The Newsletter | No.72 | Autumn 2015 46 | The Network

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Cutting across the natural boundaries and barriers of Esoteric Buddhist networks in Maritime Asia, continental topography, sea-based routes (the so-called ‘Maritime Silk Roads’) formed a network of conduits that led 7th-13th centuries to the formation of a mediaeval global Buddhist Asia. Those routes played an important role in shaping premodern intra- Andrea Acri Asian connectivity, and allowed both regional and cosmopolitan traditions of Esoteric to participate in complex circulatory processes involving mercantile, diplomatic, and ESOTERIC BUDDHISM – ALSO CALLED MANTRANAYA personalities, more often than not associated with a vigorous religious networks moving across the ‘Southern Seas’. (Method of ) or Vajrayāna (Diamond/Thunderbolt activity of translation, commentarial work and initiation The appreciation of this ‘maritime dimension’ of Way) – had a tremendous impact on the religious and of pupils, travelled both eastwards and westwards along Esoteric Buddhism reveals the limits of a historiography cultural history of Asia. Esoteric Buddhist traditions were the sea routes linking the Indian subcontinent to Southeast that is premised on land-based transmission of Buddhism vectors for the circulation of philosophical ideas, cults Asia, China and Japan. It is probably these networks of from a South Asian ‘homeland’ across the Eurasian continent; and ritual technologies, artistic motifs, material culture, monks and their disciples that acquired, transformed, and furthermore, it advances an alternative historical narrative and political paradigms. This circulation spanned across propagated images, texts and devotional practices associated that overturns the perception regarding Southeast and Maritime Asia – a vast swathe of maritime, littoral and with esoteric forms of such popular Buddhist divinities as East Asia as ‘peripheries’ that were mere consumers rather landmass territory spanning from the Indian subcontinent Avalokiteśvara, Mañjuśrī, Vajrapāṇi, and Tārā. than generators of Esoteric Buddhism. Indeed, cults were to East Asia, the geographical fulcrum of which In spite of having suffered a sudden downfall in royal transmitted from multiple centres across a much wider encompasses mainland and insular Southeast Asia. support in , Sri Lanka, Central Java, and China in the world of Buddhist cultural interchange than is usually Perceived as an esoteric orientation within the Mahāyāna middle of the 9th century, Esoteric Buddhism by the 10th assumed at present, and a strong point can be made for or as a self-conscious (Tantric) school, Esoteric Buddhism century had virtually become identical with Buddhist practice the re-evaluation of the creative and transformative force regarded its path as superior, and in any event faster and over much of Asia. Having died out in the Indian subcontinent of (South)East Asian agents in the dissemination of Esoteric easier, than other Buddhist paths; it included an element by the late 13th century, it continued to live or even thrive Buddhism across Asia. of initiation, secrecy, transgressive devotional and ritual (in its localised instantiations) until the late 15th century Indeed Southeast Asia – and large areas of what are practice, the use (for both this-worldly and other-worldly in Java and Sumatra, and to the present day in , Tibet, now the Malay peninsula and the Indonesian archipelago purposes) of , magical formulas and diagrams Bali, and Japan. in particular – played an important, Asia-wide role as both (maṇḍala), possession, exorcism, etc. Esoteric Buddhism Major centres of Esoteric Buddhism were the Northeastern crossroads and termini of (Esoteric) Buddhist contacts. The shared significant common elements with Tantric Śaivism, areas of the Indian subcontinent, roughly corresponding to mention of pilgrims coming from Gurjaradeśa (Gujarat?) in a to the extent that the two religions participated in an modern Bihar (itself the cradle of Buddhism since the time Śailendra royal inscription from Central Java; the existence of interdependence of discourse in the domains of soteriology, Below: Borobudur of the Buddha), West Bengal and Bangladesh. Bihar was the a replica of the Sinhala monastic complex of Abhayagirivihāra ritual, and iconography. (8th-9th century, seat of Nālandā, the cultural powerhouse that dictated the in the same locale, and of monasteries for monks and Networks of Buddhist clerics of various ethnicities Central Java). predominant religious and aesthetic paradigm in the Buddhist pilgrims coming from Śrīvijaya at Nālandā and Nagapattinam adhering to esoteric developments begin to emerge in the Photo: Andrea Acri. Cosmopolis from the 8th to the 13th century. Other locales (South India); the survival, besides the Chinese reports, of 7th century in disparate Asian locales, moving along the that played a role in the formation of Esoteric Buddhism and and vernacular textual materials of Esoteric Buddhist maritime routes plied since time immemorial by seafaring Inset: its overseas expansion are the Western Deccan, Orissa, South persuasion, some of which contain quotations traceable to traders, religious specialists, and pilgrims. The expansion of Paths travelled by India, and Sri Lanka. The last two areas once hosted important Sanskrit ; and the significant remains of statues, ritual the monks between Esoteric Buddhism was initially driven by a handful of monks – lineages of Esoteric Buddhist masters and repositories of implements, and monuments (such as the majestic Borobudur), India, mainland and including the famous Vajrabodhi and Amoghavajra – endowed Tantras, and acted as hubs for the spread of esoteric traditions all suggest that insular Southeast Asia was a recognised insular Southeast with a remarkably cosmopolitan vision and ‘international’ Asia, China, and and their foundational scriptures to Southeast Asia and seat of esoteric cults in a highly interconnected Buddhist ambitions, who crossed oceans and lands in search of esoteric Japan-Korea. Map by beyond. Monks of the calibre of Puṇyodaya, Amoghavajra and cosmopolis rather than a remote and backward periphery. scriptures in Sanskrit, initiation masters, as well as – perhaps Swati Chemburkar Prajña travelled from China to South India and/or Sri Lanka to most importantly – royal patrons. Those charismatic and Andrea Acri. get hold of some esoteric texts unavailable elsewhere. Andrea Acri is Visiting Fellow at the Nalanda-Srivijaya Centre