Another Short History of Composting By Steve Callis, Missouri State Coordinator – International Compost Awareness Week Introducon Compost. Most of us know what it is and how it’s made but, who first obtained this knowledge? Nature obviously has known all along exactly what to do and when to do it. When our distant ancestors moved from being hunter-gatherers to farming, they must have noticed how and why crops flourished or not. They figured out the basics, now let’s see how we got from there to here. Prehistoric Composting has a long and rich history. We know that early man used decomposed organic matter to improve the soil. We also have evidence from around the world that farming populations used some sort of natural fertilizer. Some of these discoveries were accidental and some were the result of the observation of nature. Archaeological evidence shows that the ancient Scots, about 5000 BC, planted crops in heaps of rotting manure. These plantings likely occurred after populations noticed that plants seemed to grow better where the manure had been. Ancient Chinese and Hindu writings indicate that farmers used manures and other organics to enrich their soils. Many of these systems are still in use today and have been the basis for current thinking regarding composting and organic farming. The first indigenous populations throughout the Americas developed farming systems around the same time. These systems utilized fish, fish waste, manure, and plant waste to fertilize their crops. Methods and resources varied based on climate and soil properties, but the basics were, and continue to be, the same. As these civilizations rose and fell, knowledge of composting and amending soils was passed on to future generations. BC to AD As writing became more common, early man started to record his experiences, including composting and farming. Most early civilizations practiced some form of composting by spreading manure and plant waste on fields to improve fertility. Researchers have found clay tablets from the Akkadian Empire, around 2350 BC, which are the first to speak of “making” compost for agricultural use. The Akkadian Empire was in the Mesopotamian Valley, present day Iraq. The Bible and the Talmud both speak of using dung on fields. The Talmud also talks of using the blood from animal sacrifices to improve fertility. Today, blood meal is a common organic farming and gardening supplement. The retired Roman general, Cato the elder, wrote of using animal dung mixed with plant waste in the fields in his book “De Agri Cultura” (Concerning the Culture of the Fields). The early Egyptians also composted with worms. Cleopatra even went so far as to make worms sacred in recognition of their contributions to agriculture. Other areas of the Middle East were also using manure and compost during this time. The early Arabic writer, Ibn al Awan, mentioned the use of animal manures and composting in his book, “Kitab al Falahah” (Book on Agriculture). Much was lost during the Dark Ages. We can thank the monks and monasteries of the time for maintaining and recording good farming practices, including composting. This knowledge was later made available to the public as mankind moved on. 1300 – 1800 As the world found its way out of the Dark Ages, the agricultural information retained by the monks and monasteries, including composting, found its way back to the populations. Renaissance authors, such as William Shakespeare, Sir Francis Bacon, and Sir Walter Raleigh, made several references to composting in their various works. As European settlers came to the Americas, they brought with them knowledge of farming practices, including composting. Imagine their surprise to find that the indigenous populations also practiced their own forms of composting, utilizing locally available materials such as the abundant supply of shad or menhaden fish in nearby creeks and streams. Squanto, of the Patuxent tribe in New England, was one of the first Native Americans to share his knowledge of composting with the Pilgrims. It also turns out that Native Americans were already practicing their own form of sheet composting on their fields. Your garden club may enjoy that factoid. The Pilgrims and other settlers took that knowledge and, since they were in the habit of stabling work animals, added manure and bedding to their own mix. Some colonial entrepreneurs even made compost for sale to their neighbors. In academia, the value of compost was touted by Samuel W. Johnson, a Yale College professor. The Founding Fathers were aware of soil fertility and the value of compost. George Washington, in addition to being a Revolutionary General and President, was also a composter. He wrote about the value of compost and even built a manure shed to store that material on his farm. Thomas Jefferson, another Founding Father and President, was also a composter. He and George Washington frequently corresponded about farming matters. Jefferson noticed that newly cleared land didn’t require fertilization due to its natural fertility. Initially, it was cheaper to obtain and clear new land but, after years of intensive cultivation, fertilizing became a necessity. Jefferson also practiced putting cattle in his fields to take advantage of their manure in restoring the fertility of his fields. I wonder if today’s elected officials would care to discuss the application of manure to fields. 1800 – 1900 As the descendants of the early colonists and other immigrants moved Westward, they came upon land that was naturally fertile due to the natural process of decomposition of plant and animal remains. Most felt there was little need for fertilization and composting. The opposite became true as the soil was depleted of its natural fertility. In 1840, German chemist Justus Von Liebig published his theory that plants only needed nutrients that were water soluble, such as Nitrogen, Phosphorous and Potassium. This theory, along with the declining productivity of soils caused a boom in chemical fertilizers, discarding the value of humus and organic matter in soil. It would take 100 years for that theory to be dispelled by the likes of Sir Albert Howard and others. 1900 - 1930 The early 20th century was a time of great change. The growing population and the migration from the farm to cities created a greater demand upon food producers. Governments and experts of the day encouraged the use of synthetic fertilizers to boost food production. Not enough was known about the ultimate damage that the use of these synthetic fertilizers would do to the soil. World War I took many able-bodied men from the farms to fight the war. This increased the demands on the remaining farmers to produce more food for the armies of the world. Accordingly, those governments encouraged even more food production and supported increased usage of synthetic fertilizers. After the war, arms manufacturers needed a market for the nitrogen they had previously used to produce explosives. This nitrogen was shifted to the fertilizer market and used to help feed the growing urban population. Beginning in 1905, Sir Albert Howard worked as an agronomist in India conducting research on farming practices and composting on the Indian sub- continent. The knowledge he gained regarding composting has been the foundation for current use and understanding of the art and science of composting. Rudolph Steiner, an Austrian philosopher, began developing his theories on Biodynamic Agriculture in 1924. His methods included composting as well as other organic farming methods. Other aspects of Biodynamic Agriculture include treating the farm as a total organism and reliance on astrological planting and harvesting. 1930 – Present During the 1930’s, the United States suffered through the Dust Bowl. There were a number of causes for the Dust Bowl, including poor farming practices as well as a record drought. One of the big problems was the massive loss of topsoil. This experience caused significant research to be conducted into better farming practices and soil management. Meanwhile, on the other side of the globe, Sir Albert Howard was finalizing his research into farming practices in India. One part of his work was to develop the Indore method of composting, named for the Indore region of India. This composting method built upon the ancient practice of returning plant and animal (including human) waste to the soil. At the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama, George Washington Carver was conducting his research into soil fertility and farming practices. Carver encouraged farmers to save money and labor by making their own fertilizer (compost). In England, Lady Eve Balfour was researching and developing organic farming and gardening methods including composting. In the 1940’s, J. I. Rodale was researching and promoting the organic method in the United States. World War II sent another generation off to war. It also required an increase in food production to feed the soldiers and war workers at home. When peace finally came, the arms manufacturers again needed an outlet for the nitrogen they had become so adept at producing. Synthetic fertilizers filled that bill and farmers were encouraged to use the new fertilizers. Another part of this transition was that the use of motorized farm equipment meant that fewer horses and oxen were needed. Fewer animals meant less manure to be composted. Agricultural research continues through to the present as has a growing public interest in organic farming and gardening. Soil health has been linked with plant and human health. There have also been mounting concerns regarding solid waste, sewage sludge, bio-solids, and landfill costs. Organic solid waste and sewage sludge in landfills pollute the environment with greenhouse gases, primarily methane, which is more than 20 times as damaging to the atmosphere as CO2. Landfills also present financial challenges. Regulatory compliance and land for landfill expansion is becoming more and more expensive.