Primary Elections

PRIMARY ELECTIONS

A STUDY O F METHO DS FO R IMPRO VI NG THE BASIS O F PARTY O RG ANI'ATIO N

I EL REM E DAN S. S N

O F TH E NEW Y O RK BAR

SE CON D ED I TI ON

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G . P. PUTNAM S SO NS

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D A I L S R M S N E . E EN ’ Ente r e d a t Sta tione rs H ll a , London

’ B v G A . P PUT M SO . N S NS

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' ’ G . P . PU r NAu s Sous

E PREFAC .

A}: o ular nm n character of a p p gover e t depends on the clas s of me n evolved by the nt n n m n n i er al worki gs of the do i a t party . When the product of that party is of a i in and t h gh order character abili y, there can no m nm n B ut be better for of gover e t . experi ence has brought many discou rage

m n Pu ﬁ ha v . at m n e ts . blic of cers e ti es show themselves careless of pu blic rights and u t m M n n heedless to j st cri icis . a y co sider m tu n not the selves ac ally respo sible, to the m b u t voters by who they are elected, to some central power Within the party to m t n m n n who hey owe their o i atio . Of n m t t prese t party e hods, a prac ical ’ politician recently said I t 8 gr ea t spor t to see people go to the polls i n her ds a nd vote lik c ttle or the tic t w r r R e a f ke e p epa e. e ’ or mer don t b i n t th r i ht oi nt f s eg a e g p . The y shou ld begin a t the poi nt wher e nomi 6 Pr efa ce .

ti n r ma d I h i le thi nk th na o s a e e . e peq ey mak e the nomi nati on bu t we do tha t bu i s, s ness for t David Dudley Field qu otes and n t r m these words, i sists hat the p i ary m n is the pivot of refor . That certai ly is the only point at which th e ordinary voter comes in contact with the internal affairsof n m his party . The co trol of the pri ary carries it nt of conv e n with the co rol the party, the n and n m n n m tio , the o i atio . The pri ary n t m n electio , herefore, deter i es both the character of the party and the quality u nm n pop lar gover e t . I f better resu lts are to be obtained from a an z n m m mu p rty org i atio s, i proved ethods st n u and m be i trod ced, the better those ethods are planned the more satisfactory will be u t u the res l . The r les or laws of party sh ou ld aim to indu ce the largest partici t u of m m im r pa io party e bers at the pr a y . Party ru les shou ld provide a method of election at primaries which would enable minorities to elect their du e proportion of u ne w me n u con delegates . Th s wo ld be tinually brought into party councils and u nﬁ n u V u p blic co de ce sec red . oters wo ld Pr efa ce . 7

n u in m be e co raged to participate pri aries. And they wou ld qu ickly learn that all m n m u votes, i ority or ajority, wo ld bear fr u it in the party committee or nominating n n n n num co ve tio accordi g to their ber. Rules secu ring these results can be formulated with a little stu dy of ways and m n u r ul can ut n ea s . S ch es be p i to operation by the concerted action of good z n n an t E n one citi e s withi y par y . ve per s on can take the initiative in improving r u of his n z n the les local party orga i atio . P n m n t rogress begi s with the i ori y. It is ” m u n m t co pleted by pers adi g the ajori y . When practical ways and means for securi ng the desired ends shall have been fou nd and m n no n z n w de o strated , party orga i atio ill ventu re to disr egard a persistent demand from its members for enlightened repro se ntativ e m ethods . The rules given and methods pointed out are not presented as withou t ﬂa w or im r f n m i u pe ectio . So e are n su ccessf l opera n n w B u u e . t tio , others are I feel ass red on n and that they are the right li es, that, if t n m n adop ed, they will te d to ake ca didates Pr e a e 8 f e . feel responsible to the membership of their t n to an n par y, rather tha y ce tral power. I believe also that party organization sho uld b e a school for propor tional representation in u nm n pop lar gover e t . I wish to acknowledge the many cou rte sies received from variou s persons through o n t in m u t the U i ed States aid of y work . Especially am I indebted to the secretaries and other ofﬁcers of the National and cer tain State and county committees for the m n interest they have a ifested . D R S. . .

W O RK 1 8 NE . Y , January , 94 CONTENT S.

CHAPTER PAGE

I — TH E . PARTY

— E U A LI TY M EM B ER S II . Q AMONG

— LAWS R L S III . OR PARTY U E

I V — MA K RS o r . E PARTY RULES

V — C SAF G U A RD S . ONSTITUTIONAL E

VI — W H TH E . REPRESENTATION IT IN PARTY VI I — ORGANI'ATION OF PARTIES VIII — NA TI ONA L AND STATE ORGANI'A TIONS

I X — OR ' . COUNTY GANI ATIONS

X — ' . PRIMARY ORGANI ATIONS

XI — E C . PRIMARY LE TIONS

— DI R CT N XII . E OMINATIONS

— D I R T XIII . IN EC NOMINATIONS

X I V — PR OP I D . OS N G ELEGATES XV — D . PLURAL ELEGATES 9 I O Conte nts .

C HAPTER PAG E

XV I — THE S V . INGLE OTE

V — EL CT I O S C F X I I . E N LASSI IED

V — VOT I G X III . N

— M PROV D M H OF E C XIX . I E ET ODS LE TION

XX — I V TH E . MPRO E PRIMARY

X APPENDI A . RULES FO R PROPOSING CA NDIDATES

X B APPENDI . RULES FO R A B LA NKET B ALLOT

X c APPENDI . RULES FO R SECRET VOTING

X APPENDI D . RULES To PROMOTE M AJ ORITY ELEC TIONS

X APPENDI E . PRIMITIVE RULE FOR PROPORTIONAL REPRESENTATION

E X F APP NDI . RULES FOR Q UOTA ELECTIONS I CHAPTER .

TH E P ARTY .

A POLITICAL party is a n association of n n m n n on m perso s, holdi g si ilar opi io s so e u u t n u n t p blic q es io , who have i ed to pro mote those opinions by concerted action at u t n m n un n p blic elec io s . A o g its f ctio s are mu n a t the for latio of par y creed , the selec n n t a nd n u cam tio of ca dida es, the co d ct of ai ns p g . As u nder a repu blican form of govern ment the will of the s uccessful par ty m mu beco es the will of the people, too ch importance can scarcely be attr ibu ted to the means employed within a party for r n its u n ff t not ca ryi g p rposes i to e ec . It is wholly a matter of private concern how a n z m n u party is orga i ed . The ea s sed to I 2 Pr i m r le ti n a y E c o s .

make a nomination is of the greatest im r n th e u t po ta ce to p blic, for the charac er of a pu blic ofﬁcer depends U pon his con s titu e nc a nd u n t tu n the y, the tr e co s i e cy is w t n m n all po er hat o i ates Therefore, good citizens sho uld give special heed to r ni t n pa ty orga za io . When persons become associated for any pu rpose little ca n be accomplished withou t n ff t m m no orga ized e ort . Sys e beco es ces and u l n n n sary r es of actio i dispe sable . m in the n t n They are i plied word orga iza io . Moreover the character of every organiza n m u n n n u n tio , fro a cl b to a atio , depe ds po its u a nd t no e xce r les or laws, a par y is p n m m m tio . As a party is co posed of e bers its rules shou ld be adapted to membership and aim (1) to the ascertainment of the m m a nd 2 m in will of the e bers, ( ) to ak g ff u l n ti n u that will e ect a . The orga iza o sho ld be so constitu ted as to be in to u ch with the voters and at the same time strong in u fﬁ n Ot n n exec tive e cie cy . her thi gs bei g equal the party su cceeds best which is most assu ring to the pu blic mind of obedi ” u an ence to the pop lar will d welfare . II CHAPTER .

MON M MB EQUALITY A G E ERS .

I F membership in a political organization is to m a n u l l i ply eq a ity of rights, the wi l of every member mu st have a certain a nd u nt u f t its m I f s bsta ially eq al ef ec at pri ary . t not w n it his is al ays the case at prese t, is no less the theory on which party organiza u tion is based . To do bt that theory is to qu estion the representative character both of a party and of its nominees for pu blic fﬁ m u t o ce . It see s fair to s ppose hat party action is i ntended to be based on e ual

t On t the r e for e ach righ s . tha hypothesis, fi member necessarily has : (1) a right to participate ; (2) a right to have each vote reflect the will of the member ; a nd (3) a right to have each vote r odu ce a n equal effect as far as possib n n if not These propositio s are early, u m one ill n q ite, axio atic. No w de y the Pr i ma r lecti 1 4 y E ons . ri of m m ar n ght e bers to p ticipate, or ope ly contend that reasonably sufficient means u not ff for n sho ld be a orded so doi g. The only dispute which ca n arise is as to what n i u a n uffi n n co st t tes re so ably s cie t mea s . No one will su ggest that a vote shou ld fl an n v re ect y will other tha that of the oter. The only opportunity for difference of opin ion m n u n nd is as to the ea s of sec ri g that e . Likewise no one will claim that the vote of one member Should be regarded as better n n t one u tha that of a o her, or that sho ld m ff t an n i not have ore e ec th a other. Th s is saying that the j udgment of one man may not t n of n be bet er tha that a other. It is simply that the will of each member mu st u l a nd be eq a ly respected protected . The difficulty lies not in the principle of equal i am n m m r b u t in m n r ghts o g e be s, the ea s of working ou t th at p ri nciple in party n n u n u l orga izatio . The eq ality or i eq a ity given to the will of members necessarily depends ( 1) on the methods employed for r n n i of m m a nd 2 asce tai i g the w ll e bers, ( ) the means adopted to carry into effect l n their wi ls whe they are revealed . I I I CHAPTER .

W OR U E LA S PARTY R L S.

I F members of a political party are to u ri ffi n m n mu have eq al ghts, e cie t ea s st be m u i e ployed to sec re those r ghts . As that secu rity ca n be obtained only by r e gul at in of all can n n g the acts , it be attai ed o ly by rules of action which ar e binding alike on a ll u u ma n . S ch r les y be of two ki ds laws enacted by the State or rules adopted by the organiz ation for its own govern m n I f u l u diffi e t . laws co d be had witho t cu lty it might be u nnecessary to give a ny special attention to the difi e r e nce between l and ul B u t m aws party r es . that is seldo u la w nn u the case . S ch a ca ot be had if p blic n n not m n A nd n opi io does de a d it . so lo g as pu blic opinion is not sufficiently strong

m m n m - m u mu to ake the de a d, ho e ade r les st u n n ma for tu be relied po . I deed it y be n u th e for the ate that s ch is case, at least i Pr i ma ry Elect ons .

n n u l prese t. U do btedly if the right aws were enacted they cou ld be enforced by means of pains a nd penalties and with more n n m u l an niz t n certai ty tha ere r es of orga a io . B u t what those laws should be is not yet n n n u k ow . The , too, there sho ld be a pu blic sentiment to insu re the enforcement la w l u n n n un of a . A c ear dersta di g fo ded on experience is produ ctive of pu blic senti m n And u l a e t . where co d there be better school for practice than u nder h o me - made r u les ' Stu dy of ways a nd means to secu re equ al rights to party members is mu ch n m nn t eeded . The best ethods ca o be ' ” u ou t n l c n str ck at a si g e blow. They a be obtained only by the combination of u and ri n s u b tho ght expe e ce . That this jce t has not had the necessary attention is apparent from even a casual observation of m l m the ethods of politica parties . The ost practical cou rse for the improvement of party organization and methods of nomina tion seems to involve (1) a thorou gh study u and 2 u of the s bject, ( ) act al tests of what ma m m u I n y see to be i proved party r les . nt e n either eve , whether laws are to be

1 Pr i a r Ele i 8 m y ct ons .

n n z n me m relati g to party orga i atio s, each ber has an equ al right to bring about u nity n m n B ut is of actio a o g his fellows . it equ ally tru e that as soon as a company is gathered together or a party is formed for u m t n u n of a n the p rpose of pro o i g ity ctio , rules of action become necessar y to insu re u ff f m m eq al e ect to the will o each e ber. As ru les of action are perfected so is the equ ality of the rights of members pro c d te te . MAKE OF T E RS PAR Y RUL S.

THERE seems to be no su bstantial differ ence in principle between the government of a party and the government of a repu b t ul nm nt lic. Bo h are pop ar gover e s . Both n l n un have to deal with si g e perso s as its . Both derive their power from the will of m m u e bers . Therefore, at least where rep b n ri n l l u m lica p cip es prevai , it wo ld see that J u l n u n nm n both sho d be co stit tio al gover e ts, and that the constitution should be su ch as u m m m wo ld eet the approval of the e bers . This is true of any organization composed of persons associating themselves for a mm n ur co o p pose . If a party is to be gov e rned by its members they mu st mak e its un m n l u Of u it not f da e ta r les . co rse is claimed that all members of a party should assemble and adopt its rules any more than the people of a State should as r 20 Pr i ma y Elections .

m and d t n u n se ble a op its co stit tio . As constitu tions are framed by specially con stitu ted conventions a nd adopted or rejected wholly or in part b y a direct vote of the n u n of c l people , so the co stit tio a politi a t ma m and par y y be fra ed adopted . From the American point of view and for the stability of a popular gov ernment it would be manifestly u nwise to permit the u l l n u l exec tive, egis ative, or eve the j dicia m n nm n depart e t of a gover e t, or all three m n m m fundame n co bi ed , to ake or odify the n u n nm n tal or co stit tio al basis of gover e t . That power is the great point of safety in n tu n nm n and mu a co sti tio al gover e t, st be n u reserved to the sovereig a thority . A great point of difﬁc ulty in party gov e r nme nt is that the fu ndamental law of the organization is made and changed u sually by persons who chance to be in control of t W u t an n o n t the par y, itho y asse t the par m m Ru n l m of the e bers . ( les are ge era ly ade and changed by State or county commit l m m m tees . The e bers of those com ittees

Only a few exceptions have been found : Republican

a Pa . p rty in Crawford County, , where a vote of members is P r t R 2 Ma k er s of a y ule s . I ar e enabled to prescribe what shall be the n u n t t m n co stit tio of the par y . They de er i e l m m who sha l be e bers of a party, what rights members shall have a nd how they l i shal exerc se those rights . It is not u nusu al to find rules adopted ‘ by su ch committees containing provisions somewhat after the following : Only those shall vote at a pri mary Whose names are mm t On n approved by the co it ee . ly perso s can hold office who will agree in advance that they will endorse a nd su pport ” each and every candidate irrespective of fitn ffi mm ma his ess for o ce . The co ittee y disband local organizations and create others in I t ma m ffi and their stead . y re ove o cers expel members for causes deemed s uf ” fi n u all m s cie t . The proced re at pri arie and conventions shall be as directed by the mm and in h co ittee, all ot er respects the required ; the Republican and Democratic parties in Philade l e phia , wher a convention of delegates elected for that purpose is required . In a fe w cases nominating conventions make rules. : Among others see the following rules Democratic , Kings Y Y R Y Co N . . ; Tammany , N . . City ; epublican , N . . City ; R L K I i . . See epublican , ouisv lle . y ; Democratic , Chicago , ll also 2 p . 4 . 2 r r i 2 P i ma y Elect ons . committee shall have full control of the o n t n rga iza io . Under su ch provisions the created is able m n t n to do i ate the crea or. The serva t is n m t mm t greater tha the as er. The co it ee is l not n ord of the party. This is sayi g that lw u B u t the power is a ays ab sed . that t n n u a l od me nt w of e happe s. S ch g of po er n u m n is da gero s . It see s as esse tial to the welfare of a party as of a Sta te that its fu ndamental laws sho uld be made or changed only with the consent of the m m e bers . It is no more necessary for the constitu tion of a par ty to embrace all party l aw than for the constitu tion of a State to e m t On fu n brace all law of the S ate . ly the dame ntal principles demand treatment in n u t n m Matte rs l co stit io al for . of detai (except so far as they may tend to secu re f m n u and u reedo of actio , eq al rights, eq al effect to the will of members) seem safe in the n of mm n ti n ha ds a co ittee or co ven o . National a nd State constitu tions have been the su bject of mu ch scientific study and u u n B u co i pop lar disc ssio . t party ns t tu r M ak er s of Pa ty Rules . 2 3

tions have received little attention ou tside of n in n n z n perso s co trol of the orga i atio . This neglect seems to be one reason for the present general tendency towards ce n i in tr al zation of power political par ties . CHAPTER V.

ON F D CON STITUTI AL SA EGUAR S .

I F the object of a political organization is to be attained on the theory of equ ality m n m m n i u n mu a o g e bers, its co st t tio st pro m n to n u e nd u vide the ea s e s re that . S ch means should tend to secure to each me m ri to t t i ber the ght par icipa e, the r ght of m t n in n and a n u freedo of ac io so doi g, eq al f i n u ef ect, as far as poss ble, to the i divid al not n u will . It is easy to ascertai j st what m n u u n b u t ea s wo ld best sec re these e ds, that cannot be u rged as a reason for mak in no m m r u g atte pt to i prove party les . The difﬁculty of a task cannot j ustify the ne g u u lect of a d ty . The s bject, therefore, ul u tu and e x e r i sho d be caref lly s died , p n n n and n d me ts i tellige tly dilige tly trie . The primary is the only point at which members of a political organization partici m in u n n pate as embers party b si ess. Whe

2 6 Pr i ma r le o y E cti ns .

o n n u e n ed c ditio s sho ld prop rly be co sider . B u t one u u n n n r le sho ld ever be tra sce ded, a nd that is the pri mary organization should never be so large as to mak e it impossible or even difﬁc ul t for me mbers to vote with in o t t m the all t ed i e . I n large primaries it is not no w u nfr e u n m m in the n q e t for e bers, especially eve in t n in n an u n g, to s a d li e for ho r waiti g u n n r n mm o u n. for their t r to vote, is it co o in some localities for a h u ndred members th u s waiting to be t urned away at the n 1 closi g of the polls . I n view of recent experience with the secret ballot it should be comparatively easy to preserve the freedom of action of me m 2 s I for n nd n ber . f a voter cares i depe e ce,

‘ The last instance of that description witnessed by the writer was where the polls had been opened from one to nine P M 68 2 I v . and persons had voted . t required from twel e ’ seconds to two and one - half minutes to ﬁnd a voter s name was on the list and receive his ballot . The average time about forty seconds . The roll of membership in that primary z 20 0 0 organi ation was said to exceed . Other primary asso ciations 0 0 all in the same city number as high as 35 , and n are required to vote at the same poll or ot to vote at all . Such a primary operates as a fraud on the members of the n organizatio . 9 The secret ballot is used by the Republican party in

Boston . 2 Constitu tiona l Safeg u a r ds . 7 the secret ballot will afford him a mea ns of n I f no t for it preservi g it. he does care , secrecy will tend to prevent improper in ﬂu nc Of u r t n u not e es . co se all vo i g co ld W b u t no um n ell be secret, that is arg e t against a secret ballot where that method can u P t u ul well be sed . ar y r les sho d pro vide what votes are of su fﬁcient importance t n in m nn o be take that a er. With su itable r ules to sec ur e to each memb e r the right to par ticipate and the of m of a t n in n right freedo c io so doi g, still it would be necessary to go one very important step further The rules mu st n u an u ff b i s re eq al e ect, as far as possi le, n u can n to the i divid al will . This be do e only by ( 1) proper means for the expres n of u 2 sio that will, co pled with ( ) provi sions tending to i nsu re to the will of each u ff u con eq al e ect. We are th s led to the sideration of representation and methods of n electio . VI CHAPTER .

E N ON WI THI N THE RTY REPR SE TATI PA .

PARTY organiz ation is fou nded on repro cu n m m s tatio . The e bers of a party par tici ate in mm and n n n p the co ittee co ve tio , n n for m u by choosi g age ts to act the . S ch n u u d t l I f age ts are s ally called elega es . every member of a party who co uld not attend a convention was enabled to send u u u no u u a s bstit te, there co ld be do bt abo t n m the representatio being co plete . ' The same would also be true if any given num te n one u n of m n ber, as or h dred, like i d were to u nite in the choice of a single s ub stitute m m u al n . As e bers are eq ly e titled to be represented by persons of their h and u t u all c oice, as s itable par y r les are n m no e x that is ecessary, there see s to be c use for the failure of a party to adopt im m d pr oved etho s . The best place to teach pr oportional

28 R epr esentation Withi n the Pa r ty . 29

i i t n the s uc representat on s wi hi party . A ce s sful application to party organization wou ld eventu ally insu re improved methods n n in i t e d of represe tatio leg sla iv bo ies . The ob ject of proportional representation n in n withi the party is to aid givi g, as far a n u ff v as possible, eq al e ect to each ote t m I f of m n cas at a pri ary . all were like i d u no fﬁ u m there wo ld be di c lty, for all pri ary n u u n n m u B u t le t no electio s wo ld be a i o s . one deceive himself or others with the as su mption or the assertion that an unanimou s primary election as u su ally cond u cted is concl usive or even presu mptive evidence of n m f m n n u na i ity o i d . Whe there are no dissenting votes at a primary it can be ao u n for in one two E co ted of ways . ither the question has only one side and is there f no u n or m n n ore q estio , so ethi g is wro g. To the members of a political organization an u nanimous primary election may be evi dence that many fellow- members had b e come convinced that it was u seless to r u n ” an n and oppositio ticket, had therefore ' ” u n voted the reg lar ticket, or had abse ted m f m m the selves ro the pri ary . r Ele s 30 Pr i ma y ction .

If absolutely equal effect could be given to the will of each person who voted at the m u for pri ary, it wo ld be desirable to do so, has an u i one con each eq al r ght . No will n n t n m n an te d, however, that a y hi g ore tha approximate equality is attainable u nder n u m n The ff u ordi ary circ sta ces . di ic lty is not with the equality of the rights of me m b ut t n in t n r ac bers , wi h setti g opera io a p tical means of mak ing effectu al those equ al i n m d of r ghts . To the ge eral reader etho s secu ring proportional representation are n n and mu m u n d little k ow ch is derstoo . They requ ire and repay carefu l considera n 1 tio . 'The fact that delegates are not now selected on representative principles seems u n in m u for mu dis s atis to acco t, a eas re, ch faction especially with conventions a nd the t n i o i candida es they ominate for p ubl c ﬁ ce . Besides what may be found in the following pages bearing H Election o Re r es enta ti ves on this subject , see are on f p , Mill on R e r esenta ti ve Gover nment Re r esenta tion o M i nor i p , Field on p f ties ou Re r esenta ti ve Gover nment a nd P e r sona l , Sterne p R e r es enta tion Re r es enta tion p , Lubbock on p , Buckalew on ” P r o or tiona l Re r es enta tion A t p p , Legal Disfranchisement , la ntic Al onthl 1 8 2 2 S G y , April , 9 , p . 54 , laying the erry ” m A tla ntic M onthl M a 1 8 2 6 8 s ander, y , y, 9 , p . 7 publication

of A i P n R . mer can roportio al epresentation League , etc e i 1 R epr se nta t on Withi n the Pa r ty . 3

It also disco urages participation in primary elections b y rendering useless all inde pe n n n of m n u de t actio i orities . Th s the ab sence of proportional representation within r t m u nt m t nt the pa y see s to acco , to so e ex e , for the non- attendance of voters at prima nt n n ries, as well as for the prese te de cy to r n z n in m n m n wa ds ce trali atio party a age e t . Not a trace of proportional representation in conventions has been discovered in the rules of the political organizations which n ‘ have bee accessible . It is however pro 2 ' vide d by the laws of Mississippi that each faction shall have its proportion of repre sem ” tation in u n - m n n n n the co ty eeti g or co ve tio , b u t the means for secu ring that result are m n i u n left to be deter i ed n each co ty . But two instances have been found where proportional representation is recognized for any purpose : one is in th e the choice of inspectors of election , and the other in election h of a ward executive committee . T ese limited but excellent provisions are both found in Philadelphia . The one relating to the election of a ward executive committee is in the rules of U R as 1 8 : the nion epublican party published in 93 rule 5 , 1 section . The provision as to inspectors of election is found a 1 8 2 : in the rules of the Democratic p rty , printed in 9 rule 3, I h section 5 . t will be noticed t at impartial inspectors have to do only with the honesty of an election and that a ward e xe cu tive committee is not a nominating body . See rules for n a 1 1 1 1 1 2 proportio al represent tion at pp . , . 9 La of 1 8 2 6 ws Miss . 9 , ch . 9 , 5 . I CHAPTER VI .

N ORGA I'ATION OF PARTIES.

TH E general featu res of organization in all parties are quite similar throughou t the n U ited States . There are three great divisions : The m mm a nd n n n pri ary, the co ittee, the co ve tio . The primary is the only portion of party organization which is not representative in h I t n m c aracter. alo e is co posed of the m P m m ri m me bers . arty e bers act at a p ary n u in own s n as i divid als, their proper per o , while delegates to committees and conv e n n on B oth tio s act behalf of others . l the committee and the convention owe their ex iste nce to the votes of members cast at the m m im t pri ary . So et es delega es are elected a nd m m n by a direct vote, so eti es i directly m n n nt n by ea s of an intermediate co ve io . Where there is one cou nty or State com mitte e n n n n n or co ve tio , there are te s or eve 32

i r le 34 Pr ma y E ctions .

im n n at the pr aries. For like reaso s o duties shou ld be delegated which ca n read il r f m m m y be pe or ed by the e bers. mm n n m n The co ittee, ra gi g fro tow to n n n n an e xe cu atio al , is, speaki g ge erally, b u t f u n un a nd t tive body, req e tly co ty Sta e mm s l v fu n t n co ittees exerci e egislati e c io s . Notwithstanding these features the com i n l u m tte e is esse tia ly exec tive . It is charged With the du ty of keeping the party organi zation in good working order and with h e n u u m n t co d ct of the vario s ca paig s . Where legislative powers exist in the com mitte e it u s ually makes rules directed to the gov ernment of constituent primary organizations and su bordinate committees n n and co ventio s . A party is said to be su ccessful when its n ffi The ca didates are elected to public o ce . will of the party then becomes th e will of O n n u the people . ther thi gs bei g eq al , the su ccess of a campaign has been found to depend ver y largely on the manner in which n u u u it is co du cted . As those d ties s ally on mm u ef devolve the co ittee, its exec tive ie nc mm ﬁc y is imperative . The co ittee has Or a ni za ti on o Pa r ti es g f . 35 been the su bject of mu ch study and is com i v u n D m n par at e ly Well derstood . evelop e t of party organization on the execu tive side the u t n t n is r le ra her tha the excep io , The office of the convention is legislative t t n u t v I ts un n in ra her ha exec i e . f ctio s a n u t m the volve . discretio . Its d ies e brace selection of candidates and in some in stances the determination of party policy on m its n which the party is to ake co test . Conventions not u nfrequ ently appoint ex e cu i v n m I n d n t e a d other com ittees . a ditio t in m n t n conv e n to hese powers, so e i s a ces, tions are deemed to possess a legislative control over the committees and primary n n is orga izatio s . Therefore it especially proper that they sho uld be tru ly r e pr e s e n tativ e in character. Notwithstanding the importance of the primary and the convention as factors in nm n me m good gover e t, they are the weak of n z n n bers party orga i atio . U der party r u th m n t mm les ey are do i a ed by the co ittee, and left exposed to the schemes of indi v iduals Of nt in t n z . all poi s par y orga i a tion the primary is th e most defenceless as 6 Pr ma r lecti 3 i y E ons .

th m m nt I t t n well as e ost i porta . is he o ly means afforded the rank a nd ﬁle of party m m to ti i t in t ff e bers par c pa e par y a airs . It is the fou ntain of representative govern m n I n D D u e t . the words of avid dley ' m is the m Field the pri ary pivot of refor . If better resu lts are to be obtained from n t n m m mu party orga iza io , i proved ethods st n u and the ar e be i trod ced , better they planned the more satisfactory will be the 1 result .

See h s the tent and subsequent chapter . CHAPTER VIII .

N NATIONAL AND STATE ORGANI'ATIO S .

TH E National party organization resem in m bles the State organization any respects. The working divisions are the national and mm I n m com State co ittees . so e cases the n n mitte e co stitu tes the party organizatio . The members of these committees are u su ally selected by the delegates to th e t n n n n com Na io al or State co ve tio . The mitte e m n m n the a ages the ca paig , calls n n n and n n co ve tio , ge erally tra sacts all party bu siness when the convention is not in ses n n n m sio . The Natio al parties have o for al u b ut mm t m r les, their co it ees are ore or less guided by resolu tions of their respective n n n a u m atio al co ventions . Usage nd c sto have however bro ught a degree of u ni m for ity to all parties . The majori ty of the State organizations have no formal rules and only a fe w have Pr ima ry Electi ons .

1 nt u I n n u the pri ed r les . the abse ce of r les traditions and c ustoms of the party are l I n th ordinarily fol owed . those cases e organization of the State committee a nd the cond u ct of the State convention are not u nfrequ ently the same as in States where ﬁn u n I n well de ed r les have bee adopted . the abse nce of State rules the organization

1 As will appear by the following table so far as ofii cial in I r a re formation has been obtained . n some cases the ules ffi very meager . Blanks indicate absence of o cial information . DEMO RATI REPUB LI AN C C . C . Alabama No formal rules No formal rules Ar izona Arkansas C alifornia Manuscript rules Colorado . No formal rules Connecticut Pr inted ru les Printed rules Delaware No for mal rules r Florida . No fo mal rules Georgi a No pr inted rules No printed rules I daho No for mal rules Illinois No formal rules Indiana Pri nted rules Pr rnte d rules Iowa Kansas No for mal r ules No formal r ules Kentucky . Printed rules Printed rules Louisiana No printed rules Maine . No formal rules Maryland No formal rules Manuscript rules Mas sachusetts Printed rules Printed rules M i hi a r s c g n No printed rules No fo mal rules Minnesota No printed rules Mississippi No for mal rules Missouri No formal rules Montana Prohibition party has printed rules in this State . e r N ationa l a nd Sta t O g a niza tions . 39 generally resembles a league or confedera i u n n z t on of co ty orga i ations . The State committee recommends to rather than legis t unt n t n u la es for the co y orga iza io . Th s it is in some States that party methods ma in f n n I n te rially vary dif ere t cou ties . these cases local organizations make their o w n rules both as to the method of organiza n and n m n t n n tio o i a io of ca didates . Where the rules of State organizations exist they are u su ally made by the State

DEMO RATI . REPUBLI AN C C C .

Nebraska . No for mal rules No formal rules Nevada No pr inted rules Ne w H ampshire New Jersey No formal rules N e w Mexico New York North Carolina Printed rules Manuscript rules North Dakota No formal rules No formal rules Ohio t 6 C6 6 i Ct t 6 6 C Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania . Printed rules Printed rules Rhode Island No formal rules South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee No formal rules Texas No pri nted rules Utah No formal rules Vermont No printed rules No printed rules Virginia P rinted rules Printed rules Washington No formal rules W Vi est rginia . No formal rules Wisconsin No pr inted rules W yoming . No formal rules 0 Pr i ma r le cti ns 4 y E o .

mmi b u t n th e t co ttee , occasio ally by S ate n n n u u f u nt co ve tio . S ch r les req e ly provide that the party throu ghou t the State shall n n and n i t be orga ized i to, its operatio s d rec ed u n mmit n m n by, reg larly chose co tees, a i g m m v n n the , fro that of the oti g preci ct to th e mm du t State co ittee . The ies of each m l fin m are ore or less c osely de ed . So e local committees ar e au thorized to make ru les for their own government not in con flict i ta mmit w th those of the S te co tee . When that body makes the rules it u su ally in w d one com reserves to itself, the or s of ' mitte e m n m i e u , the right to a e d , od fy, or u n th e an large, repeal , s spe d whole or y part of the plan a nd ru les a s it may deem for the best interests of the ” i n party e ther locally or ge erally . The composition of the State committee is provided for by the election of one or more members from each congressional u district or other s bdivision of the State . The election is u s u ally made by the dele gates to the State convention from each nt i n n district represe ed n the conve tio . The ta mm its ow n ffi S te co ittee chooses o cers,

I X CHAPTER .

O N O N ' ON C U TY RGA I ATI S.

TH E cou nty organization is generally the mm t I n th e n u cou nty co i tee . abse ce of r les n z i n nt of a State orga i at o to the co rary, the cou nty committee has control of the party t in u n u u m wi h the co ty . It s ally akes r ules governing its ow n organization a nd the n u ma n co d ct of pri ries and conventio s . Such rules provide the nu mber of dele . to u n mmi t m gates the co ty co t ee, the ethod

of e t n a nd m of fﬁ . their el c io , their ter o ce Usu ally such delegates are elected at the u m n u u m vario s pri aries or tow ca c ses . So e times they are chosen by the town or ward committees or by delegates selected for 1 t u u u n hat p rpose . S ch r les ordi arily pro

1 Few county organizations have printed rules . But among

: R . . those here referred to are the following epublican , N Y R l City ; Tammany , N . Y . City ; epub ican and Democratic , W ‘ Co . Co . Kings , N . Y Democratic , estchester , N . Y

U . R Democratic , tica , N . Y Democratic and epublican , Phila Cou nty Org a ni za ti ons . 43

mm t u s ub - com vide for other co it ees, s ch as mitte e s and n m also ward, tow , Asse bly and m m n t com district, so eti es electio dis rict, mitt s I n m n ffi e e . so e cases certai party o ce a nd in n t holders, other cases party ca dida es fﬁ m m m mmi for o ce, are ade e bers of co ttees i i t with or w thou t the r ght to vo e . The membership of the general committee is frequ ently very large in cities often many u a n m u n h ndreds d so etimes several tho sa d . Delegates to these committees are i r e qu ently requ ired to pay a n annu al fee

n n ﬁ v nt - ﬁv ra gi g from e to twe y e dollars . To the meetings of some committees some times members are admitted only by t n n u ticke , the loa i g of which is ca se for u i n exp ls o . Under the strong central State plan the party has b ut one organization in the State au n n with local xiliary orga izatio s . While in such cases members of a cou nty commit tee are usu ally elected by a direct vote or m n n n n at in one i h by ea s of a co ve tio , least

P R E O N R a . C . . delphia , ; epublican , ssex J ; epublican ,

K R o . e C . Louisville , y . ; epublican , All ghany , Pa Demo 1 t R Co . 1 1 S cratic , Cook , . Democratic . . Louis Mo epub

s r E . . lican , Boston , Mas . Democ atic , rie Co N Y Pr i ma r lecti 44 y E ons .

' n in mmi e sta ce, they are appo ted by a co tte ” ﬁ v e n t I n m of recog ized par y workers . so e n t n ffi u n i s a ces, local o cers, altho gh chose by n n h u t local orga izatio s, receive t eir a thori y in the shape of a commission from the State n n I n t cas mm orga izatio . o her es, i ediately on n z t n u nt mmit the orga i a io of a co y co tee, the rules require the secretary to forward by re gistere d letter to the State committee u i fﬁ a nd m m a f ll l st of the o cers e bers , their

n and t- the P n preci ct pos o e address . reci ct committees are requ ired to send the same n m t n the u nt mm t i for a io to co y co i tee, which in tu rn transmits a copy to the State com mitte e I n t w a t mmitt . his y a Sta e co ee is placed in direct commu nication with all the party ofﬁcers a nd committee - me n through ou t t a nd m the S ate, ore or less direct their work . Members of the co u nty committee are frequently required to attend regu lar meet

n and a n u n u a n m i gs, exc sed bse ce fro two or three successive meetings may be considered d m mmi t ma as a with rawal fro the co t ee, or y u n m m u n lead to exp lsio . So eti es the co ty committee may levy assessments on party n Or a ni za ti ons Cou ty g . 45

n t u i ffi a nd if the ca dida es for p bl c o ce, assess ment is not paid it may v acate the nomina n and n m n t ne w n t tio o i a e a ca dida e . It exercises general au thority over th e organi z ation i n u nt t w thi the co y, excep where m its ow n u h u li ited by r les , whic of co rse is

’ m n t n I has r to no i al ra her tha re al . t powe disband a ny ward or town association if a t t i t n and ma n spiri of hos il y is show , y the n ne w one u con orga ize a . It iss es calls for v ntion a nd ﬁ th e nu m e s xes ber of delegates . It provides for the holding of prima ries a n m h ndu i h m d the et od of co ct ng t e sa e. Sometimes they name the inspectors who are to receive a nd canvas s the votes and u t certify the res l . The exec utive committee of the cou nty committee is frequently the important work in n z n h su b g part of the orga i atio . T is committee is sometimes appointed by th e m n of unt mm and chair a the co y co ittee, m m it m so eti es is for ed by the delegates, m t u n fro each distric or ward, to the co ty mm n o e m r co ittee electi g n or more me be s . The powers of this committee are some m and u n has ti es very great, freq e tly it 6 Pr i ma r le ti 4 y E c ons .

m t m t nt the rt al os co ple e co rol of pa y . This is specially true where the county commit is r m m the tee ve y large . So eti es ru les are so framed as to give this committee full management a nd control of all the business 1 the n r mm t I n one of ge e al co i tee . case this committee performs all d u ties of the general committee not speciﬁcally delegated mm 2 I n i t . m f to other co i tees other case, the resu lts of the primaries or conventions not t mm t are satisfac ory to the co i tee, the 3 m u its n sa e are s bject to revisio . The ex con mm t m t m u n a n. tive co i tee, so e i es der n m u u m fﬁ n other a e, is s ally the ost e cie t n t u m n in m n i s r e t the ca paig . I n u n u n each of the s bdivisio s of a co ty, u n t t s ch as a tow , ward, or o her dis rict, there is u su ally a distri ct committee These com mitte e s are generally composed of delegates elected by the party members v oting at th u me m pri maries held for e p rpose . The

R Co 1 0 . Democratic ules , Kings . , N . Y Art . , 3 Tam H R Ar t 8 Ta mma n Sou : many all ules , . , 7, as amended , y r 8 1 6 6 1 0 R R u veni 1 . 1 0 . , 93. p . 3 ; also pp , 7 epublican les,

N e w Ar t . . York City , 5 9 W 2. R l Co 1 . Democratic u es , estchester . , N . Y 4 , subd 3 Ta mma n Sou v e ni r s u r a 1 0 6 10 1 6. y , p , pp . , 7, 3 nt r a ni a Cou y O g z ti ons . 47 b e r shi m na m n a nd u t p, a ge e t, d ies of these committees u s ually depend on the ru les adopted in some States by the cou nty com mitte e and in , other States by the State mm m m mm t con co ittee . So eti es this co it ee in t t sists, wholly or par , of district delega es m I h u n m . n to the co ty co ittee ot er cases, the district committee chooses one or more of their nu mber as delegates to the county

mm h n- n co ittee . W ere electio district captai s and n n assista ts or aids are appoi ted , to se cu re a fu ll registration- a nd to man the polls a n n ar e u u n t at electio , they s ally chose ei her mm fﬁ by this co ittee or its o cers . These committees are sometimes made the sole u I n m local a thority of the party. so e cases, the district committee has headqu arters which are always kept open for the me m of n z n wi hin bers the orga i atio t the district. X CHAPTER .

PRI MARY ORGANI'ATIONS .

PRI MARY organizations among voters dif fer very mu ch w ith locality and density of u n h u n n pop latio . T ey freq e tly depe d for their government on rules made by a co un t t m t I n m y or Sta e co mi tee . so e cases they a no u I n t m u h ve r les . o hers they ake r les m m n the for the selves . Their eeti gs for n ffi choice of ca didates, delegates, or o cers m a u u are called pri aries or c c ses . The lat ter term is more u sed outside of the la rger n cities and particularly i n Ne w Engla d . Where the word cau cu s is u sed it frequ ent n ly denotes the less formal meeti g. I n the cou ntry it is common for v oters to w u m n I n be itho t for al organizatio . the larger cities the primary organization is m m u u m m ore co plete . It s ally has a e ber i ffi u and . sh p roll , headq arters, o cers The membership is guarded with more or less

r r le ns 5 0 P i ma y E ctio . voters known to the enrolling officers and l m n u I n r e or al clai i g to be s ch . others a ganiza tion is undertaken from time to time I n m in when the ru les are relaxed . so e n n in t or sta ces however, eve a large ci y, anizations no m m and g have roll of e bership, all persons who voted the party ticket at the last preceding election are allowed to participate . The officers of a primary organization generally consist of a president and other execu tive ofii ce r s common to organized and in n u u bodies, , additio thereto, s ally a i mm local or distr ct co ittee . Where there ar e no m n m m stated eeti gs of the e bers , the duties of the executive officers seem to be largely confined to the single primary meet in n i g at which they are chose . The distr ct committee is then deemed to have the sole u t n a thority of the party wi hi its district, and it comes to be practically the local n n d m n orga izatio . Where state eeti gs of m m u u n and e bers are held , the s al presidi g execu tive officers continu e to discharge appropriate du ties u ntil their su ccessors ar e

elected . Pr i m r a i a y Org a niz t ons . 5 1

Aside from the delegate s to the cou nty committee a nd membe r s of the local district mm tt m m t n fﬁ in co i ee, the ost i por a t o cers m a ni n a r e i n the pri ary org zatio s the pres de t, nd i n a n . secretary, spectors of electio The du ties of the president are largely those of ’ in fﬁ u t a presid g o cer. The secretary s d ies m the d r are ore varied . Besides uties of e cording the proceedings of the p r ima r y n i n m tim t orga izat o , he is so e es secre ary of th i u mmit mu t e var o s co tees . He s keep a the m m i in u t roll of e bersh p, d plica e or t the u se im ins e c triplica e, for of h self, the p t t n and th e u n mm tt ors of elec io , co ty co i ee . Some rules provide that a certain nu mber of members may requ ire the secretary to furnish a manu script copy of the roll at n t n certai ra es, or have the roll pri ted at their expense and sold at cost for their ac u n t m m co t . The secre ary also so eti es Serves as collector and tu rns over the money he t u n receives to the reas rer. I spectors of election are u sually elected where th e primary organization is continuo us in char t b ut in m n n t a ac er, so e i sta ces hey are p n mm poi ted by the local co ittee . CHAPTER XI .

M PRI ARY ELECTION S .

M ti n m time ca u PRI ARY elec o s, so e s called u n u c ses, are ordi arily held for two p rposes (I ) the election of officers for party gov e r nme nt and 2 to n u t n m , ( ) bri g abo the o i 1 n n n i u office atio of ca d dates for p blic . Primaries for the first named pu r pose are u u n n s ally held after ge eral electio s, while those for the pu rpose of nominations noces sar ily precede a n election by a more or less r d m u brief pe io . The ethod of proced re for u u n m both p rposes is s bsta tially the sa e . I n some States where nominations by

This does not always seem to be necessary with Tammany H ' all . Its general committee claiming to be the repository of all organic power sits as a county convention r in October each yea , and puts in nomination the candidates ” O ffi for the respective ces which it desires to have elected . The

candidates , however , are selected by the executive committee . Ta mma n Sou veni r 1 8 1 0 6 y , 93, p . . And the committee on organization has the power of revision and substitution of ” n 1 6 all nominatio s , etc . p . 3 . 5 2 r Pr i ma y Electi ons . 5 3 pr imari es and conventions are recognized n a n by law, both these age cies h ve bee m u b u u ore or less reg lated y stat te . S ch laws provide for the character and length n n n ri m ri of otice to be give of holdi g p a es . Notice is u su ally by p ublication for a fixed num in and t n ber of days cities, by pos i g n i u n r notices a d by pu blication n the co t y . in e s They provide for vot g by ballot, pe cially in large cities where it is r e qu ired by party ru les or requ ested by a fi nu m of n I n t n xed ber perso s . cer ai cases provision is made that primary election districts of political organizations shall con tain not more than a fixed nu mber of me m t l of c n z bers, tha ba lots shall be a ertai si e a nd t r charac er, that they shall be prese ved t n n for a cer ai period , that the voti g shall be u nder election inspectors chosen for the purpose or in cer tain cities under the con th e n trol of board of electio s, that at least a certain nu mber of voters mu st participate in n u ri m order to co stit te a p ary, that cer tain persons having to do with calling or conducting a primary are ineligible as dele t n n n ga es to a co ve tio , etc . The u sual and almost u niversal statutory provisions are those designed to prevent 1 u u n n and pu nish fra d le t practices . U der some statutes a candidate guilty of bribery becomes disqualified to hold th e office he 2 I n one n n seeks . case co victio deprives the 3 of uff n ofi e nde r the right of s rage . A other statute attempts to provide for proportional l‘ n n in conv n ions con represe tatio s e t . The d uct of the election at primar ies a nd the

1 The following States have more or less legislation on t h e

s : 1 R S. 1 ubject of primary elections California ( . . , sec . 357

. 1 8 8 . G Colorado (L 7 , ch Connecticut ( eneral

. 1 88 G Statutes , sec . Delaware (L 7, ch . eorgia (L . 8 . I . 1 8 1 8 1 . s . 1 8 1 9 , p llinois (L 9 , p Kansa (L 9 ,

- . 1 8 80 . 1 88 ch . Kentucky (L 79 , ch Maine ( 7,

. 1 888 1 1 8 0 ch . Massachusetts (L , ch , 44 L . 9 , ch .

1 88 . i 1 8 8 Michigan (L . 7, Act M nnesota (L . 7 , ch . 4

1 8 8 . 1 8 2 L . 9 , ch . Mississippi (L 9 , ch . Missouri (L . 1 1 8 1 8 . . 8 L 9 , p Nebraska (L 7, ch . Nevada ( .

1 88 . H 1 8 1 3, ch New ampshire (L . 9 , ch . New 88 1 1 8 . 1 . 1 : . 8 . . Jersey (L 3, p 7 L 4, p New York (L

1 8 2 . R . 8 . 2 1 6 1 8 1 9 , ch Ohio ( 9 Oregon (L . 9 ,

. 1 88 1 W p . Pennsylvania (L , act No . 77, ashington 1 W V . 8 0 . 1 8 1 W (L 9 , p est irginia (L . 9 , ch . iscon

. 1 8 1 . W 1 8 1 sin (L 9 , ch 439 , repealed , yoming (L . 9 , ch . 9 1 8 - 80 1 0 1 8 Laws of Kentucky , 79 , ch . Laws of Kansas.

1 1 . 1 1 . 89 , ch 5 3 s 1 8 1 1 1 Laws of Kansa , 9 , ch . 5 . 4 s 1 8 2 6 Laws of Missi sippi , 9 , ch . 9 . P m e i ns r i a ry El ct o . 5 5

n s t m in m n ca va s of the vo e rese bles, a y par ticu lar s m u a t n , the ethods sed ge eral elec tions withou t the featu res of the Au stralian m I n M u ballot syste . ilwa kee, however, by ‘ n la w n u a rece t , si ce s perseded, it was pro v ide d that candidates for pu blic office sho uld be nominated by a direct vote with h The n m an n in t e party . a e of y perso willing to stand cou ld be bro ught before the primary as a candidate for the party nomination by filing with the Co unty Clerk u a paper, properly exec ted by voters . A blanket ballot was then provided for and each party member voted for the person he m t desired to beco e the par y candidate . Pu b n u a t n lic voti g booths, sed ge eral elec i n un in n t o s, were erected by the co ty seaso or im n b u t m f these pr aries . No e pri ary elec tion officers and persons voting were allowed it n one h u n f t of t w hi dred ee the polls . Af er the returns were made u p at each primary h fi h th t ey were led wit e Cou nty Clerk . Pu blic officers then canvassed the retu rns

1 W 1 8 1 Laws of isconsin , 9 , ch . 439 ; superseded by L .

1 8 . 2 . d 93, ch 49 By this act many of the features enumerate ar e s retained in a more or les modiﬁed form . r i m r lecti ns 5 6 P a y E o . for the whole cou nty and the su ccessful n m the n min ca didate beca e party o ee . Under a city ordinance political parties in Boston hold primary elections or can

u in u t- m a nd t c ses co r roo s, schools, o her in P mi u pu blic bu ild gs . er ts are iss ed by the su perintendent of pu b lic bu ildings u pon proper application and payment of n 1 the expe se . u it t a s The r les of pol ical par ies, as well m u u h s u b ost stat tes, so far as they to c the e ct aim m the m u j , ore or less at sa e res lt an n a nd u n ho est ballot a fair co t . Besides m n in the u a y of the po ts covered by stat tes, some rules require the ballots of all voters on line at the time for closing the polls to V u n be received . ario s other provisio s are occasio nally found When the voter is challenged his name mu st be written on his 2 r m mu ballot . Notice of the p i ary st be 3 m m I ns c given to each me ber b y ail . pe tors of election are no t allowed to serve in n Ofﬁ two years su ccessio . ce holders are

1 — R 1 8 2 . 2 8 evised Ordinances of 9 . ch 9, 5 , ch . 43, 0 — 1 0 1 0 3. 9 R . epublican rules , Louisville , Ky 3 R . epublican rules , Philadelphia , Penn

r i ons 5 8 P i ma ry Elect .

s ufﬁ i nt ha s a r n ber . S c e l eady bee said of small primaries a nd the u s e of the secret m m m nt i ca n ballot . So e i prove e s wh ch be made in methods of election will be noticed hereafter. CHAPTER XII .

DI N OM N N RECT I ATIO S .

TH ERE are two methods of making party nominations which have been in u s e many u m t n years . The stat tes of so e States rela i g to the Au stralian system of voting recog n is n m b nize both methods . O e to o inate y t m m t direct vote of par y e bers . The o her is by the indirect means of a convention of n h u Th delegates chose for t at p rpose . e method of nomination by direct vote is most frequently u sed to select candidates for public ofﬁce to be voted for only within the limits of the district of the primary n x m t n v l oth electio , for e a ple, ow or i lage m m u cers . It is so eti es also sed for the nomination of candidates to be voted for in a territory larger tha n th e district of a pri m n t n u n u . ary orga iza io , s ch as a city or co ty I n such cases u nder proper party rules the same candidates are presented to all the

59 60 Pr i ma r Electi s y on . primaries and a vote by ballot taken there on imu t n u n t s l a eo sly . The i spec ors of elec tion at each primary then canvass the vote and make proper retu rns to a central a u thor it n u n and y, which co solidates the ret r s, th e person receiving the largest number of t m t n m n vo es beco es the par y o i ee . This method of nomination has been in u se many years in some parts of Pe nnsyl v n nd a nd a O . a ia hio, possibly elsewhere I t has been known in some localities as C C u n m i the rawford o ty syste . It is sa d to have taken its name from a cou nty in 1 i in u P nn n t s e . e sylva ia, where is still For some time it was in successfu l opera n in i C nd W i t tio the c ty of levela , here is said to have resulted in the nomination of u i fﬁ desirable candidates for p bl c o ce . By this means almost the full pa rty vote w a s u ou t in m u bro ght the pri aries . For vario s n w the u n for reaso s, ho ever, r les providi g the direct nomination of candidates became u n t r th e u n mm sa isfacto y to co ty co ittee . That committee having made the r ules repealed them and adopted a n ingenio us

1 R R E ules of epublican Primary lections , Crawford Co Pa . D i r ect N omi na ti ons . 6 1 combination of the direct vote and conv e n l n One n h h has n tion pla s . reaso w ic bee as signed for this cha nge is that altho ugh ' at the last primary election votes were cast ou t of a possible yet ' ” some of the politicians argu ed that me m ' bers of the opposing party assisted in ” n man nominati g a weak . This shows that u their party r les were very defective . It implies that they did not consider that proper attention to the membership roll would g uard any primary against extensive u n n fra du le t voti g. It is not claimed in favor of the Crawford Cou nty systemthat it has worked with entire t t n an n l sa isfac io to y class of perso s . Whi e that plan is said to have worked well when there were only two or three candidates for n ffi i to a si gle o ce, it is sa d have worked badly where there were a large nu mber of nd n m n ri ca idates, as o ly a i o ty of the votes t t m m n n m n n cas at i es deter i ed the o i atio . And this seems to have been the chief point of weakness w ith the method as used in C n C C u n levela d . Had the rawford o ty

1 R R . epublican ules , Cuyahoga Co Ohio 6 r r s 2 P i ma y Electi on . system been combined with the plan of election hereinafter described to promote 1 t n m t fﬁ u elec io s by the ajori y, that di c lty u n m wo ld have bee largely overco e . There are nevertheless certain disad v an tages attendant u pon the direct vote plan n min t n I t mu n of o a io . st be co ceded that nize d u a nd s uc parties are org for s ccess, cess not infrequ ently seems to depend upon nt n the prese atio of a party ticket which ,

n as u ' take a whole , is s pposed to recog n z u m n in i e vario s ele e ts with the party. ' I n making u p s uch a ticket a convention not infreque ntly regards it policy to con u t n n ti n and sider q es io s of locality, a o ality, other nat u ral or artiﬁcial divisions of the t u u t n nn par y . S ch q es io s of policy ca ot be given their accu stomed weight where the n m n n m u o i atio s are ade by pop lar vote . There are other reasons both in favor of nd n m t B ut a agai st each of these e hods . it is u nn to nu m ecessary here e erate, as it is not th e present pu rpose to favor one method n m n n n h The of o i atio as agai st the ot er. n n on is t h m poi t i sisted , hat bot ethods are

1 R 1 0 ules at p . 7 . D i r ect N omi na ti 6 ons . 3 capable of improvement by proper atten n n u tio to the preparatio of party r les . While party ru les may not be equal to m ma n laws, the sa e objects y be attai ed, to n m n L a very large exte t, by either ea s . aws ma not u b ut the m y be easily sec red , ost desirable ru les are within the reach of the m m of an n z n e bers y orga i atio . CHAPTER XIII .

N D NOM N N I IRECT I ATIO S .

TH E indirect method of nomination is the one most commonly used for the selection of candidates to be voted for in a terri tory larger than the district covered by one pri ma n n u h n m n ry orga izatio . S c o inatio s are made by conventions of delegates chosen for u h n m n n that p rpose . W ile all o i atio s by m n of n n n n m ea s co ve tio s are i direct , so e are t I n m n n nt n more so than o hers . a y co ve io s the delegates are elected by partymembers at im I n th the pr aries . o er cases, delegates are chosen by delegates to a n intermediate con v ntion D a nd n n e . elegates to State atio al conventions are u sually selected in this m nne a r. The theory of the indirect nomination is h h n The the t eory of t e indirect electio . wisest me n of each primary organization are su pposed to be sent to the co nvention

mm u u fi State co ittee, that body s ally xes the time and place of holding the State n n n ri co ve tio . It presc bes the basis of rep r e s e ntation and nu m , the ber of delegates n u n The mm apportio ed to each co ty . co it u ffi r m n tee, thro gh its o ce s, akes all ecessary n m n h n n n n arra ge e ts for oldi g the co ve tio . It issu es the official call which gives all local committees the necessary infor mation to enable them to bring abou t the cu stom ary local conventions for the selection of a n nt n delegates to the St te co ve io . Where mm e m t ut local co itt es fail to perfor hese d ies , in m n n mm so e i sta ces, the State co ittee calls n n n also local co ve tio s . On the day or evening preceding the m n n n n r e limi eeti g of the State co ve tio , p n m n of ary eeti gs the delegates are held, u u u s ally by districts, for the p rpose of se lee ting one or more members to act on the pri ncipal committees to be appointed by n n n and n u the co ve tio , to arra ge s ch other m n ma n preli i aries as y be ecessary, so that th e bu siness of the convention may proceed with regularity a nd withou t delay . The principal committees to be appointed for ' I n r e N mi n di ct o a tions . 6 7 the convention are a committee on cr e de n tials o mmit on u t n a nd com , a c tee resol io s, a mitte on n ti n e . orga iza o Besides these , a t t n mm tt n S a e ce tral co i ee is also appoi ted . h l n m m al W ere de egates are abse t, so eti es t r n t n the u nt e a es, chose for p rpose, represe the a n m im the an bse tees . So et es vote of nt abse ee is cast by a proxy, or by the other m m his n e bers of delegatio . It is provided by the Republican rules of Kentu cky that e ach delegate elected to a convention shall have the u ndisp u ted right to vote as he t in a nd not shall h k proper, he shall be de nied that right by the adoption of the s o called u nit ru le by the delegation of which ” m m in a h n t . he is a e ber, or y o er way A novel feature is fou nd in the rules of a u n n n n n co ty orga izatio for settli g co tests . It provides for a struck committee on con tested seats obtained after the manner of a r u st uck j ry . If the conve ntion as now constitu ted not u u t no im does prod ce the best res l s, provement need b e expected u ntil better methods are sought ou t a nd adopted at r m ti n p i ary elec o s .

1 R b epu lican , Alleghany County , Pa . CHAPTER XIV .

O O N D E ETC. PR P SI G EL GATES,

ON E of the most important featu res in the choice of delegates is the method u sed in n W n at proposi g delegates . he deleg es to a convention or committee are to be chosen it is not u ncommon for a few per sons privately to prepare a list of the names u h v h n and of s c as they desire to ha e c ose , n u h m t u h the set abo t to have t e elec ed . S c a proceeding in itself may be perfectly can m m n proper. It beco e i proper o ly where the resu lt of their action has the n n effect of deprivi g other s of representatio . Such a resul t should be considered evi dence of the inadequacy of the r ules gov n n the n a at er i g selectio of deleg tes, r her than evidence of the depravity of those n n not u t seeki g co trol . Is it nat ral hat persons desiring to succeed should avail themselves of the means best ad apted to as Pr o osi n D ele ate s etc. 6 p g g , 9 that e nd 2 For this pu rpose r e s ort is had ” to n mi t n mm t I f u h the o na i g co it e e . s c a committee is fair ly appointe d a nd the members ar e inte lligent and do not r e pre nt a n s fish nte r s ma se y el i e t, its work y be well done and a list of fairly representative n s n e on the ca didate prese t d . If, other h n mm t e u nu a d, the co i te is coll sively or wisely appointe d it is not difficu lt to secu re from it the presentation of a list of candi v us u n The n m dates pre io ly agreed po . l o i n t n mm u h n a i g co ittee, altho g appare tly fair, u t th v u is is s scep ible of e gra est ab ses . It a favorite means of presenting a slate u nder the guise of a report' When the ” t fi report is adopted the sla e is rati ed , and it becomes dignified with the name ” u t a nd as u n reg lar icket, s ch it is prese ted to m the pri ary . The ff u h u u e ect of s c proced re is obvio s . If a member sees that the election of th e proposed delegates wou ld deprive him of representation in the convention or com mitte e he n u at rally feels aggrieved . He then looks abou t a nd finds that u nder present party rules there are several cou rses 70 Pr i ma ry Elections .

n him ma t or ope to . He y leave his par y anization ma u i nt n g . He y q iet his d sco e t and m Or ma n stay at ho e . he y atte d the primary a nd vote the ticket pu t into his n u ha d . If he feels eq al to the task he is ” at liberty to organize a ' bolting faction ' and r u n an t n t u opposi io icket . S ch a u u u u e x e n co rse, however, s ally req ires the p ditur e mu m n and m n of ch ti e, e ergy, o ey . It is also apt to lead to more or less ill n m n m m feeli g a o g e bers . It is therefore m u n n u seldo dertake . The res lt is that many persons feel that it is u seless to at n m and t a t te d pri aries, therefore they s ay m ho e . These defects in the method of choosing delegates exist only because party rules h not a n n I n ave had the proper tte tio . Boston the Rep ublicans have taken a lesson f m u n t m an ro the A stralia ballo syste . C didate s to be voted for at primaries are in n n m n t n proposed adva ce by o i a io papers, d a n ofﬁcial tickets are printed by the party . ” There is no regular ticket or opposi n E a t ri m tio ticket . ach voter the p ary marks the names of the candidates of his Pr o os i n D ele a tes etc. 1 p g g , 7

m d m t can choice . I prove e hods readily be adopted if the members or any considerable nu mber in an organization insist u pon their Ru n n rights . les for proposi g ca didate s i f un on u u nt w ll be o d a s bseq e page. CHAPTER XV.

D PLURAL ELEGATES .

CONVENTIONS and committees may be n in m m co stitu ted two ways . The e bers of a party within a given district may send a n ma n si gle delegate, or they y se d several b u t n t delegates . Where a si gle delega e is to n m be chose , if the will of the ajority n it mu withi that district is to prevail, st n n i I n se d the sole represe tat ve . that case m n mu u n the i ority, however large, st be n n represe ted . With si gle delegates propor tional n n m represe tatio is i possible. Where, u t n however, pl ral delega es are to be chose , proportional representation becomes possi t n and ble . If two delega es are to be chose u n u the voters are s bsta tially eq ally divided, it is only j u st that each portion should send on m e delegate . So if three or ore dele t b ut gates are to be elec ed , it is right, if the v oters are divided i nto as many su b stan

Pr ma r lecti ons 74 i y E .

nm n and u n i n m n t gover e t, it is w se to o i a e nt me n u fﬁ represe ative for p blic o ce . What ma u n ever y be the practice, s ch certai ly is n n not the theory of party orga izatio . The convention is considered a representative b ut it in n body, whether is fact ecessarily n n n u depe ds o how it is co stit ted . While proportional representation ca n not u u u be proc red witho t pl ral delegates, plu ral delegates do not insu re propor tional n t n na represe ta io . The proportio l charac ter of representation depends wholly on the d ‘ means employed i n the election of elegates .

1 Se e l 1 1 1 1 1 2 ru es at pp . , . CHAPTER XVI .

TH E N SI GLE VOTE.

THERE are now in common use at elec tions two kinds of votes— the single vote and u t the pl ral vo e . The latter is prob ably the most effective means which can be devised for extingu ishing the will of the minority in the election of more than one I n t n r e r e delegate . t re ders propor io al p se ntation with plu ral delegates qu ite as 1 impossible as with single delegates . The plural vote enables each voter to vote for num the whole ber of delegates to be elected, n n n r e i stead of o e . The set of ca didates cei ving the largest nu mber of votes ar e all n declared elected . This e ables the largest fraction of voters to choose all the dele and n not v gates, to sile ce all who did ote u u I n m nn the s ccessf l ticket . that a er the convention is depri ved of its representative character. 1 E xcept where cumulative voting is used . 75 6 Pr ima r Elec i n 7 y t o s .

u or e n - t n of The pl ral vote, g eral icket pla n m m un a electio as it is so eti es called, is f d m n and n e tally radically wro g. No voter is entitled to be represented in any represou tativ e body by more than a single repro i n se ntat v e . o He has, therefore, right to appoint or to assist in electing more than one n n him perso to represe t . If he does, he deprives one or more fellow- me mbers of an equal right to have a representative in n n n the co ve tio . The vote which as sists in the election of more than one delegate is a bane to party n n m t f orga izatio . It akes the elec ion o ' ” a nd I t slates possible probable . gives the persons proposing the su ccessfu l list of candidates all the delegates to the conv e n n mm and n tio or co ittee . They, they alo e, n a nd m m are represe ted , all other e bers are n u t u wro gf lly deprived of heir eq al rights . The pl u ral vote encou rages and rewards and n f u deceit, trickery, eve ra d at the m a n m t n a t in pri aries . It is i por a t f c or the I t centralization of party power. is wholly u n i u nn and des rable, wholly ecessary, wholly n n it m i defe sible , yet is the ethod of elec T i n le Vote he S g . 77

m in tion now in general u s e . The re edy is m m a the hands of the e bers . They c n adopt proper rules secu ring to each member his u a n u n t j st d eq al rights . A si gle opera ive vote to a single member— that is the ob j e c n 1 tive joi t .

1 u At ﬁrst this may seem to be hostile to cum lative voting . I r I is t is , so far as that vote is plu al . t is not , so far as a voter i l permitted to g ve the fu l weight of his vote to one person . I i ndeed , that is the only beneﬁc al feature about cumulative A voting . single vote to a single voter is more simple , and i will better accomplish the des red result . But with all its c a faults , umulative voting in plural elections is far prefer ble

l- i t s to the present genera t cket plan of voting at plural elec ion , and preferable als o to the single distr ict system . CHAPTER XVII .

E ON S A FI D EL CTI CL SSI E .

BEFORE proceeding fu r ther in the con sideration of election methods for u se at m fi pri aries, it will be well rst to advert to u n n the vario s ki ds of electio . There are several points of view from which elections ma n d t n y be co si ered . Wi h refere ce to the num n an n ber of perso s to be elected , electio ma n u A n n y be si gle or pl ral . electio is single so far as it relates to the election of n office r — m a si gle for exa ple, a secretary, a u A n t n treas rer, or a sole delegate . elec io is pl ural in so far as it relates to the choice of more than one person to a n office the du ties of which are to be performed by m n one n ore tha perso . The election of several delegates from one district to a convention or committee is a familiar m u n exa ple of a pl ral electio . Elections may also be considered with

78 E t o C ss e lec i ns la iﬁ d . r n nu m f n efere ce to the ber of parties, actio s, n ri n fﬁ An or ca didates st vi g for o ce . elec n ma m tio y have two, three , or ore sides, according to the nu mber of contending n P m ca didates or parties . erhaps the ost natural terms for designating such elections

- nd mu r a . are bi pa ty, tri party, lti party As at primary elections the different competing not n i a ar sides are ordi ar ly c lled p ties, it might perhaps be better to speak of su ch

n b i - - and mu t co tests as lateral, tri lateral, l i t m u u lateral . The last er wo ld be sed to denote election contests having more than three sides . If we regard an election with reference it ma an u n n m u to the vote cast, y be a i o s n n n v it electio ; or, if disse ti g otes were cast, u n n n E t ns wo ld be a disse tie t electio . lec io ar e u nanimou s only when the persons chosen I n receive all the votes . all other cases n n n n n n electio s are disse tie t . Whe disse ti g an n u u votes are cast at electio , it is s al to char acterize the resu lt as a majority or a m n n n of i ority electio . I stead the latter

m u f u n u . ter , the word pl rality is req e tly sed An election is said to be a majority l ns 8 0 Pr i ma ry E ecti o . election where the person chosen receives Bi more than one half of the votes cast . lateral contests al ways resu lt in a n ele ction m u n s a s a n by a ajority, le s , rarely h ppe s,

o r i- th e v te is equally divide d . T lateral and mu lti - lateral contests do not al ways t n t n resu lt in a majori y electio . If less ha one half of all the voters are united in their t n mu nrino r it choice, the elec io st be by a y, ‘ where s uch elections are permitted The desirability of having a majority of all the v oters agr ee o n one candidate is ev erywhere n d m n m n ma co cede . The ea s for pro oti g jor ity elections should therefore re ceive nt n special atte io . A minority or pl u rality election is one in which the person chosen receives less than one half o f all the v otes cast a nd more than those cast for any competing n u an n can u n ca didate . S ch electio occ r o ly where there are more than two sides to a n I n co test . those cases all votes which are not cast for one of the tw o candi dates receiving the greatest nu mber of votes

1 m They are not per itted in certain cases in Connecticut,

R I G r . hode sland . or e many

CHAPTER XVIII.

VOTIN G .

A VOTE is the formal expression ofthe will of a pers on i n regard to a proposition in n m n which others are i terested . There are a y m h of t n m u u in et ods vo i g. The ost s al a d n deliberative bo y are the spoke word , the u nd n n n plifted ha , sta di g, divisio of the u Th u n . e ho se, etc ballot is also freq e tly in u I n n u u sed s ch bodies . electio s o tside of a deliberativ e body the bal lot is almost u niversal . n i As a vote is the expressio of a w ll, a i n m vol tio is i plied on the part of the voter. m m n n So e e tal actio is necessary . The character of that mental action depends on of n the character the electio . If there is n one n m n t n o ly ca didate, the e tal ac io , if it in I n u m a n nt. res lts a vote, is si ply asse a contest between two candidates the issu e is single and the voter mu st make a choice .

8 2 V ti n 8 o g . 3

The qu estion is presented in the alterna one nt n t tive, the represe ed by ca dida e A a n n d the other by ca didate B . The voter ff b u t on On one u is a orded e choice . ly q es n n him e m n n tio is prese ted to for d ter i atio , c in viz . , whi h of two th gs is preferable . He ma vice ver sa . y prefer A to B, or There b u t two and ca n him are sides, a voter place s elf on one side or the other by the expres n n sio of a si gle choice . Where there are three candidates the m n n m m Two e tal operatio is ore co plex . n of on iss ues are then presented i stead e . The voter has set before him three objects h and C a n . : . for c oice, viz A , B, He has opportunity for two preferences instead of o ne ﬁ f n ma m . The rst pre ere ce y be ade known by the ﬁrst choice and the second n n prefere ce by the seco d choice . A voter might prefer C over both opposing candi s and in C u not date , case co ld be elected m the voter ight prefer A over B . The complexity of mental action in creases with the nu mber of candidates or n n n u parties co te di g . Us ally a voter does not n now thi k of this . He is allowed by i ma r E e i 84 Pr y l ct ons . means of his ballot to make one choice and n one t and o ly . So he selec s votes for his n favorite . Neither is he apt to thi k of this again if his favorite happens to be one of m u n the two ost pop lar ca didates . If, how

fi r s t- n a n ever, his choice ca did te sta ds third or worse in the race and his second - choice n t m no t m ca dida e, for who he did vote, co es n n fi h in very ear reachi g the rst place, e is cline d to reflect that his first choice had no ’ e fl e ct on the result while his second choice have had if it could have been e x pressed . He realizes the fact that a vote is shorn of its elective power if it is not cast for one of the two most popu lar candi z if m n dates . He also reali es that the ea s provided for the ascertainment of his will permitted the expression of his second choice where there were more than two n u m n ca didates, the res lt ight have bee ff n di ere t . a n in n By llowi g each voter, co tests hav in m n g three or ore sides, to express a seco d m n fi choice, to beco e operative whe his rst choice does not prove to be one of the two m u n d e as ost pop lar ca di ates, all vot s c t could be concentrated on one of the two m u r n t I n th m nn ost pop la ca dida es . is a er m n u a t n u a y pl r li y electio s co ld be averted . Should each voter in a tr i - lateral contest in dicate n fi his seco d as well as his rst choice, one candidate wou ld always be elected by m t I n u s u t a ajori y . s ch a ca e a pl rali y elec n u m s u m tio wo ld be i possible . The of two sides of a triangular contest would exceed

’ t h n u m n the hird . T e wo ld two i orities ' ” m m u fu n ake a ajority . This wo ld be sio n n at a electio . Where there were more than three sides to a contest the resu lt would not necessar m n b u t ily be a ajority electio , the probabili ties in fav or of that result would be very n as m an greatly i creased, there is seldo elec tion where there are more than three ca n didate s ofn u n t And n early eq al stre g h . eve in the rare instances of fo ur candidates of anything like equ al popu lar ity it is ordi na r ily quite easy to discern between which candidates the ﬁnal choice of the voters w ill probably rest . While it might be desir able in certain case s to have more than the ﬁrst and second 6 Pr ma r le tions 8 i y E c .

as n choice expressed , there are re o s why more than a second choice shou ld not now n s ufli cie nt one be co sidered . A is that second - choice voting must be u nderstood a nd practised successfully before a third if u n u b e n choice, fo d desirable, co ld i sti d tu te . It is easy to provide for a single v ote b u t it is more diffic ult to insure it an opera ff n ri tive e ect . The bla ket ballot at a p mary would mak e it a n easy matter for a voter to indicate his second - choice as fir s t choice n well as his ca didate . He could place the figure 1 opposite the

n m of ﬁr s t- n a nd a e his choice ca didate, the 2 t n An ﬁgu re opposi e his seco d choice . y voter of ordinary u nderstanding could do ’ l a nd u e nd u this that wo ld the voter s d ty . At this point the canvassers of the u m in n un ballots wo ld take the ha d, co t and u n the ballots tab late the vote. Whe the vote is tabulated a nd the retu rns made 2 u nv n n n a nd the d ty of ca assi g e ds . The not before wo uld be ascertained whether

1 ’ r 1 0 See voter s ule , p . 7. 1 1 0 See rules for canvassing the votes , p . 1 . Voti ng . 8 7 the first or second choice shou ld be opera 1 u n u for u tive der r les adopted the p rpose s . The pe rfection of such ru les would be a m m n a nd u nu atter of i porta ce, it wo ld be wise to se ek simplicity at the expense of i u . u n m acc racy While the s bject, so e of ma ffi u and u its aspects, y be di c lt req ire m u ffi u not o mm n so e st dy, its di c lty is o e u i m s rate w th its i portance .

1 See s scer n th e esul : s ec i ns rule for a taini g r t in ingle el t o , 1 0 and u l e ecti ns 1 1 2 p . 9 ; in pl ra l o , p . . CHAPTER XIX.

IM R ED M H OD OF ECTI P OV ET S EL ON .

I N the election of a single person there is less room for improvement than in plu ral n n n one n electio s . Whe there is o ly ca di date in a single election there can be no m n m n disagree e t a o g voters . Where there are two candidates the present methods u ﬁ n n u m n are s f cie t to i s re a ajority electio , t u excep where the vote is eq ally divided . or m Where, however, there are three ore candidates for a single oﬂi ce an opportu nity is afforded for the improvement of election methods so as to aid minorities to u nite and m I n n th u s become a ajority . si gle elec n aim u tio s the sho ld be to avoid, as far n m n as possible, electio by a i ority . The means best ad apted to that e nd seem to

u se of n - t b e be the a seco d choice vo e, to come Operative only when the ﬁrst choice l a n n 1 sha l h ve bee shor of its elective power.

1 R r r 10 ules to p omote majo ity elections may be found at p . 7. 88

l t 90 Pr i ma ry E ec i ons . method of election will probably prove the ‘ a n m most satisfactory . By y of these ethods grou ps of v oters wo uld be permitted to u nite in the choice of a delegate as their r nt t e t m th ca n rep ese a ive . T s s of e ods be m m u easily ade by pri aries, cl bs, or other organizations and if fou nd satisfactory rules n n ca be adopted accordi gly .

1 r e 1 1 2 O ne Quota election ul s may be found at p . . of th e advantages of this method over some oth ers is that the vote can be tabulated and the result as certained from th e r h h retu ns rat er t an by counting and cancelling ballots , as o H r pr posed by Mr . are . Neither will this method a ray angry m r E factions against each other at the pri a y . ach will be P given representation according to its numbers . ersons de

o s in no . 0 siring to study other meth d see r eferences te at p 3 . CHAPTER XX.

I TH E I MPROVE PR MARY.

I F pu blic oﬂice r s are to be servants of the people they mu st owe not only their i n b ut m n elect o their no i ation to the people . For this reason the means employed for the nomination of candidates hav e a special im I f n m n t n me s ar por tance . o i a io s to o c to come from the members of a party rather than fr om a central power within that the m n n n ut party, ea s of bri gi g abo the nomination must be such that the fe w can not n m n and co trol the a y, that the will of as a n u each shall have, as far possible, eq al ff on u e ect the res lt . If voters are assured that their votes will n and u ff have a certai eq al e ect, they will have an inducement for participating in ri m nn w the p ary, which ca ot other ise be o n m w ne w btai ed . The proble hich the primary must ﬁnally solve is how to secure r r 9 2 P i ma y Elections . the n t n t m m e ge eral participa io of par y e b rs, and how to insu re a certain and s ub s tan tially equal effect to the will of each m m n e ber who participates . I n the abs e ce of la w these results can be obtained only t u ui t u hro gh s table par y r les . Party rules shou ld provide for small im z n u not pr ary organi atio s . They sho ld for u be too large deliberative p rposes . They should admit of a vote by ballot in n n a n t m be g take withi a re so able i e. Bal in u n u lot g sho ld be, so co d cted that all wo uld have an opport unity to participate u u nn u I n witho t ecessary tro ble or delay . fact the party ru les should be so con stru cted that the d uties of an ordinary m m m a f m party e ber ight be e sily per or ed . The rules tou ching methods of election u m u sho ld be i proved . They sho ld provide means for proposing candidates to be m n m n n voted for at a pri ary . The o i ati g mm u nt E co ittee sho ld e irely disappear. very proposal of candidates should be by a wri ting signed by a gi v en number of me m u n bers . There sho ld be a bla ket ballot . v n u u The oti g sho ld be secret . There sho ld e th r m r I mpr ov e P i a y . 93

i n m m e . be a roll of e b rsh p The , above all , in the election of delegates the vote of each voter should be made effectual and allowed in h i n n one Ru to aid t e elect o of o ly . les shou ld aim at proportional representation within the party and especially in nominat in n n n g co ve tio s . Nominations by direct vote within the n n party shou ld also receive proper atte tio . The limits of the au thority of all legislati v e and executive party ofli cials should be fin And fin constitu closely de ed . ally the tion or fu ndamental rules of a party shou ld be made and changed only by a direct vote m m of the e bers . Without intending to insist that party rules s hall contain all the provisions above m n n u if u e tio ed, it is rged that they are j di ciou sly improve d on the lines above indi cate d voters will be fu rnished with an incentive more generally to participate in m e pri ari s . They will feel that each vote will have a certain and su bstantially equ al ff on u and n u e ect the res lt, that i divid al e fi or t at a primary will be to some pur . o e f n u p s . They will there ore be e co raged a e ns 94 Pr im ry El ctio .

n e t m n n to tak e a greater i ter s . No i atio s n a t r t m u u will be represe t ive, pa ies ore sef l, n fﬁ u n a d pu blic o cers better p blic serva ts . The government of a party may be what m t i its m m ever is os des red by e bers . There is no better place to learn or to put into operation the most perfect system of nm n u representative gover e t . Sho ld it be said that representative government within u u m m r e a party wo ld be c berso e, let it be ” n m m membered that o ly despotis is si ple. NDI X APPE A .

} RULES FOR PROPOSIN G CANDI DATES

1 n d RULE . All ca di ates to be voted for at a primary election shall be nominated only by a certificate of nomination in wri t ing containing the name of the ofli ce for which each person is nominated and the name and residence of each su ch person and u n u n an s ub his b si ess or occ patio , if y, scribed by members of the organization to the nu mber of at least when the nomination is for of at least when the nomination is for P n m etc . ( rovisio ight also be made that the proper officer furnish blank certificates containing instructions for their u se fi m . If desired the certi cate ight be authenticated as is u su al u nder the Au s tr alian m ballot syste . ) 1 Substantially this method for proposing candidates is in th e R n use by epublican organizatio in Boston , Mass . See also note following these rules Pr ima r le ctions y E .

2 t fi n m n t n con . No cer i cate of o i a io shall tain the name of more than one candidate for a n n ofli ce n u m n y give , eve tho gh ore tha on n n o o e perso is to be chose t that fli ce . No member Shall Sign more than one cer ifica e an v n ofli ce t t for y gi e . 3 C fi n m na n w n u . erti cates of o i tio , he d ly u h l u n in exec ted , s a l be sec rely e closed a sealed wrapper and delivered to the secre r m d n u n ta y (of the pri ary, war , tow , co ty, or other organization or other person whose d uty it shall be to pri nt the ballots) or deposited in a locked box which he shall u a nd provide at for that p rpose, he shall preserve all su ch ce r tificates so d cliv and f m ered or deposited , a ter the sa e shall have been duly opened he shall permit any member to inspect and make extracts from f m or copy o the sa e . 4 t fi n m n n . Cer i cates of o i atio shall be de livered or deposited as aforesaid not more than days nor less than f m n and days be ore the pri ary electio , the same shall not be opened by any person u ntil when the same shall be pub licly opened by the secretary (or other

8 Pr ima r E lections 9 y .

b e l th e r i ro fi led at ensuing Caucus , in acco dance w th the p i e ar the R l a vis ons hereinb fore given , the Secret y of epub ic n a l City Committee sh l as soon as practicable , but within two week - days of the public announcement of the contents of P n h r a r Nomination apers , otify the C ai m n and Sec etary of the Committee of any Ward from which the requis ite papers ha ve s not been filed . They , or one of them , hall forthwith call a i m a meet ng of the said Committee , who may no inate c ndidates for any and all omce s for which Nomination Papers have not r been filed , and immediately thereafter notify the Secreta y of th e City Committee of such action by filing with him Nomina o h n tion Papers similar to th se ereinbefore described , sig ed , in ffi r their o cial capacity , by all the membe s of the Committee th e I who assent to nominations therein made . n case of disagreement two sets of such Nomination Papers may be h filed . These papers s all have the same force and authority W as those containing the signatures of five voters of a ard , all and shall be considered and treated the same in respects .

1 I - . th e 4 f, two week days preceding the time at which

Caucuses are called , proper Nomination Papers have not been

filed for all the positions to be filled , or in case of any vacancy h n i caused by death or ot erwise , the Preside t and Secretar es of as th e the City Committee , a Committee , may exercise nom ina ti ng powers vested in the several Ward Committees ; and Nomination Pa pers filed by them sh all have the same force r and autho ity as other Nomination Papers . 2 I 4 . f any person whose name has been presented as a candidate for an elective offi ce or delegate on a Nomination

h - n Paper s all , within two week days of the public an ouncement thereof , ﬁle with the Secretary of the City Committee a written t n statement reques i g the withdrawal of his name , such request l m V shal be co plied with . acancies thus caused shall be ﬁlled h e r e inh e f rr o r ul r as ore provided for , in case of e r, i reg a ity , and I n P er informality a N omination ap . I X APPEND B .

‘ A B NK T B A T RULES FOR LA E LLO .

1 m n RULE . Ballots cast at pri ary electio s shall be printed by the organization as n and no dif herei after provided, other or f r n u n e e t ballot shall be cast or co ted . 2 S u . It hall be the d ty of the secretary (or other officer) to provide for every primary election (a certain quantity of) printed ballots u niform in size and ap nce Ea n n pe ar a . ch ballot shall co tai the names of all pers ons who shall have been duly nominated for the oflice specified n and no n m can thereo others . The a es of didate s for each ofli ce shall be arranged u nder the designation of the office in al hab e tical n u n m p order, accordi g to s r a es, and n u n and a betwee r led li es, a sp ce shall be left Opposite each name at the right

1 R s o The epublicans in Boston , Mas , and Cleveland , Ohi , l use the blanket ba lot . I Pr i ma r lecti n 0 0 y E o s . thereof for a mark for the designation of the choice of the voter ; a nd immediately following the names of the candidates for each ofﬁce and i n case no candidate shall have been d uly nominated for a n ofﬁce a blank space shall be left wherein a voter may write the name of the pe rson for w m ho he votes.

3 m v . (So e suitable pro isions Shou ld be made for the distribu tion of ballots where they are printed u nder the direction of s ome central a uthority a nd are to be u sed l m at several polling places . Ba lots or sa ple ballots might be mailed to membe rs to n i m and gether with a ot ce of the, ti e place n m and n m of holdi g a pri ary, if voti g by ail should be permitted instructions should also be sent.)

r n 1 0 2 Pr ima y Electio s .

n ffi and h and the the electio o cers, bot they ballot- boxes shall be in plain view of those u u l j st ou tside the g ard rai or rope . No pers on other than th e election officers and the watchers and those admitted for the pu rpose of voting as hereinafter provided m n shall be per itted withi said rail, except by the authority of the election officers to r num u t n keep o der . The ber of s ch vo i g booths or compartments shall not be less than one for every members of the n ffi associatio . The secretary or other o cer shall also furnish s uitable ballot - box or u n m boxes, s bsta tially the sa e as those req uired by la w for u se in general elec n tio s . 2 onductin the Election — I t . C g shall be the d uty of the inspectors of election to m m and deliver ballots to e bers, they shall at all times be u nder the super vision of u n n s ch i spectors of electio . The ballots shall be kept in plain view within the l n and as n po li g place, ear as possible to th e - n place where the ballot box is statio ed . At the n n th e n ope i g of polls, the i spectors shall place the ballots in the charge of R u les r Secr e t Votin 1 fo g . 0 3

i nu m E u iﬁ one of the r ber. ach q al ed voter upon receiving his ballot shall annou nce m n n his na e to the i spectors of electio . His n m n m and a e shall be oted by the , shall be n u And n m nu mbered co sec tively . if his a e shall appear on the list of members and not t l n o herwise, he sha l be e titled to receive and shall receive a nd take with him into the booth or compartment one a nd only one of the ballots fu rnished for u se at the n n and electio as herei before provided , that fact shall be indicated by a check or mark o his n m opp site a e . 3 P r r n l — On r e c iv . epa a tio of B a lots e in t m m t g his ballo the e ber shall forthwi h , and w t u n n r e i ho t leavi g the e closed space, n to o ne the and tire alo e of booths, there shall prepare his ballot in the manner n n the herei after provided . After prepari g ballot a nd before leaving the booth or com ar tme nt m m p , the e ber shall fold the ballot both crosswise and lengthwise in su ch a manner that the contents thereof shall be n a nd m co cealed , shall keep the sa e so fold ed u ntil he has delivered the same to the n n n of i spectors of electio . The i spectors I 0 4 Pr ima r y Elections . election shall forthwith in the plain view and w ut u n n dis of the voter, itho foldi g or n n n of t closi g the co te ts the ballot, deposi

m in - the sa e the ballot box . 4 P h sica l D isa bilit — An m m . y y y e ber m n h t in who by ea s of p ysical disabili y is, n n n u n the opi io of the i spectors, able to u n prepare his ballot witho t assista ce, shall be permitted to bring to the booth with him a person of his ow n selection to assist him in n b u t t and n m so doi g, hat fact the a e of the assistant shall be noted on the roll n m and book opposite the a e of the voter, the same person shall not be allowed to m n one v t t n assist ore tha o er at the elec io . 5 m m in . No e ber assist g a disabled voter shall divu lge to any one the name of any person for whom any member intends to or nor u n u nor shall vote, pers ade or i d ce seek to persu ade or ind u ce any member to vote in any particu lar manner or for any partie u n n lar ca didate or ca didates . 6 a nva i n Vot — . C ss g e The votes for the several candidates shall be canvas sed in the order in which they appear u pon the And no n ballot . ballot shall be cou ted

Pr ima r Ele tions y c . voting to any pe rson in su ch a way as to i n n a an n reveal ts co te ts . Nor sh ll y perso s t m nor S olicit the vo er to show the sa e, hall an r n c ns t n y pe so , ex ept the i pectors of elec io , the m m the v t receive sa e fro voter. No o er shall receive any oflicial ballot from any person other than one of the inspe ctors of i n in nor elect o hav g charge of the ballots, shall any person other than such inspe ctor fli ci l t u t deliver any o a ballo to s ch vo er. No voter shall place any mark u pon his ballot or do any other act in connection with the ballot with the intent that it may n fi one him be ide ti ed as the voted by . 10 F/ u i n t M mb r — l . o . a s o e c e e s p , , f Besides a ny punishment which may be prescri bed an m m u by law, y e ber who shall wilf lly disobey any of these rules shall be su bject to su spension or expulsion from the organi z io at n. DI X D APPEN .

‘ N ULEs To PROMOTE MAJ ORITY ELECTIO S .

F R N RULE O VOTI G .

I n n mu fi u voti g, a voter st place the g re l 1 opposite the name of his fir st- choice cans didate and m n , where there are ore tha two n if d n ca didates, the voter esires his seco d choice to operate on th e fail ure of his first m mu th e to beco e operative, he st place figure 2 opposite the name of his second choice candidate .

FOR N IN THE TE RULES CA VASS G VO S.

1 t e n . The ballo s shall be assort d i to n in l n u piles, placi g each pi e o ly s ch ballots as shall contain the name of the same can di at m r t d e arked as the ﬁ s choice .

1 These r ules are for use in the election or nomination of a single person by popular vote where there are more than two n candidates . They are desig ed to aid two minorities to unite an at election and thus become a majority . As they are com ple te in themselves they can be adopted as a whole on motion and without being transcribed . 1 0 7 2 in . The ballots each pile shall then be cou nted and the nu mber thereof placed in the following form for retu rns in the ﬁrst space opposite the names of the candidates

3 n . Havi g so recorded those votes, the ﬁr st- choice ballots cast for e ach candidate shall then be r e - assorted into ne w piles each one of which shall contain only those ballots on which the same candidate is m second arked as the choice, all ballots having no second choice marked thereon being placed in a pile by themselves . 4 in ne w S . The ballots each pile hall then be counted a nd the nu mber thereof

Ele i I 1 0 Pr i ma ry ct ons . choice votes cast by his su pporters to the ﬁr st- choice vote s of the remaining candi m n no dates for who they were give . If n n m i r m ca didate the has a ajor ty, drop f o the remaining candidates the one having the nu mb t n least er of vo es the to his credit, and add the seco nd - choice votes cas t by his supporters to the first - choice votes of the remaining candidates for whom they were i n R t t n u n m g ve . epeat his opera io til so e candidate has a majority or u ntil only two m n one n n candidates re ai . The the havi g the greater nu mber of votes to his credit ‘ will be elected .

1 Applying these rules to the returns as given in the ru les for canvassing the vote we notice that the total vote is forty m ﬁv e . and that no candidate has received a ajority There is, 1 s a therefore , no election under rule . This makes it nece s ry l to proceed under r ule 2 . Instead of disregarding the wi l of wh o m persons chance to think A ost desirable , their choice as between B and C is given effect under that rule . This ’ ’ ' al adds to B s twenty supporters one of A s , making B s tot ’ - I twenty one . t also carries six of A s supporters over to C ,

- n and gives him a total of twenty four , electi g him by a majority Centu r vote . More may be found of this method in the y z 1 1 E M M a a i ne 8 0 . a g , December, 9 , p 3 3, lection by the ” I w as 1 8 2 jority . t adopted August 9 , 9 , for the election of m a embers of P rliament in Queensland , Australia . DI X E APPEN .

A PRIMITIVE RULE FOR PROPORTIONAL REP ‘ RESENTATI ON .

Wher e more persons than one are to be m fﬁ e. . elected to the sa e o ce ( g , delegates to a convention) each voter shall vote for n one n and u nu m o ly ca didate, the req isite ber of persons receiving the highest num ber of votes shall be elected .

1 This ru le is gi ven because of its simplicity rather than I accuracy in securing proportional representa tion . t is used in Philadelphia by the Republican party in the election of ward executive committees and by the Democratic party to n I ma s elect inspectors of electio . t y well be taken as a ﬁr t I a step towards a better method . n some prim ries it can be i read ly adopted on motion . The rules following for quota elections , as well as many other methods not here given , will r u more accu ately sec re the desired result . For other methods see s r 0 the work refer ed to in note at p . 3 . APPENDI X F

‘ FOR O RULES QU TA ELECTIONS .

FOR O N RULE V TI G.

The same as on page 107

E FOR CAN VASSI NG TH E O RUL S V TES.

The same as on page 107

U FOR N N R LES ASCERTAI I G RESULT.

1 n n RULE . Whe a ca didate shall have r u n eceived a q ota of votes, to be ascertai ed n h as herei after provided , he s all be elected . 2 u n . A q ota shall be the ext whole nu mber above the qu otient obtained by dividing the total nu mb er of ﬁr s t- choice

1 These rule s a re designed to secure proportional representa tion in the election of plural delegates or other plural r e pr e se ntative s b . They are complete in themselves and can e adopted as a whole without being transcribed . 1 r See illust ative note foll owing these rules . 1 1 2

r I 1 4 P i ma ry Elections .

in the v h after, order, otes of all t ose voters whose second - choice candidate received the next higher nu mber of ﬁr st- choice votes u ntil the said qu ota is ﬁlled ; b u t when the excessive votes then remaining to be cred ite d would give any candidate more than a u a a m q ota, th t excess sh ll for a part of the qu ota in lieu of an equ al nu mber of votes having an u nappropriated second - choice last forming a part of the qu ota as afore

said . n m n one n d 5 . Whe ore tha ca di ate shall have more than a qu ota of votes standing to his credit the votes which shall be u sed to make u p su ch a quota shall be as cer fained ﬁrst of the candidate then having the largest nu mber of votes standing to his c redit . n the u n 6. Whe q ota of a ca didate shall

m n - be partly co posed of seco d choice votes, the votes which constitu te this quota shall be (1) the second- choice votes placed to ‘ t and ﬁr s t- his credi , thereafter choice votes, i v in Ru 4 n the order as pro ided le .

1 h Otherwise they would ave no elective power. R s u lecti ons 1 I ule for Q ota E . 5

n the in t 7. Whe process dica ed above shall fail to reveal a ny additional candidate n u t the n havi g a q ota, the vo es of perso s who gave their ﬁrst choice to the candidate having at this stage th e least nu mber of ‘ v otes to his credit shall be credited to the n i t in i t n ca d da es d ca ed as seco d choice .

8 e n . Wh by this process it shall appear that a candidate has a qu ota of votes to i n t tu his credit, the votes wh ch co s i te his q uota shall be ascertained as provided in Ru 6 and in u le , the votes excess of his q ota shall be credited to the candidates indi cate d as second choice who shall not have a u t t i t q o a to he r credi . 9 r i in u a nd . The process presc bed r les 7 8 Shall be r epeated u ntil th e nu mber of candidates having to their credit a qu Ota of votes or fraction thereof shall b e equ al num n and ll to the ber to be chose , they sha m e be dee ed el cted . 10 n it l a n . Whe shal appear that y two or more candidates have to their credit a n u nu m t one r e q al ber of vo es, the who ce i v e s the greatest nu mber of ﬁr s t- choice

1 a a a As such a candid te is supposed to be the le st desir ble . lecti ons 1 1 6 Pr i ma ry E .

t l and t nu m vo es shal be preferred , if hose l b e u l one n m bers shal eq a , the whose a e appears as second choice on the greater r t nu mbe of ballo s shall be preferred .

N OTE — AS a partial illustra tion of the working of these rules it is assumed that i n an election of three delegates there ﬁ v e n a nd v b were ca didates , that each recei ed the num er of ﬁr s t- choice votes set opposite his name i n the following r e u s h a turns , and that the s pporter of eac such c ndidate indicated their second choice as recorded on the line Opposite the name of such candidate .

SECO ND H O I E C C .

F ST H O I E I R C C .

E B LAN K

Total 2 1 5

a m o f s s in 2 1 a nd The tot l nu ber vote ca t be g 5 , the number a l d b in h th e ul of candid tes to be e ecte e g t ree , quota , as per r e

1 1 8 Pr ima r lections y E . Transfers from D and on the line for votes used in making up the quotas of the several ca ndidates to whom they

1 - - D are transferred . Thus is placed in the Transfers from column in B ’s section on the line for votes used to make up ’ I 2 B s quota . n a similar manner are transferred to C and 5 E to .

r o The election of two candidates being ascertained , we p ce e d s I to a certain the third . t will be noticed that at this 2 E 20 no stage B has 5 to his credit , while C has 35 , and . As

one of these candidates appears to have a quota to his credit , the votes of the persons who gave their ﬁrst choice to E have their votes transferred according to their second choice (Rule E To make these transfers from , we place them in the column headed Transfers from E and on the lines for votes used in making up the quotas of the several candidates to whom 2 n they are to be transferred . Thus are placed in the Tra s ” ’ - - E on s fers from column , in B s section the line for vote ” ’ used to make B s quota . In a similar manner 7 are trans E n ferred to C . The other votes cast for can ot be transferred .

Three would go to A but , as his quota is full , he does not m need them , and they are placed in a line arked not used . w The same may be said of 3 other votes , which ould otherwise E m go to D . As has retired fro the contest , the ﬁve votes which were transferred to him from D have also become use ' ' - less , and may be carried down to the line for not used 1 1 votes . This line therefore shows that votes are not

ﬁ rs t- a used , that the choice candid te of 5 voters (D) was 6 elected without their assistance , and that , although the other

ﬁ rs t- did not secure the election of their choice candidate , as a ' matter of fact their second - choice candidates were elected without their aid . r e s e c Now , adding up the votes to the credit of B and C p

tive l 2 . y, we ﬁnd that B has 54 and C 4 B is therefore elected , ' 2 n n and the 4 votes standi g to the credit of C , bei g not

used , are placed in the line and column so marked . Thus

A , D , and B are elected each by a full quota , making a total ' 1 62 2 1 s of . To this add 5 3 votes not used , and the 5 vote lections R u les for Q u ota E .

RES L FO RMULA FOR ASCERTAINING U T . P ima r lections I 20 r y E .

will be accounted for . The result should always prove the correctness of the work . s not An analysis of the not u ed votes is without interest . I ar e t shows that , although 5 3 are so designated , all the voters represe nted either by the candidates of their first or second as choice , except the three voters who voted for C their first choice , but failed to designate any second choice , and the seven voters who voted for E as their first choice and for C as s their econd choice . W ff f ith a di erent quota the figures would be di ferent , but w . H ith the quota used by Mr are and Mr . Andrae the same n 2 A ca didates would be elected . That quota would be 7 . 68 t would be elected by a full quota , B by vo es , and D by 49 ” 26 s . votes , leaving instead of 5 3 votes not u ed

1 2 2 Pr i m r le i a y E ct ons .

E s 1 u 1 quality among member , 3 depends on r les , 4 Ex ecutive committee , 45

I a 1 mprove the prim ry , 9 I 88 mproved methods of election , I n 6 ndirect ominations , 4

r s 26 Large prima ie , 1 Laws or party rules , 5

i 1 0 Major ty elections , 79 ; rules for , 7 s a u 1 Maker of p rty r les , 9 1 Member, the unit , 7 s 1 0 1 Member , equality among , 3, 3 ; unity of action of 7 rs 2 1 Membe hip , qualiﬁcation of , 88 a Methods , of election , improved , of p rty , how improved ,

1 6 . a Milwaukee , law relating to prim ries , 5 5 e d 1 Minoriti s iscouraged , 3 n Minority electio s , 79 ississ i i t s 1 pp , propor ional repre entation in , 3 - io Multi lateral elect ns , 79 - Multi party elections , 79

National , committees , 37 organizations , 37 6 Nominating committees , 9 60 b Nomination , by Crawford Co . system , y direct vote , 59 ; s 6 by convention , 4

O 2 0 pposition ticket, 9 , 7 ar tI e s 2 m Organization , of p , 3 co mittee as a factor , 34 ; con ve ntion 2 as a factor , 35 primary as a factor , 3

P z 2 a n 1 arty , organi ation , 3 ; constitution l gover ment , 9 ; com r 1 1 1 n 1 1 pa ed with corporation , 7 ; deﬁned , functio s of, ; 28 28 representation within , school for representation , ; w 1 1 rules or la s , 5 rules , makers of , 9 P 2 8 lural , delegates , 7 ; elections , 7 ; vote , 75 l n Plurality e ectio s , 79 n 8 2 Preferences in voti g , 2 21 Primary , elections , 5 controlled by committees , , 45 , 49 1 26 - improve the , 9 ; large , ; non attendance , reason for 1 2 3 members participate only at , 4 pivot of reform , 35 o res regulated by law , 5 4 ; sch ol for proportional rep enta t 28 8 2 ion , organization , 4 small , 5 1 2 I nde x . 3

P o 2 rop rtional representation , object of , 9 ; depends on meth i ; 0 88 ods of elect on , 74 methods of election for, 3 , ; rules 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 t 28 for , , in Mississippi , 3 within par y , 0 68 ; Proposing delegates , 7 ; rules for , 95 in Boston , in Boston , rules for , 97

a u 1 1 2 Quot elections , r les for ,

R u 2 6 eg lar ticket , 9 , 9 R 28 d 88 epresentation , proportional , ; metho s of election ; 28 within arty , R 0 1 0 esult , single elections ascertained , 9 of plural elections 1 1 2 ascertained , R r 1 0 etu ns of vote , how made , 7 R 1 21 im ules , makers of , 9 ; made by committees , ; how 1 6 1 2 t proved , ; adapted to membership , ; of coun y com mitte e s 2 l no , 4 ; nationa parties have , 37 ; relating to 6 S a v n 8 rimaries , 5 t tes ha i g , 3 ; for a blanket ballot , 99 ; p canvas s m 1 0 1 0 or g the votes , 7 ; for majority elections , 7 ; n 1 1 1 1 1 2 for proportional representatio , , ; for proposing candidates , 95 ; for proposing candidates in Boston , 97 ; 1 1 2 10 1 n for quota elections , ; for secret voting , for si gle 1 0 as 10 elections , 7 ; single elections , certaining result , 9 ; 1 0 for voting with second choice , 7

t 82 r 10 Second choice in vo ing , ules for , 7 S 26 i 1 0 1 ecret , ballot , ; vot ng , rules for , S c 8 2 ingle , ele tions , 7 delegates , 7 vote , 75 r 2 Small prima ies , 5 r , 37 , 37 State , committees o ganizations organizations hav 8 ing rules , 3

- Tri lateral elections , 79

U 2 nanimous elections unnatural , 9

V a 1 82 h ow 1 0 otes of equal v lue , 3 deﬁned , canvassed , 7 V 8 2 1 0 oting , with second choice , rules for , 7