints (gha/cap) Fig 3 London’s Ecological Footprint (gha/cap)

were exported in 2001. It is not surprising Ecological Footprint Analysis that London imports more material and London’s Footprint follows the general Material flow goods than it exports since it is pattern of many metropolitan areas. More than any other region, London’s predominately a service economy. Only Its Ecological Footprint from goods and consumed resources come from outside 13.5m tonnes of new goods physically enter services is high, while its transport Footprint of the region. There is little industry (hence all households in London (“direct flows”), is relatively low. Primarily because of high its low CO2 emissions from production, meaning that on average, each household rates of eating out, London’s food Footprint around 8 tonnes per capita), little food directly consumes 4.5 tonnes of materials is the UK’s second highest (1.21 gha/cap, production, little fibre production, little per year. Of the total tonnes goods against a UK average of 1.14 gha/cap). capacity to absorb CO2, and its waste is consumed, 7m tonnes of these direct Its Ecological Footprint from services is the largely exported. Service industries are flows into all households are food. UK’s highest (0.39 gha/cap, as compared to greatly concentrated in London, particularly As is always the case with material flows, a national average of 0.31 gha/cap). On the financial services, which rely exclusively on the “indirect flows” resulting from household other hand, because it relies heavily on non- resources from other countries or regions. consumption are much higher than direct car transport, its total transport Footprint There is a considerable flow of resources flows into houses. This is predominantly is 0.60 gha/cap, significantly lower than through the capital: 113m total tonnes of due to construction and maintenance national average of 0.68 gha/cap. materials were imported and 56m tonnes materials; they make up a smaller portion of direct flows into houses than food does, but require many more resources to be produced. Primarily because of construction materials, every tonne of material directly consumed by Londoners produces 3.5 tonnes of “indirect flows” that never enter the house.

30 N O

Overview D N O

Sustainable Development L

CO2 emissions in London 5 Home & energy Government Services & fixed capital Hospital services 0.07 Actual rentals Social protection 0.09 for housing 0.13 > London has a highly productive global Other services nec 0.09 Imputed rentals Education 0.09 economy, and is also an increasingly for housing 0.29 Accommodation 0.09 expensive and congested place to live Telephone & fax 0.09 Maintenance or do business (by 2016, population Territorial & repair 0.13 Water supply 0.09 emissions is projected to grow by 800,000). from production Government Insurance & finance 0.22 & other 1.16 8.10 t/cap > London has high unemployment, Recreation & culture 0.10 UK Av. 10.76 t/cap Travel UK resident child poverty and concentrations holidays abroad 0.16 of disadvantage. Emissions Electricity 1.06 Total from Operation 1.06 t/cap > London’s Economic Development consumption of personal UK Av. 0.90 t/cap 11.81 t/cap transport 0.24 Strategy seeks to address these Consumables UK Av. 11.81 t/cap Purchase of challenges by 1) investing in people: vehicles 0.28 Tobacco 0.01 Household tools, utensils increasing employment, reducing & maintenance 0.09 Newspapers, workforce disparities, and addressing books & stationery 0.08 concentrated areas of disadvantage, Medical & personal Food & drink Transport Fixed services 0.74 products 0.13 and by 2) investing in enterprise: Non-alcoholic capital 1.87 Furniture beverages 0.04 & furnishings 0.15 encouraging business start-ups, Alcoholic Gas 1.52 Textiles & footwear 0.21 beverages 0.06 Personal effects nec 0.30 improving workforce skills, and continuing productivity and innovation Food 0.35 Audio visual & photo in London’s enterprises. equipment 0.22 Private > Much of London’s economic strategy transport Catering (car fuel) 0.78 Household appliances 0.26 services 0.51 depends on the physical and infra- Recreational items structure issues in the spatial strategy & equipment 0.14 (London Plan); many social inclusion Total Total Total Total Total 0.95 t/cap 3.13 t/cap 3.03 t/cap 2.04 t/cap 1.60 t/cap measures depend on government UK Av. 0.87 t/cap UK Av. 3.10 t/cap UK Av. 3.03 t/cap UK Av. 2.44 t/cap UK Av. 1.46 t/cap schemes such as New Deal for

Fig 4 CO2 emissions from consumption in London (t/cap) Communities and Sure Start, and local environmental measures largely depend on the 33 London Boroughs. 3.00 60.0 CO2 emissions from consumption > The London Plan aims for ultra-efficient Transport EF London is among the highest in the new and existing buildings, though

) Population density p 2.50 50.0 UK for carbon dioxide emissions from much depends on complex a c /

a consumption, outpaced only by the East coordination of local efforts and the h g (

t 2.00 40.00 of England and the South East. London’s level of sustainability in London’s n i r ) p t a carbon dioxide emissions from consumption 1,400 neighbourhood centres. o h / o e l F

are 15 per cent higher than the UK average, l 1.50 30.0 p a o c e i p g due mainly to three activities: travelling Future implications It is clear that (

o l y t o i

c abroad, eating out, and “recreational and London will always be a net importer of 1.00 20.0 s E n

e t r

D cultural services.” materials and a net exporter of value- o p s

n Recreational and cultural services include added services. Therefore, for London to

a 0.50 10.0 r T the impacts associated with venues and achieve its Footprint targets, it must both

0 0 events for sports, cinema, theatre, music address rising consumption and bring i n o k g a n o o t r in h o y and entertainment. Not surprisingly, London about changes in production further st n o ij g d k u ro Y e n n o o o w B a o T H T e h L has higher than average emissions as a up the supply chain, encouraging N S result of services provided at these facilities. environmental and social sustainability Fig 5 The relationship between urban density and transport footprint However, it is also important to remember in corporations and public organisations. how “consumer responsibility” emissions The London Plan is an opportunity to The analysis above, compiled for the are reflected in Ecological Budget UK. transform the housing and building stock Ecological Budget UK project, describes Some entertainment that takes place within to ultra-efficient development. On the the Ecological Footprint and density London is allocated to consumers from transport front, major Footprint-reducing of seven cities. London’s Ecological elsewhere; for example, a North East steps (such as London’s city-centre Footprint is magnitudes lower than continued over the page congestion charge on private automobiles) some lower density cities, supporting have been taken, and will reduce the carbon dioxide and Footprint results. London’s transport Footprint. However, these gains are generally overtaken by year on year increases in air travel. 31 N O D

N Spotlight O L

5 resident visiting London to see an opera is responsible for those emissions. Thus, the numbers shown for recreational and cultural services emissions represent emissions The Ecological Footprint resulting from Londoners at their leisure. of services and housing “London’s recent ‘bus renaissance’ has been almost The Ecological Footprint Indirect carbon Footprint entirely responsible Direct carbon Footprint

of services in London ) 2.50 n o i l l for a 12 per cent As highlighted, the demand for services in i m

0

London is high. Earlier analyses about the 1 2.00 £ /

increase in total a impact of services have only taken into h g (

t

n 1.50

account the “on-site” impacts of i r p bus use in the UK” t consumption, the direct energy used and o o F 1.00 waste produced. This has resulted in a n o b r

Transport previous underestimation of the true impact a C Personal transport Footprints and of consumption. However, for a service to 0.50 CO2 emissions for Londoners are noticeably function, it demands resources from nearly 0 lower than average. Residents of London do all industrial sectors. Ecological Budget UK’s

l s e r s l s a e d c e e a e not travel as far or use cars as much as the analysis of London has taken into account g ti n n t c ic c e vi a a u i n i L ti g n p rv a rv c in fi m e in e a k o s f s rest of the UK. This reflects an increase in the direct (on-site) and indirect (off-site) n y a C r B lia xi urban density, low car use, and a continually impacts. This provides a unique and u A improving public transport system.1 detailed insight into the service economy of Fig 6 The indirect and direct carbon footprint London’s recent “bus renaissance” London. The Ecological Budget UK project’s of key London services has been almost entirely responsible for Extended Environmental Input-Output Model a 12 per cent increase in total bus use re-allocates the indirect flows of energy This new analysis demonstrates in the UK. The Footprint of buses does and materials to services in London, tracing the importance of taking indirect flows not necessarily increase within increased the demands of the service economy into account, particularly in the service bus patronage. In London, while more on all industrial sectors. Figure 6 indicates sector, where many effects are hidden. buses have been brought into service and the variation between the indirect and For example, the legal sector’s direct new routes established, inefficiencies in direct carbon footprint in London for emissions only account for 9 per cent of its the system have also been removed. Bus several key services. total impact. For the banking and finance occupancy is an excellent example that has sector, direct impacts only account for risen in London peak time from 28 people 5 per cent of their total, meaning that in the per bus in 1994 to 44 people today2. past 95 per cent of the impact has been Nationally, buses are only 22 per cent full. ignored. Most of the impact from London’s In London peak travel time this has services occurs outside London, though increased to nearly 100 per cent, reducing this has not been documented in previous the Ecological Footprint of travelling one analyses. Because these indirect flows km by bus in London by 80 per cent. have been ignored, the data would lead

1 Stead, D., Williams, J. & Titheridge, H., 2000, “Land use, transport and people: identifying the connections” in Williams, K., Burton, E. & Jenks, M., Achieving Sustainable Urban Form, London, E & F Spon. 2 http://www.tfl.gov.uk/tfl/press-centre/press-releases/press- releases-content.asp?prID=596 3 To learn more about REAP, see www.sei.se/reap 32 N O D N O L 5

LONELY PLANET us to believe that a simple shift to a of the energy infrastructure and energy “service economy” is a viable way to required in mining and drilling). The London “In shifting to a achieve sustainability. Yet in simply School of Economics (LSE) is working service economy shifting to a service economy to achieve with the Ecological Budget UK project sustainability locally, the ecological to assess potential Footprint savings that to achieve impacts are simply moved elsewhere. could result from London’s Supplementary Planning Guidance on Sustainable Design sustainability locally, Supplementary Planning and Construction. The LSE will use the Resources and the ecological Guidance and REAP Energy Analysis Program (REAP) scenario There is considerable evidence that projection software that has been developed impacts are simply London actively and explicitly seeks to be as part of Ecological Budget UK.3 LSE will a sustainable city. The Mayor and the GLA create housing construction scenarios for moved elsewhere” have correctly targeted London’s housing London based on the ‘Mayor’s preferred as a key sustainability issue and have taken standards’. and use REAP to compare the steps to improve standards through the resource-use impacts of these scenarios. London Plan and associated Supplementary The detailed component-based ecological Planning Guidance. footprint data that is produced in REAP Currently, emissions from household can then be used as a tool for local energy consumption in London are planners and policy makers to compare substantial, accounting for 27 per cent of the ecological impacts of different planning total CO2 emissions (taking into account all standards and combinations of standards. indirect energy flows such as maintenance If applied more widely, this project could be used to establish a baseline for sustainability appraisals of local plans and enable local authorities to empirically assess sustainable housing policies and rate progress.

33 T S A E

H North East T R

O Material flow analysis N 5

Supply Regional consumption Demand Material supplied to 40.0 million tonnes Material demanded by the region, the region’s economy other UK regions or the world for consumption Households 16.4 for consumption or production Capital investment 4.3 or production Regional production Residual material flows* 19.3 42.9 million tonnes

Imports from Exports to *including transformation the rest of the world the rest of the world stock changes and waste 7.1 million tonnes 5.9 million tonnes Imports from Exports to other UK regions other UK regions Regional material inputs and consumption 19.3 million tonnes 20.9 million tonnes RMI RMC 55.2 million tonnes 27.1 million tonnes

RMI/cap RMC/cap 22.0 tonnes 11.0 tonnes Fig 1 Material flows of the North East

Total Ecological Footprint 5.31 gha/cap Home & energy 1.10 Wales 5.20 Travel 0.93 South West 5.24 Yorkshire & Humberside 5.30 Consumables 0.52 North East 5.31 West Midlands 5.36 Services 0.32 Scotland 5.37 North West 5.45 East Midlands 5.47 Fixed capital 0.76 London 5.58 East of England 5.64 Northern Ireland 5.65 Government & other 0.40 South East 6.29 UK Average 5.36 Food 1.28

Fig 2 Regional Ecological Footprints (gha/cap) Fig 3 The North East’s Ecological Footprint (gha/cap)

Material flow and total resource use. The North East also Analysis Because the North East has high production has the lowest material flows in the UK into The North East has the largest variation and low Domestic Material Consumption, capital investment (1.72 t/cap), compared between “producer responsibility” and many of its imported materials are used with a national average of around 2.31 t/cap “consumer responsibility” carbon dioxide in production and then re-exported. The and London, the region with the most at emissions of any UK region or devolved North East economy required 36m tonnes 3.13 t/cap. administration. Emissions from regional of materials to function, of which a production are close to 16 tonnes per considerable proportion was imported Food and nutrition person, while emissions from consumption from other UK regions (19m tonnes) and Per capita CO2 emissions from food are only 11 tonnes per person – a 32 per a lesser amount from the rest of the world consumption in the North East is near the cent difference. (6m tonnes). Most of these resources UK average. North East households The North East’s role as a big producer (28m tonnes) are then exported to the rest consumed 1.45m tonnes of food in 2001, gives it considerable influence over total of the world. or 0.6 tonnes per household. Just less than emissions produced in the UK. Improved This is consistent with the North East’s 120,000 tonnes of this was never eaten production efficiency could help offset high very low Regional Material Consumption but disposed of in landfill, and a further consumption elsewhere, whereas less (RMC) (which is in turn consistent with its 240,000 tonnes of food packaging waste efficient production will magnify the effects low Ecological Footprint and low CO2 was generated. A growing proportion of of consumption in other regions. In contrast emissions from consumption). The North this packaging is being recycled: recent to its high emissions from production, the East has the lowest per capita household figures suggest 23 per cent of municipal North East has the lowest CO2 emissions consumption in the UK at 6.5 t/cap. waste is now recycled1. Food makes up from consumption of any UK region or The highest in the UK are the South East a considerable proportion of the total devolved administration. Together, these (9 t/cap) and London (8.5 t/cap). Ecological Footprint (24 per cent), which echo a pattern found in other regions and Compared with other categories, the house- is typical. devolved countries. The North East’s hold consumption category is quite evenly CO2 emissions are 7 per cent lower than distributed across the UK. Yet it is the Transport the UK average, and 18 per cent lower than biggest driver of material production, so The average North East resident travels the South East. The analysis below gives even small variations in measurement have 9,500km a year. London is the only UK some insight into why this is so. large ripple effects on the production chain region or devolved country whose residents 34 T S A E H T R

CO2 emissions O Government Home & energy & fixed capital N

Actual rentals 5 for housing 0.06 Services Imputed rentals for housing 0.13 Hospital services 0.02 Maintenance Social protection 0.03 & repair 0.10 Territorial Other services nec 0.04 emissions Education 0.04 from production Government Accommodation 0.05 & other 1.16 Telephone & fax 0.06 15.83 t/cap Overview Travel Water supply 0.06 UK Av. 10.76 t/cap Electricity 1.13 Insurance & finance 0.12 Sustainable development Operation Recreation & culture 0.11 in the North East Emissions of personal UK resident from transport 0.24 holidays abroad 0.17 consumption Total Purchase of 0.70 t/cap > The North East economy is still 11.01 t/cap vehicles 0.31 UK Av. 11.81 t/cap UK Av. 0.90 t/cap effected by the 20th century collapse of shipbuilding and then coal mining. Consumables Rural areas are being re-discovered Transport Tobacco 0.01 with a raft of eco-tourism activities, Food & drink services 0.79 Household tools, utensils Non-alcoholic Fixed & maintenance 0.08 though the North East still has lower beverages 0.04 capital 1.87 Newspapers, than average levels of entrepeneurship Alcoholic books & stationery 0.06 beverages 0.06 Gas 1.53 Medical & personal and job skills. products 0.09 Food 0.35 Furniture > The Regional Development Agency Private & furnishings 0.09 transport Textiles & footwear 0.16 (RDA) strategy aims to raise business (car fuel) 0.84 Catering Personal effects nec 0.13 productivity and entrepeneurship, services 0.57 Audio visual & photo equipment 0.13 increase workforce skills, rely on the Household appliances 0.17 Recreational items training capacity of the region’s & equipment 0.20 universities, meet arising transport Total Total Total Total Total 1.02 t/cap 2.95 t/cap 3.03 t/cap 2.19 t/cap 1.11 t/cap needs, and realise the renaissance of UK Av. 0.87 t/cap UK Av. 3.10 t/cap UK Av. 3.03 t/cap UK Av. 2.44 t/cap UK Av. 1.46 t/cap rural and urban communities.

Fig 4 CO2 emissions from consumption in the North East (t/cap) > The regional Science and Industry Council is working to build a stronger research base and improve travel less. This means that there is a lower transport needs in the North East. This will performance, and five North East material requirement for mobility and lower keep CO2 emissions stable in the region. Centres of Excellence will form a link CO2 emissions in the North East. between university-based Research In terms of car ownership, the North East Eco-efficiency in production and Development and businesses. is also lower than the UK average, although Because a considerable amount of materials > The region has a history of green ownership is growing faster than in any are produced in the region, the North East initiatives; Newcastle, for instance, other English region. In 2001, this was has a unique opportunity to address eco- is the UK’s first Carbon Neutral city, 0.36 cars per person in the North East efficiency of production. Such a change and now has a green urban compared with the UK average 0.43 per could be set comfortably within a RES, renaissance strategy. person. As the average car in the UK attempting to drive economic growth at the weighs just over a tonne, this variation same time as maximum resource efficiency. Future implications With its lower means that material consumption in the By combining valuable data from this study population, history of green initiatives, North East is 180,000 tonnes less than and REWARD (Regional and Wales and strong levels of social and economic the UK average. The North East also avoids Resource Productivity and Development cohesion, the North East has great many indirect flows associated with car project)3, the North East agencies can work potential in terms of sustainable production. Research2 suggests that some with key local resource and energy users. consumption and production. In terms 20 tonnes of materials are required for Increased efficiency in production will also of infrastructure, immigration and the one car – so the North East’s relatively low contribute to a reduction in CO2 emissions demand for housing is lower than car ownership creates a potential saving from consumption in other UK regions and average, so market forces are less likely of 3.6m tonnes of materials a year. devolved administrations. At present, they to spur major upgrading of the regional Lower CO2 emissions can be attributed consume nearly 20m tonnes of materials building stock and transport network more to less travel in general than to the and goods produced in the North East. in the near future. use of more sustainable modes of transport such as rail and bus. Therefore, the 1 Data from Defra Waste Statistics, available from www.defra.gov.uk/environment/statistics/ challenge for both the Regional Economic waste/kf/wrkf07.htm 3 REWARD is a research partnership linking the Environment Strategy (RES) and the Regional Transport 2 Moll, H.C., 2002, “Changing material use in passenger cars: Agency, the National Assembly of Wales and five Regional Development Agencies plus a supporting group of expert Strategy is to ensure a low material input a road to sustainable use of materials and energy?” in: Proceedings of the OECD International Conference consultants. It is now expanding to all regions, including for future mobility while still meeting basic “Towards sustainable transportation”, Hull (Quebec), Canada. London. www.reward-uk.org 35 T S A E

H Spotlight T R O N 5 Sustainable communities in the North East

The city of Sunderland aims to develop Instead, it is to meet a basic standard Sunderland: working sustainable communities. This is against of living, to ensure that vital infrastructure the backdrop of the UK’s new sustainable is maintained, and to encourage residents towards a sustainable development strategy, Securing the Future, to stay in the area. community which has caused some debate in Developing attractive housing is one government about the definition of way to do this. As in other communities Sunderland City Council is an example of a “sustainable communities”. Ecological developing housing, the North East has local authority taking the lead on sustainable Budget UK can help benchmark what it an opportunity to build sustainability widely community development. Its Sustainable means for a community to be sustainable. into its infrastructure at the same time Development Strategy has been It also confirms that sustainable as it seeks to provide affordable housing. incorporated in the Community Strategy, communities cannot focus on one isolated Recognising this, the multi-regional which is supported by the Ecological issue. Production, consumption and waste agency The Northern Way4 addresses Footprint as an environmental indicator. all influence each other, and successful housing and sustainability. Its report, This is helping the authority achieve regional sustainable communities require a broad, Creating Truly Sustainable Communities, targets, such as those highlighted by The coordinated approach to sustainability. suggests several programmes related to Northern Way, and is moving the council Delivering sustainability at a community housing and low-Footprint design. It plans towards developing Sustainable Community level is a way for people immediately and to use Ecological Footprinting to advise Strategies, as encouraged by the Deputy directly to reduce their Ecological Footprint city regions on sustainable development, Prime Minister. and CO2 emissions. Because of the smaller and embed the development of sustainable Sunderland City Council has also size of an individual community, residents infrastructure into regional and local launched a sustainability appraisal of its can often move forward very quickly with planning strategies. It also plans to key strategies, beginning with the Local their efforts, and have substantial impact complement increased energy efficiency Development Framework. This has already around the UK and the world. in new homes with high quality design.5 highlighted the key sustainability challenges The North East’s draft Regional Spatial facing Sunderland: outward migration, an Housing and sustainable Strategy is the first to be developed using ageing population, high levels of land-filling, communities The Northern Way’s sustainability principles and others. The next step is to make The North East faces the challenge of mentioned above, and the Regional Housing sustainable communities the prime focus dwindling traditional industries and a Strategies of all three northern regions have of Sunderland’s Local Development shrinking population. Economic prosperity been developed under guidance from Framework, helping clarify future options is also declining, and the region has a The Northern Way. for waste and energy. widening poverty gap and low life expectancy compared with other parts of the UK. Most of the North East’s many rural “Successful sustainable communities settlements and small market towns lie at a distance from major employment centres, require a broad, coordinated approach lack affordable housing and have low access to public services. In terms of to sustainability” development, then, the North East’s challenge is not to manage rapid growth, as is the case in much of the southern UK.

36 T

“Neighbourhood groups S A E H

generated ideas to reduce T R O

their Footprint in several ways, N 5 including growing food locally and organising box deliveries”

INGRAM PUBLISHING

Community participation WWF-UK is using the information and and Ecological Budget UK National and local results from the Sunderland project to The technique of participatory appraisal strategies for explore the development of a community has been widely used in Sunderland to developing sustainable Ecological Footprint tool. Its main feature will increase community input into development, be to develop a method to enable increase community satisfaction, and garner communities community organisations to measure their community support for more sustainable Ecological Footprint – in terms of transport, designs. Successes include community- > Securing the Future, the UK homes and energy, consumables, food, informed housing development on the government’s new sustainable services, leisure and holidays, and other Lambton Cokeworks site, and a better development strategy, names categories – then plan to reduce it. understanding of community needs for sustainable communities as a priority. the Hetton Sustainable Transport Project. > The Egan Review Skills for Sustainable The future of sustainable As part of the Ecological Budget UK Communities provides a broader communities project, WWF-UK is working with definition of sustainable communities The future of sustainable communities Sunderland City Council to develop the than had previously been used by Sustainable development can start at the Ecological Footprint more widely as a the Office of the Deputy Prime community level. Effective community communication tool, and to demonstrate to Minister (ODPM). programmes such as Sunderland’s take a community organisations how they can use > The Academy for Sustainable coordinated approach to sustainability, and the Footprint for planning. Through a series Communities, based in Leeds, was capitalise on the smaller, more accessible of community workshops, Sunderland founded by the ODPM and provides size of their community. Increasingly, engaged diverse groups such as St Anne’s training in achieving sustainable customised Footprint application tools and RC Primary School, the Pennywell communities. methods, such as the one being developed Neighbourhood Centre, the Farringdon > The Local Strategic Partnership’s following the work in Sunderland, will be Jubilee Centre, The Access Point – Learning Programme on Sustainable available to communities across the UK. Racecourse Estate, and the Quarry Communities is jointly funded by Defra With the Ecological Budget UK project’s View Primary School, among others, to and the Academy for Sustainable Skills, release of the REAP modelling software6, generate ideas for Ecological Footprint- and investigates how best to engage regions and communities will have an reducing projects. LSPs in learning about sustainable even more powerful tool to assess the With help from the council, these communities. potential ecological impacts of different neighbourhood groups generated promising > The Audit Commission published the development options. project ideas to reduce their Footprint in Ecological Footprints of all local several categories: raising awareness of authority areas in January 2006. This sustainability through practical projects with information will be available free of groups, growing food locally and organising charge as a tool for communities box deliveries of fruit and vegetables, seeking to measure their sustainability. distributing advice leaflets for sustainable practices in the home, and promoting cycling/walking initiatives. By encouraging the voluntary participation of community groups and using the Footprint as an 4 The Northern Way was initiated by the Office of the Deputy instructive tool in plans and strategies, Prime Minister and is led by three regional development Sunderland is working towards a successful agencies: One North East, Yorkshire Forward, and the North West Regional Development Agency. See more at sustainable community programme. www.thenorthernway.co.uk/index.html 5 This is a summary of The Northern Way’s report Creating Truly Sustainable Communities. See the whole report at www.thenorthernway.co.uk/app_june05.html 6 To learn more about REAP, see www.sei.se/reap 37 T S E W North West H T

R Material flow analysis O N

5 Regional consumption Supply Demand 84.7 million tonnes Material supplied to Material demanded by the region, the region’s economy Households 47.6 other UK regions or the world for consumption Capital investment 13.4 for consumption or production or production Regional production Residual material flows* 23.7 74.5 million tonnes

Imports from Exports to *including transformation the rest of the world the rest of the world stock changes and waste 14.5 million tonnes 6.9 million tonnes Imports from Exports to Regional material inputs and consumption other UK regions other UK regions RMI RMC million tonnes million tonnes 67.5 64.9 117.6 million tonnes 45.6 million tonnes

RMI/cap RMC/cap

17.4 tonnes 6.7 tonnes Fig 1 Material flows of the North West

Total Ecological Footprint 5.45 gha/cap Home & energy 1.20 Wales 5.20 Travel 0.95 South West 5.24 Yorkshire & Humberside 5.30 Consumables 0.64 North East 5.31 West Midlands 5.36 Services 0.37 Scotland 5.37 North West 5.45 East Midlands 5.47 Fixed capital 0.76 London 5.58 East of England 5.64 Northern Ireland 5.65 Government & other 0.40 South East 6.29 UK Average 5.36 Food 1.13

Fig 2 Regional Ecological Footprints (gha/cap) Fig 3 The North West’s Ecological Footprint (gha/cap)

In terms of physical trade, the North West and Humberside, which both have Analysis shows the archetypal pattern for an English 0.60 gha/cap. This is mainly due to low Material flow region heavily involved in intra-UK trade and car mileage and low related expenditure The North West has a remarkably low much less in material exchanges with the for private transport. In terms of electricity amount of materials flowing through its rest of the world. With 133m tonnes, this is consumption and gas distribution, the economy. Both Regional Material Input the second highest physical exchange with North West ranks second lowest with 0.39 (RMI) – 17.5 t/cap – and Regional Material other UK regions, being equally driven by gha/cap, after London with 0.37 gha/cap. Consumption (RMC) – 6.8 t/cap – are the imports (51 per cent) and exports (49 per lowest of any UK region or devolved cent). While the North West mainly imports CO2 emissions country. This is due to a low throughput quarrying materials as well as wood or Total consumer-related carbon dioxide of energy carriers and mining materials. wood products, it predominantly exports emissions are 11.5 t/cap – slightly lower Per capita, only 1.2 tonnes of energy food as well as pulp and paper products. than the UK average of 11.8 t/cap but carriers are required for the North West Taking into account all trade with other higher than the territorial emissions of the economy – the lowest in the UK. regions and countries and subtracting North West of 10.8 t/cap. Notably, domestic The demand for mining materials is third imports from exports, the North West energy consumption in the North West lowest, with 4.9 t/cap. is one of five net importing regions with is responsible for 1.7 tonnes of CO2 per On the other hand, the North West has an import surplus of 10.2m tonnes. capita, which is well above the UK average the highest throughput of chemicals of all of 1.5 t/cap and third highest of all regions UK regions and countries – 2.0 t/cap. Ecological Footprint and countries: only the East Midlands and This not only shows the dominance of The North West’s Ecological Footprint of Northern Ireland are higher at 1.8 and 2.7 chemical and related industries in the 5.12 gha/cap is lower than the UK average, t/cap respectively. region, but also demonstrates that a high but still higher than that of four other English flow of chemicals does not necessarily regions, and of Wales and Scotland. A more come with a high flow of energy materials, detailed analysis reveals that the Footprint and that some types of flows don’t affect of car use and electricity consumption are total throughput tonnes as much as others particularly low. Residents in the North West – even if, like chemicals in the North West, have the third lowest transport Footprint they are much higher than average. at 0.62 gha/cap, after London and Yorkshire 38 T S E W

H T

Home & energy CO2 emissions R Government O Actual rentals & fixed capital N for housing 0.06 Services 5 Imputed rentals for housing 0.13 Maintenance & repair 0.14 Hospital services 0.02 Social protection 0.05 Territorial Other services nec 0.05 emissions Education 0.04 from production Government & other 1.16 Accommodation 0.05 10.76 t/cap Telephone & fax 0.06 Electricity 1.13 Travel UK Av. 10.76 t/cap Water supply 0.08 Insurance & finance 0.20 Recreation & culture 0.09 Emissions Operation UK resident from of personal holidays abroad 0.19 consumption transport 0.24 Total 0.83 t/cap 11.51 t/cap Purchase of UK Av. 11.81 t/cap vehicles 0.32 UK Av. 0.90 t/cap Consumables Tobacco 0.01 Household tools, utensils & maintenance 0.07 Transport services 0.65 Newspapers, books & stationery 0.07 “The North West Food & drink Fixed capital 1.87 Medical & personal Non-alcoholic products 0.11 beverages 0.04 Gas 1.74 Furniture is one of five net Alcoholic & furnishings 0.15 Textiles & footwear 0.16 beverages 0.05 Private transport Personal effects nec 0.27 importing regions Food 0.34 (car fuel) 0.91 Audio visual & photo equipment 0.13 Household appliances 0.21 Catering with an import services 0.44 Recreational items & equipment 0.26 surplus of Total Total Total Total Total 0.87 t/cap 3.20 t/cap 3.03 t/cap 2.12 t/cap 1.46 t/cap UK Av. 0.87 t/cap UK Av. 3.10 t/cap UK Av. 3.03 t/cap UK Av. 2.44 t/cap UK Av. 1.46 t/cap 10.2m tonnes”

Fig 4 CO2 emissions from consumption in the North West (t/cap)

Overview

Sustainable development knowledge-based inclusive economy: Future implications Developers have

in the North West • raising the output of businesses and an opportunity to provide more floor space the productivity of workers; per Footprint hectare by building at higher

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 > As the birthplaces of the industrial • creating more & better jobs; densities (which reduces built-up1.0 land), and

revolution, Manchester and Liverpool • ensuring skills for life, especially making more available certain services – suffered extreme levels of poverty and for those without qualifications; such as transport – that are important for

pollution, followed by 50 years of decline • enabling people to access work, sustainable communities. The RSS Policy and restructuring. From the challenges of including for disadvantaged groups; DP3: Quality in New Development –

social exclusion, ill-health, obsolescence • helping disadvantaged communities; requires new development to demonstrate

and dereliction, the ‘metropolitan’ • reducing variations across the region. “good design quality.” This can encourage North West is now re-inventing itself > The Development Agency has expressed innovative, eco-friendly, and adaptable as a globalized hub for creative and support for renewable energy, buildings with improved energy and knowledge-based industries in the environmental technology, community- materials efficiency. ‘new urbanism’ mode. based recycling, ethical finance and However, these moves towards > The North West’s regional economy as corporate responsibility. sustainable development may not yet be a whole is diverse, and catching up with > The North West’s Regional Spatial enough to turn the tide of material growth. the UK, but in GVA/per capita lags Strategy (RSS) has several levers with For instance, Manchester Airport, the major behind by about 10 per cent. which to direct its construction sector. air hub in the North, continues to double in > The North West Development Agency The strategy encourages use of previously size (and, roughly, in Footprint and CO2 aims to transform the region through developed land, re-use of disused emissions) every 10-15 years. sustainable economic development buildings and land, and higher density into a competitive, high added value, building where practicable.

39 T S E W Spotlight H T R O N 5 Construction and building in the North West

With more than a quarter of a million In the course of the Eco Region NW n e c o i r n t

businesses, the North West accounts for i project (see box right), a detailed material a c a n u p r e t 11 per cent of the UK’s total business e flow analysis of the construction sector t r s

n i

Type of material n d a o

base. In 2001 the North West out- n in the North West was undertaken. C a (commodity group) M performed the UK economy as a whole. This can help identify where the problems The region remains relatively dependent on Mining & quarrying materials 2,568.0 584.7 are and what the solutions could be. more traditional manufacturing, mainly of Structural clay products 366.0 29.4 The construction industry is by far chemicals and transport equipment, and is Cement, lime & plaster 281.0 156.7 the most mass-intensive of any sector: under-represented in some higher growth Articles of concrete, stone, etc. 1,974.0 475.0 construction materials make up 40 per sectors such as business, financial services Wood & wood products 145.9 155.0 cent of the 118m tonnes of total regional and electronics. Paints, varnishes, etc. 13.0 16.4 material input (RMI) from all activities. Longer-term economic trends are difficult Rubber products 2.0 3.5 Quarry products, including aggregates, to determine, but GDP growth will probably Plastic products 39.2 46.8 sand, crushed rock and limestone, be somewhere between 2-3 per cent per Glass & glass products 18.5 8.6 constitute by far the largest type of year. Construction and the public sector are Ceramic goods 14.1 4.8 material flow, accounting for 28 per cent key drivers of regional growth, although the Iron & steel 47.1 23.9 of the total RMI. Raw materials make shift to services is likely to continue in this Structural metal products 37.3 15.2 up roughly 90 per cent of material inputs region as elsewhere, with a reduction of Electric motors & generators, etc. 17.6 8.7 for the construction sector, while only primary and manufacturing employment Total 5,523 1,529 10 cent are recycled or secondary. towards 15 per cent of the total. The North West is home to 6.9 million Fig 5 Materials used for construction purposes Construction and people in 2.8 million households. It has in the North West region (kilotonnes/year, 2001) Ecological Budget UK the second largest population of the UK’s The detailed material flow analysis by regions and is three times more densely stock per year. About 63 per cent of new Ecological Budget UK and Eco-Region populated than the European average. development is on recycled land, short of NW enables us to identify for which purpose Even so, the population has reduced the regional target of 70 per cent. Derelict construction materials are directly being since the 1970s, which can be linked to land is expected to remain at its current used in the regional economy. Figure 5 migration to the more prosperous South. level of 4.3 per cent of the total, while the shows these details for the main The population is still booming, with current vacant housing total will remain construction activities – building new current projections of a slight rise over consistent at about 130,000 dwellings. dwellings and the maintenance and repair the next 20 years. Construction is the largest resource-using of existing dwellings. In 2001, 5.5m tonnes sector, both in direct materials use and the of materials were used for the construction Residential and commercial building energy demand of its products. With rising of new dwellings, followed by 1.5m tonnes Today, there are 2.8 million dwellings in the costs of energy and waste disposal, and for maintaining and repairing existing North West. In recent years some 20,000 forthcoming Building Regulations and EU properties. houses have been built annually. Net of directives, there will be increasing pressure This shows that although new-build clearance, almost 13,000 dwellings are on construction to raise its game. Many (especially commercial) projects attract expected to be built annually between contracts will be based on environmental most media and professional attention, now and 2016 – that’s 143,000 new as well as financial performance. repair, maintenance and refurbishment houses over the next 11 years. If this level In order to achieve a more sustainable are also very significant consumers of of construction continues through to 2050, way of constructing and housing, major construction services and materials. It also it would result in 585,000 new dwellings efforts are required by all participants, suggests that for every new-build house, in the region – a 20 per cent increase including builders, designers, architects, about 300 tonnes of materials have to be over today’s levels. construction companies, home owners moved and put in place; of this, around Commercial building continues at and tenants. 160 tonnes actually make up the approximately 1-2 per cent of the building house itself. 40 T S E W

H T

Fig 6 Total Ecological Footprint (gha) per tonne of material Fig 7 Total CO2 emissions (tonnes) per tonne of material R O N

7.0 5 1.40 6.0 1.20 5.0 1.00

4.0 0.80

0.60 3.0

0.40 2.0

0.20 1.0

0 0

Environmental impacts > The highest CO2 impact – 14 tonnes or Eco-Region North West of construction 22 per cent – is due to structural metal Carbon dioxide and other emissions products, 11 tonnes are due to iron and The Eco-Region NW is a project released during the extraction and transport steel products and 10 tonnes are due developed from the Biffaward national of raw materials are not normally added to to cement, lime and plaster products; research programme of waste/resource the construction sector’s carbon balance, > An average new house in the North West flow analysis. Eco-Region NW sets a Mining &yet quarry applyinging mater theials consumer principle allows requires an Ecological Footprint area of new standard for analysis of waste and Structuralus to see clay what products the total impacts of demand 30 gha. Most of this area is due to wood material flows at the regional scale and Cement, lime & plaster for construction activities are. Following this products which require 12 gha, followed is coordinated with the national level Articles of concrete, stone etc system, Eco-Budget UK. It provides a principle,W oweod &calculated wood prod uctstotal CO2 emission by concrete and structural metal products “joined up” information system which and Footprint Pafactorsints, va rnforishes the etc main with 3 gha each; and measures environmental performance at construction materials.Rubber These produc takets into > On a per capita basis, total housing in Plastic products both the regional level and the firm level. account all emissions and impacts that the North West is responsible for CO2 Glass & glass products The Eco-Region NW extends the occur along the production andCeram supplyic goods emissions of 0.33 t/cap and for a national system, with a particular chain of these materials. Results areIron & steel Footprint of 0.18 gha/cap. focus on: depicted in Figure 6 and FigureStructural 7. metal products Electric motors & generators etc > waste management sector The picture is different for the two Regional Spatial Strategy and > construction sector indicators. Structural metal products housing strategy > business applications show very high relative impacts for both The RSS has several levers with which to > policy applications. CO2 emissions and the Footprint. All other direct the construction sector. It encourages construction materials have lower CO2 use of previously developed land, re-use of The Eco-Region NW information system emissions per tonne, especially aggregates disused buildings and land, and building at also makes links between the flows of and bulk materials which don’t require many higher densities where practicable. Building resources and waste, and their causes steps of manufacturing. However, wood, at higher densities, which reduces land in production and consumption. It also rubber and plastic products show a high take and makes some services that are connects a top-down analysis at the specific Footprint per tonne which is due important for sustainable communities such regional level with a bottom-up environ- to their additional land requirements. as transport more viable, may be viewed by mental report template at the firm level. Using the information from both the some developers as an opportunity to sell material flow analysis and the environmental more floor space for a given development impact analysis allows the calculation Footprint. The RSS Policy DP3: Quality of total impacts of construction activities in New Development requires new in the North West – for example for the development to demonstrate quality design. construction of one average new home. This means innovative design that results in Key facts from this analysis are: eco-friendly and adaptable buildings with > The construction of one new dwelling improved energy and materials efficiency. in the North West sets free 62 tonnes of CO2; 41 T S A E South East H T U

O Material flow analysis S 5 Supply Regional consumption Demand Material supplied to 108.4 million tonnes Material demanded by the region, the region’s economy other UK regions or the world for consumption Households 71.6 for consumption or production Capital investment 21.0 or production Regional production Residual material flows* 15.8 89.0 million tonnes

Imports from Exports to *including transformation the rest of the world the rest of the world stock changes and waste 27.8 million tonnes 17.6 million tonnes

Imports from Exports to Regional material inputs and consumption other UK regions other UK regions RMI RMC 68.5 million tonnes 59.1 million tonnes 148.8 million tonnes 71.9 million tonnes

RMI/cap RMC/cap 18.5 tonnes 8.9 tonnes Fig 1 Material flows of the South East

Total Ecological Footprint 6.29 gha/cap Home & energy 1.26 Wales 5.20 Travel 1.30 South West 5.24 Yorkshire & Humberside 5.30 Consumables 0.89 North East 5.31 West Midlands 5.36 Scotland 5.37 Services 0.55 North West 5.45 East Midlands 5.47 London 5.58 Fixed capital 0.76 East of England 5.64 Northern Ireland 5.65 Government & other 0.40 South East 6.29 UK Average 5.36 Food 1.14

Fig 2 Regional Ecological Footprints (gha/cap) Fig 3 The South East’s Ecological Footprint (gha/cap)

transport is 45 per cent higher than Material flow Analysis emissions from London residents’ transport. At first sight, the South East shows a The South East’s CO2 emissions from The only other region that travels further surprisingly small intake and consumption of consumption are high and its Ecological per capita is the East of England, the other materials. With 18.59 t/cap of total Regional Footprint is large. CO2 emissions from major region bordering the capital. Because Material Input (RMI), it is second smallest consumption are 13.4 tonnes per person, numerous South East residents commute among UK regions, and its Regional 13 per cent higher than the national average to London, many of their travel emissions Material Consumption (RMC) is fourth and 21 per cent higher than the North are released in the capital. While in terms lowest at 8.98 t/cap. While the 52.4m East (the region with the lowest CO2 from of health this is not significant for CO2 tonnes (or 6.55 t/cap) of regional material consumption per capita). The South East’s (which is distributed quite evenly in the production/extraction is moderate in Ecological Footprint is 6.3 global hectares atmosphere, no matter where it is emitted) comparison to the UK average, both figures per capita, 17 per cent higher than the it means that London is subject to other are mainly determined by the South East’s national average and 21 per cent higher harmful local pollutants because of the high imports. In fact, it is the largest material than Wales’ Footprint per capita (the people who travel there. This is true even importer from other UK regions with 68.6m lowest in the UK). Particularly within a though residents of London drive less and tonnes, and the second largest when small country, this variation is significant. emit less CO2 from transport. imports from the rest of the world, totalling South East residents place greater 96.4m tonnes, are counted. Its exports, in Transport demand on all transport modes, travelling contrast, are comparatively low: the South The South East’s emissions from personal nearly 13,000km a year. A “high mobility” East is the UK’s second largest net material transport are among the highest in the society uses more resources. The continual importer with a surplus of 19.5m tonnes. country. Ironically, many emissions are due purchasing of new cars in the South East One reason the South East’s total to residents who commute daily to London has indirect manufacturing emissions of RMC and RMI aren’t as large as might – which has the lowest transport emissions 0.44 t/cap, while car maintenance releases be expected (given its very large Ecological of any region. The difference between the a further 0.41 t/cap. Footprint) is the fact that RMC and RMI two regions is substantial: the CO2 emitted Emissions from an individual in the only account for materials that physically as a result of South East residents’ UK who purchases and maintains a car flow within, into and out of a region’s are equal to the average person’s total borders. They do not account for “indirect emissions in Pakistan for one year1. resource flows” which occur in other regions 42 T 2 S CO emissions A E

Services H Home & energy T Hospital services 0.04 U Actual rentals Social protection 0.05 for housing 0.06 O Other services nec 0.08 Government S Imputed rentals & fixed capital Education 0.10 for housing 0.13 Travel Accommodation 0.09 5 Telephone & fax 0.08 Maintenance Water supply 0.08 & repair 0.16 Operation Insurance & finance 0.30 of personal Territorial transport 0.41 emissions Recreation & culture 0.11 from production Government UK resident & other 1.16 10.12 t/cap Electricity 1.38 Purchase of holidays abroad 0.26 UK Av. 10.76 t/cap vehicles 0.44 Total 1.20 t/cap UK Av. 0.90 t/cap Emissions Consumables from consumption Tobacco 0.01 Household tools, utensils 13.37 t/cap Transport services 0.79 & maintenance 0.14 UK Av. 11.81 t/cap Newspapers, Overview books & stationery 0.08 Medical & personal Sustainable development products 0.14 in the South East Furniture & furnishings 0.19 Textiles & footwear 0.19 Fixed > The largest and most successful Food & drink capital 1.87 Personal effects nec 0.35 economy in the UK by far, it is also Non-alcoholic Gas 1.64 beverages 0.04 Audio visual & photo one of the most unequal, congested Alcoholic Private equipment 0.26 beverages 0.07 transport and overheated. (car fuel) 1.31 Household appliances 0.30 Food 0.36 > Together with London and the East of England, the South East accounts for Recreational items & equipment 0.33 over 50 per cent of the UK’s Research Catering services 0.38 and Development, and alongside the North West is the largest Total Total Total Total Total 0.85 t/cap 3.37 t/cap 3.03 t/cap 2.94 t/cap 1.98 t/cap manufacturing region in the UK. UK Av. 0.87 t/cap UK Av. 3.10 t/cap UK Av. 3.03 t/cap UK Av. 2.44 t/cap UK Av. 1.46 t/cap > Polarisation has increased as greater

Fig 4 CO2 emissions from consumption in the South East (t/cap) wealth generates a demand for more services, creating an ‘hourglass’ economy, dependent on lower paid, during production processes of goods and that the South East economy exchanges lower value jobs. services consumed elsewhere – in this case, with the rest of the UK and the world. > In the Regional Economic Strategy the South East. Taking indirect material (RES) there is a tangible realization flows into account, household consumption Goods and services that this kind of growth rate is is the most material-intensive of any UK The South East spends more than the unsustainable, and it makes a priority region, amounting to around 9 t/cap per average on goods and services, which of sustainable consumption and year, compared with a national average of is reflected in its high CO2 emissions. production. 7.5 t/cap per year. This rate of consumption The production of jewellery for South East is mainly driven by material flows from the residents emits 0.35 t/cap, 55 per cent Future implications The South East’s agricultural sectors (13.6m tonnes), the higher than the national average. RES makes a priority of sustainable mining sector (22m tonnes) and the food Generally, services have lower consumption and production – delivering industry (11.8m tonnes). CO2 emissions per £ spent than goods, products and services with lower The CO2 emissions and Ecological with a few exceptions such as eating out.2 environment impacts, while boosting Footprint results for the South East clearly But although services are often efficient, competitiveness. The South East is well- demonstrate the impacts of a booming they still have a high overall impact when placed to lead this new approach to economy that spends more money than consumed at high rates. The South East consumption and production, with its average on most kinds of consumption. spends more on goods and services than strong research base and many In contrast to many UK regions and any other region, and it is not surprising that businesses in both the product design devolved countries, the South East’s the resulting CO2 emissions are higher than and environmental technology sectors. CO2 from consumption is considerably the national average (35 per cent higher for Developments in the technology of reuse, higher than CO2 from production. Emissions goods and 32 per cent higher for services). remanufacturing and recycling offer a from production are still significant (more This analysis demonstrates that the significant economic opportunity for the than 10 tonnes per person), reflecting development of eco-efficient services is region. The South East is expected to the fact that the South East has an active of particular importance to the South East experience greater climate change manufacturing base in addition to its in terms of reducing their overall Footprint. impacts than the rest of the UK by 2050. service economy. The heavy flows depicted 1 International emissions information obtained from in the Direct Material Inputs table also the UN Common Database (CDIAC) via “Globalis – 2 Discussed in more detail in chapter 6, “A framework for demonstrate the large amount of resources Interactive World Map” sustainable consumption and production”. 43 T S A E Spotlight H T U O S 5 Home construction and the South East’s attempt to stabilise its footprint

With population growth projected for the Stabilising the South East’s Local authorities entire South of England, the South East footprint: The housing component SEERA’s RSS will not become operational region is under continuing pressure to build SEERA seeks to counteract the South until 2007, and other policies in the plan new homes. The South East England East’s .025 gha/cap per housing Footprint both support and contradict Footprint Regional Assembly’s (SEERA) draft RSS with several specific measures: stabilisation in the South East. While the plans 28,900 new homes a year. Already, > make existing housing more energy Strategy expresses a commitment to the South East’s Ecological Footprint of efficient (0.005 gha/cap savings per year); sustainable construction, its draft version 1.26 gha/cap for home-building and energy > use low-impact construction for all house- (March 2005) had dropped a requirement use is the second highest in the UK. building (0.005 gha/cap savings per year); that all new homes be built to EcoHomes > use low-impact construction for all other “very good” standards. The Draft Regional Spatial Strategy construction (0.004 gha/cap savings Against this backdrop, some South East The RSS commits to stabilising the region’s per year); local authorities are already building more per capita Footprint by 2016. A stable > use low-energy housing design to sustainable housing on their own without Footprint is one where the Footprint per the EcoHomes “excellent” standard being required to by law. For example, capita is no longer increasing, although the (0.001 gha/cap savings per year); Ashford Borough Council’s draft Local total Footprint may be. SEERA has pursued > use low-energy design for all other Development Framework will require most a low-Footprint home construction policy – construction (0.004 gha/cap savings new development to be built according to a main component of Footprint stabilisation. per year); and EcoHomes “excellent” standards by 2008, Other SEERA plans have also focused > avoid traffic increases as a result of new and to be carbon neutral by 2015. on lowering the housing Footprint.3 housing by providing public transport Chichester already requires an EcoHomes and a cycling/walking infrastructure “excellent” rating for new housing, and (0.006 gha/cap savings per year). Brighton’s Supplementary Planning Guidance calls for a “very good” rating for new development. Croydon’s “Some South East Supplementary Planning Guidance requires local authorities are new developments to be carbon neutral. already building more sustainable housing on their own”

3 For example, SEERA’s Southeast Integrated Regional Framework, “Objective 16,” the Southeast’s Regional Economic Strategy and the Taking Stock resource use analysis. 4 ibid 44 T S A E

H T U O S 5

PEGGY ALLCOT/WWF-UK The future “Most important The SEERA Draft Not only has SEERA committed to Regional Spatial stabilising its Footprint, but it has also to of all, the South East Strategy: Policy CC3 “reduce the global, social and environmental impacts of consumption of resources”.4 has an opportunity In order to reflect the Plan’s emphasis Ecological Budget UK can help determine on more sustainable resource use, what this will mean in terms of practical to introduce SEERA will promote measures that seek strategy and policy-making. It shows what to stabilise the South-east’s Ecological resources housing requires, and enables sustainable building Footprint by 2016, and to reduce the the South East to compare its Footprint Footprint during the second half of the with other regions. Ecological Budget into the mainstream” Plan period. Implementation will require UK also provides a standardised baseline a sustained new programme of action measurement for future studies. All this incorporating: information is included in the Resource > increased efficiency of resource use and Energy Analysis Program (REAP), in new development; a scenario modelling tool for decision- > adapting existing development to makers in the region. reduce its use of energy, water and In the South East as a whole, the other resources; RSS sets relatively low targets for using > introducing complementary renewable energy. There is also great legislation and fiscal measures pressure to expand the region’s airports, by government; and and the South East’s general economic > changing behaviour of organisations expansion is among the fastest in the and individuals. country. These factors may counteract Footprint and CO2 reductions as a result of more sustainable housing designs. Despite some of these unresolved tensions, the South East has taken steps towards low-Footprint housing, sustainable resource use and a stabilised Footprint by 2016. Future Footprinting, CO2 consumption monitoring and resource flow analysis will gauge these efforts. But most important of all, the South East has an opportunity to introduce sustainable building into the mainstream – an advance that will affect its Footprint far beyond the next 10 years.

45 T S E W South West H T

U Material flow analysis O S

5 Households 36.1 Supply Capital investment 10.0 Demand Material supplied to Residual material flows* 62.1 Material demanded by the region, the region’s economy other UK regions or the world for consumption for consumption or production or production Regional production Regional consumption 102.3 million tonnes 108.2 million tonnes

Imports from Exports to *including transformation the rest of the world the rest of the world stock changes and waste 12.4 million tonnes 6.4 million tonnes

Imports from Exports to Regional material inputs and consumption other UK regions other UK regions RMI RMC 33.2 million tonnes 33.2 million tonnes 121.5 tonnes 81.8 tonnes

RMI/cap RMC/cap 24.6 tonnes 16.5 tonnes Fig 1 Material flows of the South West

Total Ecological Footprint 5.24 gha/cap Home & energy 1.15 Wales 5.20 Travel 0.91 South West 5.24 Yorkshire & Humberside 5.30 Consumables 0.57 North East 5.31 West Midlands 5.36 Services 0.38 Scotland 5.37 North West 5.45 East Midlands 5.47 Fixed capital 0.76 London 5.58 East of England 5.64 Northern Ireland 5.65 Government & other 0.40 South East 6.29 UK Average 5.36 Food 1.07

Fig 2 Regional Ecological Footprints (gha/cap) Fig 3 The South West’s Ecological Footprint (gha/cap)

Despite the perceived high quality of life, population and economic growth, and Analysis the region nevertheless suffers from huge the urgent need to reduce resource The South West is England’s largest region, internal disparities. The north and east are consumption and CO2 emissions, will parts of which are very peripheral: the close neighbours to the Midlands, the South be a major sustainability challenge in northern tip in Gloucestershire is as close East and London, while the far south-west the coming years. to Scotland as it is to Land’s End1. It is also suffers from marked under-investment and a rural region with a dispersed population, of lack of opportunities. This is illustrated not Ecological Footprint whom around 35 per cent live in settlements only by below average productivity levels, The South West’s Ecological Footprint is of fewer than 10,000. The South West also but also marked differences across the 5.24 gha, the second lowest in the UK possesses a higher proportion of very small region – for example, 153 per cent of UK to Wales at 5.20 gha. The UK average villages than any other region. productivity (Gross Value Added per head) is 5.36 gha. Consistent with the UK, Its peninsula character means that it has is in Swindon, but only 57 per cent in home & energy and food are the largest nearly 1,120km of coast, 60 per cent of Cornwall, which is classified as a European components, accounting for 22 per cent which is designated Heritage Coast. More Union Objective One area.3 and 20 per cent of the Footprint than three million people (62 per cent of the Notably, two of the region’s key strategies respectively. Travel accounts for a further population) live within 10km of the coastline. – the draft Regional Economic Strategy 17 per cent, consumables 11 per cent, and Nearly 37 per cent of the region comprises (RES)4 and draft Regional Spatial Strategy services 7 per cent. The South West has an protected landscape, and with good reason (RSS)5 – recognise the need to reduce the above-average Ecological Footprint only in – its two national parks and 14 Areas of South West’s Ecological Footprint6, to travel and services, while home & energy Outstanding Natural Beauty attract 26 develop within environmental limits, and is a fraction below the national average. million tourists a year.2 to promote sustainable consumption and production. This is a significant commitment for a region expecting to see rapid growth in the coming 20 years (recent research suggests a population increase of 600,000, the creation of 450,000 new jobs and the provision of some 550,000 new homes.)7 Resolving the tension between an increased 46 T S E W

H T

CO2 emissions U Home & energy Government O

& fixed capital S Actual rentals

for housing 0.06 5 Imputed rentals for housing 0.12 Services Maintenance Hospital services 0.04 Overview & repair 0.13 Social protection 0.06 Territorial Other services nec 0.06 Sustainable development emissions Travel Education 0.05 in the South West from production Government Accommodation 0.07 & other 1.16 Telephone & fax 0.06 9.46 t/cap Water supply 0.09 UK Av. 10.76 t/cap Operation Insurance & finance 0.21 > The South West is characterised by its Electricity 1.43 of personal Recreation & culture 0.09 Emissions transport 0.35 UK resident largely rural landscape, long coastline, from holidays abroad 0.13 few major cities and many small consumption Purchase of Total vehicles 0.32 11.47 t/cap 0.86 t/cap settlements. Rural communities play UK Av. 11.81 t/cap UK Av. 0.90 t/cap an important role in the South West’s economy. Transport Consumables services 0.49 Tobacco 0.01 > Over the next 20 years, the South Household tools, utensils West’s population could rise & maintenance 0.10 Fixed Newspapers, by 600,000. Food & drink capital 1.87 books & stationery 0.08 Medical & personal > The South West’s Regional Non-alcoholic products 0.11 Development Agency has a detailed beverages 0.04 Gas 1.36 Furniture Alcoholic & furnishings 0.14 and explicit sustainable development beverages 0.06 Private Textiles & footwear 0.14 transport Personal effects nec 0.16 strategy. It recognizes that: Food 0.34 (car fuel) 1.20 Audio visual & photo • equipment 0.13 business efficiency can be enhanced Household appliances 0.23 through better environmental Catering Recreational items services 0.36 & equipment 0.23 management;

• quality of life in the region is a major Total Total Total Total Total 0.80 t/cap 3.10 t/cap 3.03 t/cap 2.37 t/cap 1.32 t/cap attractor of investment, business, UK Av. 0.87 t/cap UK Av. 3.10 t/cap UK Av. 3.03 t/cap UK Av. 2.44 t/cap UK Av. 1.46 t/cap workers and tourists;

Fig 4 CO2 emissions from consumption in the South West (t/cap) • environmental technologies and services, such as renewable energy, represent a huge global market CO2 emissions private and public transport emissions – where the South West can become The South West’s “territorial” CO2 emissions 2.5 t/cap of CO2 are produced from private a leader; are 9.46 tonnes/capita, below the UK vehicle users for every t/cap produced by • in identifying the environment as average of 10.76 tonnes/capita, and the users of public transport. a key ‘driver’ for the economy, it is fourth lowest in the country. Consumer Travel patterns in the region are also important to build rather than emissions are 17 per cent higher than terri- different from the rest of the UK. Visiting diminish the region’s environmental torial emissions at 11.47 t/cap incomparison friends and holidays/day trips account for and cultural capital; to the UK average of 11.81 t/cap. the most kilometres travelled, compared • over 12 per cent of regional economy Home & energy use accounts for 27 per with commuting and shopping in the rest of relies directly on the land and cent of the South West’s CO2 emissions. the UK. South West residents also have the landscape. This is the largest component and is lowest CO2 emissions from holidays abroad, consistent with the rest of the UK. at 0.13 t/cap – half the amount of the South Future implications Sustainable Travel is the second largest contributor East, which has the highest (0.26 t/cap). development is a mounting challenge to the South West’s CO2 emissions, continued over the page for the South West – taking needed steps accounting for 21 per cent (2.37 t/cap) to develop its regional economy whilst of the Ecological Footprint. Although this 1 ‘First Draft RSS’, SW Regional Assembly, Version 1.92, still securing environmental and social is below the UK average of 2.44 t/cap, October 2005. benefits. As it grows, the South West will 2 ‘First Draft RSS’, SW Regional Assembly, Version 1.92, it is worth noting that CO2 emissions from October 2005. need to answer many major questions private vehicle use (120 t/cap) account for 3 ‘Just Connect – An Integrated Regional Strategy for the about transportation, housing, agriculture, South West 2004-26’, SW Regional Assembly, 2004. 51 per cent of total travel CO2 emissions – 4 ‘SW Regional Economic Strategy – Draft for Consultation’, and energy: Is it possible to attract new the largest proportion in the UK and the SWRDA, September 2005. visitors to the region without major new third highest in the country. Only the South 5 ‘Draft RSS – Version 2.2’, SW Regional Assembly, RSPTG transport infrastructure? How might the meeting papers, 12 January 2006. East (131 t/cap) and East (125 t/cap) have 6 In April 2005, the South West published ‘Stepping South West sustainably meet the demand higher levels. Forward’, its first material flows and Ecological Footprint for housing and visitor lodging? What role study, undertaken by Best Foot Forward. For an But in sharp contrast, the South West explanation of any differences in the results between these might low-impact farming play in also has the lowest CO2 emissions (0.49 studies, refer to the Ecological Budget website. For more revitalizing rural areas? Which renewable t/cap) from public transport services in the details of Stepping Forward, visit energy options will the region pursue? www.steppingforward.org.uk country and the biggest gap between 7 See footnote 4. 47 T S E W Analysis continued Spotlight H T

U Another noticeable difference in O

S the South West concerns food and drink,

5 which is 8 per cent lower than the UK average and the second lowest in the Energy consumption county. Food prepared and consumed at home is identical to the UK average and production (0.34 t/cap), but South West residents are among the least likely to eat out, with in the South West CO2 emissions from catering the second lowest in the country at 0.36 t/cap.

Material flow The South West has an Regional Material As highlighted above, energy use in the in the south. Energy is no exception and the Imput (RMI) of 24.64 t/cap, the fifth highest South West is a major contributor to the South West conforms to the pattern as a in the UK. This is mainly driven by the region’s Ecological Footprint and CO2 net consumer of energy. regional production and extraction of emissions. This is a pattern which is In 2003, the UK produced 174.5m tonnes materials (such as agriculture or minerals), observed across the UK, with energy use of CO2 emissions from the power sector, which at 75.9m tonnes is the second largest making a significant contribution to the with the South West creating the lowest in the UK. The region’s mining and quarrying country’s global environment impact, direct emissions (2.7m tonnes) from energy sector (except energy products) especially in relation to climate change. generation compared with Yorkshire and is the largest in the country, accounting for The UK government’s White Paper on Humberside, which produced the highest 58.4m tonnes, as is its agriculture, hunting energy recognised that a more sustainable (47.9m tonnes). If the South West adopted and forestry sector, which produces path towards domestic energy production “territorial” accounting for these CO2 13.9m tonnes. The South West also has involved the greater development of emissions, this figure would translate the second largest fishing industry in the renewables such as wind, wave, combined as 0.5 tonnes per average resident. UK (Scotland is the largest), producing heat and power, tidal, solar and biomass. However, if the South West were to adopt 128,000 tonnes a year. As many of these are readily available the “consumer responsibility” principle, In terms of physical trade, the South across the UK, some advocates are now it would need to account for a total of West has the smallest exchange among envisaging a departure from the traditional, 13.4m tonnes of CO2 resulting from energy English regions and the second smallest centralised system of generating power consumption and production.8 For the across all regions of the UK on a per capita in which large power stations, often located average South West resident, this translates basis – 17.31 t/cap. This is driven equally in the North, feed the country’s energy into 2.7 tonnes of CO2 emissions – a rise by limited trade with other UK regions and needs. A more sustainable approach, of 81 per cent above “territorial” accounting. the rest of the world, and the low level of compatible with harnessing the UK’s If the South West is to succeed in reducing exports (it’s the second smallest per capita renewable resources, is a decentralised its Ecological Footprint and CO2 emissions, exporter) and imports (third smallest per power system in which more regions, it must begin to tackle the two most capita importer). communities and even individual homes important factors governing its energy Overall, the South West is one of five net become power generators. use – reducing consumption and material importers in the UK with a surplus This vision is also consistent with the increasing production of renewable, of 6m tonnes across all industrial sectors. “consumer responsibility” approach taken low-carbon energy. However, at the sectoral level a much more in this report, which asserts that the heterogeneous picture emerges with most consumer should take responsibility for Reducing consumption of the sectoral net trade taking place in the environmental impact of production Recent research by the Government Office the mining industry. While the South West wherever that production takes place – be for the South West and the South West shows an import surplus of 7m tonnes of it another UK region or overseas. Across a Regional Assembly forecast the region’s energy-producing materials, it has an even range of sectors, this report has found that expected electricity demand in 2020. bigger export surplus of 7.4m tonnes the UK is broadly defined by “producer” They looked at two possible scenarios – stemming from trade with all remaining regions in the north and “consumer” regions and the results were very different. The first non-energy related mining materials – assumed that the government’s climate mainly copper and tin. change programme continued to provide Agricultural products as well as basic energy efficiency measures and demand and fabricated metals are the next big reduction policies, and found that demand hitters, with an import surplus of 1.3m and in the region may increase by some 1.1m tonnes respectively. Due to the high 15 per cent by 2020, from 25,120 GWh regional material production and the overall to 28,888 GWh. The second assumed import surplus, the RMC indicator is relatively high compared with other regions. 48 T

“By 2020 the South West’s S E W

accessible resource of H T U O

renewable energy could S be as much as 2,504MW” 5

EDWARD PARKER/WWF-UK all the savings forecast in the energy operating.13 Recent research suggests that coast of Devon, small-scale tidal stream White Paper would be met, and found that by 2020 the South West’s accessible technology has been tested and would estimated demand may decrease by more resource of renewable energy could be as seem to offer great potential as the South than 11 per cent, down to 22,509GWh.9 much as 2,504MW – 96 per cent more than West is considered to have “a tidal stream While the second scenario is a significant it already utilises – and that meeting a 20 resource of national significance”.15 The improvement, the South West’s first per cent target would require harnessing South West is also investing in the Wave Ecological Footprint report, Stepping about half that amount (1,247MW).14 Hub, which will enable renewable electricity Forward, discovered the importance of from up to four separate devices to be getting to grips with the energy efficiency Regional case study: delivered to the main grid by 2007. The of the existing housing stock. The report development phases of the Wave Hub are found that simple measures, such as all marine renewables designed to coincide with the development householders replacing white goods with of appropriate renewable technologies. A-rated ones, fitting low-energy light bulbs, The coast of the South West offers It is hoped that both wave and tidal improving insulation levels and installing tremendous potential for marine renewables stream technology will play a large part condensing boilers, could reduce – in particular, the high tidal ranges of the in contributing to the region’s 2020 target, CO2 emissions by 35 per cent. It also north coast and Severn Estuary, which with 250MW and 100MW of installed found that further savings could be made averages as much as 11 metres on spring capacity respectively, contributing nearly if 80 per cent of householders fitted solar tides. Potential tidal power options such as 28 per cent of the required capacity hot water heating systems and other lagoons, barrages and tidal stream to meet the 2020 target.16 such measures.10 technologies have been explored for the Given the right investment within Severn Estuary. Some of these schemes, a supportive political climate, marine Renewable energy such as the barrage, have been rightly renewables offer a safe and reliable source One way the South West can reduce criticised for their significant adverse of energy, and therefore must constitute consumption of imported energy is by environmental impacts. However, tidal a potentially cost-effective source developing and using its own renewable lagoon technology has the potential to of future energy. energy. The region has identified increased be less environmentally damaging, as does production of renewable energy as a priority the deployment of wave and tidal stream in many of its key strategies. In 2003, devices. The DTI has sent out positive RegenSW, the regional renewable energy signals to developers by approving the agency, published the first Renewable construction of a 60MW tidal lagoon

Energy Strategy which set a target of generation project in Swansea Bay, across 8 Defra, Local & Regional CO2 emissions estimates for meeting 11-15 per cent renewable electricity the estuary from the South West. Tidal 2003, www.defra.gov.uk/environment/statistics/ 11 globatmos/galocalghg.htm production by 2010. In addition, the lagoons could produce as much as 4,500 9 “REvision 2020 – Final Report”, GOSW & SW Regional draft RSS sets additional targets of meeting MW of power if all available resources were Assembly, June 2005. 20 per cent of demand by renewable developed in the Severn Estuary. 10 For more details of Stepping Forward, visit www.steppingforward.org.uk 12 energy by 2020 , and it includes new Similarly, at Lynmouth Bay on the north 11 Regional Renewable Energy Strategy for the SW of policies on promoting “integrated England 2003-2010, RegenSW, April 2003). 12 The South West’s Regional Spatial Strategy, October 2005 renewables” into new housing schemes. Draft, “Policy E1.” See Policies E1-E5 for a more detailed Unfortunately however, only about 3 per plan of how renewable energy will be deployed. cent of the region’s electricity demand is 13 “Survey identifies 100 renewable electricity schemes saving 313,000 tonnes of CO2 a year”. Southwest met by renewable sources at present, with Renewable Agency, February 2005. 102 renewable electricity projects currently www.rege+nsw.co.uk/press/news-read.asp?id=30 14 ‘REvision 2020 – Final Report’, GOSW & SW Regional Assembly, June 2005. 15 SW RDA Seapower SW Review – Resources, Constraints and Development scenarios for Wave and Tidal Stream Power, 2004. 16 See footnote 14. 49 S D N A

L West Midlands D I

M Material flow analysis T S E

W Households 36.0 Supply Capital investment 10.4 Demand 5 Material supplied to Material demanded by the region, Residual material flows* 56.6 the region’s economy other UK regions or the world for consumption for consumption or production or production Regional production Regional consumption 84.9 million tonnes 103.0 million tonnes

Imports from Exports to *including transformation the rest of the world the rest of the world stock changes and waste 19.0 million tonnes 4.1 million tonnes Imports from Exports to Regional material inputs and consumption other UK regions other UK regions RMI RMC 60.6 million tonnes 57.4 million tonnes 118.6 million tonnes 56.9 million tonnes

RMI/cap RMC/cap 22.5 tonnes 10.8 tonnes Fig 1 Material flows of the West Midlands

Total Ecological Footprint 5.36 gha/cap Home & energy 1.17 Wales 5.20 South West 5.24 Travel 0.97 Yorkshire & Humberside 5.30 Consumables 0.54 North East 5.31 West Midlands 5.36 Services 0.36 Scotland 5.37 North West 5.45 East Midlands 5.47 Fixed capital 0.76 London 5.58 East of England 5.64 Northern Ireland 5.65 Government & other 0.40 South East 6.29 UK Average 5.36 Food 1.16

Fig 2 Regional Ecological Footprints (gha/cap) Fig 3 The West Midlands’ Ecological Footprint (gha/cap)

Material flow substantial 61.7m tonnes of materials, it still Analysis Total Regional Material Input (RMI – the total depended on other places in the UK and The West Midlands’ Ecological Footprint tonnes of materials used in the region’s abroad on a net basis. In other words, is marginally lower (by 3 per cent) than the economy) and Regional Material subtracting total exports from total imports, UK average, with a higher impact for food Consumption (RMC – the total tonnes the West Midlands is the third largest net consumption and energy use and a lower of materials used up in the region) in the material importer across the regions with a impact for goods and services and West Midlands are just below the regional surplus of 18m tonnes. Due to this surplus, transport. West Midlands residents also buy average in the UK: 22.5 t/cap and the RMC is slightly higher than the RMI fewer things such as electrical equipment, 10.8 t/cap respectively. With regional when compared with other regions. newspapers and other daily consumables. material production being comparatively low RMC and RMI take into account all This results in lower emissions for (the third smallest) at 7.39 t/cap of materials material flows that occur within the West both consumables and durable items (33 per cent of RMI), 67 per cent of RMI Midlands and implicitly assign responsibility (16 per cent below the national average). input was provided by imports – 60.6m for these to the region. However, a Like most other regions and devolved tonnes from other UK regions and 19.1m considerable amount of physical flows might countries, car use dominates CO2 tonnes from the rest of the world. Most actually occur to produce the goods and emissions related to transport (74 per cent prominently, the West Midlands imported services produced elsewhere. Re-allocating of the transport total – slightly higher than from other world regions 8.6m tonnes of these upstream lifecycle material flows to the national average). Household gas and energy-producing materials, accounting for the region of final consumption provides electricity consumption is also significant, 45 per cent of total non-UK imports, as well an alternative view of regional material flows and car and household energy use combine as 2.7m tonnes of basic and fabricated (see Figure 4). to represent 35 per cent of the region’s metals and 2.1m tonnes of coke and Taking into account all the flows that total CO2 emissions from consumption, petroleum products. Imports from other UK West Midlands consumers trigger in other compared with the national average of regions were dominated by products from UK regions, within the West Midlands itself 37 per cent. very different industries: 25 per cent of their and in the rest of the world, the average weight stemmed from publishing and West Midlands consumer requires a total printing, while 23 per cent came from the of 6.8t/cap of materials compared with a food, beverages and tobacco industry. Even national average of 7.5t/cap. This is the though the West Midlands also exported a third smallest in the UK (equal with Yorkshire 50 S D N A L D I

CO2 emissions M Home & energy Government & fixed capital T S E W Actual rentals Services for housing 0.05 5 Hospital services 0.02 Imputed rentals Social protection 0.04 for housing 0.11 Territorial Other services nec 0.05 emissions Maintenance Education 0.03 & repair 0.12 Travel from production Government Accommodation 0.06 & other 1.16 Telephone & fax 0.06 9.40 t/cap Water supply 0.07 UK Av. 10.76 t/cap Electricity 1.24 Operation Insurance & finance 0.22 of personal transport 0.29 Recreation & culture 0.09 Emissions UK resident from Purchase of holidays abroad 0.16 consumption vehicles 0.34 Total 11.45 t/cap 0.80 t/cap UK Av. 11.81 t/cap UK Av. 0.90 t/cap Overview

Transport Sustainable development services 0.62 Consumables in the West Midlands Tobacco 0.01 Household tools, utensils Food & drink Fixed & maintenance 0.08 > The region is transitioning from a capital 1.87 Newspapers, Non-alcoholic former engineering base, to a more beverages 0.04 books & stationery 0.06 Gas 1.62 Medical & personal Alcoholic mixed knowledge-based economy, beverages 0.06 products 0.10 Furniture although 20 per cent of the workforce Private & furnishings 0.13 Food 0.36 transport Textiles & footwear 0.16 are still in manufacturing compared (car fuel) 1.11 Personal effects nec 0.20 to 15 per cent nationally. Audio visual & photo Catering equipment 0.14 > In comparison to the overall UK services 0.43 Household appliances 0.18 Recreational items economy, the West Midlands has lower & equipment 0.18 GVA and income levels and fewer Total Total Total Total Total 0.88 t/cap 3.14 t/cap 3.03 t/cap 2.36 t/cap 1.24 t/cap business start ups. The dynamism UK Av. 0.87 t/cap UK Av. 3.10 t/cap UK Av. 3.03 t/cap UK Av. 2.44 t/cap UK Av. 1.46 t/cap of Birmingham city centre is the equal

Fig 4 CO2 emissions from consumption in West Midlands (t/cap) of any, but often major financial and professional services have gone either to London or to Manchester and Humberside and behind only the North and Leeds. East and Wales). It also compares with the The average house in the > Highlights of the Regional Economic South East, which at 8.5 t/cap is the West Midlands... Strategy (RES): coordinate competing highest in the UK, followed by London, > is occupied by 2.41 people, 0.4 cats urban development agencies, diversify at 8.5 t/cap. Compared with others, the and 0.3 dogs; business base, capitalize on region’s household consumption category is quite > consumes 9,127 KWh of energy, universities to promote learning, create evenly distributed across the UK. Yet it is producing 5.18 tonnes of CO2; conditions for growth, and regenerate the biggest driver of material production, > weighs about 150 tonnes, with another communities. so even small variations in the measurement 137 tonnes for the foundations; > Environmental improvement is have large ripple effects on the production > lasts for about 60 years; mentioned in the West Midlands’ RES, chain and total resource use. > requires 0.50 tonnes of materials each but the wider sustainable consumption year for maintenance and repair; and and production theme does not appear Housing > uses energy derived from natural gas directly as a first priority. While most individual components of the (66 per cent) and electricity West Midlands’ total Footprint are slightly (24 per cent). Future implications Sustainable lower than average, some are higher. consumption and production is not The construction of new homes, repairing a priority in the RES, which will influence of old ones, and use of operational energy Ecological Footprint, material flows and regional planning. The West Midlands’ are the most significant components of the CO2 emissions. newly trained, entrepreneurial and affluent West Midlands’ Ecological Footprint, and Of the 150 tonnes required to build the workforce may tend to outmigrate from make up a higher than average proportion average West Midlands house, most the crowded conurbation and encourage of the total Footprint. This supports earlier comprises concrete and stone. An average high-Footprint development. The West findings that 20 per cent of West Midlands 4.8 tonnes of materials is consumed in the Midlands can utlize urban renaissance households suffer from fuel poverty, due to house each year, and an extra 0.50 tonnes strategies, introduce sustainable the poor condition of the existing housing continued over the page consumption and production policies, stock1. The remaining analysis investigates and lean on green belt constraints 1 UK government Sustainable Development Indicators: why West Midlands housing makes up a to counteract this. www.sustainable- higher than average proportion of its development.gov.uk/indicators/regional/2003/h04.htm 51 S D N

A Analysis continued L Spotlight D I

M is required for maintenance and remodelling. T

S In total, the average West Midlands house E requires 5.3 tonnes of products a year. W Building the average West Midlands 5 Housing, density home produces 61 tonnes of CO2 – approximately 1 tonne a year over the lifetime of the building. Yearly emissions and transport in from maintenance and repair add another 0.19 tonnes of CO2. However, the most the West Midlands significant emissions come from direct energy used to operate the house – around 5.38 tonnes a year. This is more than 4.5 times greater than emissions from Before construction and maintenance. Ways to achieve increased home energy efficiency Appliances 0.8 Surprisingly, the building materials used in through design Lighting 0.54 the greatest quantities to construct a house Cooking 0.24 Loft insulation (100mm-200mm) After do not necessarily have the greatest CO2 Cavity wall insulation Hot water 0.37 Appliances 0.8 impact. Only 2 tonnes of metal products Draught stripping Heating 1.67 Lighting 0.54 Double glazing with low ‘e’ glass (1.3 per cent of the total average materials Cooking 0.24 Floor insulation Hot water 0.37 used for home building) are used in an Gas central heating controls Heating 1.67 average house, but these are responsible Hot water tank insulation Hot water tank thermostat for the most CO2 emissions occurring Primary pipework insulation Total saving in during their production. Material flow tables Condensing boiler Total per year Total per year CO2 emisssions have allowed us to take into account such 5.48 tonnes 3.62 tonnes 33% “indirect flows” as the mining required to Fig 6 Tonnes of CO2 emissions per year for a household, before and after energy saving extract ore, the energy to produce metal measures are implemented products, and transport.2

Other The West Midlands’ Regional Spatial reducing options that could become Gas Strategy (RSS) plays a key role in deciding standard features of a house design. 1600 Gas/oil how future housing will be provided. Interestingly, most of these options Coal 1400 Planning decisions about housing distrib- could be fitted retrospectively, given that Electricity ution, location and type of development the house design originally allowed for 1200 will make or break the urban and rural retrofitting. This decrease in emissions

) 1000 g k

( renaissance agendas. They will also have from energy consumption could be coupled

2 800 O profound affects on future CO2 emissions with a similar decrease from energy C 600 and the region’s Ecological Footprint. production. Many local authorities have 400 a target of using 10 per cent renewable 200 Designing for efficiency energy to power new housing

0 in new housing developments. Combined with the energy g r g s in te in & e t a k ts c a w o h n Many houses in the West Midlands are efficiency steps recommended above, e o g ia h t i l e o C L p c H p a a poorly insulated, leading to high CO2 emissions would be reduced by p S emissions from consumption. Some houses 38 per cent from the current design. Fig 5 Final demand sectors for energy in the West Midlands are impossible to make more efficient; for instance, most Victorian houses have solid Durability in housing Per unit used in the UK, gas produces wall construction, so cavity wall insulation While many houses in the UK are not less CO2 than electricity. While gas is out of the question. Often it is difficult energy efficient, numerous others are old represents 66 per cent of all the energy to retrofit a house if it has not been and durable. Even though some may be used in the West Midlands, it accounts for designed with energy efficiency in mind. inefficient, they last a long time, and the only 54 per cent of its CO2 emissions from However, designers can include options emissions and Footprint impacts of their consumption. Electricity use accounts for for efficiency in new housing. Various steps construction are spread out over the lifetime 24 per cent of energy used in the West that require no lifestyle change by the of the house. Using this analysis, a house Midlands, but only 37 per cent of emissions. occupants can be taken to make a that is energy efficient but lasts only a short These four types of energy use are similar house much more efficient (see Figure 6). time may have the same emissions and in terms of total CO2 emissions. More total Our analysis demonstrates the potential Footprint impacts as a house that is energy (in terms of Kilowatt hours) is used savings to be made from including these energy inefficient but lasts a long time. for space and water heating, but these measures in housing design. It is important The benefits of building sturdy houses, in rely on gas, which emits less CO2 per to note that this is not an exhaustive list, terms of their CO2 emissions and Ecological Kilowatt hour. merely a demonstration of some Footprint- Footprint, can be seen right (Figure 7). 52 S D N A L D I

Housing density and transport 3.50 200 M T

Growth in the West Midlands’ low-density S E d rural population has meant a corresponding l 3.00 o W h e

growth in transport demand. The region s 150 5 u

o 2.50 h

has been increasingly unable to cope with r e r p a its position at the hub of the national rail e s t y / n 2.00 n network, making low-Footprint train travel e 100 o d i s r s e less reliable and affordable. Increased car e p R / travel makes West Midlands urban areas 150 J G less attractive through diminished air quality 50 and streets that are unsafe for walking 1.00 and cycling. As demonstrated in the regional analysis 0.50 0

e n d n d n d of London, higher density development g o l o l o l ra s o s o s o e r h r h r h 0 v e se e se e se leads to a lower Ecological Footprint, A p u p u p u + o 2 o 1 o 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011 2021 3 h h h particularly of transport. Many new Fig 9 Energy consumed by West Midlands’ developments in the West Midlands have Fig 8 The deline in the size of UK households households

adopted this ethos. The Southbank use and construction of the house have all 1.20 development in Wolverhampton’s Canalside been taken into account. 1.00 quarter features high-density residential Figure 10 indicates the potential change in 0.80

) space developed around an English household sizes that could occur as the a

h 0.60 g

( Heritage Grade II-listed historical building. average number of people per

F

E 0.40 Advantage West Midlands – the regional house reduces to two by 2021. 0.20 government’s redevelopment agency – Using these figures and combining them

0 has invested a substantial portion of its with an analysis of energy requirements 30 60 90 120 £300 million annual budget in urban helps us project the CO2 and Ecological Lifetime of a building (years) revitalisation projects, promoting city centre Footprint to 2021. The analysis suggests 2.50 living. These projects include the East Side that if occupancy levels are as low as

2.00 development in Birmingham, the Swanswell two by 2021 there would be a 13 per )

s and Electric Wharf mixed-use developments cent increase in energy demand. Even as e

n 1.50 n in Coventry city centre, and St John’s Urban builders seek to introduce sustainability o t (

2 1.00 Village in Wolverhampton. The Ecological into design, housing will continue to have O C 0.50 Budget UK project is analysing building a major impact on the CO2 emissions and density in the West Midlands, which will be Ecological Footprint of the West Midlands 0 30 60 90 120 documented in a detailed regional report for many years to come. Lifetime of a building (years) later this year.

Fig 7 Ecological Footprint and CO2 emissions Average 2001 2021 Average of a building’s construction The impact of declining household household household sizes 2.37people 2.02 people If a building lasts 30 years, the 60 million All regions in the UK have seen a decline 29% 1 1 40% tonnes of CO2 from its construction in the size of households over the past average 2 tonnes a year. If a building four decades. Figure 8 highlights how they lasts 120 years, the average drops to could decline to about two people per 35% 2 2 38% 0.70 tonnes a year – an annual savings house by 2021. of 1.3 tonnes of CO2 emissions. This can Fewer people per household means lower 15% 3 3 8% be compared with the energy efficiency energy efficiency per person. Figure 9 14% 4 4 9% 5% 5 5 4% saving over the same period. If the highlights the energy consumed in the 2% 6 6 1% average floor space is 98m2, the CO2 region by households of varying sizes3. Fig 10 Projected household sizes by 2021 emissions of a 1900 house would be A household with fewer people uses 10 tonnes a year compared with a 1982 much more energy per person. In addition house producing 7 tonnes – an annual to this direct energy use, fewer people per saving of 2.8 tonnes. home means more homes are required, 2 For further information on the methodology, refer to REAP which increases the per capita impact of Report 2 “The Use of Input-Output Analysis in REAP”, available from housing construction. http://sites.wwflearning.co.uk/data/files/reap-report-no-2- The REAP analysis has calculated the 83.pdf 3 Original Data obtained from INCPEN, 2001, Towards impacts of this. Maintenance, direct energy Greener Households: Products, Packaging and Energy, ISBN 1901576507 53 E D I S

R Yorkshire and Humberside E B

M Material flow analysis U H

D N

A Supply Demand Material supplied to Households 34.1 Material demanded by the region, E Capital investment 10.1

R the region’s economy other UK regions or the world I for consumption Residual material flows* 33.5 for consumption or production H

S or production Regional production Regional consumption K 90.6 million tonnes 77.7 million tonnes R O Y Imports from Exports to *including transformation

5 the rest of the world the rest of the world stock changes and waste 11.0 million tonnes 9.6 million tonnes Imports from Exports to other UK regions other UK regions Regional material inputs and consumption 52.2 million tonnes 63.7 million tonnes RMI RMC 116.1 million tonnes 41.3 million tonnes

RMI/cap RMC/cap 23.3 tonnes 8.3 tonnes Fig 1 Material flows of Yorkshire & Humberside

Total Ecological Footprint 5.30 gha/cap Home & energy 1.13 Wales 5.20 South West 5.24 Travel 0.90 Yorkshire & Humberside 5.30 Consumables 0.58 North East 5.31 West Midlands 5.36 Services 0.37 Scotland 5.37 North West 5.45 East Midlands 5.47 Fixed capital 0.76 London 5.58 East of England 5.64 Northern Ireland 5.65 Government & other 0.40 South East 6.29 UK Average 5.36 Food 1.17

Fig 2 Regional Ecological Footprints (gha/cap) Fig 3 Yorkshire & Humberside’s Ecological Footprint (gha/cap)

This is primarily a result of the area’s coal Humberside shows an export surplus of Analysis mining legacy. A large number of coal-fired 12.9m tonnes – only Scotland shows larger The results for Yorkshire and Humberside power stations – including DRAX, the net exports. So 84 per cent of all trade are a study in contrasts, mainly of high biggest coal-fired power station in the UK – takes place with other UK regions rather production and low consumption. On the were built around the region’s supply of than the rest of the world. Imports from one hand, the region is one of the highest coal. More recently, Yorkshire and the rest of the world (besides the UK) are emitters of CO2 from production (mainly Humberside has become home to a particularly low at 2t/cap. This is the second energy production in coal-fired power number of gas-fired plants. It is worth noting lowest per capita import level across plants), emitting 13.37 tonnes of CO2 that Yorkshire and Humberside is one the regions. These high exports and moderate per capita. On the other hand, it has low most instructive regions in terms of the total imports mean that even though an CO2 emissions from consumption of energy difference between CO2 emissions from average amount of materials enter its and fuel – its 10.07 tonnes per capita is consumption and production. Although economy (RMI), most flow out again – one of the lowest for any English region. emissions from production are documented, hence the low RMC. This means that Yorkshire and tracking emissions from consumption Yorkshire and Humberside ties with the Humberside exports much of the makes it possible empirically to compare West Midlands for the third lowest material power and manufacturing it produces. the two. impact of household consumption in This phenomenon is also demonstrated the UK. To provide the goods and services in the material flow analysis below. Material flow consumed in the region’s households, Yorkshire and Humberside contains Yorkshire and Humberside has an average 6.8 t/cap were required across the 18 per cent of the electricity generating Regional Material Input (RMI), amounting various lifecycle stages of production and capacity in the UK, and produces 58 per to 23.4 t/cap. In contrast, it has the second consumption. While only households in the cent of regional greenhouse gas emissions.1 lowest Regional Material Consumption North East and Wales had a smaller impact, (RMC) in the UK, with 8.3 t/cap of materials this compares with 9 t/cap in the South consumed in the region. This difference is driven by the structure of the region’s physical trade activities. Netting out physical imports and exports, Yorkshire and 54 E D I S R E B

CO2 emissions M Home & energy Government U

& fixed capital H Actual rentals for housing 0.06 D Imputed rentals N Services A

for housing 0.13 Maintenance Hospital services 0.02 E R

& repair 0.13 Social protection 0.04 I

Territorial Other services nec 0.05 H

emissions Education 0.03 S

from production Government Accommodation 0.07 K

& other 1.16 Telephone & fax 0.06 R 13.37 t/cap Water supply 0.07 O

UK Av. 10.76 t/cap Y Insurance & finance 0.17 Overview Electricity 1.16 Travel Recreation & culture 0.10 5 Emissions UK resident Sustainable Development in from Operation holidays abroad 0.18 Yorkshire and Humberside consumption of personal Total transport 0.24 11.07 t/cap 0.80 t/cap UK Av. 0.90 t/cap UK Av. 11.81 t/cap Purchase of > Yorkshire and Humberside includes the vehicles 0.28 growth hubs of Leeds and York, the Consumables old industrial areas of South Yorkshire Tobacco 0.02 Transport Household tools, utensils and the Humber, the large shire county services 0.64 & maintenance 0.09 Food & drink Fixed areas of North Yorkshire; and the two capital 1.87 Newspapers, Non-alcoholic books & stationery 0.06 national parks where development is beverages 0.03 Medical & personal Alcoholic Gas 1.54 products 0.10 highly constrained. beverages 0.06 Furniture & furnishings 0.13 > The Yorkshire and Humberside Private Textiles & footwear 0.14 Food 0.35 transport Regional Development Agency is (car fuel) 0.86 Personal effects nec 0.20 Audio visual & photo outwardly supportive of sustainable Catering equipment 0.17 services 0.44 Household appliances 0.21 development principles, particularly Recreational items in developing renewable energy. & equipment 0.17 > Its Regional Economic Strategy (RES) Total Total Total Total Total 0.89 t/cap 3.01 t/cap 3.03 t/cap 2.03 t/cap 1.30 t/cap makes priority for manufacturing and UK Av. 0.87 t/cap UK Av. 3.10 t/cap UK Av. 3.03 t/cap UK Av. 2.44 t/cap UK Av. 1.46 t/cap industrial clusters.

Fig 4 CO2 emissions from consumption in Yorkshire & Humberside (t/cap) > The RES aims to put 10,000 young people into jobs, and fosters a pro- active partnership with employers and East and 8.4 t/cap in London. In contrast to Food is the one exception to Yorkshire and training organizations to make the other categories, household consumption Humberside’s low Ecological Footprint and most of the labour market. is quite evenly distributed across the UK. low CO2 emissions from consumption. The > In Yorkshire and Humberside’s Yet it is the biggest driver of material region’s high CO2 emissions and Footprint Regional Development Agency, there production, so even small variations in the from food mainly reflects people’s high is strong emphasis on urban design measurement have large ripple effects on consumption of meat, which has a higher as an enabler of investment in a series the production chain and total resource use. Footprint than crops. In summary, there is a of market towns, and on Urban significant contrast between production and Regeneration Companies as the Different types of consumption consumption results. catalyst for transforming the secondary Due to lower consumption of gas and This demonstrates the importance of a cities of Sheffield, Bradford and Hull. electricity, CO2 emissions from household region-specific understanding of resource energy use are lower in the region than the use and CO2 emissions from both the Future implications Yorkshire and national average. There is a similar pattern production and consumption point of view. Humberside’s air travel increase will for transport, which is responsible for lower continue to grow as a perceived gap emissions and a decreased Ecological in aviation capacity is filled. Some Footprint. The region’s residents still rely progressive urban transit schemes are on cars as the main mode of transport, pending government approval. The region but they travel less than the average UK will also continue to experience the resident each year. As with the surrounding familiar storyline of increased congestion northern regions, residents simply consume on motorways and trunk roads. The less and rely less on services. This is in Regional Development Agency’s strong sharp contrast to many of the UK’s emphasis on urban design as an enabler southern regions. of investment in a series of market towns – and on Urban Regeneration Companies as catalysts – will continue to transform the secondary cities of Sheffield, 1 Source: Regional Greenhouse Gases Emissions Bradford and Hull. Monitoring and Modelling Study – update of baseline 2003 – Cambridge Econometrics 55 E D I S

R Spotlight E B M U H

D N A 2

E Climate change, CO and biomass R I H S

K in Yorkshire and Humberside R O Y 5

In order to deal with its high CO2 production “Yorkshire and Humberside’s main legacy, Yorkshire and Humberside became the first UK region to contribute to the UK contribution to CO2 is not from high emissions reduction targets through publishing its RES in 2002. The RES target consumption, but from high production is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by at least 20 per cent between 1990 which is driven by consumption elsewhere” and 2010. The region has subsequently built climate change response plans into major regional but from high production which is driven in both indicators. Using biomass strategies, including the Regional Spatial by consumption elsewhere. This means that extensively in the region would make Strategy (RSS) and the overarching increasing production efficiency can have a differences appear between the two regional strategic framework Advancing large impact on reducing the UK’s overall indicators. Carbon dioxide emissions would Together. In 2002 Yorkshire and CO2 emissions. The Climate Change Action drop. A change in the Ecological Footprint Humberside also published Warming Up Plan document highlights a number of would range anywhere from a reduction the Region, a detailed assessment of the emission reduction projects in the region; by half to no change at all. potential impacts of climate change, and additional assessment with Ecological Figure 5 provides an insight into the how the region might adapt to these. Budget UK indicators (CO2 and Ecological Ecological Footprint of different biomass On 9 December 2005, the region launched Footprint) can help assess the relative crops. For the sake of comparison, coal – a full Climate Change Action Plan – success of these projects. the current fuel of choice in Yorkshire and Your Climate: Yorkshire and Humberside’s Humberside – has been included in the Climate Change Action Plan.2 The Ecological Footprint graph above. Apart from ethanol from maize These strategies are a critical first step. (which is not an option), all biomass crops A main target of the Climate Change Action of biomass have a lower Ecological Footprint than coal. Plan is to integrate a concern for climate Yorkshire’s Climate Change Action Plan The Footprint reduction could be less change into a relevant regional document. identifies biomass (fuel created from any than some might expect. Other documents include the RSS, the RES recently living organism such as crops or The reason for this is that the and waste, energy and transport strategies. chipped wood) as an alternative energy Ecological Footprint “space” taken up by Ecological Budget UK provides detailed source to fossil fuels in the region. Biomass CO2 emissions and absorption can often information about all these sectors, and could be integrated into the present energy be replaced by “space” taken up by can contribute to both processes by production infrastructure as it releases cropland and biomass refinement. Biomass suggesting realistic targets and high CO2 almost no CO2 compared with fossil fuels. products that need more refinement to sectors. It also confirms that Yorkshire and Through a CO2 emissions analysis and an become useful fuel have a similar Ecological Humberside’s main contribution to CO2 Ecological Footprint analysis of biomass, Footprint to coal. Yet biomass fuels that emissions is not from high consumption, we concluded that its advantage is that it can be used directly for heat generation does reduce CO2 emissions substantially. have considerable scope at reducing both The disadvantage is that it delivers very CO2 emissions and the Ecological Footprint. little Ecological Footprint savings. At present, the Ecological Footprint and CO2 emissions results for Yorkshire and Humberside follow many of the same contours. This is because of a heavy reliance on fossil fuels that is represented

56 E D I S R E B M U H

D N A

E R I H S K R O

Fig 5 Ecological Footprint of different biomass crops Y 5

200 a h /

h 150 W G

100

50

0

e t e il ) t t l e ve d n e v o s d a d c a z i o a e i a e e o u o i s o c b s e g se h o d C a n w r n p ill e w m te r a te a f w ro n m a g x R d p m p m i o g e n ra m o - o d fr u su la f ro r y r o l s d ( o f l f b l f o o m o s r l o s o n m o o a e o n a n W a ro fr W g t n a a h l f l io s a h w h t o o l e th t a t E n n B y E E tr E a a th S th th E E E

Biomass and land use land is a complex and constantly evolving “Current analysis of l l ) t t t i e e e e d d d a s a c The overall effect of using biomass for fuel, question that all UK regions face. e o z v v n e o o i i i

a o e e u a e s s a o o e g h b d C

s c n n

l p

w w l o r m e w i r e e particularly as it relates to land used for Prudently, Yorkshire and Humberside r

a f

t t a p a p d

biomassR shows that x n m m g m a i m - g n e

r o o u o y

o

u r r r a food, is complex and needs further study. is relying on multiple solutions – not only f d r s f f l f b s f d

(

o

l l o l

l

o s o o s o r m o o m o a a n n e o n 2

At present, Yorkshire and Humberside biomass – to achieve its ambitious CO n o t r W a a r g a f W a s f w its impact is mixed. h h l

o h h l i e t t a t t

o r l o E E B t

produces more than 8.5m tonnes of emission targets. Its Climate Change Action E E n y n S a h a t h h t E agricultural products and imports Plan also understands the importance of t E E More extensive 4.8m tonnes more, although only 2.8m public communication. It seeks to ensure of these tonnes are consumed as food the participation of all stakeholders who are study is needed to by the region. The rest is eaten elsewhere, able to influence change. Ecological Budget and a substantial portion is used for non- UK provides empirical evidence to assess find out which land- food products. Increasing use of biomass the current status of the programme, and could raise the demand for non-food a benchmark with which to compare future use policy will most agricultural products. measurements. As Yorkshire and As it is, Yorkshire has the opportunity Humberside continues to craft future policy, effectively reduce to reduce its food Footprint by developing Ecological Budget UK’s Resources and more local food supply chains (importing Energy Analysis Program (REAP) software3 CO2 emissions and exporting less in order to eat more food can help suggest low-Footprint, low-CO2, grown locally). It is unclear how biomass low-resource options. and the Ecological would affect such efforts. In summary, current analysis of biomass shows that its Footprint” impact is mixed. More extensive study is needed to find out which land-use policy will most effectively reduce CO2 emissions and the Ecological Footprint. How best to use

2 This programme was launched just before publication of the Ecological Budget UK report. See more at www.yourclimate.org 3 For more about REAP, see www.sei.se/reap 57 D N A L

E Northern Ireland R I

N Material flow analysis R E H T

R Supply Regional consumption Demand O Material supplied to million tonnes Material demanded by the region,

N 29.5 the region’s economy other UK regions or the world Households 11.8 5 for consumption for consumption or production or production Regional production Capital investment 3.0 Residual material flows* 14.7 33.0 million tonnes

Imports from Exports to *including transformation the rest of the world the rest of the world stock changes and waste 7.8 million tonnes 6.7 million tonnes Imports from Exports to other UK regions other UK regions Regional material inputs and consumption 3.9 million tonnes 6.3 million tonnes RMI RMC 31.8 million tonnes 17.6 million tonnes

RMI/cap RMC/cap 18.8 tonnes 10.4 tonnes Fig 1 Material flows of Northern Ireland

Total Ecological Footprint 5.65 gha/cap Home & energy 1.66 Wales 5.20 Travel 0.88 South West 5.24 Yorkshire & Humberside 5.30 Consumables 0.52 North East 5.31 West Midlands 5.36 Services 0.29 Scotland 5.37 North West 5.45 East Midlands 5.47 Fixed capital 0.76 London 5.58 East of England 5.64 Northern Ireland 5.65 Government & other 0.40 South East 6.29 UK Average 5.36 Food 1.14

Fig 2 Regional Ecological Footprints (gha/cap) Fig 3 Northern Irelands’ Ecological Footprint (gha/cap)

of RMC, the Province also adds the smallest Northern Ireland shows above average Analysis share of 2 per cent, compared with London flows is in exports to the rest of the world. Material flow and the South East at 17 per cent and All other categories, including household The various sectors of Northern Ireland’s 15 per cent respectively. consumption and capital investment, material flows are almost without exception While per capita physical trade with are lower than in most of the UK’s the smallest compared with other parts of other countries in the world is near the other regions. the UK. This is true both per capita and in UK average, Northern Ireland has by far terms of total material flows. Northern the lowest physical trade of materials with CO2 emissions Ireland’s total Regional Material Input (RMI) other UK regions. Imports from and exports For reasons mentioned below, and total Regional Material Consumption (RMC) is 18.9 t/cap and 10.5 t/cap to other regions amounted to 6.1 t/cap, Northern Ireland’s current CO2 emissions respectively. This is the lowest among compared with a UK average of about measurement from production may be the three devolved administrations and 18 t/cap. Such low flows may be due to unreliable. As it is, it shows that emissions all UK regions. Northern Ireland’s geographic position, from production in the Province are In household consumption (a major which is more isolated from Great Britain 9.16 t/cap. This would be the second component of RMC) Northern Ireland than any other devolved administration or lowest in the UK, and substantially lower contributes only 3 per cent to the national region. As a result, it is likely that Northern than the national average of 10.76 t/cap. total. In the capital investment component Ireland trades more with the Republic Many private households in Northern Ireland of Ireland than with the rest of the UK. are heated by coal fires. Since these The only material flow sector where emissions do not come from power stations on the national grid, they may be under- measured, even though they produce CO2. It seems likely that Northern Ireland’s emissions from production are actually higher than indicated here.

58 D N A L E R I

Home CO2 emissions N & energy Government R

Actual rentals & fixed capital E

for housing 0.04 H T Imputed rentals R for housing 0.09 Services O

Maintenance N & repair 0.13 Hospital services 0.02 Social protection 0.05 5 Territorial Other services nec 0.04 emissions Education 0.04 from production Government Accommodation 0.03 & other 1.16 Telephone & fax 0.06 9.16 t/cap Electricity 1.54 Travel Overview UK Av. 10.76 t/cap Water supply 0.01 Insurance & finance 0.16 Sustainable development Recreation & culture 0.08 in Northern ireland Emissions Operation UK resident from of personal holidays abroad 0.15 transport 0.27 consumption Total 12.44 t/cap Purchase of 0.63 t/cap > In relation to the rest of the UK, vehicles 0.26 UK Av. 11.81 t/cap UK Av. 0.90 t/cap Northern Ireland is a small and peripheral region with a growing

Transport Consumables regional economy, economically linked services 0.59 Tobacco 0.02 with the Republic of Ireland. Household tools, utensils & maintenance 0.12 > Northern Ireland has continued its Food & drink Fixed Newspapers, recent trend of steady growth, Non-alcoholic capital 1.87 books & stationery 0.06 beverages 0.04 Gas 2.73 Medical & personal benefiting from greater political stability. Alcoholic products 0.10 beverages 0.03 Furniture Since 1998 employment levels are up, Food 0.36 & furnishings 0.15 Private Textiles & footwear 0.18 unemployment rates down and GVA transport (car fuel) 1.04 Personal effects nec 0.15 has grown steadily. At the same time, Audio visual & photo equipment 0.08 Catering it maintains the highest economic services 0.42 Household appliances 0.15 Recreational items inactivity rates in the UK, relatively low & equipment 0.22 skills levels in the workforce, and low Total Total Total Total Total 0.86 t/cap 4.53 t/cap 3.03 t/cap 2.16 t/cap 1.22 t/cap productivity. UK Av. 0.87 t/cap UK Av. 3.10 t/cap UK Av. 3.03 t/cap UK Av. 2.44 t/cap UK Av. 1.46 t/cap > The ‘Economic Vision’ partnership

Fig 4 CO2 emissions from consumption in Northern Ireland (t/cap) strategy put forth by the office of the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland sets out fairly typical themes:

Measurements of emissions from • Increase investment in Research consumption are more reliable, and reflect “In household and Development and promote domestic coal burning. Northern Ireland is innovation/creativity high – 12.44 t/cap versus the national consumption • Promote and encourage enterprise average of 11.81 t/cap, largely because • Ensure the right skills for future of high coal burning. (a major component employment opportunities

• Ensure a modern infrastructure Ecological Footprint of RMC) Northern in place to support business. In the same way that Northern Ireland’s emissions from consumption are high, Ireland contributes Future implications In the current its Ecological Footprint is also high, mainly Economic Vision there is emphasis only as a result of energy consumption. only 3 per cent on ‘sustainable economic development’ At 5.65 gha/cap, its Footprint is second only as the process of modernization and to the South East. The largest component to the national total” moving away from public sector of Northern Ireland’s Footprint, “home and dependency. In this context, the definition energy” (1.66 gha/cap), is driven by of “sustainability” can be expanded for ineffective insulation and heating practices. Northern Ireland to include the impact The food Footprint is also large of development on resource flows. (1.14 gha/cap), as is the travel Footprint Elsewhere, the strategy encourages (0.88 gha/cap) – the latter due mainly specific action in sectors such as to high car use and distance travelled. agriculture and tourism, and addresses the energy sector, which has been historically centred on coal. An active Local Agenda 21 programme in the green and community lobby will continue to bring to the fore the environmental impacts of resource consumption. 59 D N A L

E Spotlight R I

N R E H T R O

N Regeneration in 5 Northern Ireland

Driven by new investment, the physical Development of road transport Author Short-term Long-term transformation of Northern Ireland over (3+ years) The administration’s strategy in general the past 10 years has been dramatic. affirms sustainable development, although This change is expected to continue with SACTRA 50-100% many projects in the budget will drastically heavy investment in public infrastructure, Goodwin 28% 57% increase Northern Ireland’s Ecological offices, hotels and residential property. Johnson and Ceerla 60-90% Footprint. More than £2bn is allocated to The Northern Ireland administration’s Hansen and Huang 90% road transport development – driven by investment strategy for the next Fulton, et al. 10-40% 50-80% suburban development – while less than 10 years envisages an expenditure of Marshall 76-85% a quarter of that sum is planned for some £16 billion on critical improvements. Noland 20-50% 70-100% lower-Footprint options such as rail, This includes £3.3bn on schools, bus and cycling. £2.2bn for health facilities, £2bn in public Fig 5 Portion of new capacity absorbed Northern Ireland is already heavily by induced traffic housing and £2bn on water supply and reliant on road transport. This accounts sewage treatment. for 31 per cent of its CO2 emissions, Given the comparatively low overtaking energy production as the single investment in the Province’s infrastructure The Ecological largest contributor, the only part of the UK and economy and a lack of social and Footprint of low-density where this is the case. It is also the only economic opportunity over the last development part of the UK in which domestically- 30 years, regeneration is necessary and produced greenhouse gas emissions are exciting. Northern Ireland’s regeneration Half of all new homes in Northern Ireland still rising: they were 2 per cent higher plan can invest in both sustainable and are single family (or “single person”) in 2002 than in 1990. unsustainable infrastructure. detached dwellings outside towns and Studies suggest that increasing urban cities. In terms of energy, transport and roadway capacity tends to generate built-up land, low-density development additional peak-period trips that would has an intrinsically higher Footprint than otherwise not occur, in effect negating development closer to city centres. reductions in traffic congestion. This Heating is less efficient than in terraced consists of a combination of diverted houses or flats. Building is often on land vehicle trips (trips shifted in time, route and that could be used for food production destination), and induced vehicle travel or green space. Most dramatically, low- (shifts from other modes, longer trips and density development increases Northern new vehicle trips). Over time, “generated Ireland’s already high dependency on the traffic” often fills a significant portion car, which always has a Footprint higher (50-90 per cent) of added urban roadway than any other form of local transport. capacity1.2 Figure 5 summarises the results of various studies that measure the amount of added urban roadway capacity that is filled with induced travel. Most studies conclude that the additional road space is “filled” within three years. This partly explains why Northern Ireland is facing a potential increase in the Ecological Footprint of personal travel over the next 10 years3.

60 D N A L E R I

N R E H T “Increasing urban roadway capacity R O N tends to generate additional peak-period 5 trips that would otherwise not occur”

DIGITALVISION

Sustainable building Homes built according to the “excellent” Some projects in the Northern Ireland 1.60 EcoHomes standard have a lower Footprint administration’s initiative will reduce its 1.40 than those built to 2002 standards. Overall, Ecological Footprint. The school-building the Ecological Footprint of an EcoHomes 1.20 programme proposes that new schools “excellent” house is 35 per cent less than 1.00 be designed according to the best possible Building the typical UK house. p

a a house c sustainable construction practices. / 0.80 a h The Department of Education also seeks g The future of sustainable 0.60 Transport to operate its schools more sustainably development in Northern Ireland 0.40 and to incorporate sustainable Like the rest of the UK, Northern Ireland development as a key theme in the 0.20 Energy still struggles to initiate a major shift curriculum. This demonstrates the potential 0 to sustainable regeneration, and the

s to s ilt s d of government agencies to reduce their se t rd u e r temptation of growth and regeneration at all u il a b m a o u d o d h b n s n s a e H ta own Footprint, and in the process to set K e t s o s costs may threaten its future environmental U s S u c ” l u 2 o E t a o 0 h o n c h 0 t lle a benchmark for the region. Another of i w e stability. Having said that, many of the p w 2 e c Ty e N x the administration’s initiatives, worth £50m N “E policies and projects mentioned here over the next two years, envisages Northern Fig 6 The Ecological Footprints of UK housing demonstrate sustainable regeneration Ireland taking a UK lead in developing in Northern Ireland. Gauges such as the renewable energy technologies, including Also in Belfast, Cavehill Primary School Ecological Footprint and CO2 accounting wind, tidal and biomass systems. is housed in an energy-efficient building can help decision-makers differentiate There are other movements towards low- that includes passive solar design, high- between sustainable regeneration and Footprint regeneration in Northern Ireland. efficiency gas boilers, maximum daylight simple economic expansion. Putting In Belfast, a new £11m comprehensive usage, photovoltaic cells and rainwater sustainable development at the heart community treatment and care centre harvesting. And one of the UK’s largest of regeneration can achieve both is being subjected to an independent renewable energy plants has been opened concepts at the same time. sustainability audit, the results of which in County Fermanagh, producing an will inform similar future buildings innovative biomass fuel. throughout the Province. The Ecological Footprint “The Ecological of efficient housing Figure 6 highlights the benefits that can Footprint of an be achieved by setting an EcoHomes “excellent” standard for new buildings. EcoHomes Modifying and implementing public policy is a challenging process. However, the “excellent” house above analysis shows the potential benefits of building more energy efficient homes: an average home built according to 2002 is 35 per cent less 1 Hansen, M. and Huang, Y., 1997, “Road Supply and UK standards has a lower Footprint than Traffic in California Urban Areas,” Transportation Research does the general UK housing stock. A, Vol. 31, No. 3, 1997, pp. 205-218. than the typical 2 Noland, R., 2001, “Relationships Between Highway Capacity and Induced Vehicle Travel,” Transportation Research, A, Vol. 35, No. 1, January 2001, pp. 47-72; UK house” also available at www.epa.gov/tp/trb-rn.pdf. 3 Data obtained from: “A Position Report on the Future Investment Needs of the Northern Ireland Railway Network (2004). Available from: www.foe.co.uk/resource/consultation_responses/future_rai lway_investment.pdf 61 D N A L

T Scotland O C

S Material flow analysis

5 Households 36.9 Capital investment 13.4 Supply Residual material flows* 142.9 Demand Material supplied to Material demanded by the region, the region’s economy other UK regions or the world for consumption for consumption or production or production Regional production Regional consumption 194.0 million tonnes 193.2 million tonnes Exports to Imports from the rest of the world *including transformation the rest of the world stock changes and waste 81.7 million tonnes 7.1 million tonnes Imports from Exports to other UK regions other UK regions Regional material inputs and consumption 20.8 million tonnes 14.7 million tonnes RMI RMC 193.5 million tonnes 97.0 million tonnes

RMI/cap RMC/cap 38.2 tonnes 19.1 tonnes Fig 1 Material flows of Scotland

Total Ecological Footprint 5.37 gha/cap Home & energy 1.20 Wales 5.20 Travel 0.95 South West 5.24 Yorkshire & Humberside 5.30 Consumables 0.67 North East 5.31 West Midlands 5.36 Services 0.33 Scotland 5.37 North West 5.45 East Midlands 5.47 Fixed capital 0.76 London 5.58 East of England 5.64 Northern Ireland 5.65 Government & other 0.40 South East 6.29 UK Average 5.36 Food 1.06

Fig 2 Regional Ecological Footprints (gha/cap) Fig 3 Scotland’s Ecological Footprint (gha/cap)

of 2.75 t/cap. This may be partially due to However, imports contribute comparatively Analysis Scotland’s colder climate. Even though little to the high RMI figure. Imports to the Although the consumption patterns of much of Scotland is rural, it emits only 1.3 rest of the world are the smallest and people in Scotland result in an Ecological tonnes of CO2 from transport, compared imports from other UK regions are second Footprint and carbon dioxide emissions with the UK average of 1.7 t/cap. smallest across the UK at 1.41 t/cap from consumption that are similar to the (compared with a national average of 3.5 UK average, a breakdown by household Material flow t/cap) and 4.13 t/cap (compared with activities does show variation. Scotland Imports and RMI Scotland’s material flow a national average of 9.0 t/cap) respectively. has a lower than average Footprint for food, picture is distinctive from its Ecological Although it does not contribute significantly housing, services and holiday activities, Footprint and CO2 emissions.1 Total and per to overall material flows, Scotland is but its CO2 emissions are higher for capita, Scotland has the highest Regional the largest producer of fish in the UK. household energy. Material Input (RMI) in the UK, amounting Two thirds of UK fish catches come from to 193.6m tonnes or 38.22 t/cap. Scotland – a mass flow of 609,000 tonnes. CO2 emissions This compares with a regional average Only 82,000 tonnes of fresh fish are directly Scotland’s CO2 emissions from production of 24.17 across the UK. exported to other regions in the UK and consumption are very similar. On a per The high RMI figure is mainly driven or abroad. Most is processed into fish capita basis, its territorial emissions are by the high level of material extraction products, which are then either exported higher than the UK average and its in Scotland – some 25 per cent (165.5m or consumed. CO2 emissions from consumption are lower. tonnes) of the overall extraction in the CO2 emissions from household energy UK. Most of this is North Sea oil extraction, consumption are higher than the UK which accounts for almost all the 119.9m average: 3 t/cap compared with an average tonnes of materials from the mining and quarrying sector specialised on energy carriers – 64 per cent of the total RMI. Another 34.7m tonnes is added by all other activities in the mining industry.

62 D N A

Overview L Sustainable Development T O

Home & energy in Scotland C CO2 emissions S Government

Actual rentals & fixed capital > Scotland has a dynamic economy, 5 for housing 0.06 Imputed rentals and at the same time continues to for housing 0.13 Services have low productivity, the highest rate Maintenance & repair 0.10 Hospital services 0.02 of child poverty in the UK, and Social protection 0.05 Territorial Other services nec 0.05 the extra challenge of working in emissions Education 0.04 from production Government Accommodation 0.04 the remote highlands and islands. & other 1.16 Travel Telephone & fax 0.06 11.49 t/cap > As compared to its population, Water supply 0.01 UK Av. 10.76 t/cap Electricity 1.54 Operation Insurance & finance 0.18 Scotland has a large overall land of personal Recreation & culture 0.09 Emissions transport 0.26 UK resident area and greater access to natural from holidays abroad 0.16 resources, but there is much wastage consumption Purchase of vehicles 0.29 Total 11.61 t/cap 0.72 t/cap and inefficiency in resource use and UK Av. 11.81 t/cap UK Av. 0.90 t/cap industry. Consumables > The Framework for Economic Tobacco 0.02 Household tools, utensils Transport Development in Scotland, updated services 0.68 & maintenance 0.09 Newspapers, in 2004, sets out four goals: books & stationery 0.08 Fixed Medical & personal 1 Economic Growth – with growth capital 1.87 Food & drink products 0.11 accelerated and sustained through Furniture Non-alcoholic Gas 1.41 beverages 0.05 & furnishings 0.15 greater competitiveness in the global Alcoholic Textiles & footwear 0.18 beverages 0.05 Personal effects nec 0.22 economy Private Audio visual & photo transport 2 Regional Development – with equipment 0.17 Food 0.31 (car fuel) 1.08 economic growth a pre-requisite Household appliances 0.30 Catering for all regions to enjoy the same services 0.41 Recreational items economic opportunities & equipment 0.18 3 Closing The Opportunity Gap – Total Total Total Total Total 0.82 t/cap 3.24 t/cap 3.03 t/cap 2.32 t/cap 1.48 t/cap social development in turn contrib- UK Av. 0.87 t/cap UK Av. 3.10 t/cap UK Av. 3.03 t/cap UK Av. 2.44 t/cap UK Av. 1.46 t/cap uting to national economic prosperity

Fig 4 CO2 emissions from consumption in Scotland (t/cap) 4 Sustainable Development – in econ- omic, social and environmental terms > This fourth goal includes a Green Jobs Exports and RMC While Scotland’s surplus leads to the largest difference strategy, and a large scale renewable imports rank among the lowest in the UK, between the RMI and Regional Material energy programme. It is yet to be seen no other region exports as much to the rest Consumption (RMC)2 estimate across the how this will translate to growth sectors of the world. Driven by 59m tonnes of sales regions. However, the high level of regional such as that of chemical-intensive in oil and other energy carriers, Scotland material extraction still leaves Scotland with salmon farming on the west coast. exported 81m tonnes – 42 per cent of the the highest RMC figure of 19.17 t/cap, Meanwhile, modernization of regional UK’s total exports – to other parts of the compared with a regional average of 11.7 economies is expected to raise trans- world in 2001. At the same time, however, across the UK. port demand and other material flows. per capita exports to other UK regions were smallest at 2.91 tonnes, compared with a Future implications Scotland’s 1 One important difference between material flows and CO2 national average of 9.0 tonnes. In this from emissions should be noted here: in material flows, innovative new Sustainable Development sense, Scotland shows a typical physical energy-producing materials converted into electricity are Strategy recognises the need for a attributed at “Regional Material Consumption” to the region trade pattern for the devolved countries, that converted them to electricity, simply because electricity significant shift towards more sustainable being more involved in world trade than in has no mass so is not considered a “material flow”. In CO2 consumption and production patterns, emissions measurements, however, the same energy- intra-UK trade compared with the English producing materials converted into electricity are attributed and represents a change in Scottish regions. as “CO2 emissions from production” to the region that sustainability strategy. It prioritizes Overall, the indicated trade patterns lead converted them into electricity. CO2 emissions from reducing the inefficient use of resources, consumption would be attributed to the region or country to a physical export surplus for Scotland of that consumed the electricity. Generally, a high RMC will exploring the impact of products and 68.5m tonnes across the regions. This is mean a high Ecological Footprint, although Scotland shows materials across their whole lifecycle, and some exception to this. not only the highest in the UK, but it also 2 It should be noted that Scotland’s total RMC may be encouraging people to think about the compares with net imports of 11.8m tonnes high due to inconsistent data from official sources. social and environmental consequences on the national level. This huge export The Ecological Budget UK material flow analysis relies of their purchases. Ecological Budget on the best available data, but sometimes this does not allocate material flows exactly to all regions and devolved UK project results can inform these countries. In 2001, for example, the official data source efforts and, combined with the efforts allocated 90m tonnes to an “unknown” region. Much of this uncertainty relates to oil processing, so it is likely to affect of many local authorities in Scotland, the the data for Scotland. Therefore, the RMC figure for Scottish Parliament has an opportunity Scotland requires further investigation. This example also to be a leader in sustainability. demonstrates clearly that considerable improvements in the tracking of resources in the UK are necessary. 63 D N A L

T Spotlight O C S 5 Renewable energy in Scotland

Scotland produces 11 per cent of the UK’s Fig 5 The Ecological Footprint of different fuels 3 total CO2 emissions, and produces more 120 A commitment to energy from oil, gas and coal than it renewable energy: consumes. Because the rest of the UK 100 the 2003 Partnership consumes these fuels, changing Scotland’s energy sources from fossil fuels to 80 Agreement between renewable energy would contribute Scotland’s Labour 60 significantly to lowering the UK’s overall and Liberal Democrat CO2 emissions. 40 Many Scottish politicians already aspire parties

to make Scotland the “renewable energy 20 “We will work towards our target for capital” of the UK by harnessing its 40 per cent of Scottish electricity impressive renewable sources – wind, 0 generation to be from renewable energy l s s s r e e c a l a u e v v i d g hydro, wave, tidal and biomass. The ruling o e h t i i ta in tin sources by 2020. We will support the C u l g t a s s l a F a n n n o W e r a W te te v h tu c x in to r coalition (Labour and Liberal Democrat) a is e o a development of wave, tidal and solar d d h l N M o o P o o o S appears genuinely committed to promoting W W energy and support the development renewable energy in Scotland, as does of technologies to promote the greater the Scottish National Party, the Greens and use of fuel from wood and other energy the Scottish Socialists. The government also published an Energy Efficiency Strategy crops. We will press the UK government sees developing renewable energy as a way in early 2006 and is due to update its 2000 and electricity companies to strengthen to promote economic growth, particularly Climate Change Programme. This plans the electricity grid. We will encourage in rural areas that are short of jobs. for increased reliance on renewable energy, participation in renewable energy projects The Yorkshire and Humberside case and may commit Scotland to domestic by communities and local authorities.” study (see pages 56-57) assessed the CO2 reduction targets for the first time. impacts of using biomass for energy and It is hoped that the Resource and found that it may be beneficial in terms Energy Analysis Program (REAP) connection to the national natural gas of CO2 emissions, but not always in terms will contribute to the analysis of these grid. Given the rising price of fossil fuels, of Ecological Footprint. The analysis in strategies, assessing the effectiveness this strategy will become less tenable, Figure 5 compares the Ecological Footprint of the adopted policies. and renewable energy will become of other kinds of renewable energy and more competitive. shows the various benefits of renewables. The role of renewables and Another low-CO2 cost-effective With the exception of biomass, micro-generation in eliminating alternative to fossil fuels is microgeneration CO2 emissions savings are similar. “fuel poverty” – the generation of heat or electricity at Efforts are slowly moving forward to The Parliament also seeks to eradicate the community or household level instead produce and use less CO2-intensive energy “fuel poverty” by 2016 – giving all people of in large centralised generating plants. in Scotland. The Scottish Parliament in Scotland access to adequate energy. It is particularly cost-effective in rural So far, this strategy has not relied areas, of which Scotland has many. on efficiency or renewables; it depends Microrenewables take pressure off on cheap fuel, available to more people the centralised and usually CO2-based with rising incomes, provided by wider production grid and still deliver energy. A great deal of money is spent on eradicating fuel poverty; in future, this money might instead drive the develop- ment of renewables and microrenewables.

64 D N A L T

“Scottish politicians already aspire O C S

to make Scotland the ‘renewable 5 energy capital’ of the UK”

HIE/STOCKSCOTLAND.COM Regional case study: liquefied gas is transported to the town via Conclusions Wick road. All the renewable fuel is being sourced locally and many “green” jobs are being Although UK energy policy is set by A number of projects across the UK have created. It is estimated that the scheme the national government, the Scottish demonstrated the advantages of local will save around 5,000 tonnes of CO2 over Parliament and local authorities can set energy systems based on community its lifetime of 25 years and the cost savings their own targets for CO2 reduction and heating. For the domestic sector, heat will be around £2m to the end users. use of renewable energy as part of their generation is by far the most significant contribution to reducing the overall issue related to CO2 emissions. Community REAP in Scotland UK CO2 emissions. They also administer heating links buildings with homes via a many other areas that influence CO2 system of pipes known as the heat network, The Resource and Energy Analysis Program levels – housing, planning and transport, with heat provided from a central source. (REAP) is being piloted by a number of local for example. Sustainable fuel sources can be used, and authorities in Scotland – Aberdeen City, The energy coin always has two sides: a serious reduction in energy lost through Aberdeenshire, and North Lanarkshire consumption and production. More efficient transmission can be achieved. Probably the Councils. Using REAP, they will produce production can be cancelled out by less best Scottish community energy scheme a baseline assessment of their efficient consumption. However, because is in Wick. Led by Highland Council, it is CO2 emissions and Ecological Footprint, Scotland produces more than it consumes, the largest of its kind in the UK. and assess the Footprint and CO2 impacts and because of its vast capacity for The first phase of this continuing project of transport strategies, development and renewable energy, it stands to make was to link a local distillery to 400 houses, other future scenarios.4 a great contribution to reducing the utilising waste heat. The second phase The three-year project, running to overall UK CO2 emissions. will build on the existing heat network to June 2007, is: encompass most of the town, including > measuring the footprint of each local the hospital, secondary school and a further authority area; 1,000 homes. The system is using wood > developing a software tool for policy- fuel (forestry residue) as the source which making; will generate heat and electricity through > developing a strategy and projects a gasification process. They will add to to reduce the footprint; and the fuel mix by incorporating gas from an > producing education materials for schools anaerobic digestion system fed by the local to measure a “whole school” footprint. fish processing plant. In terms of reducing the CO2 Footprint, Wick is a good example: it is currently off the gas network and

3 Key Environment Statistics 2005, Scottish Executive Publication www.scotland.gov.uk/ Publications/2005/08/15135632/56521#2 4 For further information visit www.scotlandsfootprint.org 65 S E L A

W Wales 5 Material flow analysis

Regional consumption Supply Demand 52.3 million tonnes Material supplied to Material demanded by the region, the region’s economy Households 19.4 other UK regions or the world for consumption Capital investment 5.0 for consumption or production or production Regional production Residual material flows* 27.9 53.3 million tonnes Exports to the rest of the world Imports from *including transformation the rest of the world 11.5 million tonnes stock changes and waste

12.1 million tonnes Imports from Exports to other UK regions other UK regions Regional material inputs and consumption 26.4 million tonnes 27.9 million tonnes RMI RMC 73.1 million tonnes 33.7 million tonnes

RMI/cap RMC/cap 25.2 tonnes 11.6 tonnes Fig 1 Material flows of Wales

Total Ecological Footprint 5.20 gha/cap Home & energy 1.14 Wales 5.20 Travel 0.88 South West 5.24 Yorkshire & Humberside 5.30 Consumables 0.61 North East 5.31 West Midlands 5.36 Services 0.32 Scotland 5.37 North West 5.45 East Midlands 5.47 Fixed capital 0.76 London 5.58 East of England 5.64 Northern Ireland 5.65 Government & other 0.40 South East 6.29 UK Average 5.36 Food 1.09

Fig 2 Regional Ecological Footprints (gha/cap) Fig 3 Wales’ Ecological Footprint (gha/cap)

Wales is characterised by having a high associated environmental costs of such Analysis agricultural and manufacturing base when development. Existing policies to increase Wales is one of the four devolved countries compared to the UK. Of the 2.9 million household disposable income per head of the United Kingdom. As a nation Wales people living in Wales only 72.7 per cent of population to 95 per cent of the UK is a young and modern country, with the of people of a working age are in average may result in increased CO2 National Assembly – in existence for only employment, amongst the lowest for the UK. emissions (consumer responsibility) and seven years – now exercising some limited The average gross weekly earnings for Ecological Footprint. While it is understood devolved powers. However, in those seven full-time employees are £414.50, that this may be an unintended effect years Wales has achieved a lot in the again amongst the lowest for the UK. of policy, it is now widely understood creation of Sustainable Development These figures underline ‘West Wales and that real decoupling can be achieved if policies and legislation, for unlike the UK the Valleys’ as one of the poorer regions policies emphasise a quality of economic as a whole – the Assembly has a legal duty in the EU which have been in receipt development that is not dependent upon under Section 121 of the Government of significant EU Structural Funds, through traditional quantity-based economic of Wales Act to “make a Scheme setting the current Objective One Programme. indicators like GDP. out how it proposes, in the exercise of This funding has been available for those its functions, to promote sustainable regions with average GDP per capita CO2 Emissions development.” In particular, and of most below 75 per cent of the EU as a whole. Unlike most of the UK Wales is a net relevance to this report, Wales has the However, from a global perspective exporter of energy and has some of the only Government in the world that has Wales is one of the world’s richer countries, highest territorial CO2 emissions in the adopted the Ecological Footprint with GDP per capita in the top fifth whole of the country at 14.31 t/cap – as a headline indicator. of the world’s countries. almost 25 per cent higher than the UK Wales now faces a unique challenge: how to increase the quality of economic development without increasing the

66 S E L

Overview A

Sustainable Development W

Home & energy in Wales 5 CO2 emissions Government & fixed capital > Wales has a mountainous terrain, and Actual rentals for housing 0.04 is historically the back yard to British Imputed rentals Services for housing 0.09 imperial aspirations. Maintenance Hospital services 0.02 > It is a former site for coal and steel, & repair 0.11 Social protection 0.04 Territorial Other services nec 0.05 though is now moving into a emissions Education 0.03 knowledge-based role. from production Government Accommodation 0.05 & other 1.16 Telephone & fax 0.05 14.31 t/cap > It retains its own language, but is Travel Water supply 0.08 UK Av. 10.76 t/cap Electricity 1.22 Insurance & finance 0.15 increasingly integrated into the English Recreation & culture 0.10 Operation UK resident economy, e.g. through supply chains, Emissions of personal from transport 0.29 holidays abroad 0.15 tourism and second homes. consumption Total 11.04 t/cap Purchase of 0.72 t/cap > The vision for the Regional Economic UK Av. 11.81 t/cap vehicles 0.24 UK Av. 0.90 t/cap Strategy (RES) equivalent, A Winning Wales, is “to achieve a Consumables Transport prosperous Welsh economy that is services 0.58 Tobacco 0.01 dynamic, inclusive and sustainable, Household tools, utensils Fixed & maintenance 0.09 based on successful, innovative Food & drink capital 1.87 Newspapers, businesses with highly skilled, well- books & stationery 0.06 Non-alcoholic Gas 1.62 beverages 0.04 Medical & personal motivated people”. The key areas for products 0.09 Alcoholic action to achieve this vision include: beverages 0.07 Furniture Private & furnishings 0.12 “• increase the knowledge, research transport Textiles & footwear 0.14 Food 0.34 (car fuel) 1.04 Personal effects nec 0.15 and development, and innovation Audio visual & photo Catering equipment 0.18 capacity in all parts of the Welsh services 0.37 Household appliances 0.19 Recreational items economy; & equipment 0.22 • help more people into jobs to bring Total Total Total Total Total 0.82 t/cap 3.08 t/cap 3.03 t/cap 2.14 t/cap 1.25 t/cap down our levels of economic UK Av. 0.87 t/cap UK Av. 3.10 t/cap UK Av. 3.03 t/cap UK Av. 2.44 t/cap UK Av. 1.46 t/cap inactivity;

Fig 4 CO2 emissions from consumption in Wales (t/cap) • build on our considerable strengths in manufacturing;

• increase the number of jobs in average of 10.76 t/cap. Only the North material exports to the rest of the world financial and business services;

East exceeds this at 15.83 t/cap. and the other UK regions leaves a • encourage the development of As a result of lower household Regional Material Consumption (RMC) our country’s green economy; expenditure than the UK, Wales has the estimate of 11.62 t/cap, which ranks • promote opportunities for lowest CO2 emissions from consumption, fifth across regions, but performs just Welsh companies to develop again with the exception of the North East. below the regional average of 11.7 t/cap. international trade;

Such reduced consumption has resulted in Trade activities of Wales seem to show a • support the social enterprise sector a fifth less CO2 emissions than the UK pattern quite characteristic for the devolved which can bring growth and opport- average when measured in this way. countries. Like for Scotland and NI the unity to disadvantaged communities.” The fact that these emissions are lower physical trade with other UK regions is not demonstrates that, in terms of carbon so developed. Even though Wales trades Future implications dioxide emissions, Wales is carrying the with 54.4m tonnes of materials about The regeneration of the South Wales environmental burden for consumption 20m tonnes more than Scotland and about coalfields was a major achievement that that occurs outside its territory. 44m tonnes more than NI, the NE is the continues to generate new clusters of only English region less involved in intra-UK environmental technologies. The South Material flow trade in total terms. However, on a per Wales terrain is resistant to intensive With 25.21 t/cap Wales’ Regional Material capita basis this picture is skewed and agriculture, and encourages small scale Input (RMI) indicator is the third highest Wales performs just above UK average. eco-farming, eco-tourism and other across the UK. This is equally driven by continued over the page diversification. However, this same terrain an above average regional production also makes ground transport more of materials amounting to 11.93 t/cap difficult – for instance, linking the south and an above average material import of and the north of the country will probably 13.28 t/cap. For example, 21.95m tonnes involve an air shuttle system. Wales’ or 63.37 per cent of Wales’ regional strong national culture, language and 1 Source for data: Office for National Statistics, Wales. extraction stems from the mining of non- Selected Key Statistics and Regional Profile (2005) high-quality community life can offer energy producing materials. Excluding 2 WAVE. Wales A Vibrant Economy. Strategic Framework for something of a counter-weight to Economic Development Consultation Document (2005). intensive consumerism. 3 Reducing Wales’ Ecological Footprint: Report Summary. SEI and WWF. 2005. 67 S E L

A Analysis continued

W Spotlight 5 Typically for a devolved country trade with the rest of the world is more developed than in most of the English regions amounting to 8.15 t/cap. In fact only London as (one of the) the centre(s) of the UK economy is the Food and farming only English region which trades more with the rest of the world in physical terms. At the same time both Scotland and NI have in Wales a higher per capita trade with ROW than Wales. Overall, Wales’ trade balance is almost even showing a slight export surplus of 0.9m tonnes across industries. However, looking at individual industries gives a much Food production and consumption richer picture. “Metal products” and “energy is the basis for a significant proportion Relevant Welsh materials” from mining are mainly exported of our material flows and waste production, Assembly Government with a net balance of 4.8 and 1.7m tonnes and is the single largest component of targets and policy respectively, while products from the Ecological Footprint of Wales, as “agriculture, hunting and fishing”, “mining it is in the UK. > Second Organic Action Plan for Wales and quarrying except energy producing Over the last 50 years, our relationship 2005-2010 – “10-15 per cent of materials”, as well as “food, beverages and with food has changed considerably. agricultural land in Wales to be organic tobacco” are mainly imported with a net The food we eat has hidden impacts on or in-conversion by the end of 2010” balance of 1.0m tonnes, 2.3m tonnes and the world around us. We have become used > Food and Well Being: Reducing 2.4m tonnes respectively. However, so to year round produce flown thousands inequalities through a nutrition strategy far this analysis has only looked at flows of miles across the globe, cheaply available for Wales – “Knowledge of which actually occur within the region in vast supermarkets. The production recommended number of portions or which cross its political boundaries of food in farms has become increasingly of fruit and vegetables, and correct (borders). If the regional lifestyle is to be mechanised, large-scale and more estimation of a portion size will assessed, such a picture can be misleading, specialised, and food supply-chains increase by 10 per cent from because flows in one regions might have become more complicated and 31 per cent by 2005” occur to support consumption activities transport-intensive. in another region without actually Food retailing has become concentrated crossing the region’s borders. within a small number of multiple retailers, targets that help promote a healthier diet Looking, for example, on the lifecycle with many of their stores located away from through Food and Well Being: Reducing impacts of household consumption the traditional high street, now accounting inequalities through a nutrition strategy activities, Wales only triggers 6.7 tonnes for over three-quarters of food sales. for Wales (2003). of materials per capita compared Takeaway food and ready-to-eat meals While organic farming may be one to a national average of 7.5 t/cap once are now very popular. All these changes of several approaches to delivering such all material flows are assigned to the have influenced the resource production, policy goals, it is the only approach that is consuming region. This is the second consumption and environmental impacts seriously attempting to address all of them smallest material impact of households’ of the Welsh food and farming system. simultaneously. However, in the last few across UK's regions. The same is true years, while production and consumption for capital investment, which only gives Scenarios for food of organic food has grown rapidly in the rise to per capita flows of 1.73 tonnes and farming in Wales UK, in Wales it is still only 3.2 per cent compared to a national average of The Welsh Assembly Government has of all food production and 1.1 per cent 2.31 tonnes. acknowledged these changes to our of all consumption. production and consumption of food, and Researchers at SEI undertook an has recommended that “10-15 per cent extensive analysis of the production and of agricultural land in Wales is to be organic consumption of food in Wales as part of or in-conversion by the end of 2010”.1 the Reducing Wales’ Ecological Footprint This target is consistent with the Welsh Project2. This analysis has demonstrated Assembly Government’s vision of an the importance of linking local production innovative agri-food industry, creating high and consumption systems, to deliver quality, value added food products while integrated benefits that encompass at the same time enhancing the biodiversity a reduced environmental impact of our of the Welsh countryside, supporting food and farming system and an increase tourism and the survival of the Welsh family in healthy diets in the population of farm. The Welsh Assembly Government Wales – especially in key target groups. has also developed key consumption 68 S E L A W 5

LEFT & MIDDLE; IAN HOMER/WWF-UK, ABOVE; COLLECTIONS/FIONA PRAGOFF

High High Conclusions

up to Present The ability to link both organic Present average Ecological Ecological production and consumption is crucial. 11 % Footprint 30% Footprint of food reduction of food reduction consumption Simply increasing the proportion of organic possible production possible agriculture doesn’t result in a reduction Footprint by in the Ecological Footprint. This is a strong 2020 if an Footprint ambitious friendly diet indication that a reduced environmental strategy for organic food impact relies as much on the quality of the production is adopted food we eat as on what types of food make up our diets. The best approach is a complementary one: combining both the Low Low nutrition strategy with an organic strategy. To increase the procurement of organic Fig 5 Ecological Footprint reduction Fig 6 Ecological Footprint reduction for Organic Food Target for Changing Diets Scenario food products in Wales it is realised that there needs to be a reliance on existing supply chains. Two major supply chains Scenario 1: Scenario 2: that could be explored are the NHS and Linking supply chains Changing diets schools. Both are large purchasers of food and could potentially purchase a large The advantages of organic farming, the An increase in organic food production proportion from the Welsh organic market. current level of demand, the current policy and consumption is not enough: it’s not A recent study of the NHS3 demonstrated opportunities and Welsh Assembly just about the quality of the food we eat that over 53, 256 tonnes of food were Government targets mean that organic but also what types of food our diets are purchased in 2001, and it is estimated production should now be taken up as composed of. This is where the nutrition that Welsh hospitals consume around a mainstream policy for Welsh agriculture. strategy complements the organic strategy, 4,000 tonnes. This suggests that significant The scenarios constructed by SEI highlighting the need for complementary capacity is already available. Apart from explore what would happen if the target approaches. The scenario exploring the certain product groups – for example was reached and if the organic food potential reduction due to eating fresh, tropical fruits – Welsh agriculture has produced was also consumed in Wales. seasonal, organic food with a low-meat the ability to produce sufficient volumes The area of organically managed farmland diet reduced the Ecological Footprint to cover demand if all food in the NHS in Wales has increased significantly from from 1.24 to 0.89 gha/cap (a reduction were to be organic and local. under 1 per cent in 1998 to 4 per cent, of 30 per cent). By achieving key policy or 58,000 ha, in 2002. However, growth objectives, we can also achieve direct health has stagnated leaving a major challenge benefits and could also indirectly contribute to achieve the objective. If the ambitious to ecological sustainability. The scenario target of 15 per cent organic production results also suggest that a healthy diet by 2010 was achieved and if further growth will usually have a low Ecological Footprint in organic production can be maintained meaning benefits to the individual and until 2020, there would be a reduction the environment. in the Ecological Footprint of 11 per cent.

1 Second Organic Action Plan for Wales 2005-10, Welsh Assembly Government, 2004. 2 Barrett, et al., 2005, Reducing Wales Ecological Footprint, WWF Cymru. 3 www.materialhealth.com 69 K R O

W 6 A framework for sustainable E M A R F

A consumption and production 6 So far, Ecological Budget UK has shown a cross-section of the national economy as a whole, and the implications for regional development. Here we look at the agenda for Sustainable Consumption and Production (SCP), which is at the centre of the sustainability debate.

Ecological Budget UK provides a far- When the UK economy is clearly moving needs. The contribution of Ecological reaching “SCP framework” to help analyse on this strategic path towards a Factor Four Budget UK, as in the next section, is to the supply chains in consumption and step change, it will take up the challenge of integrate both consumption and production production. This framework underpins each the UK Sustainable Development Strategy, sides for a balanced view on SCP. “activity sector” such as food, housing, and move towards a real One Planet We can start to estimate the likely effects transport, products and so-on, and the Economy. As this was not defined in the of an SCP agenda on resource flows and policy options for the SCP agenda. UK Strategy, we provide here a working the shift towards a One Planet Economy. definition: a system of production and Clearly, there would be changes right SCP trends and targets consumption which respects environmental through the supply chain. Input of raw limits, local and global, while being materials would be greatly reduced, as The first issue is to define sustainable economically and socially sustainable. would energy in distribution and manufac- consumption and production, then to turing. Added value on manufacturing and see how Ecological Budget UK can help Timescales and targets services would increase, as would the measure it, assess trends and targets and Clearly, the transformation of the UK into a recycling and re-manufacturing of used set priorities. Further discussion of One Planet Economy is not going to happen products, in a nearly zero-waste and alternative trends, targets and strategies overnight. But we can define the target rate zero-emissions economy. At the same are contained in the parallel report of progress by setting the Factor Four goal time, human welfare and social equity Strategy for a One Planet Economy. at a strategic point such as 2050, the would increase. current horizon for UK climate policy. For each stage in the supply chain there One Planet Economy > This equates to a year on year reduction are also economic implications – for firms, The summary of the evidence so far shows in total resource use of about -3 per cent sectors, consumers and the UK economy. that: per year, as measured by Ecological As explored in the Strategy for a One > the Ecological Footprint measure reveals Footprint. Planet Economy, there are direct, indirect that consumption, mainly by wealthy > By 2020, at this rate, the reduction in and induced effects at every level. nations, is using up the Earth’s resources total Ecological Footprint would be about While businesses naturally argue against at several times their share; -40 per cent, and by 2050 about -75 per energy taxes, there is clear evidence > as a service-led economy, the UK is now cent. that competitiveness, innovation and exporting our environmental burdens by > If we factor in long-range economic quality management are all stimulated by importing goods from overseas; growth at 2.25 per cent, the required environmental policy, as well as the obvious > the UK government has set a long-term rate of decoupling or improvement in the environmental and social benefits. target for a 60 per cent reduction in resource efficiency (EF/£GDP) would be climate emissions – but this should -5.25 per cent per year reduction. This is SCP Framework build in the principle of global equity about twice the rate of decoupling in the (i.e. that the difference between wealthy recent past. The above outline of the SCP agenda and polluters and poor recipients needs its implications for resource flows suggests to be reduced); Implications for SCP many questions for investigation. Which > this then translates into a long-term goal The question is, should the decoupling be is more important – consumption or of 75 per cent reduction in resource use – on the production or consumption side? production? How can we measure the i.e. a Factor Four increase in resource Recent improvements in energy efficiency in effects on complex supply chains? Is it efficiency;1 and production – for instance in vehicles – are better to replace old buildings with more > such resource efficiency improvement generally outweighed by increases in car efficient new ones? can be both cause and effect of ownership and travel per person. This then economic growth and competitiveness. raises issues on consumption; on whether people really need or want to travel greater 1 Von Weizacker, E., Lovins, A.B. & Lovins, L.H., 1997, distances every year, or whether there are Factor Four: Doubling Wealth, Halving Resource Use – A Report to the Club of Rome, London, Earthscan. more sustainable ways of meeting those 2 ONS, 2005 70 Imports Exports K

Consumption and production R O

balance W First we look at how consumption and Input from E ‘nature’ Consumption M production are represented in the Ecological (not costed) by households A Production R F

Budget UK system. This shows three Factors of Consumption

by government A main measures which are different but production interrelated, each providing a contrasting 6 view on resource flows and their impacts. Regional boundary > CO2 emissions: this is the most common Purchases Supply Capital and easily calculated resource flow, and from other to other investment industries industries the most topical as the largest human cause of climate change. As in chapter Fig 1 Mass balance of consumption and production 4, this is usually measured in terms of “production” or territorial emissions; however, Ecological Budget UK provides are implicated in the delivery of SCP framework an alternative view in consumption. products to household and government The scheme above is a start, but does not CO2 is mainly generated by energy “final demand”. say very much about the multiple supply production and consumption – in other chains involved in producing sophisticated words energy flow, which runs in parallel For each of these measures there is a consumer items in a complex service- with material flow. standard accounting arrangement for dominated economy. A more realistic picture > Material flow: this can be measured in consumption and production, as for of a typical supply chain, greatly simplified, Direct Material Consumption (DMC) – instance in the Blue Book tables of is shown by the SCP framework below the total amount of materials directly UK national accounts.2 This shows the (Figure 2). The logic of this SCP framework used or consumed in the region, contribution of imports, exports and capital is to apply standard accounting practice to excluding exports. There is also the larger investment, and the supply and demand the resource flow issues in the SCP agenda: Total Material Consumption (TMC), which from other industries, as in Figure 1. raw materials, energy, emissions, waste, includes the indirect or “hidden” material A similar structure can also be followed recycling and so-on. Such a framework flows generated. to show the resource flows above – can only be as good as the data available: > Ecological Footprint: this includes the the material and energy flows – which for instance, current UK waste data does land area equivalent for the sequestering generate CO2 and Ecological Footprint. not contain details of its material content, of CO2 emissions plus other impacts on In the arrangement of the economic its industry source or its location of origin. bio-productive land use, and is a simpler accounts, the total production equals So the framework shown here is greatly measure of total impact than Life Cycle exactly the total consumption, which is simplified compared with the reality, Analysis (LCA). Ecological Footprint also reflected in the “mass balance” where many materials are used to make is allocated on the “consumption principle of Ecological Budget UK. many products, at many intermediate responsibility” basis – measuring total stages, in many sectors, with many impacts from all material flows which environmental effects.

Energy & transport in use Products in use

Exported/ Exported Exported Exported manufacture waste primary services emissions

Producer 12345waste/ Raw emissions materials Primary Manufacture Services Demand: from production production ‘production’ consumables ‘nature’ Consumer waste/ emissions Durables

Energy & Fixed capital transport in production Re-use & recycling

Regional boundary

Imported Imported Imported Material flow primary manufacture services Energy flow Waste/emissions Fig 2 SCP framework 71 K 200

R However, the Ecological Budget UK data Energy (tera-joules)

O 150

W is enough to provide an outline five-stage Material (million tonnes) E resource flow model of the UK and regional 100 M Economy (£ billion) A economies. 50 R F

> The five stages correspond to the

A 0 primary, secondary, tertiary, demand 6 and “externalities” classification of -50

economic sectors. Each type shows -100 a particular material intensity from -150

. the gross tonnages of minerals and g g . c s s t t s e in n tc t rt d n n rt t si e e o l e e o s rm s , il, p o m m p a agricultural sectors through to services a e rt a h n t x W F c o t Im se r s E o e u e e r sp R v v P n o o In where materials are involved but of a H G Tr little value compared with the human- Fig 3 Provisional resource flows in food and farming added value. > Various kinds of waste streams are > reducing the volume of resource flows the detail of the full 123 sector accounts; shown by the shaded boxes on the at various points; when there are full UK physical input-output right hand side, coming off each stage. > increasing energy efficiency and transport tables, a larger version would be feasible. > Various inputs of the “factors” of energy efficiency in production; There are also unresolved questions where and transport are also shown at each > reducing the Ecological Footprint per the national accounts show different results of the five stages. tonne of resource flows; and to industry studies – so the reports below > On the consumption side is a simple > generally increasing resource productivity are at this stage an illustration of what breakdown: consumables are items with (the amount of added value for producers is to be followed up. less than a year’s life, durables are items per unit of resource flows). with a life of more than a year, and fixed Sustainable food and farming capital describes items such as buildings > On the consumption side, increasing with an indefinite lifespan. For each type, the energy efficiency of products in use; The UK food chain, from farming to waste a stock-flow model can be constructed > increasing the average lifetime of both disposal, involves very large resource flows, if needed. consumable and durable products; and including economic, material and energy > The “products in use” circle shows the > increasing the rate of re-use, recycling (Figure 3). The largest economic activity is lifecycle demands and impacts and re-manufacturing, and reducing the at the secondary stage of food processing, of products and infrastructure such waste and emissions leaving the system. and nearly all of this goes direct to as vehicles or buildings. households. Catering and other value- To achieve all this in a consumer-led market added operations are also larger than The implication of this more evolved scheme economy will need innovation to increase primary production in agriculture. is that resource productivity – the useful the welfare added of products – so that In material terms, agriculture produces outputs per unit of input – can be measured consumers will prefer to buy long-life, low- nearly 90m tonnes a year, food and drink in different ways at each stage of the supply impact, zero waste products, for example. processing throughput is 80m tonnes a chain in terms of material inputs or outputs, year, and food-related imports total 34m energy, emissions or waste. REAP activity sectors tonnes to primary or food manufacturing There is also a parallel concept on the The “activity sectors” sections below use sectors. About 9m tonnes of controlled agenda for further research – resource the SCP framework to show the resource waste comes from food processing, and consumption effectiveness. This represents flows through the supply chains of two 3.3m tonnes from catering. Households the human welfare output per unit of example sectors in the Resource and then consume about half a tonne per consumption input: for instance, buying one Energy Analysis program (REAP) modelling person, a further 100kg which goes to car may bring a certain benefit, but buying system (the full set includes food, shelter, waste, plus a further 60kg of food and two cars does not (usually) bring double transport, products, services, public drink packaging or containers. that. In reality it is often very difficult to services, energy and waste). The UK is 60 per cent self-sufficient by quantify the level of human welfare on In the two sectors that follow, covering material flow for all foods, and 75 per cent the consumption effectiveness side, so the food and shelter, policy options and levers for domestic varieties such as potatoes. measures have to be taken with a pinch of are currently under development in the Imports are therefore a minority share by salt. However, the combined view is crucial REAP modelling system. There are also weight, but generally involve the longer to the analysis of the SCP concept. many economic and social implications distance and higher value-added items. of these policy options to be followed up SCP framework and the SCP agenda in the Strategy for a One Planet Economy Current food and farming policy We can then use the SCP framework to research programme. There are many layers to this complex highlight the various effects of the shift The analysis follows as closely as and controversial policy agenda. At the towards Factor Four and a One Planet possible the SCP framework diagram international trade level, the World Trade Economy, at each stage of a typical supply in Figure 2: the data has been drawn at Organization Doha Round of trade talks was chain. This would include: the UK level from the REAP system and unresolved at the end of 2005. EU member > On the production side, reducing the appears in summary input-output tables. states, the US and other developed input of natural materials to the system; This serves as a start, although it loses countries are maintaining for the moment 72 K

Food Food Exported/ R

Farm waste O exports processing service

exports exports emissions W E M A R F

A 6 1 23 45 Distribution, Producer Agriculture, Food Food waste/ forestry processing retail consumed catering, etc. emissions

Fixed capital Consumer in food waste/ supply chain emissions

Re-use & recycling

Imported Imported Imported raw foods food food-related products services

Fig 4 Food and farming resource flows and policy options

the structures of farm subsidies and import > Vegetarian percentage: this affects the Towards sustainable food tariffs which restrict the global trade in food balance between energy intensive meat- and farming and favour the larger intensive producers. based food (32 per cent by weight) The current globalised, high-energy, fossil Meanwhile, the EU Common Agricultural and others. Further spread of vegetarian fuel-based food sector, instrumental in Policy (CAP) reforms have now shifted diets would see overall reductions in the trade balance between rich and poor the farm subsidy regime from production Ecological Footprint, as well as possible countries, will need to change in a One quotas to whole farm payments, including health benefits. Planet Economy if the overall impacts are environmental criteria. > Organic production percentage: to be cut by a factor of four. These are The UK sustainable food and farming at present this covers 0.6 per cent of some of the main opportunities ahead for strategy aspires towards an integration of food volume by weight, but has been policy, producers and consumers: rural economic development, public health increasing by 15 per cent per year > Consumer demand and preference: This and efficient food production. It advised that over the last decade. There are different is likely to be as much “push” from food farming could be separated into intensive opinions on whether this trend will scares, dietary concerns and possibly and extensive areas of production across continue or level off. health insurance companies, as “pull” the UK.3 Recent research shows how the > Chemical intensity: the inputs by weight from simple consumer preference. The distribution of food is responsible for more of chemical fertilisers and pesticides have turning point may be when retail chains than a quarter of all freight travel.4 increased dramatically in the last 50 years, realise there is more profit in higher-value, In much of the crowded UK there is and this is the majority of the energy and high-quality niche products, than in the competition between urban and rural land- material inputs to farming. conventional approach to volume sales. uses: 14 per cent of the land area is subject > Packaging percentage: food packaging > Food technology and supply chains: to Green Belt policy where land values by weight has increased only slowly, but production technology is likely to enable should be stable, but in reality are pressured more rapid is the shift from low-energy greater quality and diversity through by other quasi-farm uses such as horse re-useable packaging to higher-energy ICT-based precision methods. There is stabling and garden centres. Even in rural disposable material. also growing awareness of natural areas, agriculture as such comprises less > Food waste fraction and composting growing cycles and use of natural genetic than 5 per cent of the economy. percentage: there is limited re-use of capital in medicinal and material sciences. food for animal feed from institutional There may be legal developments such Factors of change catering. Current levels of food waste as law suits against producers of unhealthy The majority of UK residents have enough composting are a fraction of 1 per cent, food. The big unresolved question food, so future trends are more concerned but the regional waste strategy contains concerns genetically modified food (GM), with food quality, diets, sources, production objectives to increase this fraction. whether it’s regarded as a hazard or methods and distribution. These are some contribution to a sustainable food system. of the key factors to be modelled in the These policy options and levers are shown > Food markets and subsidies: The vital REAP system: on the food SCP framework in Figure 4. key to this structural shift towards a > Imported percentage: the trend towards sustainable agriculture system is the imported foods is set to continue, and the economic management of food markets shake-out of UK agriculture and CAP and subsidies. The current CAP reforms 3 Defra, 2003 reform may well accelerate this process. 4 Defra, 2005 have leaned towards environmental 73 K 250

R priorities, but the overall effect may Energy (tera-joules) O 200

W be to encourage large-scale intensive Material (million tonnes) E production to be imported. 150 M

A > Global trade and international Economy (£ billion)

R 100 F

development: at the same time as re- A thinking regional and local production, it is 50 6 crucial that the benefits to the developing 0 world of basic food production are not -50 lost. A strategic convergence programme -100 would help to diversify production in the . . c g c n s s t t s e t in t o rt ld n n rt t e r e ti o o e e o s l, u t, c p h m m p a developing world, and to move away from a t r u e n t x W r c o tr Im s r s E e fa p s u e ve in u s n o v n M n n o o I the current monoculture of cash-crops a ra C H G M T which are so vulnerable to commodity prices and extreme weather events. Fig 5 Provisional resource flows in the built environment > Land markets and land management: farm land values are likely to increase along with pressures for other uses, and Energy in housing is classed under “private > However, the new dwellings have the the CAP environmental objectives aim to households” as consumption, but energy potential to be much more efficient in encourage niche foods and higher value used in other buildings is found under the energy and water than the existing stock: production. production sector accounts. there is technological potential to reduce In each of the building types there are external resource demands almost Built environment distinct stock-flow effects. The addition to to zero at a small added capital cost. the building stock is 1-2 per cent per year, > Concentration of new construction in The shelter or “built environment” sector but the demolition of the older stock is a urban areas will tend to generate more shows an opposite case to the food sector tiny fraction of this. At these rates it would reclamation and demolition waste than – instead of immediate consumption, it take more than 1,000 years to replace the the equivalent in a greenfield location, and concerns the accumulation of material and average house which is built to a notional higher densities tend towards multi-storey financial “stocks”, and their operation in use. 60-80 year design life standard. This buildings which are more energy and There are three main categories: uncertainty about lifespan is crucial to material intensive for the same floorspace. > housing of all types, sizes, ages and the balance of construction impacts > The social and economic effects of ownership; with energy-in-use impacts. To make real regeneration, and their effects on > other buildings – commercial, industrial progress in reducing the built environment affluence and consumer spending habits, and public sector; and Environmental Footprint over the next few will be much more significant than the > other infrastructure – civil engineering, decades, new buildings will be a minor transport effects of urban concentration, transport, drainage, etc. component compared with the existing and possibly than the direct energy building stock and its profligate demand requirements of the new housing. The general shape of the supply chain can for energy. be seen in Figure 5. The minerals and For demonstration buildings it appears Factors of change aggregates sector has a material production possible to achieve ultra-low energy usage, These are some of the key factors which throughput of 180m tonnes a year, and at 1-2 per cent extra capital cost, which can be modelled in the REAP system, as secondary manufacturing of building is more than offset by lower energy bills. shown on the resource flow framework materials and components had a material However, for the mainstream industry (Figure 6): production of 56m tonnes. The construction there are many barriers and disincentives > household floorspace per person in both sector is classed as a service industry, to investment in efficiency. The situation existing and new housing, driven by the and not in the national material accounts. is more difficult with the existing building natural aspirations for space. The outward However, industry studies show a total stock, where conditions, age, type and spread of urban development is then material requirement of 420m tonnes, of ownership are all different. Hence there is constrained by planning policy in the UK; which only 360m were incorporated into a need for new kinds of organisations and > the stock turnover itself, as a proportion construction products – the remainder financial packages to help bridge the gap. of existing stock, and the rate of becoming waste (mostly quarrying waste).5 demolition of older dwellings; The energy in production shows the Future trends and drivers > household energy efficiency per unit of dominance of the building materials sectors, Most parts of the UK are under increasing floorspace for new and existing dwellings. the largest being the cement and steel pressure for new housing: this is mainly This is based on a composite measure of industries. This totals 197 terra joules due to forecast population growth of 3.5 energy demand as the sum of end-uses (TJ), compared with 41 TJ in construction per cent per decade, and a household size such as heating and lighting, and shares itself and 21 TJ in construction minerals which is on average 2.4 to 2.1 people. of energy fuels; and aggregates. As regards the operation This is a challenge for meeting the Ecological of the buildings in use, heating and power Footprint targets: in all UK buildings generates 51 per cent > Construction of 200,000 dwellings a of the total energy demand and year will consume massive amounts of CO2 emissions. materials and energy, wherever it is done. 74 K

Energy & transport in use R

Buildings O

in use W E M A

Exported R Mineral Material Construction F waste/ exports exports exports emissions A 6

1 23 45 Minerals, Building Construction, Building Producer aggregates materials real estate, maintenance, waste/ & forestry etc. etc. emissions

Fixed capital Consumer in buildings waste/ emissions

Re-use & recycling

Imported Imported Imported minerals materials construction & forestry

Fig 6 Built environment resource flows

> household material efficiency per In each of these the Ecological Budget Conclusions floorspace. This applies to new UK data can help distinguish facts from Over the past 100 years, supply chains construction, the volume of materials used aspiration, and short-term gains from have become more and more complex, per unit floorspace, and the Ecological long-term effects: with thousands of materials and components Footprint intensity of those materials. > increased eco-efficiency and reduced going into final products sourced from Again, this is on a highly averaged level; materials intensity per unit of floorspace; hundreds of countries. While not providing > waste arisings and material lifecycle. How > reduced primary inputs, and increased a complete and detailed supply chain of much bulk material stays in the system recycling and secondary use; every product, Ecological Budget UK has or comes out as waste, and how much > zero-waste construction and demolition helped with an understanding of the general of the waste then re-enters the system; practices; pattern of key supply chains in the activity > commercial and public service buildings > integrated materials management sectors of food, construction, transport need a similar range of units to housing systems; and so-on. above. The difference is that they are not > public procurement and market More important, it has linked the material related to population in the same way, but development initiatives; and energy requirements of supply chains rather to economic growth and economic > economic and institutional arrangements with their economic output in the context structure, and the intensity of floorspace to provide finance and other incentives of national and regional targets for SCP. per unit of economic activity. for sustainable construction; and As identified in the chapter, the social > regional spatial strategies, urban welfare that can be derived from a given Towards a sustainable built regeneration, and the balance of new product is another important dimension environment build with rehabilitation. of the SCP debate. In future, it is hoped This challenging agenda applies on many that further developments in the Ecological levels and sectors, but the reality is that One of the parallel projects to the Ecological Budget UK data will contribute to more the construction industry supply chain is Budget UK is the Eco-Region North detailed analyses of sectors, firms, known, not unreasonably, for inertia and West project, which has focused on the products, technologies and consumer conservatism. The concept of sustainable construction and built environment sectors. choices. This will add to the evidence base construction is emerging as a policy This has developed an Eco-Benchmark on the fundamental structure of production agenda, a business approach and a system for assessing the resource flow and consumption systems, and help point marketing label. Beyond the rhetoric, it performance (material flow analysis and the way towards a One Planet Economy. is likely to involve increased pressure from Ecological Footprint) of construction and regulation, supply chain pressures, tax and buildings in use. Another offshoot is the subsidy incentives, and public procurement. West Midlands Sustainable Communities project, which is comparing the pros and cons of new build versus rehabilitation in the context of economic and community 5 Smith, R.A., Kersey, J.R. & Griffiths, P.J., 2002, regeneration. Mass Balance of the Construction Industry, Viridis. 75 E R U T

U 7 The future F E H T

7 This chapter highlights what the Ecological Budget UK project has achieved, and the main results so far. This is but a start, and there are many questions to follow up – regional and local policy, industrial supply chains, taxation and international trade; questions that will be addressed by the One Planet Economy Network Strategy.

Sustainable consumption Strategy 2005 be taken up. This will move > This should be followed through on an us towards a real One Planet Economy – integrated supply chain principle, i.e. by and production targets an economic system of production and tracking material and energy resources consumption which respects environmental from cradle to grave, and from supply The overall messages from the results limits, while being financially and sides to demand sides. in this report now become very clear: socially sustainable. > This adds up to a full ‘market > The Footprint measure shows that The concept of the One Planet Economy transformation’ programme in each consumption by UK residents is using was referred to in the UK Sustainable sector, for low impact technologies up the Earth’s resources at several times Development Strategy, but not defined, and sustainable consumption patterns. their per capita share. measured or otherwise followed up at that > Such a programme should be financially > As a service-led economy we are now point. This is the cue for the Ecological viable, aiming at net gains in both exporting our environmental impacts, Budget UK. national and individual costs and benefits. by importing goods from overseas, > Such a programme should also be even while the UK becomes cleaner Towards a socially responsible, aiming towards and greener. equalising the differences between social > The UK government’s long-term target One Planet Economy groups, between regions, and between for a 60 per cent reduction in climate the UK and the developing world. emissions translates into a long-term These are the principles behind the > To implement this requires a practical goal of a 75 per cent cut in resource proposals for moving the UK towards a ‘business case’ to be developed for use – i.e. a Factor Four increase One Planet Economy: each economic sector: each policy in resource efficiency. > The first principle is ‘integrated asset level: each product type, and so on. > Such resource efficiency improvement management’ covering economic, social can be both cause and effect of and environmental capitals and risks – economic growth and competitiveness. in other words, that the UK economy > This can be achieved through the should manage itself as intelligently as principle of ‘market transformation’. any other large complex organisation. We interpret this as environmental > The national accounts and fiscal sustainability combined with budgeting systems should support technological, economic, organisational integrated asset management, with and social change. the ‘triple bottom line’ approach to comprehensive accounting for all Only when the UK economy is clearly forms of capital – economic, social moving on this strategic path towards a and environmental. Factor Four step change can the challenge > This leads to the ‘polluter pays of the UK Sustainable Development precautionary principle’ – i.e. that users of environmental services should pay for the risk or damage caused, locally or globally. While this idea is not new, the issue here is applying it either to producers, intermediaries or consumers.

76 E R U T U F E H T 7

The contribution of or other charges. This can be Next steps demonstrated in the form of an alternative Ecological Budget UK Comprehensive Spending Review; Ecological Budget UK has set out the > identifying the potential for public beginning of a longer-term programme The Ecological Budget UK first phase procurement and other investment in of research and development. Our under- results, and the Resource and Energy clean technologies. This uses the public standing of the flows of materials and Program (REAP) toolkit, provide an essential sector trading potential to its full effect, energy through the UK demands much contribution to the UK policy evidence as an instrument of public policy; more detailed investigation if we are base. Following the launch of the phase 1 > investigating the potential for international serious about moving the UK towards results, a five year programme of research development policy, using economic a One Planet Economy. and development is now taking shape. partnerships and other instruments; As the follow on to the Ecological This includes, firstly, a contribution > exploring the contributions of regional Budget UK, the OPEN Strategy has been to the evidence base for the One Planet and devolved administrations; local launched. This is outlined in the full Economy: authorities: and other agencies of reports on www.ecologicalbudget.org.uk. > national material/energy accounts government, e.g. in health and education. The OPEN Strategy, to summarise the and budget implications, to be shown above, is arranged in three parallel streams: alongside the fiscal and monetary budget, Thirdly, there is an urgent need to enhance > building the evidence base: accounting on an annual basis; and mobilise capacity – for innovation, and analysis of UK consumption and > a full breakdown of direct, external, learning, participation and new forms production; embedded and induced impacts of of networking. At a simple local level, > building the applications: applying this economic activity, using CO2, material if people can network with their neighbours evidence to the challenge of achieving flow analysis, Ecological Footprint enough to share car journeys, then traffic the One Planet Economy in consumption Analysis and other appropriate measures; congestion could be cut at a stroke. and production; > an investigation of key supply chains At a national economy level, if industries can > building the capacity: promoting networks (e.g. construction, chemicals) for their find a user for their by-products in advance, in order to mobilize the potential of public, total environmental costs and benefits then our waste problems could be a thing private and civic sectors. on a lifecycle/risk management basis; of the past. > an investigation of critical policy options Such examples represent the ‘network’ Ecological Budget UK is the most significant (e.g. nuclear power) for the total strand of the One Planet Economy Network step to date in understanding how the environmental costs and benefits on (OPEN) Strategy, deliberately framed as decisions we take every day affect the a life cycle/risk management basis. a network and process, because it is much environment around us. It is an essential too diverse and complex to be organised step in creating a platform to enable us Following on, there is great potential by one group, or completed at one point to move from the current UK ‘three planet for the Ecological Budget UK project in time. A start has been made at the economy’ to a One Planet Economy. to demonstrate the applications to the regional level by the SCPNet forum, One Planet Economy, in the national and this needs to be extended to other and regional government policy process, levels in the public sector, private sector for example: and civic sectors. > developing medium-long term market transformation strategies for key sectors of consumption and production, e.g. construction, chemicals, etc. > exploring the fiscal policies and programmes needed to facilitate this market transformation, including taxation 77 X I D N

E Appendix: Project scope and methods P P A

The aim of the Ecological Budget UK is to provide a complete set of resource accounts of the UK, broken down by devolved country and region. Ecological Budget UK also provides CO2 and Ecological Footprint accounts which, in addition to tracking regions, measure the impact of every UK local authority. Below is a list of what these accounts include, and necessary work for the future.

Resource accounts > The resource accounts adhere CO2 emissions to Eurostat standards and trade > The Ecological Budget UK resource classifications. Eurostat is the > Ecological Budget UK has constructed accounts have established the tonnes European Union government office a new indicator for carbon dioxide that of materials and products which are that coordinates and standardises includes emissions embodied in imports, produced, imported, exported, added EU statistics. This means Ecological extending current CO2 accounts that to stock and consumed by the UK’s Budget UK results fit into the statistical measure only emissions from production devolved countries and regions. classifications of other EU countries. (“territorial emissions”). > The Ecological Budget UK resource > The Ecological Budget UK project has > To achieve this, Ecological Budget accounts bring together a number provided a baseline measurement of UK used a monetary input-output table of useful measures such as Domestic resource consumption. Coupled with that tracks the flow of money through Material Consumption (DMC) and future resource accounts, we will be able the UK economy. For further information Domestic Material Input (DMI). These to reliably measure changes in resource see the Resource and Energy Analysis are used by national government to consumption from year to year. Ecological Program (REAP) reports at understand material flows in the UK. Budget UK is compatible with the UK www.ecologicalbudget.org.uk. > The Ecological Budget UK method Office for National Statistics’ (ONS) top- > Therefore, Ecological Budget UK takes organises the tonnes of resources used level indicator on resource consumption, into account direct and “embedded” in the UK economy into 123 industrial which tracks from 1970 to present day. CO2 emissions – those emissions production sectors, according to the > Ecological Budget UK is based released during a product’s entire lifecycle Standard Industrial Classification. on the ONS Economic Accounts – the – whereas “direct” emissions relate only This breakdown makes it possible UK Blue Book. This makes it possible to those produced during the use of the to identify resource-greedy production to benchmark each sector in terms product. By combining the resource sectors. Tonnes of resources are also of resource productivity – material flow accounts with the CO2 emissions, we disaggregated into 82 “final demand” per unit of economic output. can understand the relative emissions or consumption categories covering > The Ecological Budget UK provides impact per tonne of different materials private households, government an initial understanding of the “upstream” and products. (local and national), exports and “downstream” environmental impacts > CO2 emissions from consumption and capital investment. This makes of industrial sectors. It does this by have been calculated for every region it possible to identify resource-greedy mapping interactions between industries, and local authority area in the UK. consumption categories. showing which sectors use resources These can be compared with territorial from which others. emissions. Ecological Budget UK has also determined emissions from consumption of 54 socio-economic groups using the ACORN classification.

78 X I D N E P P A

Ecological Footprint Policy accounts > The REAP software was developed as a > Taking the Global Footprint Network’s part of Ecological Budget UK, making it Ecological Footprint standard, Ecological possible to access the datasets in detail, Budget UK has broken the Footprint and project different resource use and down into a detailed profile (70 CO2 emissions scenarios into the future. categories) of household consumption. > REAP gives national, devolved country, For the first time, a standard and regional and local authorities the comparable Footprint analysis has been opportunity to explore the effectiveness provided for every region and local of policy decisions. For more information, authority in the UK. This is calculated visit www.sei.se/reap. statistically from the average household > Ecological Budget UK has helped the expenditure of social types, and their West Midlands and North East regions distribution by local authority, and identify policy issues and develop is available free of charge at alternative scenarios for the future. www.sei.se/reap. > Ecological Budget UK has made a significant contribution to the Sustainable Production and Consumption network – SCPNet (www.scpnet.org.uk), developing an evidence base for SCP policy development in the devolved countries and English regions. > The datasets and the REAP tool will enable quantitative assessment of policy choices in economic and spatial development, especially at the regional level. In particular this feeds into strategies in transport, housing, energy and waste management.

79 S L I A T

E Contact details D

T C A T N O C

Established in 1999, the Centre for SEI is an independent, international Established in 1961, WWF works to Urban & Regional Ecology (CURE) carries research institute specialising in sustainable conserve endangered species, protect out multidisciplinary research in three development and environment issues. threatened habitats and address global inter-related programme areas: It works at local, national, regional and threats, seeking long-term solutions > Sustainable City-Regions; global policy levels. SEI has been engaged that benefit both people and nature. > Landscape Impacts & Futures; in major environment and development WWF is committed to exploring alternative > Land Restoration & Management. issues for a quarter of a century and has lifestyles based around sustainable become established as a leading expert consumption; this is a vital task which The common theme is the organisation on the subject of Sustainable Consumption requires us to understand and measure and interaction of complex communities, within Europe and especially the UK. the global environmental impact of our both natural and human, at various Working closely with the European everyday decisions and actions. We also scales from the local to the European. Environment Agency as well as national, need to know where change is most The research is underpinned by an regional and local governments, has beneficial and most needed – whether advanced technical capability for spatial ensured that the research is applied, at a policy, economic, business or personal analysis, modelling and visualisation. relevant and timely. The Sustainable level. WWF’s Ecological Footprint Consumption (SC) Group contributes Programme has been developed to meet Contact to the overall SEI mission statement this need, providing all levels of government CURE by bridging the gap between science with the information and tools they School of Planning & Landscape and the policy arena. need to make informed decisions, and University of Manchester, developing models and case studies to Manchester M13 9PL Contact demonstrate footprint strategies in action. Tel: 0161 275 6920/38 SEI www.art.man.ac.uk/PLANNING/cure/ University of York Contact Heslington WWF-UK York YO10 5DD Footprint Programme Tel: 01904 432 897 Panda House www.regionalsustainability.org Weyside Park Godalming Surrey GU7 1XR. Tel: 01483 426444 www.wwf.org.uk

www.ecologicalbudget.org.uk

80

Partners U n i t e d K i n g d o m C o u n t i n g c o n s u m p t i o n 6 0 0 2 h c r a Funded by: M k r a m

Biffaward Programme on e d a r t d

Sustainable Resource Use e r e t s i g e Objectives This report forms part of the In order to maximise the Programme’s full r F W

Biffaward Programme on Sustainable Resource potential, data will be generated and classified W

Use. The aim of this programme is to provide in ways that are both consistent with each other, ® F

accessible, well-researched information about and with the methodologies of the other generators W W 6

the flows of different resources through the of resource flow/waste management data. 8 9 1

UK economy based either singly, or on a In addition to the projects having their own © l o

combination of regions, material streams means of dissemination to their own constituencies, b m y or industry sectors. their data and information will be gathered together s a d n

in a common format to facilitate policy making a P

Background Information about material resource at corporate, regional and national levels. 5 2 7

flows through the UK economy is of fundamental More than 30 different mass balance projects 6 1 0 4

importance to the cost-effective management of have been funded by Biffaward. For more r e b

resource flows, especially at the stage when the information on the Mass Balance UK programme m u n

resources become ‘waste’. please visit www.massbalance.org e e t n a r a u g y b d e t i m i l y

The mission of WWF is to stop the degradation of the planet’s n a natural environment and to build a future in which humans live p m o

in harmony with nature, by: c · conserving the world’s biological diversity A 7 4

· ensuring that the use of renewable resources is sustainable 2 1 8

· promoting the reduction of pollution and wasteful 0 1

consumption r e b m u n y t i r

www.wwf.org.uk a h c d e

WWF-UK r e t s i g

Panda House, Weyside Park e r

Godalming, Surrey GU7 1XR K U -

t: +44 (0)1483 426444 F W

f: +44 (0)1483 426409 W