GOKHALE CENTENARY COLLEGE, ANKOLA, UTTARA KANNADA DISTRICT, KARNATAKA, INDIA
UGC Sanction Order No : MRP(S)-88/12-13/KAKA091/UGC- SWRO ,dated :29-March -2013
Period :24 months (November 2013 to September 2015
Project Title EFFECT OF ESTUARY WATER OF RIVER AGHANASHINI IN GROUND WATER OF UTTARA KANNADA DISTRICT WITH REFERENCE TO MIRJAN VILLAGE – KARNATAKA.
PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED TO UNIVERSITY GRANTS COMMISSION
Principal Investigator PROF. J. S. FERNANDIS, Associate Professor in Chemistry, GOKHALE CENTENARY COLLEGE, ANKOLA, Uttara Kannada – District. Karnataka State
Dedicated to beloved Parents
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the matter embodied in this project work entitled “Effect Of Estuary
Water Of River Aghanashini In Ground Water Of Uttara Kannada District
With Reference To Mirjan Village – Karnataka” is a record of the results of investigations carried out by me in the department of Chemistry, Gokhale Centenary of Arts and Science, Ankola, Uttara Kannada District.. I further declare that the results presented in the present work have not formed the basis for any other research project previously.
(Prof. J. S. Fernandis)
Place : Kumta
Date :
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS It gives me great pleasure to acknowledge with gratitude the help and guidance rendered to me by a number of people to whom I owe in a substantial measure in the successful completion of this project work. I am deeply indebted to University Grants Commission for the financial assistance given to my project work and for their constant encouragement throughout. My gratitude to my friend Dr. N. K. Nayak, Department of Chemistry, Dr. A.V.Baliga College of Arts & SciencP. Vasu, Kumta for his valuable guidance, suggestions and constant encouragement throughout the work. I owe my gratitude to the management of Kanara Welfare Trust, Ankola for encouragement in my academic pursuits and P.R.Kamat, Retired Principal and Dr. I.A. Khan, Principal of G. C. College, Ankola for providing me all the facilities and encouragement. I acknowledge with thanks the support offered by my colleagues Prof. S.G. Goankar, Prof. Sharada Airani during the various stages of this work. I thank all my family members for their help rendered during this project work. I wish to express my thanks to Omkar DTP works, Kumta for the help rendered during the typing and printing of this project work.
Prof. J. S. Fernandis
CONTENTS
Chapter Topic Page No. No.
I INTRODUCTION 1 to 3
II TOPOGRAPHY 4 to 11
III MATERIALS AND METHODS 12 to 18
IV RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 19 to 46
V SUMMARY AND CONLCUSIONS 47 to 49
VI REFERENCES 50 to 68 DETAILS OF TABLES
Table No. Parameter Page No.
1.0 Concentration Profile of Major Ions- 2013-14 (Yearly) 39
2.0 Concentration Profile of Major Ions- 2014-15 (Yearly) 40
Ionic composition of seasonal averages for the year 3.0 2013-14 & 2014-15 of 1 to 4 stations water samples 43
4.0 Ionic composition of seasonal averages for the year 2013-14 & 2014-15 of 5 to 8 stations water samples 44
Ionic composition of sampling stations of Station 1 to 4 45 for the year 2013-14 & 2014-15
5.0 Ionic composition of sampling stations of Station 5 to 8 46 for the year 2013-14 & 2014-15
DETAILS OF MAPS/FIGURES
Map/Figure No. Parameter Page No.
1.0 Map of the Uttara Kannada District 9
2.0 Map of the Kumta Taluk 10
3.0 Study Area 11
4.0 Graph of Major Parameters 41
Chapter-I Introduction
Chapter-II
Topography
Chapter-III
Materials and Methods
Chapter-IV Results and Discussion
Chapter -V
Summary and Conclusions
References
1 Introduction Water is a non substitutable parameter for survival and perpetuation of every life form on earth. As far as basic requirements like shelter, education, transport, energy etc, one can live with reduced comforts but one cannot find life easy if water is not available to meet the basic needs. It is needed not only for drinking but also for cooking, cleaning and washing. It is also essential for digestion, regulating body temperature, removing body wastes and lubricating joints. Further, it also acts as buffer in neutralising the excess acid produced in the digestive system. In fact about 70% of our body weight is water. Deficiency of water causes acidosis, dehydration, oedema, fevers, shocks, urinary tract infections, indigestion and constipation. As many as twenty well known diseases can be avoided just by taking sufficient amount of potable water. Water has been rightly regarded as the “elixir of life” because of its crucial role for the existence, conservation and sustenance of life on earth. The main resources of water for drinking and agriculture have been the rivers, streams and large lakes. As such the river valleys like the Sindhu, the Ganga, the Nile etc have been the “cradles of civilisation”. Hence, rivers have been regarded as “life-lines” of civilization. Water covers over 70% of the earth’s surface, of which about 97% is in salty oceans and more than 2% is in glaciers and ice-caps, leaving around 1% as utilizable fresh water (World Book, 1997). Most of this water is underground, and the remainder is in rivers, lakes, springs, pools and ponds. The fresh water requirements are to be met from this limited potential. Because of population explosion, fast urbanization and industrialization, the water quality is fast changing. The surface water bodies are being loaded with organic and inorganic pollutants by one or the other means. The water system (hydrosphere) is a dynamic system in physicochemical and biological equlibria. The active water bodies have large capacity to assimilate wastes and have a remarkable capacity for regeneration. However, in many areas the limit has been crossed and water bodies have been increasingly contaminated. The pollutants may be transported through the various bio-chemical processes into biological food chains; some of them accumulate in the living tissues causing toxic effects to living organisms including human beings. The total available water for use in India is estimated as 1900 billion cubic meters per annum (P. S. Sindhu, “Environmental Chemistry”, 2002, New Age International 2 Publishers, New Delhi). About 86% of this is in the form of surface water - in the form of rivers, streams, lakes and ponds. A staggering 70% of this water is polluted with community wastes and accounts for four-times as much wastewater than the industrial effluents. If the discharged wastes are biodegradable, they are acted upon by the aerobic bacteria. However, if the quantum is large, the dissolved oxygen begins to deplete and anaerobic conditions prevail. Water pollution can be caused by various human activities and also occurs naturally, much less than pollution caused by human activity. Pollution can have two types (point and non-point) of sources. This depends on how the pollutants enter the water. Point sources are source of solution situated at one location, often as specific outlet (discharge) pipe. Factories and wastewater treatment plants usually have discharge pipes leading directly to the water body. Pollution from non-point sources does not come from one specific location; instead, it comes from many small sources in a large area. It is usually caused by water which flows overland and then to a river, a lake; for example, rain water and irrigation water. As this water passes over the ground, it picks up pollutants and carries them into local waters. Non-point source pollution can also result from pollution in the air that falls into the water or on the ground. In general, point sources are easy to identify whereas non-point sources are more difficult to identify. In the present scenario ground water quality is also deteriorating due to different types anthrapogenic activities. In addition to this, there is change in underground water quality where the area belongs to esturine section. In the rppresent study, Mirjan area belongs Arabian estury, where ground water characteristics differs depends upo seasonal changes and salinity increasing. In general, ground water are known as storehouses of information regarding the present and past climate, environment of deposition, and degree of pollution or contamination, if any. It is with this background, studies on physico-chemical characteristics on the water bodies have been conducted on well water of Mirjan area for a period of two years. Data generated from the water quality studies is very useful and can be fruitfully employed to establish base line information with regard to the trends and concentrations to assess the impact of additions from point and non-point sources to define the zones for designated best uses, 3 early warning and detection of pollution, and to recommend the remedial actions. A well planned and managed water quality monitoring system is required to signal, control or predict the changes or trends in a water body so that necessary preventive and corrective measures can be under taken. The four basic criteria required to evaluate the quality of water are: the physical, chemical, bacteriological and biological. The physical and chemical methods indicate whether the pollution is of organic and / or inorganic in origin. Hence, studies on the physico-chemical parameters of water bodies are very significant. A critical survey of available literature revealed that there is apprehensive damage to well water of esturine area of Uttara Kannada District. No systematic scientific project study on the water quality parameters of the Aghanashini Estuary of Uttara Kannada district has been conducted. Hence, a detailed study of various water quality parameters of underground water bodies near to Arabian Estury was undertaken with the following objectives. 1. To assess the quality of well water and current water status based on the physico- chemical parameters. 2. To establish base line information with regard to the trends and concentrations of the various parameters. 3. To define the zones for designated best use. 4. To understand inter-relationship between the different parameters. 5. To find out the sources of pollution, if any. 6. To suggest the measures to be undertaken to improve the conditions of the well water, and sustain for the future generation. For the sake of detailed study, the stretch of esturine area of underground water has been divided into two parts – four stations esturine area away from Arabian Sea and four stations esturine area near to Arabian sea. These eight stations each were selected which based on their accessibility, varying character and nature of anthropogenic activity. Eight well water samples collected from these area were designated by Arabic letters 1 to 8. The investigation was carried out for a short period of two years (November 2013 to September 2015). A total of twenty-three physico-chemical parameters of well water were determined following standard methods. The data generated has been interpreted in the light of similar studies carried out on underground water. 4 Topography
Uttara Kannada district is one of the coastal districts of the Karnataka State and stretches itself along the coastline of the Arabian sea. The western ghats divide the district into two parts, with five taluks in the coastal plain and six taluks above the ghats, with parts of their territory stretching itself on the fringe of the Deccan Platue. The district is located in the mid-western part of the State. It lies between 740 9l to 750 10l east longitude and 13 055 l to 15 031l north latitude and extends over the area of 10,327 sq km which is 5.37 percent of the total area of the state and ranks 10th in the state. It extends to about 328km north south and about 160 km east west. Most of the district is hilly and thickly wooded. The district, which has a long and narrow strip of territory, is surrounded by Belgaum district in the east and Goa territory in the north, Dharwad district in the east, Dakshina Kannada and Shimoga districts in the south, the Arabian Sea in the west. The district, at present , has 11 taluks, divided into three sub divisions . Karwar sub- division has the taluks of Karwar, Haliyal and Supa (total area 3,469.8 km), Kumta sub-division has Kumta, Honavar, Bhatkal and Ankola taluks (area 2,604.4 km) and Sirsi sub – division with the taluks of Sirsi, Siddapur, Mundgod and Yellapur ( 4,149.6 sq.km.) The average annual rainfall in the district is 2,500 mm. The rainfall in the district in general decreases gradually from the coast towards the Western Ghats region and thereafter rapidly further eastwards. The southern most portion of the coastal strip in this district is the region with highest rainfall along the whole of the west coast of India. The average annual rainfall for the last eight years was 2333.90 mm. (NRDMS Unit, Karwar. Karnataka) The rainfall during the pre-monsoon month of May and the post- monsoon months of October and November is mostly in the form of thunder showers. Temperatures of the district begin to increase steadily from about the end of February. April and May are the hottest months with the mean daily maximum temperature at about 320C to 330C and the mean daily minimum at 250C to 260C in the coastal part. Weather during the period, March to May is very oppressive due to the moist heat. The district is hilly and thickly wooded in most of the parts. Its major part is essentially highland, the low land being restricted to pockets along the courses of rivers. A somewhat broken and irregular Sahydri range of central hills with an average height of 700 5 meters divides the district into two parts; the uplands or the region above the ghat has an area of nearly 7,770 sq. km, which is 600 to 700 meters above the sea level and the down ghat lands which covers about 3,370 sq km (Karnataka Gazetteer of Uttara Kannada district). The coastlands are the best-developed areas with a high degree of economic development and a high density of population. It is in this region the taluks of Karwar, Ankola, Kumta, Honavar and Bhatkal are situated. The Sahyadrian region is mostly forested, and only the roads crossing the ghats sustain human activity, though the valleys have special significance as belts of spice and areca gardens for which the district has been famous since antiquity. The eastern margin is an undulating land, partly under forest and partly cleared up for agriculture. Parts of Haliyal, Yellapur and Mundgod taluks are plain country. The main geomorphic land forms are characterised by high rise ghats and the low lands which include estuaries and lagoons. Geological studies carried out in this area have revealed that the lithosphere consists of rocks of Archaezoic era, the oldest rock of earth crust. These are further classified under two categories, the older group of sediments and igulous viatrusives, which are highly metamorphosed and a younger group of plutonic intrusives termed as peninsular gneisses. The district is rich in many minerals. Economically important minerals available in the district are the iron ore, manganese ore, lime stone, quartz, limeshell, silica, sand and clays. The district is an important exploitation centre for iron and manganese ores. The most important aspect of the district cropping pattern is the predominance of the food grains, particularly paddy and plantation crops like areca nut, cashew, coconut, pepper and cardamom.
Rivers
There are four leading rivers, the Kali in the north, the Bedti about 32 km south, the Aghanashini rising far to the south but falling into the sea only about six miles south of the Gangavali, and the Sharavati, about 24km south of the Aghanashini when it reaches the foot of the hills and becomes a tidal creek. Each of the rivers takes a second name from the chief town on its banks. Thus the Kali (Karihole) is locally known also as Sadashivgad river, the Bedti the Gangavali river, the Agahnashini the Tadri river, and the Sharavati the Gersoppa 6 river. In the hills the channels of all the rivers are broad and rocky, showing the force of their monsoon torrents. At the foot of the hills, they are broad backwaters, the mouths stopped by bars of sand, which during heavy rains block the passage of the flood waters till they overflow the low lands along their banks.
The Aghanashini or Tadri River
The Aghanashini or Tadri (total length 121km) river is situated between 14.580 to 15.060 north latitude and 74.280 to 74.950 east longitude. It rises at Manjguni near Sirsi and after a winding westerly course of about 70 km falls into the sea about 10 km south of the Bedti river. It has two sources, the Bakurhole rising in a pond at Manjguni about 25 km west of Sirsi and Donihalla whose source is close to Sirsi. The streams meet near Mutthalli about 16 km south of Sirsi. Under the name of Donihalla it flows about 24 km south of Sirsi with a winding westerly course to the western face of the Sahyadris. Five km from the Herggarne in Siddapur taluk, at Unchalli, it leaps in what is known as the Lushington Falls. Further down, six km from Bilgi, near Hemanbail village, it leaps low again and this is known as the Burde Jog. At Uppinapattana, it meets the tide. From Mirjan, it forms a lagoon or back water which runs parallel to the coast, about 13 km long and 2 to 6 km broad, cut off from the sea by a belt of land with a nearly uniform breadth of about mile. For about 24 km it is navigable to craft of four to nine tones. On the basis of topography, nature of the water flow locality, accessibility of the station in all seasons, human interference, nature of the river bed, pollution and its catchment area, eight sampling stations (well water sampling) were selected on side side of esturine area to get the overall physico-chemical characteristics of ground water and effect of estuarine water of Aghanshini river. The locations were identified in such a way that four stations away from Arabian sea and remaining four stations close to Arabian sea to quantify salinity effect from estuary but also to find seasonal changes. The sampling stations selected are as follows.
7
Station-1- Manakona Manakona, a small village is situated nearly 32 km south of Ankola. The starting station of the river is thickly wooded with hilly area and receives maximum rainfall. The river bottom is muddy and full of silt. The near by area people cultivate paddy and coconut.
Station-2-Divigi Divigi, a small village is situated nearly 30 km south of Ankola. It is surrounded by forest area. Riverbed and sides are muddy with clay material, to be rich in organic matter, because of the litter fall. Water is flowing slowly and people of this area remove sand from river basin for house constructon purpose.
Station-3- Tannirkuli Tannirkuli, is a small village, which is situated 26 km south of Ankola, has pools, riffles and run. Riverbed and sides are muddy, with evergreen vegetation on both sides. Litter deposition in the riverbed is a common feature. Water is used for agriculture, during rainy season and partly in winter season.
Station-4-Kallmotte Kallmotte, is situated 8 kms from Tannirkuli, south of Ankola. Riverbed is with small stones and sides are muddy, trees over-arch the river, rotting woods and leaf litter enrich the organic content in the river. This station receives torrential rain. People cultivate paddy and there is lot of mango plantation nearby area.
Station-5-Mirjan Mirjan, is situated nearly 18 kms south of Ankola. Mirjan Fort is famous visiting spot. The Fort is built by latterite stones with different style, which is famous monument of this area. This station is somewhat near oto Arabian sea and also acts as Trade centre. The station was selected to study the impact of the confluence of tributary and falls on water quality. This station receives maximum rainfall. This station is characterized by good 8 vegetation on one side and areca nut plantation on the other. Water is not extensively used for irrigation.
Station-6-Chattikurve Chattinkurve, is small island type area, is situated 22 kms away from east of Ankola. Riverbed has lots of organic matter and mixed soil in some area. People of this area run their life on agricultural activities. The riverbank is muddy with aquatic vegetation.
Station-7-Kodkani Kodkani, is situated about 22 kms from south-east of Kumta town. This station is near Arabian sea, more saline. Fisherman of this area runs their life by harvesting prawn seasonally. Other people of this area cultivate paddy.
Station-8-Kimani Kimani is last station selected to find out salinity effect on ground water. This station is very near to Tadri, which meets the tide. This station is nearly 24 kms south-east of Kumta town. The station is covered by semi-evergreen vegetation.. On one side of the river human habitation and agricultural activities are seen. This station is characterised by full of anthropogenic activities.
9 MAP OF THE UTTARA KANNADA DISTRICT
Figure No. 1.0 10
MAP OF THE KUMTA TALUK
Figure No. 2.0 11
Figure No. 3.0
12
Methods
Water samples were collected from all the 8 sampling stations (well water) in pre- washed polyethylene bottles of two litres capacity fitted with screw caps at monthly intervals at a single point about 10 to 30 cm below the water surface at the main flowing portion of the well water. A grab sample technique was employed to represent the stream discharge at the time of sampling. Few parameters like pH, conductance and dissolved oxygen (DO) were measured in the field using portable kits at the time of sample collection. Further, the DO content was crosschecked by determining the same immediately, by Winkler’s method. The water samples were transported to the laboratories, properly labeled and stored in refrigerator. Analysis of the parameters was done and in all cases the final results were calculated by taking at least three consecutive trials. Chemicals of A.R. grade were used in the analysis. De-ionised water was used in the preparation of the solutions.
The following methods were employed for the determination of various the physico- chemical parameters.
1. Temperature: The temperature of water samples was recorded at a depth of 10 to 12 cm with the help of mercury thermometer. The same thermometer was used to determine the air temperature.
2. Electrical Conductivity: Conductivity readings were noted by using portable digital conductivity meter (DC 808 Bio-chem) at the site of sample collection.
13 3. Total Solids (TS): Standard Method (D. Dickinson, The Chemical Analysis of Waters, Boilers and Feed Waters, Sewage and Effluents, Second Edition, 1950, Blackie and Son, London). 100 ml of the water sample was taken into a pre-weighed clean, dry porcelain dish. It was placed on a water bath and evaporated to dryness and further dried at 103 –105 0C for one to two hours in a hot air oven. Then it was cooled in a desiccator and weighed. The difference between the weights was the weight of the total solids.
4. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS): (Chemical methods for Environmental Analysis: Water and Sediment – R. Ramesh and M. Anbu, 1996, pp.18). The given water sample was filtered through Whatman No.30 filter paper. Then 100 ml of water was taken into a pre weighed clean, dry porcelain dish and evaporated to dryness over a water bath. Further, it was dried in a hot air oven at 1050C for an hour to remove moisture. The dish was cooled in a desiccator and weighed. The difference between the weights was TDS and expressed in mg/L.
5 and 6. Carbonate and Bicarbonate: Titrimetric Method (Chemical Methods for Environmental analysis: Water and Sediment - R.Ramesh and M.Anbu, 1996, pp. 21-23). 20 ml of the water sample was pipetted out into a 250ml clean conical flask. 2 drops of phenolphthalein indicator were added. Development of pink colour indicated the presence of carbonate. The solution was titrated against 0.02N sulphuric acid till the pink colour disappeared. Then two drops of methyl orange indicator were added and the titration was continued till straw yellow colour changed to pinkish red. The concentration of carbonate and bicarbonate were expressed in mg/L.
7. Chloride: Argentometric Method, (APHA,1985, pp.287-288). 20 ml of the sample was pipetted out into a clean conical flask and 1ml potassium chromate indicator (2.5%) was added. The solution was titrated against standard silver nitrate (0.0282 N) solution from a burette, by swirling until a faint red colour was formed. A blank experiment was also conducted. The chloride content was expressed in mg/L.
14 8. Sulphate: Standard Method (D. Dickinson, The Chemical Analysis of Waters, Boilers and Feed Waters, Sewage and Effluents, Second Edition, 1950, Blackie and Son, London). 200-500 ml of the water sample was taken in a 500 ml beaker The pH of the sample was adjusted to 4-5 with (1:1) HCl using methyl red indicator. Then additional 2ml HCl was added. The solution was boiled for about one minute. 10 ml of hot barium chloride (5%) solution was added slowly with constant stirring. The precipitate was digested on water bath for about 2 hours and filtered through whatman No. 40 filter paper. The precipitate was washed with hot water until the washings were free from chloride impurities. The residue was dried and ignited in a silica crucible, cooled in a desiccator and weighed. Sulphate content was calculated using gravimetric formula method.
9. Ammonia-Nitrogen: Standard Method (APHA, Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Waste Water – 13th Edition, 1971, Washington). 50 ml of water sample was pipetted out into a distillation flask. 20 ml boric acid solution with mixed indicator were added into a 150 ml conical flask and placed below the condenser.10 ml (10M) of NaOH solution was added into the distillation flask and the ammonia was steam distilled into the boric acid solution. This distillate was titrated with 0.02N sulphuric acid solution till the pinkish colour reappeared. Simultaneously a blank was carried out. Ammonia-Nitrogen was expressed in mg/L.
10. Nitrate: (Vogel’s Textbook of Quantitative Inorganic Analysis, 4th Edition, 1986, pp.314). 50 ml of ammonia free water sample was pipetted out in to a distillation flask. 20 ml boric acid solution with mixed indicator were added in to a 150 ml conical flask and was placed below the condenser. 10 ml (10 M) NaOH solution and 0.2 g of Devarda's alloy was added in to the distillation flask and the ammonia was steam distilled in to the boric acid solution. This distillate was titrated with 0.02N sulphuric acid solution till the pinkish colour reappeared. Simultaneously a blank was carried out. Nitrate initrogen was expressed in mg/L.
11. Nitrite: Standard method, colourimetric method, (APHA, 1985, pp.404 – 406). 15 Standard solutions (0.001-0.1 mg/L) of nitrite were prepared by appropriate dilution of freshly prepared sodium nitrite stock solution. 50 ml of the clear sample was transferred in to a 100 ml volumetric flask. 1 ml E.D.T.A. solution was added and stirred well. 1 ml of sulphanilic acid was added to blank, standards and sample and mixed thoroughly. After 10 minutes, 1 ml alpha naphthylamine-hydrochloride solution and 1 ml sodium acetate buffer solution were added and mixed thoroughly. After 10 minutes, the absorbance was measured at 520nm using spectrophotometer. Calibration curve was prepared by plotting absorbance verses concentration of standard nitrite solution. Nitrite content of the sample was obtained from the calibration curve.
12. Phosphate: Stannous Chloride Method, Standard Method, (APHA, 1985, pp. 446-448). 50 ml of unfiltered sample was taken in a conical flask. 4.5 ml oxidation mixture was added. The sample was evaporated to a volume of 1 ml and then continued until solution became colourless to remove nitric acid. It was cooled and approximately 20 ml distilled water was added and boiled again for a few minutes in order to hydrolyse and to develop polyphosphate. It was cooled and a few drops of phenolphthalein indicator and 1N sodium hydroxide were added to produce a faint pink colour. Pink colour of the solution was removed by adding 5N sulphuric acid. Standard solutions of phosphate (0.01-0.2 ppm) were prepared by appropriate dilution of stock solution. 4.0 ml of ammonium molybdate solution and 0.5 ml of stannous chloride solution were added to the blank, standards and sample. Absorbance of sample and standards were measured using spectrophotometer at 690 nm. Calibration curve was prepared by plotting absorbance against concentration of standard phosphate solution. Phosphate content of the sample was obtained from the calibration curve.
13 and 14: Calcium and Magnesium : EDTA Titrimetric Method, (APHA 1985, pp199- 200).
Total Calcium and Magnesium 25 ml of the sample was taken into a clean conical flask, diluted with the 25ml of de- ionised water. 2 ml of buffer solution of pH 10 and 30-40 mg of EBT indicator were added. 16 The solution was titrated against 0.02M EDTA solution until colour changed from wine red to pale blue. Calcium Content: 25 ml of the sample was taken into a clean conical flask and diluted with 25 ml of de-ionised water. 2 ml of 1N sodium hydroxide solution was added and mixed thoroughly to precipitate magnesium hydroxide. Then 30-40 mg murexide indicator was added, and the solution was titrated against 0.02M EDTA solution as earlier. EDTA was standarised by titrating against standard 0.02M zinc sulphate solution. Calcium and Magnesium content were expressed in mg/L.
15. Sodium: Flame Photometric Method, (APHA, 1985, pp.245-249, 16th edition). Stock Solution: (100 ppm) of NaCl was prepared. Then series of standard solutions in the concentration range 1-10 ppm were prepared in 50ml volumetric flasks by appropriate dilution of the stock solution. The flame photometer was standardised by aspirating de- ionised water (zero reading) and 10 ppm solution (100 reading). Then other standard solutions of lower concentration were aspirated and the flame photometer readings were taken. A calibration graph was obtained by plotting meter reading verses concentration. Then the water samples were aspirated and the concentration of sodium was read from calibration curve corresponding in their meter readings.
16. Potassium: Flame Photometric Method, (APHA , 1985, pp .237). Similar procedure as that of sodium was adopted. In this case, standard potassium chloride solution was prepared and potassium concentration was determined by calibration curve as described in the case of sodium.
17. Iron : Colorimetric Method,(APHA,1985, pp.215 – 219). Standard solutions (0.01 to 0.1 mg/L) of iron were prepared by appropriate dilution of the stock solution in 50ml volumetric flasks. Then 1ml of 5% thiocyanate solution was added, diluted up to the mark and shaken well. The absorbance (A) of the standard solutions was measured at 480 nm. A calibration curve of absorbance verses concentration was obtained. 17 100ml sample solutions were taken in 250ml beakers and 5 ml of 1:1 HCl was added. The volume was reduced to 40 ml, cooled and KMnO4 solution was added drop by drop until a pink colour persisted. The solution was transferred to 50 ml volumetric flask. Colour developed by adding 5% thiocyanate and absorbance measured. The concentration of iron in the sample was read from the calibration curve corresponding to its absorbance.
18. Manganese: Colorimetric method, Persulphate method (APHA, Standard Methods for the examination of water and waste water – 14th Edition, 1976, Washington).
100ml of the sample was placed in a 250ml beaker. 5ml special reagent was added to the blank, standard (0.01-0.5 mg/L) and sample. The beakers were heated on a hot plate till the content was reduced to 40ml and 1 g ammonium per sulphate was added to the boiling mixture. Cooled and transferred to 100ml volumetric flask and was diluted to 100ml using de-ionised water. The absorbance was measured at 545 nm using spectrophotometer. The concentration of manganese in the sample was read from the calibration curve corresponding to its absorbance.
19. Dissolved Oxygen (DO): Winkler’s Modified or Iodometric Method, (Standard Methods, APHA, 16th edition, 1985, pp.416)
Water samples were collected in 300 ml BOD bottle with utmost care. 2ml MnSO4 solution (91.0 g MnSO4. H2O in 250 ml of distilled water) were added followed by the addition of 2 ml alkali-iodide-azide solution (175 g KOH, 37.5 g KI and 2.5 g of sodium azide dissolved in 250 ml distilled water), by keeping tip of the pipette below the surface of the liquid. The bottles were stoppered and shaken thoroughly. 2 ml of con. H2SO4 was added by the side of the bottle by careful removal of stopper. The bottles were stoppered securely and mixed thoroughly until dissolution was complete. 203 ml of the solution from the bottle was measured out into a conical flask and titrated against 0.025 N sodium thiosulphate solution using starch as an indicator. The DO was calculated using the relation, 1.0 ml 0.025 N Sodium thiosulphate = 0.2 mg DO.
18 20. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD): Direct method, (Standard Methods for Estimation of Water and Waste Water Analysis, 1985, pp.525-531, 16th edition, APHA, Washington DC). Since DO estimation is the basis of the BOD test, source of interference in the BOD test is the same as in the DO test. Heavy metals, toxic materials, lack of nutrient in dilution water are the sources of interferences in this test. The river water sample was neutralised and diluted 4 times by using dilution water, the diluted water sample was placed in two labeled BOD bottles and stoppered properly. Plain dilution water was also placed in other two-labeled BOD bottles. Each bottle (sample water bottle and dilution water bottle) was used for the determination of initial DO. Remaining two bottles were incubated at 200C for 5 days and the DO was determined immediately by Winkler’s method. (as described in the estimation of DO). The BOD was expressed in mg/L.
21. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD): Open Reflux method, (APHA, 1985,pp.537-538). 50 ml of the sample was placed in a refluxing flask. Mercuric sulphate depending on the chloride content (1:10) was added. 5 ml of con. sulphuric acid – silver sulphate reagent was added to dissolve mercuric sulphate. 25ml of 0.125N potassium dichromate solution was added and mixed well. 70ml of sulphuric acid – silver sulphate reagent was added very carefully, mixed thoroughly and refluxed for 2 hours. The contents of the flask were transferred quantitatively to a 500 ml conical flask and diluted to about 350 ml with distilled water. 2-3 drops of ferroin indicator were added and titrated against 0.125N Mohr’s salt solution till the colour changed from blue green to red. A blank was conducted using 50 ml of distilled water instead of sample. COD was expressed in mg/L.
19
Results and Discussion: Physicochemical Parameters The ancient civilization has evolved along the river courses using water resources for domestic use, transportation, irrigation and agriculture. Unfortunately, the surface water bodies have been put under severe environmental stress as a consequence of urbanisation and industrialisation. It is a well - known fact that any kind of human activity on riverine system results in the alteration of the natural quality of the water. The physicochemical properties of water body are derived from atmospheric precipitation, mineral matter and the atmospheric gases dissolved in it. Gibbs (1970) has reviewed the chief factor that control the chemistry of surface water bodies and recognizes three basic origins for the presence of dissolved salts in surface waters, which include atmospheric precipitation, rock weathering and evaporation crystallization process. Further, we may add to this, the biogenic contribution to understand the overall origin of chemical load in fresh water bodies under natural conditions.
Several investigators (Birsal et al., 1985; Bharati and Krishnamurty, 1990; Singh and Singh, 1990; Mitra A. K. 1995; Rana, 1995; and Shoba Chaturvedi and Praveen Jain, 1996; Kataria et al., 1996) have pointed out the importance of physico-chemical parameters in assessing the quality of water. In fact, Golterman (1975) had reviewed the physicochemical characteristics of river and ground water. Further, the direct effect of water pollution on biotic components is well documented in the literature. (Fisher et al., 1968; Borman et al., 1969; Likins et al., 1970). Realising importance esturine effect of understanding the quality of well water during the present investigation, the following physicochemical parameters studied has been discussed.
Temperature and Related Factors 20 Temperature plays a vital role in either increasing or decreasing a particular chemical factor or set of factors in water bodies. More specific, the aeration (DO) and biodegradation processes, which determining the water quality to a considerable extent, are all temperature dependent. Temperature variations are a part of the normal climatic regime and natural water bodies exhibit seasonal and diurnal variations. The water and air temperature of surface water is influenced by factors such as altitude, elevation, season, time of day, rate of flow and depth of water.
In the present study, the water temperature at all the eight sampling stations showed spatial as well as seasonal variations according to local climatic conditions. It ranged from a minimum of 22.10C (station 1 and 2) during November 2013 to a maximum of 25.50C (stations 8) during summer season. The air temperature of the well water ranged from a minimum of 23.30C (station 1) during November 2013 to a maximum of 33.40C (station 7 and 8) during May 2015. The above observations revealed that the air and water temperature vary from season to season and station to station. Further, the air and water temperature showed an increasing trend irrespective of the seasons. A similar observation was also made by Khare and Unni (1986) during their study of Kolar river underground water.
Colour
Colour is an important factor in determining the suitability of water for drinking, domestic and industrial purposes. The presence of colour in water is an indication of pollution of some type. Colour also affects the transparency of water and governs the amount of light penetrating through it. Thus colour of water is an important factor controlling aquatic plant and animal life.
Ground water color was clear except in rainy season at all stations. Similar observation was also made by Somashekhar and Ramaswamy (1984), Gopinath (1995) in respect of the rivers Kapila and Hemavathi.
Electrical Conductivity
The ability of a solution to conduct an electrical current is governed by the migration of ions in solutions and is dependent on the nature and number of the ionic species present. The amount of current carried by and hence the conductivity of a solution varies inversely 21 with its resistance. It also depends on the number, mobility, valency and types of ions present as well as the temperature of the solution. The specific conductance is a characteristic property of an electrolytic aqueous solution and is directly related to the thermo-chemical state of given water. The specific conductance of a sample correlates with the concentration of dissolved minerals (TDS) of the sample.
Conductivity measurements serve as a useful indicator of the degree of mineralisation in a sample. Conductivity measurement is affected by the nature of various ions, their relative concentrations, the ionic strength of water, dissolved carbon dioxide, turbidity and temperature.
In the present study, electrical conductivity of station 1 ranged between a minimum of 0.360 millimho/cm during June 2013 and maximum of 0.592 millimho/cm (station 8) during May 2015. Thus electrical conductivity of well water showed a slow increasing trend from station 1 to station 8 , indicstes salinity effect on wtare on seasonal changes.
Season wise electrical conductivity of well water showed lowest electrical conductivity during rainy season and highest during summer seasons. Lowest electrical conductivity during rainy may attributed to the inflow of fresh water due to south-west monsoon increase in electrical conductivity may be attributed to decrease in underground water due to increased degree of evaporation and salinity intrusion. Gopinath (1995) during the study of Hemavathi river basin sides have reported a similar trend in the variation of electrical conductivity. pH pH is a term use to express the intensity of acid or alkaline condition of a solution. Acid conditions increase as pH values decrease, and alkaline conditions increase as pH values increase. pH is an important parameter in assessing water quality. It is used for calculating carbonate, bicarbonate and carbon dioxide concentrations and stability index, in addition to calculating hydrogen ion concentration and affords an indirect measure of the acidity or alkalinity of certain waters. It governs the solvent properties of water and determines the extent and the type of physical, biological and chemical reactions likely to occur within a water system or between the water and surrounding rocks and soils. The pH of most natural waters falls approximately within the range of 4 to 9, depending on the concentration of 22 carbonate, bicarbonate and hydroxyl ions present. Alkaline waters are generally more common than acid waters.
Many investigators (Srinivasan, 1965; Sing et al., 1980; Venkateswarlu and Kumar, 1982; Unni, 1985; Pal et al., 1986; Mukherjee et al., 1986; Singh and Singh, 1990; Naidu et al., 1990; Sinha et al., 1992 and Swarnalatha and Narasing Rao, 1991) have recorded alkaline pH in the reservoirs and underground water that they have investigated.
During the present study period, pH of all eight stations at all the stations was generally observed to be slightly acidic to nearly to neutral and ranged from a minimum of 6.5 at station 8 and a maximum of 6.8 at station 1. Leaching of the soil, decomposition of organic matter in the system and discharge of industrial effluent cause the acidity in water and hence pH comes down below 7.0. (Birsal et al. 1985, 1987; Shukla et al. 1992). Also it was pointed out by several researchers (Zafar 1964; Unni, 1985 and Sharadendu and Ambast, 1988) that pH and carbonates are always positively related to each other whereas pH and bicarbonate are inversely related. Thus the slight acidic pH (6.5 to 6.8) of Aghanashini esturine ground water quality area can be attributed to high chloride and bicarbonate content since there are no industrial effluents discharged.
Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
All living organisms are dependent on oxygen in one form or another to maintain metabolic processes that produce energy for growth and reproduction. The amount of oxygen in water is called the dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration and is influenced by water temperature. The colder the water, the more oxygen it can hold because gases like oxygen are more easily dissolve in cold water.
Oxygen naturally diffuses from air into water at the air-water interface. Agitation of the water surface by winds and waves enhances this diffusion processes. Algae and water plants produce oxygen as a by-product of photosynthesis.
The solubility of atmospheric oxygen in fresh water decreases with rise temperature ranging from 14.6 mg/L at 00C to about 7.0 mg/L at 350C under one atmospheric pressure. Its solubility directly varies with the atmospheric pressure at any given temperature. Further, the rates of biological oxidation increase with temperature and hence oxygen demand 23 increases accordingly. Dissolved oxygen (DO) is essential for the self-purification process in natural water systems. It is an important gaseous factor that determines the quality of water and in turn regulates the distribution pattern of aquatic organisms. The low solubility of DO is the major factor that limits the purification capacity of natural waters and necessitates treatment of wastes to remove polluting matter before discharge to the receiving water bodies. The solubility of oxygen is less in salt-containing water than in clean water. In polluted waters, the saturation value is also less than that of clean water. When wastes with high organic content are discharged into the river, anaerobic bacteria for their oxidation consume the DO in the receiving waters. Whenever consumption of DO exceeds its replenishment due to self- purification, a steadily declining state is reached which has a marked effect on various organisms. Thus when the DO falls to about 2mg/L various 2- anaerobic bacteria will begin obtaining their oxygen requirement by reducing SO4 to H2S, - - – NO3 to NO2 and NO2 to NH3 and the water body considered as "anoxic".
Organic compounds in Oxidation by aerobic Oxidation products sewage plus good amount (Nitrates,sulphates and of dissolved oxygen. bacteria present in sewage phosphates) of inoffensive odour.
Organic compounds in Oxidation products sewage containing only Oxidation by anaerobic (Hydrogen sulphide, insufficient amount of ammonia and phosphine) dissolved/free oxygen bacteria present in sewage of offensive odour.
DO of the well water, varied from a minimum of 5.1 mg/L at stations (stations 8) in summer season during the year 2015 to a maximum of 6.8 mg/L at stations 3 during the month of winter season of the year 2014. DO content which slowly decreased from station 1 to station 8, indicate the salinity effect.
Various studies on reverine system have shown that alkaline waters contain higher amount of DO and acidic waters contain lower concentration of DO (Mitra, 1982; Unni et al. 24 1992 and Sreevatsava et al. 1996). In the present study, we also observed a similar trend of decreasing DO with decreasing pH in case of underground water study.
Total Solids (TS) The solids present in water may be in the form of total solids (TS), total suspended solids (TSS) and total dissolved solids (TDS). The total solids are simply the sum of suspended solids and dissolved solids present in water. The amount of total solids present in river water is an indication of erosion and weathering process in the catchment area. In the regions where the physical erosion is prominent, the suspended solids constitute the major fraction of the total solids present. Suspended matter affects water clarity and light penetration, temperature, the dissolved constituents of surface water, the adsorption of toxic substances and the rate of sedimentation of matter. In the assessment of raw water quality, the first parameter to be considered is total solids. The quantity of solids, in general, is proportional to the degree of pollution. The quantity of total solids of the well water varied between a minimum of 236 mg/L at stations 1 and 2 during the year 2013 to a maximum of 382.2 mg/L at station 8 during the year 2015. The higher value of total solids of due salinity and suspened organic particule matter due south-west monsoon inflow. Total solids and pH appear to exhibit a close relationship with each other. Zafar (1964), Dakshini and Gupta (1984), Swarnalatha and Narasingh Rao (1991) are of the opinion that the total solids and pH are inversely related. However, Varma and Shukla (1970), Singh and Singh (1990) and Tripathy and Adhikari (1990) have noted a direct relationship between these two. In the present study, it showed a direct relationship between pH and TS during study period. The amounts of total solids of the underground water have been found to be below the permissible limits of IS 10500 and WHO standards (500 mg/L) except in the monsoon season.
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) Total dissolved solids (TDS) denote the various types of minerals present in water in the dissolved form. This may also include organic substances, as in the case of polluted waters, and may also contribute to the total dissolved load. TDS do not contain any gas and 25 colloids. In natural waters, TDS are composed of mainly carbonates, bicarbonates, chlorides, Sulphates, phosphates, silica, calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium. TDS is an important parameter in drinking water and other water quality standards. The quantity of the total dissolved solids (TDS), is proportional to the degree of the pollution. Singh and Singh (1990), Tripathy and Adhikari (1990) observed high amounts of total dissolved solids due to the industrial pollution. Bharati and Krishnamurthy (1990) observed the average amount of dissolved solids in the river Kali. In the present investigation, the monthly values of TDS in the well water of Aghanshini esturine water are found to be around a minimum of 234 to 248 mg/L at stations 1 and 2 during 2023 (monsoon season) and a maximum of 396 mg/L at station 8 in May 2015. Higher TDS found in summer season are due to the inflow of esturine water to underground water system. The TDS decreased in the monsoon period, but once again slowly increased in the summer season due to the low discharge. In general TDS increased from station 1 to station 8 during the period of investigation intrusion of saline water in summer season.
2- - Carbonates and Bicarbonates (CO3 and HCO3 )
Carbonates and bicarbonates are the anions, which influence alkalinity of water. Bicarbonate alkalinity predominates over carbonate alkalinity. Under normal circumstances the pH of natural water system is found to be range between 7.0 to 8.5 and the main species in solution is the bicarbonate under these conditions. Since in this form of carbon is not easily assimilated by aquatic organisms, the fluctuation in its availability is minimum. Thus, the presence of higher amounts of carbonate indicates a state of pollution of the water bodies. In the present study, carbonate was not found at all sampling stations of well water where as bicarbonates was found to be present in all stations during project period. The complete absence of carbonates in the total stretch of well water reflect the fresh quality of their waters. Venkateswaralu (1986) has been recorded a similar observation of carbonates while studying on river Moosi. (Andra Pradesh). The bicarbonate content of all well water varied from 12.24 mg/L at station 1 (throughout the period of investigation) to a maximum of 19.2 mg/L at stations 8 during 26 summer period. The bicarbonate content was found to increase slowly from station 1 to station 8 duing up stream stations to down stream stations. This may be due to the dissolution of carbon dioxide in water giving carbonic acid, which in turn forms bicarbonate at pH 7.0 to 8.5. Bicarbonate contents in the river waters show seasonal variations. Swarup and Singh (1979) observed that bicarbonate contents were high in summer months and concluded that it was due to the liberation of carbon dioxide in the process of decompositions of bottom deposits, which possibly resulted in the conversion of bicarbonates. We have also found similar seasonal variations in bicarbonate content.
Chloride (Cl-) Chloride is an anion found in variable amounts in natural waters and wastewater. The chloride content normally increases as the mineral content increases. Sea and ocean waters represents the residues resulting from the partial evaporation of natural waters that flow in to them and chloride levels are very high. The origin of chloride in surface and groundwater may be from diverse sources such as weathering and leaching of sedimentary rocks, and soils, infiltration of sea water, domestic and industrial waste discharges, municipal effluents, etc. Excessive chloride in potable water is not particularly harmful and the criteria set for this anion are based primarily on palatability and its potentially high corrosiveness. The limit set for most domestic water uses is 250 mg/L Chloride. Chloride is basically a conservative parameter and may serve as an index of pollution occurring in natural fresh water from primary sources such as industrial and municipal outlets. In the present study chloride content of underground water was found to vary from 31.4 mg/L at station 1 during the month of July 2013 to a maximum of 59.2 mg/L at station 8 during the month of May 2015. Chloride content was increasing from station 1 to station 8, indicates effect esturine water durin its flow. Seasonal changes indicates incrased low at up stream stations, which slowly increased at down stream stations. Thresh et al. (1954) pointed out that highest chloride content in water is an indication of pollution and it will be of organic in origin. Based on his limnological work, Munawar (1970) concluded that higher chloride content indicate higher degree of pollution in water. Unni (1985) stated that chloride concentration largely depends on domestic pollution, rain 27 fall, humidity of climate and evaporation. Sabater et al. (1987) recorded chloride content in the range of 400 to 1000 mg/L in the polluted area were human activities were intensive at Ter river. This observation was supported by Sinha et al. (1992) who noticed an increase in the content of chloride in the river Ganga at Kanpur on Makara Sankranti day where the water gets contaminated by mass bathing activity. In the present study, Aghanashini estuary related underground water showed slight high level content of chlorides (maximum 59.4 mg/L). Singh (1960); Zafar (1964); Puttaiah (1984) and Shukla et al. (1992) have confirmed that chloride concentration reaches its highest peak during summer months and reduces in its concentration towards winter and monsoon seasons. The present investigation also agrees with this trend with underground water rechloride content is increased in well water due to esturine water of Aghanashini to underground water.
2- Sulphate (SO4 ) Sulphate is one of the major anions occurring in natural waters. It may enter natural waters through weathering sulphate bearing deposits. It may be leached from sedimentary rocks and particularly from sulphate deposits such as gypsum and anhydride. Effluent from certain industries may also be a major source of sulphate to the receiving waters. Another significant source to water systems is airborne industrial pollutants containing oxides of sulphur, which get converted to sulphuric acid in precipitation. Sulphate can also be produced by bacterial or oxidizing action as in the oxidation of organo-sulphur compounds. Sulphate in water is generally bound to alkali and alkaline earth metals and is readily soluble. Sulphate is of great importance in public water supplies because of its cathartic effect upon humans when it is present in excessive amounts. For this reason, the recommended upper limit of sulphate is 250 mg/L in waters intended to human consumption. Sulphate is of considerable concentration because they are indirectly responsible for problems associated with the handling and treatment of waste water. These are odour and sewer-corrosion problems resulting from the reduction of sulphate to hydrogen sulphide under anaerobic conditions, as represented by following equations. anaerobic 2- 2- SO4 + Organic matter S + H2O + CO2 28 bacteria S2- + H+ HS- - + HS + H H2S In the absence of dissolved oxygen and nitrates, sulphates serve as a source of oxygen for biochemical oxidations produced by anaerobic bacteria. Under anaerobic conditions, the sulphate ions are reduced to sulphide ion, which establishes an equilibrium with hydrogen ion to form hydrogen sulphide. Sulphate is also an important anion, which appears to be dominant in the aquatic system. Its content in natural water is an important consideration in determining suitability of water for potable and industrial usage. Thus the amount of sulphate in water is a factor of concern in determining the magnitude of problems that can arise from reduction of it into hydrogen sulphide. Such a phenomenon has been noticed by Sreenivasan (1965); Nurnberg (1984) and Birsal et al. (1985). But conversion of sulphate into hydrogen sulphide was not observed in the present investigation. Sulphate concentration of Aghanashini river varied from a minimum of 0.411 mg/L at station 1 during the months of November and December 2009 to a maximum of 53.49 mg/L at station 10 during the month of June 2009. It was noticed that sulphate concentration was high in the beginning of monsoon season and then slowly decreased in winter season. In summer season sulphate was nil in all up and down stream points during the period of investigation. Khare and Unni (1986) while investigating on river Kolar have recorded relatively higher amount of sulphate in downstream stretch of the river and noted an inverse relationship between sulphate and chloride. Such inverse relationship, was also observed in our study of Aghanashini river.In this study the sulphate content was not detected and such inverse relationship between sulphate and chloride was not observed.
Ammonia-Nitrogen Compounds of nitrogen are of great importance because of their role in the life processes of all organisms. The chemistry of nitrogen is complex, as it exists in several oxidation states and living bacteria can bring about these changes in oxidation states. - - + The aqueous redox chemistry of nitrogen involves primarily NO2 , NO3 and NH4 which take part in oxidation – reduction processes as follows. 29
- + - NO3 + 2H + 2e NO2 + H2O
- + + NO2 + 8H + 6e NH4 + 2H2O + These reactions depend on pH value of the system. The NH4 in water is subject to nitrification reaction in two steps, which involve oxidation by two species of auto tropic bacteria, nitromonas and nitrobacter.
+ + - 4 NH4 + 7 O2 4H + 4NO2 + 6H2O
+ - 2 NH3 + 3O2 2H + 2NO2 + 2H2O (Nitromonas bacteria )
- - 2NO2 + O2 2NO3 (Nitrobactor) The end product of oxidation is a nitrate ion, which is the form in which nitrogen is assimilated to form amino acids and proteins.
On the death of organisms other type of bacteria converts the nitrogen in amino acids by process called ammonification.
NH2 – (CH2)X – COOH NH3 + CO2 + H2O ( Ammonifation)
(Aminoacid)
Ammonia is present naturally in surface and wastewater. Its concentration generally is low in ground water because it absorbed by soil particles and clays, and is not leached readily. It is produced largely by deamination of organic nitrogen containing compounds and by hydrolysis of urea. The most important source of ammonia is ammonification of organic matter. Sewage has large quantities of nitrogenous matter; thus its disposal tends to increase the ammonia content of waters. Occurrence of ammonia in the waters has been accepted as the chemical evidence of organic pollution. If only ammonia is present, pollution by sewage must be recent. The toxicity of ammonia increases with pH because at higher pH most of the ammonia remains in the gaseous form. The decrease in pH decreases its toxicity due to the conversion of ammonia into ammonium ion, which is less toxic than the gaseous form.
The yearly value of ammonia-nitrogen of the underground water varied from a minimum of 1.42 mg/L at station 1 in of monsoon period during the year 2013 to a maximum of 2.14 mg/L at stations 8 during the months of May 2015. However, the variation was not very large from station to station and increased slowly from station 1 to station 8. 30 Kaul (1980) observed increase in concentrations of ammonia-nitrogen during the summer months and stated that the change in the climatic condition and type of biological composition was responsible for the variation. A similar trend has been observed in our Aghanashini esturine underground water.
- Nitrate (NO3 ) The determination of nitrate is important particularly in drinking water as it has adverse effects on health above certain concentrations. Nitrate is basically non-toxic but when ingested with food or water, it will be reduced by bacterial action to nitrite and then to ammonia, which are toxic.
- + - NO3 + 2H + 2e NO2 + H2O
- + + NO2 + 8H + 6e NH4 + 2H2O
- + + NO3 + 10H + 8e NH4 + 3H2O Also nitrite has greater affinity for oxygen than hemoglobin of blood and then nitrite gets oxygen from blood to be oxidised to nitrate. This depletion of oxygen in blood causes suffocation and ultimately death. The main sources of nitrate in natural waters are chemical fertilizers, sewage, industrial discharges and atmospheric washout. Changes in land use also gives rise to increased nitrate levels in natural waters. In the present investigation of the under ground water, nitrate content was not detected, which indicate best quality of water. Salinty intrusion problem was dominant compared with other ion intrusuion.
- Nitrite (NO2 ) Nitrite is an intermediate both in the oxidation of ammonia to nitrate and in the reduction of nitrate to ammonia.
+ + - 4 NH4 + 7 O2 4H + 4NO2 + 6H2O
+ - 2 NH3 + 3O2 2H + 2NO2 + 2H2O (Nitromonas bacteria)
- - 2NO2 + O2 2NO3 (Nitrobactor)
- + - NO3 + 2H + 2e NO2 + H2O
- + + NO2 + 8H + 6e NH4 + 2H2O 31 Such oxidation and reduction may occur in wastewater treatment plants, waste distribution systems and natural waters. Nitrite can enter into water supply system though its use as a corrosion inhibitor in industrial process water. Nitrite considered as the root cause for methemoglobinemia (Blue baby disease). Nitrous acid, which is formed from nitrite in acidic solution can react with secondary amines (RR/ NH) to form nitrosamines (RR/ N-NO), many of which are known carcinogens. Underground water, unless badly polluted due to the sewage effluent seldom contain more than 0.1 mg/L of nitrite nitrogen. In the present study of Aghanashini esturine area, no detectable amounts of nitrite was found during the period of investigation infers good quality of water for domestic purpose.
3- Phosphate (PO4 ) Leaching or weathering of rocks containing phosphate minerals release phosphorus to the natural surface waters. Domestic waste, industrial effluents and agricultural run-off from catchment area also contribute significantly. In general, even fresh natural waters show the presence of small quantities of phosphate. Phosphorous does not occur as abundantly in nature as either carbon or nitrogen. It is generally accepted that phosphorous is the major nutrient that triggers eutrophication, although it is required by algae in smaller quantities as compared to other nutrients. In natural waters, phosphorus occurs principally as inorganic orthophosphate. During summer, the phosphate is split into two parts. In the warm waters, biological activity is intense resulting in a depletion of orthophosphate phosphorus. However, the deeper and colder waters gain phosphate. In the deep water, some of the phosphorus precipitates as apatite, a calcium fluorophosphate mineral. In water, phosphorus occurs in numerous forms such as reactive phosphate, orthophosphate and organic phosphate, in both soluble and insoluble fractions.urine are In the present study, underground water of Aghanashini esturine area showed less quantity of phosphate which is not detectable throughout the period of investigation. The water quality of underground water is good comparing with respect to phosphate ion.
32 Calcium and Magnesium (Ca2+ and Mg2+) Calcium and Magnesium are the most abundant elements in natural surface and ground water and exists mainly as bicarbonate and to a lesser degree in the form of chloride and sulphate. Calcium may dissolve readily from rocks or be leached from soils. In the presence of carbon dioxide, calcium carbonate in water is dissolved, in which case the resulting buffered system is likely to maintain the pH of most natural waters between 6 and 8. The other sources of calcium include industrial and municipal discharges. However, dissolved magnesium concentration is lower than calcium for a majority of the natural waters. Because of the high solubility of magnesium salts, the metal tends to remain in solution and is less readily precipitated than calcium. Calcium concentration in natural fresh water falls below 10 mg/L Ca2+, although waters in the proximity of carbonate rocks and lime stones may contain calcium ranging from 30 to 100 mg/L. Calcium is an essential nutritional element for animal life and aids in maintaining the structure of plant cells and soils. Magnesium poses no major concern with regard to public health or the aquatic environment and limits of concentration set for water are based mainly on palatability, corrosion and incrustation criteria. Largely the levels of calcium and magnesium salts regulate the hardness of water bodies. Hardness is usually expressed as an equivalent of CaCO3 and varies according to local conditions. It is an indicator of water buffering capacity and productivity. Calcium is one of the cations that greatly influence the distribution of the biological productivity and other physiological activities. Calcium concentration, in the present study of under ground water, ranged between a minimum of 21.2 mg/L at station 1 in rainy season and a maximum of 29.4 mg/L at station 8 during the month summer season of year 2015. The calcium content of water increasing from station 1 to station 8 , due to percolation and secondary reactions between soil and water surface. All analytical values in all stations of study area recorded are well within the prescribed limit, by WHO which is 75 mg/L. Shukla et al. (1992) observed higher concentration of calcium values during summer season and they attributed the same to rapid decomposition of organic matter at the higher water temperatures. The present study of the the river also, recorded a high concentration of calcium during high water temperature and low discharge of of water. 33 In the present investigation of underground water of Aghanshini esturine area, the yearly values of magnesium ranged from 1.48 mg/L at station 1 during rainy season of year 2013 to a maximum of 2.12 mg/L at station 8 during summer of the year 2014 and 2015 respectively. Many researchers are of the opinion that magnesium always occurs in lower concentration than calcium (Kaul et al. 1980; Bombowna 1984; Birsal et al. 1985; Venkateswaralu and Reddy, 1985; Bharati and Krishnamurthy 1990 and Singh and Singh 1990). The concentration of calcium and magnesium recorded in the present study of the underground water of Aghanshini esturine area are in conformity with the above studies. To conclude, the calcium concentration always recorded higher than that of magnesium. No inverse relationship has been observed between the concentration of two and they showed positive correlation. Calcium and magnesium showed a significant positive correlation with sodium, potassium, bicarbonate and chloride.
Sodium and Potassium (Na+ and K+) Sodium is present in varying amounts and is the most common cation in natural waters practically all sodium compounds are water soluble and tend to remain in aqueous solution. Water in contact with igneous rock dissolves Sodium from its natural source. Other probable natural sources include clay minerals, feldspars and minerals such as halite. Sodium may also enter natural waters through industrial, municipal waste discharges and non point sources such as agricultural runoff, discharges and cattle droppings etc. Excessive amounts of sodium in drinking water would normally affect the palatability of water, and water containing up to 1000 mg/L may generally be physiologically tolerable. The ratio of sodium to the total cations is an important factor in considering water for agricultural uses. Relatively high concentrations of sodium may adversely affect soil structure and permeability, resulting in alkaline soils. Potassium is the 7th most abundant and constitutes about 2.5% of the Earth’s crust. Significant amounts of potassium are found in feldspar, mica and clay materials. Contact with potassium-bearing soils, industrial discharges and agricultural runoff into receiving water are some possible ways for potassium to enter surface waters. 34 Despite its abundance in nature, potassium is found in relatively small concentrations in most natural waters mainly because of its being reconverted into insoluble secondary minerals formed in the process of weathering. Its concentration in natural surface waters is generally below 10mg/L level. Potassium is an essential nutrient for both plant and animal life. However, ingestion of excessive amounts (>2000 mg/L) may prove detrimental to the human nervous and digestive systems (Chemical Methods of Environmental Analysis: Water and Sediments – R. Ramesh and M. Anbu, 1996). In our present study, we observed that the concentration of sodium in underground water of study of Aghanshini esturine area varied from a minimum of 32.44 mg/L at station 1 during rrainy season to a maximum of 62.84 mg/L at station 8 during the season of summer of year 2015. The concentration of potassium of underground water of the study Aghanishini estury varied from a minimum of 1.48 mg/L at station 1 in rainy season season during the time of investigations to a maximum of 2.12 mg/L at station 7 and 8 during the summer seasn of year 2015. Sabater et al. (1987) have recorded sodium concentration from 40 mg/L to 1000mg/L in Ter river (Spain), which they attributed it to the increase in human activity. They have also recorded more than 200 mg/L of potassium and 39.0 mg/L of sodium in Llobregat river (Spain) and attributed this to salt mining activity in the catchment area. Sodium ion concentration of undergound water of study area increasing slowly from station 1 to station 8 during the period of investigation. At the same time concentration increasing in summer season due low discharge in underground water and percolation of saline of Aghanashini river estuary. To conclude, the sodium concentration has always been found to be more dominant than potassium in water. Season wise concentrations of sodium and potassium show high values in summer and low in the post monsoon period.
Iron (Fe) Iron in water occurs mainly in ferrous, Fe (II) and ferric, Fe (III) states. In surface waters it is largely present in ferric state. In some ground waters, lakes and reservoirs, that too in the absence of sulphate and carbonate, high concentrations of soluble ferrous salt may be found. 35 Dissolution of rocks and minerals, acid mine drainage, sewage, iron related industrial wastes are the main sources of iron in natural waters. Iron is one of the major constituents of the lithosphere. Iron is an essential trace element, required for both the animals and plants. It is also essential for oxygen transport in the blood of all vertebrates. Although iron is of little direct toxicological significance, it often controls the concentration of other elements, including toxic heavy metals, in surface waters. Since iron is so common in the Earth’s crust, natural iron accounts for major source in natural waters. Iron is routinely detected parameter in Municipal effluent, particularly in cities where iron and steel industries are located. Iron concentration in surface waters is extremely variable, depending upon underlying bedrock and industrial and municipal discharges. Concentrations of over 50mg/L and as low as 0.004 mg/L have been reported from some rivers (Chemical Methods of Environmental Anlaysis: Water and Sediment- R. Ramesh and M. Anbu, 1996). The oxidation-reduction cycle is important in controlling the fate of iron in most surface water and varies seasonally. Iron plays such an important role in determining fate of trace elements and nutrients that a breach in the iron redox cycle may ultimately lead to the mobilization of toxic agents into the environment.
The primary concern about iron in drinking water is its objectionable taste. The drinking water guideline of 0.3 mg/L (WHO) is based on these aesthetic considerations rather than health concerns. Iron is an essential component of several factors including haemoglobin and cytochromes. Acute exposure of iron is characterized by vomiting gastro- intestinal bleeding, pneumonitis, coma and jaundice. The chemical behaviour of iron in the reverine system is determined by redox reactions, and also the geomorphological nature of the riverbed. Cooper (1948), Talling (1962) and Lund (1965) have reported that when the dissolved oxygen is high, the iron and phosphate occurred in low concentrations. Thus, the oxygenated water of neutral water bodies holds less concentration of iron. In the present investigation also it has been observed that when dissolved oxygen was more, iron and phosphate contents were low in case of both the river. Investigation of underground water Aghanshini esturine area, yearly iron concentration remains same i.e., 0.03 mg/L and seasonal changes also show same types of 36 iron concentration. Seasonal changes of iron concentration remains same, which indicate quality of water is good. It is important to note that the iron content of underground water is well within the permissible limit for drinking water (0.3mg/L – WHO Standard).
Manganese (Mn) Manganese is one of the most abundant trace elements in the lithosphere. It is an essential trace element required by both plants and animals. In some waters, it may limit either directly or indirectly the growth of algae. Although manganese is of little direct toxicological significance, it may control the concentration of other elements, including toxic heavy metals, in surface waters. The primary natural sources of atmospheric manganese are wind-borne soil particles and volcanoes, and the major anthropogenic sources are coal burning and incineration of municipal wastes. Total manganese in freshwater is extremely variable, ranging from 0.002 to 4 mg/L. Manganese is detected in drinking water, primarily reflecting its presence in raw water. The primary concerns about manganese in drinking water are its objectionable taste and its capacity to stain laundry articles. A general standard of 0.005 mg/L, based on aesthetic considerations, is used by many nations. Manganese is less common ion in surface waters. Generally, manganese is obtained in river water when there is mining of its ore near the river station or to its stream. Manganese was not analysed in underground water of Aghanashini esturine area during the period of investigation.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) is defined as the amount of oxygen required by the microorganisms while stabilizing biologically decomposable organic matter in wastewater under aerobic conditions. Bacteria that decompose organic matter use oxygen from the water. When the BOD exceeds the available DO, the DO in the water is depleted. This is very harmful to aquatic organisms and can cause mortality. In normal healthy aquatic systems, the addition and removal of DO are generally balanced. The BOD test is widely used to determine (i) the pollution load of waste water (ii) the degree of pollution in lakes, 37 streams and rivers at any time and their self –purification capacity and (iii) the efficiency of waste water treatment methods. Unni et al. (1992) recorded that BOD values varied between 0.8 mg/L and 11.8mg/L in river Narmada and its stretch which are well below the ISI average and concluded that the entire stretch of the river was fairly clean. In our study of the river systems, BOD values of underground water of Aghanashini esturine area ranged from 1.28 mg/L at station 1 during rainy season of year 2013 to a maximum of 3.64 mg/L at station 8 during summer season of the year 2015\ Khare and Unni (1986) observed an increase in BOD values from up stream to down stream stations in the Kolar river and its stretch. In the present study of the Aghanashini esturine area was observed that BOD values increased slowly from station 1 to station 8. Shukla et al. (1992) based on their study of river Ganga observed maximum BOD values in summer and minimum in winter seasons. This type of trend in BOD was observed with Aghanashini estury area during the present investigation. By and large, BOD values of underground water were very low except in the month of June and hence indicated no sign of pollution due to human activities.
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) test is widely used as a means of measuring the organic strength of domestic and industrial wastewater. COD test is significant when biologically resistant organic matter is present in high concentration. The major advantage of COD test is the short time required for evaluation. However, the COD test is unable to differentiate between biologically oxidisable and biologically inert organic matter.
In the present study, COD of underground water of Aghanashini esturine area ranged from a minimum of 1.58 mg/L at station 1 during summer season of year 2013 to a maximum of 4.88 mg/L at station 8 in summer seasonof year 2015. The stationwise yearly averages indicated an increase in COD values from station 1 to station 8.
Unni et al. (1992) recorded an increase in COD with a corresponding decrease in DO and pH. But such trend was not with underground water of Aghanashini esturine area. 38 Rao et al. (1990), while working on Gandhisagar reservoir and its area, and Shukla et al. (1992) and Sinha et al. (1992) on the river Ganga at its stretch of Kanpur found that there was an increase in COD values due to the discharge of industrial effluents and sewage. However, in the present study of underground water of Aghanashini esturine area no such discharge of effluents was observed. Hence, the COD values were below the WHO limits (10 mg/L) and indicating non-pollution of underground water of Aghanashini esturine area.
39 Table No. 1.0 Concentration Profile of Major Ions- 2013-14 (Yearly) Sl. Well - Well - No Parameters 1 Well -2 Well -3 Well -4 5 Well -6 Well -7 Well -8
1 Air Temp 0C 26.54 26.54 26.54 26.54 26.54 26.54 26.54 26.54 2 Water temp0C 25.16 25.16 25.16 25.16 25.16 25.16 25.16 25.16 3 E.C. 0.360 0.382 0.386 0.422 0.434 0.546 0.568 0.582 4 pH 6.75 6.62 6.5 6.58 6.56 6.67 6.67 6.62 5 T. S. 236 250.2 252.4 249.6 278.2 361.4 370.4 379.82 6 TDS 234 248.3 250.9 248.2 274.3 354.9 369.2 378.3 7 Carbonates Nd Nd Nd Nd Nd Nd Nd Nd 8 Bicarbonates 12.44 13.22 13.8 14.2 14.88 15.62 16.44 18.26 9 Chlorides 31.46 32.66 38.46 40.6 52.64 55.66 56.2 58.8 10 Suphates ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND 11 Nitrates ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND 12 Nitrites ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND 13 Phosphates ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND
14 NH3-N 1.44 1.44 1.44 1.44 1.52 1.66 1.78 2.14 15 Calcium 21.22 22.44 23.32 26.24 26.86 27.84 28.82 28.88 16 Magnesium 1.48 1.48 1.52 1.52 1.54 1.54 2.12 2.12 17 Sodium 32.44 32.44 33.56 38.58 56.72 58.44 60.2 62.4 18 Potassium 2.78 2.78 2.78 3.12 3.12 3.12 3.84 3.84 19 D.O. 6.4 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.6 5.8 5.4 5.1 20 B.O.D. 1.28 1.33 1.86 1.92 1.92 2.12 2.12 3.24 21 C.O.D. 1.58 1.58 2.12 2.46 2.58 3.22 3.86 4.84 22 Iron 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 23 Manganese ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND
Chemical factors expressed in mg/L, except pH, Electrical conductivity in millimho/cm ND: Not Detected
40
Table No. 2.0 Concentration Profile of Major Ions- 2014-15 (Yearly) Sl. Well - Well - No Parameters 1 Well -2 Well -3 Well -4 5 Well -6 Well -7 Well -8
1 Air Temp 0C 26.42 26.42 26.52 26.54 26.54 26.64 26.64 26.66 2 Water temp0C 25.24 25.24 25.24 25.24 25.22 25.26 25.24 25.26 3 E.C. 0.372 0.383 0.392 0.424 0.464 0.566 0.574 0.592 4 pH 6.8 6.72 6.6 6.6 6.53 6.66 6.58 6.56 5 T. S. 242.6 254.8 257.8 264.2 274.8 366.2 372.6 382.4 6 TDS 248.2 256.3 262.4 274.6 282.4 382.6 392.2 396.2 7 Carbonates Nd Nd Nd Nd Nd Nd Nd Nd 8 Bicarbonates 12.68 14.66 14.86 15.2 15.86 16.34 17.88 19.2 9 Chlorides 31.52 33.24 39.46 41.62 53.46 56.44 58.46 59.24 10 Suphates Nd Nd Nd Nd Nd Nd Nd Nd 11 Nitrates Nd Nd Nd Nd Nd Nd Nd Nd 12 Nitrites Nd Nd 0 Nd Nd Nd Nd Nd 13 Phosphates Nd Nd Nd Nd Nd Nd Nd Nd
14 NH3-N 1.42 1.44 1.44 1.44 1.66 1.72 1.78 2.14 15 Calcium 21.8 22.8 23.42 27.24 27.84 28.42 28.94 29.42 16 Magnesium 1.48 1.48 1.52 1.52 1.58 1.54 2.12 2.12 17 Sodium 32.34 32.68 33.12 38.68 56.82 58.62 61.42 62.84 18 Potassium 2.78 2.76 2.78 3.12 3.12 3.12 3.88 3.88 19 D.O. 6.4 6.5 6.8 6.4 6.6 5.8 5.2 5.2 20 B.O.D. 1.24 1.42 1.92 1.98 1.92 2.82 2.84 3.64 21 C.O.D. 1.56 1.52 2.44 2.82 2.94 3.64 3.92 4.88 22 Iron 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 23 Manganese Nd Nd Nd Nd Nd Nd Nd Nd
Chemical factors expressed in mg/L, except pH, Electrical conductivity in millimho/cm ND: Not Detected
41 Graph of Major Parameters
35 40 30 35
25 30
20 25 Ca + Mg 20 Na+ K 15 15 10 10 5 5
0 0
Feb-14 Feb-15
Aug-14 Aug-15 Nov-14
Nov-13 Feb-14 Feb-15 May-15 May-14 Nov-13 May-14Aug-14Nov-14 May-15Aug-15
Ca + Mg Variation Na + K Variation
20 18 60 16 50 14 12 40
10 Bicarbonate 30 Chloride 8 6 20
4 10 2 0 0
Jul-14 Jul-15 Nov-13 Mar-14 Nov-14 Mar-15 Nov-13 Mar-14 Jul-14 Nov-14 Mar-15 Jul-15
Bicarbonate Variation Chloride Variation
Fig. No: 4 42 Correlation Studies 2+ 2+ + + - - 2- Ionic Composition of Water (Ca , Mg , Na , K , HCO3 , Cl , SO4 ) (Table No. 3, 4, 5 and 6) Pearsall (1921), Clarke (1924), Rodhe (1949), Blinn (1971), Rao (1972), Zafar (1976), Unni (1985), Charles (1987) and Bharathi and Krishnamurthy (1990) have studied the major cations in the natural waters including sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium, while the anions comprised bicarbonates, sulphates and chlorides. Natural water bodies contain a large number of cations and anions entering in to system by various natural and man made sources. However, it is possible to assess the quality of water based on dominant ions present in it. Fresh waters always have calcium as a predominant cation followed by magnesium, sodium and potassium; the predominant anion is bicarbonate followed by sulphate and chloride. Where as in marine water the trend is : + 2+ 2+ + - 2- - Na > Mg > Ca > K and Cl > SO4 > HCO3 (Rodhe, 1949). In the present investigation of under ground water of Aghanashini esturine area, cation concentration was observed that Na+ > Ca2+ > Mg2+>K+ in all seasons. Na+ concentration takes first postion, Ca2+ take second position, Mg2+ take third and K+ take fourth positions at all stations indicating “fresh waterquality with little salinity”. Anion - - 2- - concentration was observed that Cl > HCO3 > SO4 in all seasons. Cl concentration takes - first position, HCO3 takes second position. These variations in respect of cations and anions may be attributed to the salinity intrusion from esturiy of Aghanshini, regional, local geo- chemical and climatic activities.Sodium absorption ration was also slightly high which support for salinity percolation into underground water oanshini esturine area. These type of variations in the sequence of dominance of cations and anions in fresh waters was observed by Rao (1972), Zafar (1976), Unni (1985) and Khare (1986).
43 Table No. 3.0 Ionic composition of seasonal averages for the year 2013-14 & 2014-15 of 1 to 4 stations water samples
Parameters SEASONS
Sodium Potassium Calcium Magnesium Bicarbonate Sulphate Chloride
STATION –1
Monsoon 30.2 1.38 18.2 1.71 10.3 ND 26.4 Winter 31.4 1.40 19.4 2.12 11.6 ND 28.3
Summer 33.2 1.46 21.8 2.78 12.4 ND 32.4
STATION –2
Monsoon 30.3 1.38 19.5 1.71 10.8 ND 28.3
Winter 31.8 1.40 20.2 2.12 11.9 ND 33.6
Summer 32.7 1.46 23.6 2.78 13.2 ND 33.8
STATION –3
Monsoon 31.4 1.41 21.4 1.71 11.2 ND 29.8
Winter 32.6 1.48 22.5 2.12 12.4 ND 35.8
Summer 33.6 1.56 24.3 2.78 13.6 ND 38.8
STATION –4
Monsoon 32.6 1.42 22.6 2.12 11.9 ND 32.4
Winter 36.4 1.49 24.6 2.78 12.5 ND 38.6
Summer 38.8 1.55 26.8 3.12 14.4 ND 41.2
44 Table No. 4.0
Ionic composition of seasonal averages for the year 2013-14 & 2014-15 of 5 to 8 stations water samples
Parameters
SEASONS Sodium Potassium Calcium Magnesium Bicarbonate Sulphate Chloride
STATION –5
Monsoon 1.42 23.2 2.12 12.4 ND 35.6 52.3 54.4 Winter 1.49 25.3 2.78 13.2 ND 46.8
Summer 1.55 27.4 3.12 14.8 ND 53.6 56.8
STATION –6
Monsoon 54.2 1.42 23.8 2.12 12.6 ND 40.6
Winter 56.7 1.49 26.4 2.78 14.5 ND 48.6
Summer 58.6 1.55 28.4 3.12 15.6 ND 56.6
STATION –7
Monsoon 56.4 1.68 25.1 3.22 14.4 ND 43.7
Winter 58.2 1.71 27.3 3.42 15.5 ND 46.6
Summer 60.6 2.22 28.8 3.84 16.6 ND 57.8
STATION –8
Monsoon 57.3 1.68 26.3 3.22 15.4 ND 51.6
Winter 59.5 1.71 27.8 3.42 16.8 ND 57.4
Summer 62.8 2.22 29.2 3.84 18.4 ND 60.2
45
Table No. 5.0 Ionic composition of sampling stations of Station 1 to 4 for the year 2013-14 & 2014-15
SEASONS PARAMETERS
STATION –1
+ 2+ 2+ + - - 2- Monsoon Na > Ca > Mg > K Cl > HCO3 >SO4 + 2+ 2+ + - - 2- Winter Na > Ca > Mg > K Cl > HCO3 >SO4 + 2+ 2+ + - - 2- Summer Na > Ca > Mg > K Cl > HCO3 >SO4
STATION –2
+ 2+ 2+ + - - 2- Monsoon Na > Ca > Mg > K Cl > HCO3 >SO4 + 2+ 2+ + - - 2- Winter Na > Ca > Mg > K Cl > HCO3 >SO4 + 2+ 2+ + - - 2- Summer Na > Ca > Mg > K Cl > HCO3 >SO4
STATION –3
+ 2+ 2+ + - - 2- Monsoon Na > Ca > Mg > K Cl > HCO3 >SO4 + 2+ 2+ + - - 2- Winter Na > Ca > Mg > K Cl > HCO3 >SO4 + 2+ 2+ + - - 2- Summer Na > Ca > Mg > K Cl > HCO3 >SO4
STATION –4
+ 2+ 2+ + - - 2- Monsoon Na > Ca > Mg > K Cl > HCO3 >SO4 + 2+ 2+ + - - 2- Winter Na > Ca > Mg > K Cl > HCO3 >SO4 + 2+ 2+ + - - 2- Summer Na > Ca > Mg > K Cl > HCO3 >SO4 46 Table No. 6.0 Ionic composition of sampling stations of Station 5 to 8 for the year 2013-14 & 2014-15
SEASONS PARAMETERS
STATION –5
+ 2+ 2+ + - - 2- Monsoon Na > Ca > Mg > K Cl > HCO3 >SO4 + 2+ 2+ + - - 2- Winter Na > Ca > Mg > K Cl > HCO3 >SO4 + 2+ 2+ + - - 2- Summer Na > Ca > Mg > K Cl > HCO3 >SO4
STATION –6
+ 2+ 2+ + - - 2- Monsoon Na > Ca > Mg > K Cl > HCO3 >SO4 + 2+ 2+ + - - 2- Winter Na > Ca > Mg > K Cl > HCO3 >SO4 + 2+ 2+ + - - 2- Summer Na > Ca > Mg > K Cl > HCO3 >SO4
STATION –7
+ 2+ 2+ + - - 2- Monsoon Na > Ca > Mg > K Cl > HCO3 >SO4 + 2+ 2+ + - - 2- Winter Na > Ca > Mg > K Cl > HCO3 >SO4 + 2+ 2+ + - - 2- Summer Na > Ca > Mg > K Cl > HCO3 >SO4
STATION –8
+ 2+ 2+ + - - 2- Monsoon Na > Ca > Mg > K Cl > HCO3 >SO4 + 2+ 2+ + - - 2- Winter Na > Ca > Mg > K Cl > HCO3 >SO4 + 2+ 2+ + - - 2- Summer Na > Ca > Mg > K Cl > HCO3 >SO4
47
Summary and Conclusions
A total of twenty-three physico-chemical parameters of the underground water of Aghanashini esturine area have been studied for a period of 24 months from November 2013 to September 2015. The water parameters studied included (1) Air temperature (2) Water temperature (3) Electrical conductivity, (4) pH, (5) Dissolved oxygen, (6) Total solids (7) Total dissolved solids, (8) Carbonate, (9) Bicarbonate, (10) Chloride, (11) Sulphate, (12) Ammonia-nitrogen, (13) Nitrate, (14) Nitrite, (15) Phosphate, (16) Calcium, (17) Magnesium, (18) Sodium, (19) Potassium, (20) Iron, (21) Manganese, (22) Biochemical oxygen demand and (23) Chemical oxygen demand. The water sampling was done on bimonthly basis using grab sampling method.
The physico-chemical parameters of the underground water of Aghanashini esturine area were found to be with in the permissible limits of standard quality of drinking waters. The underground water quantity depends on soth-west monsoon and in summer partly depends on eturine effect. Air and water temperatures of the water remained higher in summer and low during winter. Electrical conductivities of the water was found to be moderately high in summer season and lower in rainy season. The pH of the water remained acidic to nearly to neutral (6.5 to 6.75) from station 8 to station 1 and it is slightly acidic where the sampling points were to Arabian sea. The pH value of the water showed no correlation with carbonates, bicarbonates, and calcium and magnesium concentrations. DO content ranged between 5.4 to 6.6 mg/L and increased from station 8 to station 1, indicating good aquatic environment and salinity effect. DO content of water decrease with increase in chloride content. TS and pH, TDS and pH indicated negative correlation with each other in case underground water. Chloride concentration was recorded high during summer season and decreased in winter and monsoon seasons and sulphate concentration was found undetectable in all seasons. It is concluded that Aghanshini estury shows effect on underground water due to increased chloride content whereas leaching of the soil increases sulphate content.
48 High concentration of calcium was recorded during summer months and this is attributed to high water temperature and low discharge of water during summer. Magnesium always recorded a lower concentration than calcium throughout the study period. Calcium and magnesium showed positive correlation between each other and also with bicarbonate, chloride, sodium and potassium. The potassium content analysed was lower than sodium in the river. However chloride and sodium content in water increasing slowly in all seasons due to salinity effect on underground water. Ammonia-nitrogen was fairly low and nitrite, nitrate content were not analysed. Phosphate content was not found in all seasons. Iron content of the water showed a low concentration in all seasons and manganese content was not detected throught the period of investigation.
Relationship between Certain Physico-chemical Parameters It was found that ionic composition of under ground water of Aghanashini estuary indicate fresh water quality with little salinity. SAR values support the same factor. In the present investigation of under ground water of Aghanashini esturine area, cation concentration was observed that Na+ > Ca2+ > Mg2+>K+ and anion concentration was - - 2- observed that Cl > HCO3 > SO4 in all seasons. Anion concentration probable reactions responsible for the sources and sinks of solutes can be estimated from percentage of ion ratio and total dissolved solids. For the total underground water system stretch sodim primarily controlled by reactions of the chloride system. Secondarily calcium and sodium controlled by the dissolution of the bicarbonate system.
As water and mineral resource are interlinked to each other, human civilisation depends upon water and minerals. In the future, due to the urbanisation, industrialisation, population explosion and development of agricultural activities, the demand for water is expected to increase considerably. Therefore, there is an urgent need to think for a better management of this precious natural resource. In order to restore, improve and maintain quality of the river water, the following suggestions have been made: 49 People must be educated and awareness is created regarding the importance of water and impact of water pollution on living beings. Human activities like mass washing of clothes, automobiles and domestic animals in the river waters should be avoided. Rain water harvesting badly needed. Sewage material should be treated before dumping to the river water. The riverbank cultivation should be minimised which in tern minimises / avoids the direct entry of agriculture runoff in to the water streams. Use of bio-fertilisers instead of chemical fertilisers has to be encouraged. Plantations should be encouraged on the banks of the river stretch since it prevents soil erosion and siltation. There must be continuous monitoring of river water quality. The Government / Administration must strictly enforce the environmental regulations.
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