KIU Journal of Social Sciences

KIU Journal of Social Sciences Copyright©2019 Kampala International University ISSN: 2413-9580; 5(3): 293–301

Race, Ethnic Relations and the Development of Education in ,

O. A. URIAH, P.O. OBI Ignatius Ajuru University of Education, Rumuolumeni, , Nigeria.

Abstract. Race and ethnicity are ingredients of The United States of America is termed the most social composition that help to foster rapid culturally diverse society in the world, “society transformation in some developed climes. of immigrants” (Lewis, 1967). The original However, the case is adverse in Nigeria where population of America, was the American race and ethnic relations have become hydra- indigenes with only one percent, yet the headed problems that has fuelled Europeans, Asians, Africans etc. now dominate misunderstanding and distrust. It is worst the ever-rising population of America. In Africa, experienced in the educational sector and has race and ethnic relations have not been been the bane for its under-development. The harnessed to a beneficial position. Here, ethnic issues of race, ethnic relation and educational and racial struggles cause wars and one of the development is very visible in certain multiplier effects is on how it impedes educational policies like nomadic education, educational development. Ethnicity has resulted migrant fishermen schools, approval of private to amongst other problems, wobbling universities, federal character, quota system, democracy, high level of illiteracy, high moral rotation/ zoning etc. A descriptive approach was decadence, high rate of unemployment, adopted for this study while data was gathered increasing rate of population growth etc. from secondary sources like text books, journal (Makinwa, 1981). As a result of suspicion, materials and other records. The findings distrust and corruption among the multifarious conclude that race and ethnic relations have ethnic groups in Nigeria, educational done more harm to Nigeria‟s educational development like other sectors of the economy development. The paper recommends that, has taken a back seat. It seems to be making a Nigeria should embrace issues and elements that retrogressive progress, that is, it does not assume engender national cohesion and boast the rapidity it should attain in its developmental educational development and de-emphasizes strides. ethnicity, quota system, rotation etc in our Concepts and policies like quota system, systems. educationally disadvantaged states, zoning, rotation etc have affected the admission of Keywords: Race, Ethnicity, Ethnic, Relations, students to schools, leadership in schools, Education and Development. quality of graduates, overall development of the schools etc. while the nomadic education was 1. Introduction introduced in the northern part of Nigeria, dominated by the pastural Hausa / Fulani tribes; Many countries of the world are simply ethnicity, race and tribalism induced the parchment of ethnic groups and variant races. Southern (Ijaws) ethnic groups to solicit for the

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establishment of Migrant fishermen schools to phenotype. On ethnicity, Banks (1996) views it replicate what has been done in the Northern as a collection of rather simplistic and obvious Nigeria. The Willink‟s Commission of 1958 statements about boundaries, otherness, goals took ethnicity into consideration to appease the and achievements, being and identity, descent Southern Minority tribes. Thus, their and classification that has been constructed as recommendations for the establishment of Niger much by the anthropologist as by the subject. Delta Basin Development Authority (NDBDA) was ethnocentric in nature. Ethnicity is a key Some scholars see ethnic relation as strife sociological concept that has been applied in between ethnic groups in the course of which various ways and reared up its monstrous head people stress their identity and exclusiveness. through racism, nationalism, statism, Yelvington (1991) says ethnicity is a social indigeneship etc. It has therefore become identity characterized by fictive kinship. cancerous that it cascades through the length and Ethnicity is a term that half-heartedly aspires to breadth of Rivers State, especially in educational describe phenomena that involve everybody, and development. that nevertheless has settled in the vocabulary as a marker of strangeness and unfamiliarity, In this study therefore, we shall explore the (Mustapha, 2000). In all these definitions of race influence of race and ethnic relations on and ethnicity, it will be observed that they refer educational development of Rivers state. mainly to segmented human groups who engage in a particular type of social relationship. In The specific objectives are: addition, they view the employment or - To examine the impact of race and mobilization of ethnic identity and difference as ethnicity in educational development of a means to gain advantage in situations of Rivers state. competition, conflict or cooperation which is in - To review the factors which exacerbate alignment with the idea of ethnic relations. race and ethnicity in educational development of Rivers State. Ethnic relations involve a type of social relations - To outline the influence of race and in which members of different ethnic groups ethnic relations on educational seek advantage by appealing to their various development of Rivers State. groups, ethnic identities or shared groups‟ - To proffer solutions to the problems of characteristics. There ethnic identities or race and ethnicity in educational characteristics include points of personal development of Rivers State. reference such as perceptions of common descent history, fate, and culture, which usually 2. Conceptual Framework indicate, some mix of language, physical appearance, and the ritual regulation of life, 2.1 Race and Ethnic Relations especially religion (Webers, 1978, Hale 2004) The concept of ethnicity dwells more on the Ethnicity is a derivative of Greek word corpus or relationship among people from “ethnikos” which means “a people or nation” different ethnic groups who decided to base their and race means the descendants of a common relationship on these differences (Osaghae 1994; ancestor especially those who inherited a Vaaseh, 2014). Ethnicity also denotes a common set of characteristics. Simply put, a contextual discrimination by members of one race is a breed. Encarta (2009) refers to race as group against others on the basis of one of the groups into which the world‟s differentiated systems of socio-cultural symbols population can be divided on the basis of (Otiti, 2000). Hence ethnic relations is the physical characteristics such as skin or hair interactions among members of different ethnic colour. Race is usually employed descriptively. groups. To distinguish the ethnic relations Abizadeh (2001) defines race as humans who therefore, one has to dissect the four major share common ancestors from whom they have attributes of ethnicity according to Nnoli (2001), inherited some immense traits, such as into (1) polity, (2) exclusiveness (3) conflict and

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(4) harnessing the benefits of inhabiting colonial administration established both primary together. and secondary schools mainly through Christianity and their churches. At some point, 2.2 Educational Development conscious efforts were made to establish the University College Ibadan1948 and the Yaba Education is paramount to national College of Technology 1932. Other tertiary development. Diverse researches support this institutions sprang up with time. assertion that it has transcended from being a theory to law, that it is a major catalyst for However, when some elements ethnocentrically development (Ojiombo, 2009; Addo, 2010; realized that there was serious imbalance in Dienye, 2011). Nations of the world have hinged educational development between the north and their developmental struggles on education, southern parts of Nigeria, some policies and hence, they copiously invest in it, to explore the concepts were introduced to initiate the negative knowledge that assist in the diverse sectors of consequences of this ethnic resolve. As a result common endeavours like science, technology of race and ethnicity in the educational industrialization, self-sufficiency in food, development of Nigeria, came quota system, standard of living and well-being, the federal character principle, indigeneship, zoning, environment, and others, hoping that the rotation among others. All these were introduced knowledge discovered, will bring about to help accommodate all ethnic nationalities and corresponding human advancement and societal to arrest the negative consequences of poor development (Thomson, 2008, Dienye, 2011). ethnic relations in Nigeria. All these impede Amaele (2011) says through education the educational development in Nigeria. Rivers society trains, forms and moulds the individual State is one out of the thirty six to achieve the social needs and aspirations. The and has diverse ethnic nationalities inhabiting humanists argue that the function of education is the state. Has this race and ethnic relations also to develop the natural potentialities in the child affected its educational development? to enable him function in the society according to his abilities, interest and needs. While the 3. Theoretical Framework sociologist believed that education is to help the child imbibe the norms and values of the society It should be noted from the definitional approach to help for conformity and engender peace, that two critical issues were identified. The first progress and stability of society. is that ethnicity is neither natural nor accidental, but is the product of conscious effort by social Education is what each generation gives to its actors. The second is that ethnicity is not only younger ones which make them develop manifest in conflictive or competitive relations attitudes, abilities, skills and other behaviours but also in the contexts of cooperation. This which are the positive values to the society in means that ethnic conflict manifests itself in which they live, (Fafunwa, 1974). At the initial various forms like politics, community services, stage, education in Nigeria had only taken the violence etc, and even in education. In trying to form of informality where people tutor their proffer solutions to the question of race and children (wards) about conducts, behaviours and ethnic relations to educational development, so discipline. many schools of thought have cropped up. Vashney (2002) distinguishes four schools in The environment and society generally also essentialism. This is to enable us identify contributed immensely in shaping the child. It is different tendencies that are dumped under mostly the societal influence that sticks construction. permanently the badge of ethnicity on the child. Formal education was however introduced by Essentialism restates the thesis of primordalism, the European Missionaries. This has served as that is, that ethnic identities are static and given. their most cogent contributions to their long It notes that ethnic identities date back to the imperialism and occupation of Nigeria. The

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distant past and are rooted in cultural differences and in the Nigerian case, there is little that is among kinship-based groups. traditional about the contemporary pattern of political divisions. That is, rather than Instrumentalism posits that ambitions classes disintegrate ethnicity, modernization reinforces manipulate dormant ethnic identities to pursue it, entrenches it, broadens it and roots it deeper their interest, thereby politicizing ethnicity and in Nigeria to our overall disadvantage, the ethnicizing the polity. Constrictiveness education is no exception. Coleman, (1986) interrogates the origins of ethnic groups, tracing shows how the desire of the Igbo-speaking identities to the activities of colonial authorities, people for education was threatening the status missionaries, and emergent nationalists and quo, where the Yoruba-speaking people who had emphasizing the historicity and facility of ethnic earlier contacts with western civilization identities. dominated the colonial service. Thus, both Institutionalists emphasize the critical role of education and charismatic leadership, which politics, constitutions and pragmatic polices in modernization theory expected to reduce, the framing of ethnic relations. Ake (2000) and exacerbated it. Apart from modernization theory, Mustapha (2000) have correctly argued that there are other theories on ethnicity like the these distinctions have been overemphasized as Theory of State Dynamics developed by Geert, the use of one does not necessarily preclude the (1972), Collective Action Theory of Fredrik other. Barth (1978).

3.1 Modernization Theory of Ethnicity 4. Educational Development in Nigeria: An Overview. This theory assumes that conflicts in developing societies were borne out of the fact that the The introduction and development of education people who constructed these societies started earlier in Southern Nigeria because of the originated from varied cultures that engaged warm reception of the missionaries. According themselves in bloody duels before the advent of to Fafunwa (1974), the Southern protectorates the „civilizers‟. This can be accommodated in had positive impact on the development of the essential assumption of irrationality in education because it provided protection to ethnicity (Vaaseh, 2010). This characterization Christian evangelism, as a result, the colonial was based on the earlier work of many colonial government extended its developmental dragnet anthropologists who were credited for inspiring and interest to the South-Eastern Nigeria, of earlier policies of ethnic and race relations in which Rivers state then was part. By 1906, the several African Societies like Nigeria. These southern protectorate and colony of has include the promotion of separate settlement 40 schools as noted by Okorosaye-Orubite schemes for natives and “non-indigenes” in (1995). By 1842, the first primary school was urban areas e.g Sabon Gari, (Kano), Gariki established in Badagry by the Wesley Methodist (), etc, indirect rule, and regionalism Church. CMS Grammar School was the first aimed at ensuring that there was a minimum secondary school, while Yaba College of social distance between the groups. Technology was the first higher institution in Nigeria, and was founded in 1932. Modernization theory advanced charismatic national cohesion and integration like in The establishment of schools in Nigeria kindled America and Europe, has yielded distrusts and a spirit of competition amongst the various backwardness in Africa. Even with the Christian missionaries ( Okachikwu-Agbaraeke, modernization, there is persistence of ethnicity 2014); Uriah and Okachikwu-Agbaraeke, in Nigeria. (2017).

Nelson and Wolpe (1997) made a critique of In Rivers State, the CMS, Roman Catholic modernization theory that inter-group conflict is Mission, Methodist Church, Baptist Church etc. seldom a product of simple cultural diversity, founded many primary schools in furtherance of

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their developmental effort in the secondary Zaria, University of Benin amongst others in the education sector, the Anglican Church (CMS) early 60s. established the Archdeacon Crowder Memorial Girls‟ School, Elelenwo in 1943, Nyemoni Furthermore, the military administration Grammar School, , OGS Okirka etc. established many more in the 70s and when finally, education fell on the concurrent The Baptist Mission founded the Baptist High legislative list between 1979 – 1983, many states School, Borokiri Port Harcourt. And the Roman keyed in, to achieve the much needed Catholic Mission established Holy Rosary technological development, with 18 Secondary School, Port Harcourt, Stella Maris universalities established. In Rivers State, the College, Port Harcourt; Sancta Maria High University of Port Harcourt came on board in School, ; Ascension High School, Eleme, 1977 by the Federal Government of Nigeria, the St. Scholastic Girls School, Bakana; St. Pius X state government had earlier established the College, Bodo; St Joseph‟s Secondary School, College of Science and Technology, Port Umuaturu; Akpor Grammar School, Ozuoba; Harcourt. This was converted to the Rivers State Mariam High School, Bane etc. University of Science and Technology in 1981. There was also the Advanced Teachers Training Government took the first bold step in College (ATTC) Port Harcourt (1971), and establishing secondary schools with the opening College of Agriculture, Onne. of king‟s College, Lagos in 1909. From the first republic, more schools were established due to Presently, in Rivers State education has radically Nigeria‟s gaining of independence in 1960. been transformed, that the state can boost of Also, the second republic saw the creation of several universities, Polytechnics, Monotechnics more states which consequently generated more and Colleges. For instance, University of Port schools (Njoku, 1996). The Federal Government Harcourt; ; Ignatius in the 1970s established unity schools (Federal Ajuru, University of Education, Ken Saro Wiwa Government Colleges). Now, there are 104 of Polytechnic, or Port Harcourt such schools owned and managed by the Federal Polytechnic, College of Health Science and Government (Njoku, 1996). Technology, School of Nursing, Pamos University of Medical Sciences (Private), In Rivers State, the Post-Primary Schools‟ Federal College of Education (Technical) Board statistics, (2014) showed a total number Omoku; Federal Polytechnic of Oil and Gas, of secondary school education of 238 public Bonny etc. secondary schools. While the education sector has been liberalized, with a keener participation Education is a tool per excellence for national of the private sector. In the higher education development. This upholds the fact that sector, the Yaba Higher College came on board education is not only useful but cardinal in any in 1932. The vehement criticism that society that prepares itself for growth and characterized administration of the school led to development. However, education depends to a the inauguration of the Asquith and the Elliiot large extent upon the particular culture and Commissions on Higher education in 1943. character of the people and society or what they Their recommendations saw to the establishment aim to achieve. Nigeria had experimented many of the University College, Ibadan in 1948. The educational polices such as Universal Primary UCI served as a campus of University of Education (UPE), the 6:3:3:4 system, the London. The Ashby commission was set up in Universal Basic Education (UBE) etc. Most 1959 to review the educational needs of policies in Nigeria were simply adopted to sooth Nigerian and to make projections into the next the ethnic groups or race of the nationalities that two decades. The report of this commission make up Nigeria. Rivers State being a became a basis for the establishment of many microcosm of the country, (Nigeria) with diverse first generation universities after independence ethnic groups has favoured ethnic relations in like the UNN, OAU, University of Lagos, ABU the establishment of secondary schools during

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the 2nd Republic, and also the sitting of the Ethnic groups are assigned their own quota in higher institutions. To foster foster educational admission, unity schools, establish over board. development in Rivers State, consideration of As a result of this, people in Rivers State feel the race and ethnic relations becomes a sine qua that any institution located within the ethnic area non in Education sector. is theirs for the asking. There is immediate community quota, local government quota in 5. Influence of Race and Ethnic term of scholarship, appointments, promotions Relations on Educational etc. Zoning is that, establishment of educational Development in Rivers State. institution are zoned in different senatorial zones or ethnic groups for the development to be The federal character principle is a policy decongested. Thus there is the Federal College introduced into the legal domain of Nigeria to of Education Technical at Omoku, Federal assuage the fears, suspicious, misunderstanding College of Arts and Science, , RIART and worries of some backward ethnic groups in Onne, Federal Polytechnic of Oil and Gas Nigeria. It is thus introduced as an harbinger of Bonny, University of Port Harcourt, Choba, peace and cohesion and to foster good IAUE Rumuolumeni Port Harcourt, Ken Saro relationship amongst the various ethnic groups Wiwa Polytechnic Bori etc. This zoning spreads that make up Nigeria. The reason behind the the higher institutions all over Rives State federal character principles is very plausible However secondary schools are scattered all especially to engender unity in diversity. But the over the communities that make up the different underlying politics that gave rise to it brings ethnic groups for a greater friendly ethnic about mediocrity even in the educational sector. relation and cohesion Federal character means representation of all the sectors, shades, classes, states, etc. of the In some ways, race and ethnic relations had federation, but in truth, it is the representation in fostered a better rapid educational development all sectors by the diverse ethnic groups. For in Rivers State. This can be observed from the instance, the Nigeria Delta Development perspective of competition amongst the diverse Commission (NDDC) Board must have a ethnic groups like the Ikwerres, Etches, Hausa/Fulani, Yoruba and Ibo members to give Engennis, Ekpeyes, Abua, Odual, Ogba/ it a national character and coloration instead of Egbema/ Ndonis, Kalabaris, Igbanis, Wakirikes, the oil-producing states of the South-South and Ndokis, Elemes, Ogoni, Andonis, etc. South East. Such competitive nature of the ethnic groups can be visualized in schools built by the The Federal character dictates how lecturers are communities, ethnic cooperation (e.g Country employed, vice chancellors are appointed, Grammar School, Ikwerre-), increasing catchment areas, community and state quota, number of enrolment in schools, orientation that educationally less developed states, conditions education is the key to development etc. In in admissions, unity schools etc. This rather that Nigeria generally race and ethnic relation can be bond the peoples, enshrines divisive tendencies said to be „badluck‟ to educational development that have bedeviled the rapid development of because of the imbalance (North and South), the education and affected its quality in Nigeria. In polarization which influences the polices Rivers State for instance, it is becoming a (Almajiri schools and migrant custom that the Vice Chancellor / Rector / Fishermen/Farmers schools), hijab wearing Provost of an institution and the Registrar cannot schools (North) and non-hijab wearing schools come from one ethnic group. It has reached the (Christians) etc. Race and ethnic relation affects feverish peak where senior prefects in secondary the socio-economic fabrics of Nigeria, and schools must be an indigene (some-of-the-soil). waves destructive ornaments that the peoples are ready to acquire. The difference has prompted Quota system is another policy that has been by negative ethnic relations as it affects the adopted in Rivers like in Nigeria that pulls the education sector. The ethnic nationalities can strings of rapid educational underdevelopment. only be at war over land, politics, economies and

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socio-cultural issues but such do not succinctly Race and ethnicity are cancerous and monstrous affect the educational development. issues that have bedeviled social economic development in Nigeria. In Rivers State, this has 6. Empirical Review adversely affected the educational development. Thus, this ranges from government polices to the Many authors and schools have conducted implementation. Quota system has watered indebt researches in the areas of ethnicity, race down the quality of graduates from our schools and educational development. Though, there due to ethnic relationship consideration. So also exists that knowledge gap or lacuna in the area is rotation, zoning, community and ethnic of ethnic relations and educational development allocation, as can be seen in admission, of Rivers state Nigeria. Abizadeh, (2001) appointments of staff, leadership, location of reviewed that ethnicization of university schools etc. for instance, how will the migrant education and national development; the fishermen school function in Rives state? The Nigerian experience. Adopting a descriptive- Almajiri school in Ubima was established on analytical approach, explored the destructive ethnic consideration, yet is non-functional. effects of ethnicity and how it has bedeviled the education sector. They found out among other The Riverine areas of Rivers state are making a things, the deprivation of university education to strong case that the higher institutions in the qualified applicants, displacement of frustrated state, are located at Ikwerre land, they want one students and the eventual lose of those that could in Kalabari area, whether viable or not. participate in total development. They Sometimes, in Rivers State we experience ethnic summarized that merit is scarified at the altar of rivalries and dashes e.g Ogonis vs ; ethnicity. vs. Ogoni, Abua vs. Odual, Ogbakiri vs Kalabari etc within such period, schools located Otiti (2000) worked on the ethnic question and in such places are closed down. Educational the challenge of development in Nigeria: a study activities are usually at a standstill point. This of Port Harcourt, Rivers State. He suggests negatively affects the students and lives an however to promote meaningful dialogue among everlasting effect in their psyche. schools towards theological and policy consensus to meet the immediate challenges of Ethnic relation has frustrated many intellectuals enthroning peace, unity in diversity and in the education sector that they joined the brain- development generally. drain for a better life and equitable promotion of their course. Some scholars who are qualified Ake (2000) took a critical look at the emergence for promotion in their various schools are not of ethnicity in our polity, and took a swipe of granted, promotion due to ethnicity. Such does colonialism that it crystallized and perpetuated not augur well with the developmental strides ethnic cleavages by instituting divide and rule expected in the state. strategy as they decided the consequences of a united opposition to colonialism. 8. Recommendations

Mustapha, (2000) dwelt on the ethnic politics - The government and leadership of the and social conflicts; Factors in Nigeria‟s under state must ensure peaceful co-existence, development. They agreed through the context harmonies living, good–neighbourliness, analysis of literature that ethnicity has slowed co-operation and ethnic cohesion among down development and recommends that the multifarious ethnic nationalities of Nigeria should do all in his power to outgrow Rivers State. ethnic rancor and rivalry - There should be the substance of peace, equity and justice to all irrespective of 7. Summary / Conclusion the ethnic nationality. - The policies of quota system, community allocation, zoning, rotation

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etc are adverse to the growth and Dienye, V. U. (2011). Education and Societal development of education in Rivers Development the Quality Imperative. African States and should be jettisoned for merit Journal of Education and Technology, to take its pride of place. (3) 15-24. - In order to quell the effect of poor ethnic Encarta (2009). Microsoft corporation. relation, the legal instruments should be Fafunwa A.B. (1974). History of Education strengthened to abolish indigeneship, Policy in Nigeria. London: George ethnic nationalities etc in Rivers State. Allen & Unwin. This in effect will curb the ethnic Federal Republic of Nigeria (2008). National experience in recruitment, admission, Policy in Education (4th ed.) Lagos, promotion etc. of the staff and students NERDC press. in the education sector. Geertz, C. (1973). The Interpretation of - Education should be geared towards the Cultures: Selected Essays. New York, promotion of social / group relations, Basic Books. national cohesion, development of Hale, H. E. (2004). Explaining Ethnicity. Journal culture of productivity, development of of Comparative Political Studies 37(4). values of good citizennship, rather than 455-485. as weapon for division and Mustepha, A.R. (2000). Transformation of disintegration of the state and Nigeria in Minority Identities in Port Clonial general. Nigeria, in Jaga (eds) Identity - Establishment of more higher Transformation and Identity Politics institutions and other related study Under Structural Adjustment in Nigeria, organizations should be spread beyond Uppsala & Kano: Nordic African Ikwerre land to Ogoni, Andoni, Okrika Institute and Centre for Research and and kalabari lands, to cover their Documentation, 86-103. interest. Nelson, R. & Wolpe, H. (1971). Nigeria, Modernization and the Politics of References Communication; East Lansing. Michigan: State University Press. Abizadeh, A. (2001). “Ethnicity, race and a Njoku, A.C. (1996). Politics, Society and possible humanity‟ world order. Enugu: Secondary Education in Nigeria; in J.M. Fourth Dimension Publication. Kosemoni & M.C. Anuna (Eds). Politics Addo, P. (2010). Managing ethnic relations in a of Education in Nigeria Perspective. heterogeneous society: The Case of Enugu: Emesco Publication. Nigeria. Port Harcourt: Ashate Nnoli, O. (1989). Ethnic Politics in Nigeria. Publishing Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishers Ake, C. (2000). The Feasibility of Democracy in Ojiombo, S. (2009). Ethnic Militic Group and Africa. Dakar: CODESRIA Books. the National Question in Nigeria; Social Amaele, S. (2011). History of Education: From Science Research in Africa, Jan. Ancient to Contemporary Era: The Okorosaye-Orubite, A.K. & Kosemanic, J.M. Global and Nigeria Perspectives. Port (1995). History of Education: A Harcourt: Harley Publication Contemporary Analysis. Port Harcourt: Banks, M. (1996). Ethnicity: Anthropologic Abe Publishers. Constructions. London: Routlege Osagha, E.E. (1994). Ethnicity and its Barth, P.O. (1978). Strengthening National Management in Africa. Lagos: Unity in the Caribbean. London, Malthouse. Longman Publishers. Otiti, C.O (2000). The Ethnic Question and the Coleman, J. (ed). (1986). Individual Interest and Challenge of Development in Nigerians: Collective Action: Selected Essay. A Study of Port Harcourt Rives State; London: Cambridge University Press. International Journal of Development and Management Review, Vol. 4: No. 1

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