At Domuztepe: Technological and Reductive Strategies

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Halaf bead, pendant and seal 'workshops' at Domuztepe: technological and reductive strategies.

Ellen H. Belcher John Jay College of Criminal Justice

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The State of the Stone Terminologies, Continuities and Contexts in Near Eastern Lithics

Proceedings of the Sixth PPN Conference on Chipped and Ground Stone Artefacts in the Near East, Manchester, 3rd–5th March 2008

Includes papers of the Fourth PPN Workshop on Chipped Lithic Industries, Ni™de/ Cappadocia, 4th–8th June 2001 (coordinated by Nur Balkan-Atlı)

edited by Elizabeth Healey, Stuart Campbell and Osamu Maeda

Studies in Early Near Eastern Production, Subsistence, and Environment 13

Berlin, ex oriente (2011)

Studies in Early Near Eastern Production, Subsistence, and Environment (SENEPSE)

Editors-in-Chief: Hans Georg K. Gebel and Reinder Neef

The Studies in Early Near Eastern Production, Subsistence, and Environment are a refereed series. The Manchester contributions of Volume 14 are published with the support and advice of the following board of reviewers:

Douglas Baird Ferran Borrell Bill Finlayson Sally Fletcher Avi Gopher Nigel Goring-Morris Frank Hole Deborah Olzewski Gary Rollefson Steve Rosen Yorke Rowan Phil Wilke

Layout and typesetting of volume by Campbell Archaeological Services

Financial support for layout and printing by

Campbell Archaeological Services ex oriente e.V., Berlin

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A list of publications by ex oriente can be found at the end of this volume.

Printed in Germany by dbusiness, Berlin.

ISBN 978-3-9811888-2-0 • ISSN 0947-0549

Contents

Introduction ix Elizabeth Healey, Stuart Campbell & Osamu Maeda 1 The PPN 1-6 Workshops: agendas, trends and the future 1 Hans Georg K. Gebel

PPN predecessors 23 2 PPN predecessors: current issues in Late Pleistocene chipped stone analyses in the southern Levant 25 Lisa A. Maher & Tobias Richter 3 Nebekian, Qalkhan and Kebaran: variability, classification and interaction. New insights from the Azraq Oasis 33 Tobias Richter 4 Lithic “culture” issues: insights from the Wadi al-Hasa Epipalaeolithic 51 Deborah I. Olszewski 5 Technological rationality of core reduction and blank production in the Natufian lithic industries of the Galilee 67 Christophe Delage 6 Newly discovered Late Epipalaeolithic lithic assemblages from Dederiyeh Cave, the northern Levant 79 Yoshihiro Nishiaki, Yosef Kanjo, Sultan Muhesen & Takeru Akazawa 7 The Epipalaeolithic chipped stone from Pınarbası, on the central Anatolian plateau 89 Anne Pirie

Beyond chipped stone 97 8 On floor level: PPNA indoor cupmarks and their Natufian forerunners 99 Danny Rosenberg & Dani Nadel 9 Pestle sectioning at Dhra’: a chaîne opératoire for basalt pestles and their derivatives 109 Philipp M. Rassmann 10 Stone ring production in the Neolithic of the Near East and analogies from the American West 125 Marc W. Hintzman 11 Halaf bead, pendant and seal ‘workshops’ at Domuztepe: technological and reductive strategies 135 Ellen H. Belcher

Change or continuity? 145 12 Social and symbolic meanings of lithic technology during the PPN in the Middle Euphrates 147 Juan José Ibáñez & Jesús González Urquijo 13 Lunates as projectiles at the onset of the Neolithic period 157 Alla Yaroshevich, Ofer Bar-Yosef & Vladimir Zbenovich 14 Geometrics from the Neolithic settlement of Tall i Mushki, south-west Iran 163 Masashi Abe 15 Did the diffusion of Levantine Helwan points to north-eastern Africa really take place? A study of side-notched and tanged projectile points in north-eastern Africa 171 Noriyuki Shirai

v The State of the Stone: Terminologies, Continuities and Contexts in Near Eastern Lithics

16 The lithic assemblage of Ayia Varvara Asprokremnos: a new perspective on the Early Neolithic of Cyprus 185 Carole McCartney 17 The PPNB site of Beisamoun (Hula Basin): present and past research 197 Fanny Bocquentin, Omry Barzilai, Hamoudi Khalaily & Liora Kolska Horwitz 18 Changes in chipped stone industries in south-eastern Anatolia: Akarçay Tepe (7,600–6,800 cal. BC) 213 Ferran Borrell 19 The lithic assemblage of Sha‘ar Hagolan: PPN/PN continuity? 227 Zinovi Matskevich 20 Is the PPNC really different? The flint assemblages from three layers at Tel Roim West, Hula Basin 243 Dani Nadel & Michal Nadler-Uziel 21 A note on the complexity of lithic assemblages 257 Laurence Astruc

Social contexts of production and use 265 22 Nahal Lavan 1021: a PPNB knapping site in the western Negev dunes 267 Omry Barzilai & Nigel Goring-Morris 23 A methodological approach, using GIS applications, to stratigraphy and spatial analysis at PPNB Kfar HaHoresh 277 Michal Birkenfeld & Nigel Goring-Morris 24 Knapping methods and techniques at Tell Halula (middle Euphrates valley), during the mid VIIIth millennium cal. BC 291 Ferran Borrell 25 Lithics in a ritual context at the PNNB site of Mishmar Ha‘emeq: do they display special characteristics? 305 Omry Barzilai, Nimrod Getzov, Yael Givol-Barzilai, Nimrod Marom & Ofer Marder 26 The social roles of the use of flint and obsidian artefacts at Salat Cami Yanı in the upper Tigris valley 317 Osamu Maeda 27 Stones of the living and bones of the dead? Contextualising the lithics in the Death Pit at Domuztepe 327 Stuart Campbell & Elizabeth Healey 28 Side-blow blade-flakes from the Ghassulian sickle blade workshop of Beit Eshel: a Chalcolithic solution to a Neolithic riddle 343 Jacob Vardi & Isaac Gilead 29 On becoming a skilled flint knapper: practising flint knapping at the Chalcolithic sickle blade workshop of Beit Eshel, a preliminary refitting study 357 Angela Davidzon & Isaac Gilead

4th International Workshop on Chipped Lithic Industries (Nihde, Cappadocia, Turkey) 4th–8th June 2001 369 30 Introduction 371 Nur Balkan-Atlı 31 LPPNB blade caches at Tell Ain el-Kerkh, north-west Syria 373 Makoto Arimura 32 Flint and obsidian industry of Mezraa-Teleilat (Urfa, south-east Anatolia), PPN-PN 385 Güner Coskunsu 33 An obsidian industry from Neolithic Hagoshrim, Upper Galilee 395 Avi Gopher, Ofer Marder & Ran Barkai 34 Obsidian distribution and cultural contacts in the southern Levant during the 7th millennium cal. BC 403 Yosef Garfinkel 35 The typological analysis of Asıklı arrowheads and problems 411 Semra Yıldırım Balcı

vi Contents

36 Preliminary results of the technological analyses of Musular obsidian – central Anatolia 417 Nurcan Kayacan & Mihriban Özbasaran 37 Parallel lives: Abu Ghosh and Yiftahel, economic strategies of two PPNB sites in the southern Levant 421 Ofer Marder, Hamoudi Khalaily & Ianir Milevski 38 Assessing lithic raw material availability, abundance and use in the Late Upper Palaeolithic, Epipalaeolithic and Neolithic of the Wadi al-Hasa, Transjordanian Plateau 429 Deborah I. Olszewski 39 PPNA stone and flint axes as cultural markers: technological, functional and symbolic aspects 443 Ran Barkai 40 The spatial distribution of arrowheads and microliths in the Near East (10,200–8,000 cal. BC) 449 Olivier Aurenche & Stefan K. Kozłowski 41 Preliminary notes on the Pre-Pottery and Pottery Neolithic lithics from Tell Seker al-Aheimar, the upper Khabur: the 2000–2001 seasons 457 Yoshihiro Nishiaki 42 Points and glossed pieces from Tell Sabi Abyad II and Tell Damishliyya I (Balikh Valley, Djezireh) 465 Laurence Astruc 43 Symbolic behaviour reflected in stone and bone objects from Nahal Hemar Cave, Judean Desert 475 Ofer Bar-Yosef 44 Stones in their symbolic context: Epipalaeolithic – Pre-Pottery Neolithic continuity in the Jordan Valley 481 Dani Nadel

vii

E. Healey, S. Campbell and O. Maeda (eds), The State of the Stone: Terminologies, Continuities and Contexts in Near Eastern Lithics. Studies in Early Near Eastern Production, Subsistence, and Environment 13 (2011): 135–143. Berlin: ex oriente.

Halaf bead, pendant and seal ‘workshops’ at Domuztepe: technological and reductive strategies

Ellen H. Belcher

Abstract

Almost a thousand beads, pendants and seals have been excavated from the site of Domuztepe over the past decade. This paper is based on an examination of the general typology and technology of this assemblage. Manufacturing systems based upon social networks of decentralised organisation of small production ‘workshops’ are explored. It is suggested that these networks shared a system of sequenced actions according to raw material and finished products. A group of unfinished beads in the preliminary phase of production suggests evidence of batched reduction and finishing strategies that balanced breakage risk with a high level of proficiency. At Domuztepe the reduction sequences proposed here would have required tools for pecking, cutting, snapping, perforating, grinding and polishing of stones to create beads, pendants and seals of great quantity and variety. This paper is intended to open a dialogue between small finds and lithic specialists about the technological processes and tools used to create stone ornaments in the Neolithic Near East.

Introduction A preliminary reconstruction of the collective processes in- The beads, pendants and seals found at Domuztepe, a large volved in the creation of these objects is also considered. sixth millennium BC site in south-east Turkey, in many ways Rather than suggest a new word, the term workshop is re- comprise a typical Halaf ornament assemblage although the tained in this paper with the suggestion that we should quantity and quality of the corpus, as well as diversity of raw consider its embedded meaning and perhaps start using new materials, are particularly remarkable (Belcher in prep.). This terms with the aim of moving toward more practical and paper looks at some of the technological aspects of beads, holistic perspectives on ornament manufacture. pendants and seals (as a group here referred to as ornaments) from Domuztepe in terms of both the utilisation of raw Domuztepe: background and region materials and the evidence for the methods of manufacture Located in the foothills of the Amanus Mountains, Domuz- of final products. The nature of the organisation of produc- tepe is one of the western-most excavated sites within the tion in which stone workers produced these ornaments, the Halaf (6th millennium cal. BC) cultural horizon (Campbell sequenced actions employed in their manufacture as well as et al. 1999; Campbell and Carter 2006). The site is in close the tools likely to have been utilised will also be discussed. proximity to an assortment of organic, mineral and metallurgical resources as well as near to natural trading routes along Lloyd Sealy Library, John Jay College of Criminal Justice, City Univer- riverine valleys and mountain passes (Eissenstat 2004, 196). sity of New York, USA. Beads often produce evidence of the extent of acquisition of [email protected] raw materials (e.g. Pinnock 1993; Santallier et al. 1997) and

135 The State of the Stone: Terminologies, Continuities and Contexts in Near Eastern Lithics the assemblage at Domuztepe certainly demonstrates the for a concentration of identical white beads found during acquisition of a wide array of rocks and minerals. Definitive the 2008 season (Campbell 2008). Perhaps most remarkable identification by scientific analysis is on-going; with prelimi- is the variety of types and subtypes present as well as the nary results, based on scientific analyses of beads with a vari- abundance of raw materials from which they were fashioned. ety of methods including Raman Spectroscopy at the British Many objects at Domuztepe appear to have had multiple Museum, and Portable X-Ray Fluorescence on site (Lehner functional and possibly symbolic applications. For example, pers. comm.) along with macroscopic comparisons, suggest pierced figurines also work as pendants, seals could be worn the exploitation of mineral and metallurgical resources from as pendants or buttons, and incised pendants probably could both near and distant sources. Nearby examples include have also functioned as seals. limestone and serpentinite while more distant examples in- A representative sample of the smallest beads was clude silver (Yener et al. forthcoming) and obsidian (Healey recovered by analysis of the heavy residues from systematic 2000; Healey and Campbell 2009). Informal site-catchment sampling of a variety of contexts. Sixty litre whole-earth surveys of the hillsides to the west of Domuztepe have indi- samples were taken from all stratigraphically well-defined cated the local availability of a variety of minerals, especially deposits and larger samples, sometimes reaching 100% (from variously coloured silicates, basalt and serpentinite. These the Death Pit, for example) were taken from specific sealed stones are represented in great number amongst the artefacts contexts. Beads and other artefacts were retrieved from excavated. Raman Spectroscopy of some of the Domuztepe careful hand-sorting of the heavy residue of these samples serpentinite beads undertaken by the British Museum sug- after flotation. Many of the larger beads as well as seals and gests that the stones may have come from several sources. In pendants were recovered during excavation, as well as a sur- the Kahramanmaras and Gaziantep provinces mining of sili- prising number of tiny examples discovered by sharp-eyed cates, serpentinites and carbonates can be seen today along workmen. As a consequence of these strategies, the greatest the modern roads in this geologically rich area (cf M.T.A. proportion of our recovered beads is the smallest type, i.e. 1994). disc beads generally measuring less than 2–3mm in diameter. Among the great quantity of ornaments excavated at Based on the numbers recovered from the controlled sam- Domuztepe, many display quite complex manufacturing ples we can be reasonably sure that hundreds of thousands, techniques and a few unfinished examples present clues to or even millions, of tiny disc beads were lost during the pre- their creation and use. The transformation of a variety of historic occupation and are buried in the soil. stones into complete objects seems to have been a skilled Because most of the beads recovered at Domuztepe are endeavour common amongst those living at prehistoric complete it seems logical to assume that these beads were Domuztepe. The broad distribution of these objects within lost from their original context of use because the fibre on the whole range of excavated contexts indicates their which they were threaded broke. Modern Anatolian ethno- integration into the daily patterns of village life, perhaps graphic dress, visible in many museums and villages in Tur- ornamenting the garments, hair and appendages of adults, key today, present plenty of examples of the incorporation children, animals and architectural features. In addition to of small groups of beads threaded together, particularly on decoration, the beads, pendants and seals must have carried the edges of garments. There is also ethnographic evidence symbolic and cultural meaning, and perhaps connotations for the use of ornaments to adorn animals, architecture and related to the geographical region from which the raw vehicles. It is possible that adornments were constructed so materials came. (e.g. amongst others Fisher 1984; Sciama and that, if a string broke, only a few beads were scattered, and Eicher 2001; Belcher and Croucher in prep.). so the loss may not even have been noticed as it would not Stone-working was not confined to beads, pendants and noticeably affect the overall integrity of the ornamentation. seals. Domuztepe was also a centre for extensive stone vessel The stringing of beads in small groups to decorate garments and tool production, which also exploited a wide variety seems probable at prehistoric Domuztepe, where most beads of raw materials. The manufacturing process of all of these are found singly. objects involved reducing larger pieces of stone into smaller An example might be seen at Domuztepe in Level 5a-b workable shapes, producing debitage and by-products poten- of the ‘Death Pit’, which yielded a great variety of small tially useful in the creation of other objects. The curation beads. This was an intra-mural mass burial pit filled with dis- of by-products from manufacturing to re-work into smaller articulated animal and human remains, and some fill trans- objects has also been found in the ethno-archaeological ferred from other locations (for the most recent descriptions excavations of modern bead workshops in Khambhat, India of the Death Pit see Kansa et al. 2009; Campbell and Healey (Vidale et al.1993). this volume). It was an area of concentrated activity where a large amount of disarticulated human and animal bones and The beads, pendants and seals from Domuztepe soil were deposited in a wet matrix perhaps by persons with Ten years of excavation have revealed nearly one thousand garments decorated with beads. It is possible that the beads beads, pendants and seals at Domuztepe of which more than fell from these garments and became accidentally incorpo- two thirds were beads. These numbers reflect widespread rated in the deposit, although the possibility that the beads manufacture and consumption of ornaments. The orna- found there had been re-deposited as part of the matrix used ments were found scattered in many contexts on site. So far, as pit-fill cannot be discounted. almost none have been found in identifiable clusters except

136 Halaf bead, pendant and seal ‘workshops’ at Domuztepe: technological and reductive strategies

Fig. 1: Partial reconstruction of the Burnt Structure; the area where bead blanks were recovered is circled.

A Domuztepe bead ‘workshop’ or staging area? A concentration of 15 unfinished beads or bead-blanks was found in a small area, adjacent to the ‘Burnt Structure’ excavated in 2002 and 2005 (Figs 1-3). This is was an agglom- eration of ephemeral structures created of matting, reeds and wood apparently used and reused for different activities These adjacent structures were eventually destroyed by fire which preserved evidence of the superstructure as well as objects on the plaster and earth floors (Campbell and Carter 2006). Perhaps these bead blanks had been stored in a bag or basket or were on a small work-surface that was destroyed in the fire. Given their uniform size and characteristics, these blanks seem to be part of a phased and batched system of bead production. Because of this discovery, we have tenta- Fig. 2: Selection of obsidian bead blanks found in a single locus tively identified this area as a bead workshop. within the Burnt Structure (dt4774, dt4595, dt4835). Additional evidence for this locus as a work area are a total of 16 thin tabular obsidian objects (5 square and 11 Reduction sequences of Domuztepe beads rectangular, some of which are partially ground) tentatively The concentration of bead blanks described above suggests identified as pendant blanks (Fig. 4b) as well as a tear-drop that the manufacturing sequence of hard-stone beads began shaped flake of obsidian, which may be an unfinished pen- with the formation of rough-outs. Grinding on the flat ends dant, with some grinding on its surface and edges, a con- suggests preparation for perforation before further reduction siderable amount of obsidian debitage and several obsidian of the overall shape. Perhaps the larger size of the blanks and flint drills (Fig. 4a) and other flint artefacts. While we made them easier to perforate or perforation belonged in the are tentatively calling this a work area, it is equally possible earlier stages of the sequence because it carried the largest that all of these objects could have been produced elsewhere risk of breakage. While we are missing satisfactory examples and stored in this location for completion somewhere else. of the stages of perforation and further production between Analysis of the obsidian debitage and micro-debitage recov- these and the finished hard-stone beads at Domuztepe, fur- ered in this area is on-going, which may help to establish ther reduction included grinding and polishing of the sides, whether this was in fact an in situ production area (Healey which were sometimes carinated (Fig. 5). These blanks fit pers. comm.). well with other more fully-known production and reduction sequences published from other sites in which rough-outs

137 The State of the Stone: Terminologies, Continuities and Contexts in Near Eastern Lithics

Fig. 6: a: Detail of drill markings on broken edge of serpentinite barrel bead (dt999). b: Serpentinite bead with leavings of material at the piercing on one end (dt566). Fig. 3: Silicate bead blank from the Burnt Structure.(dt4878).

Fig. 4: Other objects from the burnt house: a: drill (L3990-2) b: ground obsidian ‘blanks’ (L3919-9 and L3919-10).

Fig. 7: Heat treated serpentinite(?) disc bead with cut marks on end (dt3550).

Fig. 5: Small obsidian disc bead (dt2227). Fig. 8: Soft stone figurine-pendants (dt1962, dt1784 and dt1793). precede perforation, which is followed by further reduction around 3-5mm in diameter when completed. By contrast, and finishing. Examples of similar sequences include lapis the ‘blanks’ measure up to 20mm in diameter – ten times the bead-making at Mehrgarah, Pakistan (Tosi and Vidale 1990), size of their finished counterparts (compare Figs 2 and 5). carnelian bead-making at Larsa (Chevalier et al. 1982) and A close study of the other disc beads from Domuztepe at Kumartepe (Grace 1989) as well as modern agate bead has revealed that consistent sequenced actions were utilised production in Khambhat (Vidale et al. 1993). The bead re- in their manufacture included flaking, cutting, abrasion, duction sequences at these other sites indicate that the fi- grinding, perforation and polishing. Most of these actions nal size of the finished bead is significantly smaller than the were performed by tools including abrasives, perforators size of the first ‘rough outs’. This is consistent with known (which could have been of stone, wood or bone), serrated obsidian disc beads at Domuztepe which were shaped by edges and ground stone tools. Each sequence appears to be flaking and finished by grinding and polishing to measure specific to the type of mineral worked.

138 Halaf bead, pendant and seal ‘workshops’ at Domuztepe: technological and reductive strategies

Fig. 9: Selection of stamp seals – fronts and backs.

Disc beads of untreated, dark coloured serpentinite appear to have been cut or snapped off a rod following piercing. The jagged remains of stone protruding at one edge of the hole (where it was not later ground off) pro- vides evidence of this technique (Fig.6b). White soft stone beads – some of which have been identified as heat-treated serpentinite – appear to have been cut from a rod. For these soft disc beads, there was no further finishing of the flat end, which often bears cut marks (Fig. 7). The sides were only minimally finished, sometimes being polished to a concave shape but more often left straight and rough (Table 2).

Stamp seals, pendants and links Fig. 10: an unfinished seal pendant, with a deep piercing A decade of excavation has yielded nearly a hundred stamp- (dt3680). seals and over one hundred pendants and links (i.e. flat objects pierced at both ends). Many are characterised by including Domuztepe (e.g. Carter et al. 1999, Fig. 14), sug- geometric and sometimes naturalistic motifs (Figs 8 and 9). gesting similar technological processes over a wide geo- Advanced skills were needed to manufacture the seals, pen- graphic area. Other types of stamp seals were more varied dants and links in order to minimise risk of breakage dur- and, as well as one of the largest assemblages, Domuztepe ing the delicate working of these objects. The complexity of has some of the widest variety. A particular feature of Halaf their design required a greater investment in their manufac- stamp-seals (and some pendants) is the pierced shank which ture than the beads. They also represent a larger investment allowed for them to be suspended on a cord or sewn onto a in raw materials, which seem to have been carefully selected garment. At Domuztepe other seals were pierced longitudi- for aesthetic reasons. They may, therefore, have been more nally after much of the seal was completed, as evidenced by valued as single objects and might have been more securely a few examples not yet completely pierced. There are also attached to the body. several examples of seals that were re-pierced through the While the majority was made of soft stones, such as ser- centre after the shank had broken (Fig. 9, lower centre). pentinite, there are also several fashioned from harder min- It seems possible that pendants, seals and links were erals, including silicates and obsidian. Production sequences created in the same workshop-networks as beads and other for pendants, links and pendant-figurines made of soft stone artefacts since they required similar understandings of raw (Fig. 8) are similar to each other (Table 1). The craftspeople materials, sequenced actions and tools to notch, cut, incise, who fashioned these objects were skilled at making perfo- grind, polish and pierce the stones. The sequenced steps of rations which were situated at potentially vulnerable areas production for pierced stamp seals are suggested in Table 1. of the object, such on thin corners or on shanks, requir- ing advanced skills of manufacture to minimise the risk of Lithic tool terminologies and typologies: a critical breakage. Examples that broke during piercing show that perspective considerable work toward the final form including polish- The study of the Domuztepe bead, pendant and seal assem- ing and finishing was accomplished before perforation took blage suggests that a variety of chipped as well as ground place. tools were utilised in their production. Unfortunately, the Button-shaped stamp-seals are created using the same specialist who is trying to identify and reconstruct the overall design at nearly all Halaf sites (von Wickede 1990), manufacturing tool kit of the bead-maker is not always well

139 The State of the Stone: Terminologies, Continuities and Contexts in Near Eastern Lithics

Seals Pendants Pendant-figurines cut and grind overall shape cut or knap overall shape cut and grind overall shape bi-conically pierce & polish grind ends grind edges cut deep incisions of overall geometry bevel edges bevel and notch edges [notch edges] incise incise cut lighter incisions of infill pierce pierce polish polish front polish front narrow shank re-pierce if necessary re-pierce if necessary re-pierce if necessary

Table 1:Provisional proposal for sequenced reduction of pendants and seals at Domuztepe.

Dolomite or heat-treated serpent- Serpentinite beads Hard stone beads inite beads form rod shape form rod shape knap to rough shape cut ends with serrated blade snap one end grind perforate straight through Intialise perforation by pecking perforate straight through snap off at other end drill from both ends grind side grind side shape by grinding polish polish polish

Table 2: Provisional proposal for sequenced reduction of beads at Domuztepe. served by typologies of lithic tools, the nomenclature and I would suggest, therefore, that there needs to be a more description of which is often based upon manufacture or ap- integrated approach to the study of different categories of pearance of the tool itself rather than the original functional artefacts. For example, a system has been used in which the qualities. Also, in the absence of experimental and use-wear tools and other objects from the site of Basta can be charted analysis, it is difficult to identify the tools likely to been used according to their ‘biographies’(Gebel 2008). Interpretative in ornament manufacture (Healey pers. comm.) trends such as these will hopefully begin to ‘return’ tools to Furthermore, the modern boundaries between the spe- the hands of craftspeople who used them, so we can better cialisms of ground and knapped tools probably do not reflect understand the interactive relationship with manufactured ancient workshop practices. Certainly both abrasive and cut- objects. The outcome could be an integrated interpretation ting tools were employed in the manufacture of ornaments of excavated assemblages in which tools can be considered as well as other objects at Domuztepe. In fact, as pointed out as objects with negotiated place(s) amidst community life- by Karen Wright (Wright and Garrard 2003), many stone ways and craft production networks (cf Altınbilek et al. 2001; objects, including tools, are both knapped and ground in Astruc 2001). their manufacture. An apparent exception might be drills which are pre- Approaching beads holistically – beyond perforation sumably used to create holes, although many seem to be Much of the research literature on bead manufacture has too large for use in the manufacture of these ornaments. focused on drilling and other techniques of perforation. A Although it is tempting to see the flint drills as being used series of in-depth microscopic studies of patterns of drill- to perforate the beads and other ornaments it is also possible ing marks from ancient, experimental and ethnographic that modern typological distinctions between tools such as examples, particularly by Gwinnet and Gorelek (1979; 1981; drills and certain types of arrowheads might not have made 1990; 1991) have been particularly helpful for understanding a difference to bead-makers, who simply needed a point to this particular step in bead production. However, very little complete a perforation, and by extension to the modern bead analysis has been published for other steps in the produc- specialists attempting to understand tool kits. Indeed recent tion of pierced objects (with the notable exceptions afore- experimental studies have clearly demonstrated that certain mentioned Chevalier et al. 1982; Grace 1989; Tosi and Vidale types of so-called projectile points had multiple functions 1990; and Vidale et al. 1993). including drilling (see for example Coskunsu and Lemorini While data collected from drilling is crucial for clas- 2001; Smith 2007). It is also clear than some unmodified sifying pierced ornaments within existing bead taxonomies flakes and blades were used as ad hoc tools (Caneva et al. (Beck 1928), drills are only one of a variety of tools of differ- 2001; Iovino and Lemorini 2001) in the working of various ent materials and hardness in the bead-maker’s toolkit. The materials. manufacture of beads employed skill sets which were geared toward completing the whole object, not just the perforation.

140 Halaf bead, pendant and seal ‘workshops’ at Domuztepe: technological and reductive strategies

In order to move bead and ornament studies forward, we skills and by-products, and may have involved workers of a should look at these objects holistically and consider the variety of ages, permanence and abilities and may also have characterisation of raw materials, skills and tools as well as acted as a learning environment. Therefore, a workshop the risks of breakage during manufacturing sequences. might not be a physical place of production which can be A diverse package of skills, materials and tools were identified as a single, bounded feature in excavation. The employed in the sequenced actions which produced a bead, physical and social place of workshops within a settlement pendant or seal at Domuztepe (Tables 1 and 2). Given the structure may have been transitory according to the season amount of grinding and polishing required in the bead or material worked or secondary to and incorporated with and pendant making process, perhaps the most important other activities. Some characteristics of the physical places manufacturing ‘tool’ was the abrasive grit. This grit may well of production must have been chosen for practical reasons. have been of different materials and hardness, and could have For example, tiny beads probably had to be finished indoors been carefully curated. Abrasives would have been readily so they would not blow away; chipping stone might have available by-products from the other stone-working carried required a secluded outdoor location for safety purposes. out at Domuztepe, which may have occurred in adjacent It is, therefore, suggested that we should consider work- or even in the same work areas. Of course, concentrations shops as small groups of people linked by skills, toolkits and of abrasives are difficult to identify and separate from soil materials knowledge as well as a locus for acquisition and matrices in the archaeological record, but there is philo- reinforcement of learned strategies. Such groups might also logical evidence for their ancient use (Heimpel et al. 1988). be linked to a certain group, family or clan, perhaps con- There is also ethnographic evidence for the curation of by- nected to a geographical area and the raw materials found products and especially abrasives in adjacent stone working there or the long-standing role of a certain social group areas (Vidale et al. 1993). within the community.

A critical look at ‘workshops’ Conclusion The terms workshop and craft production are loaded with im- In order to move bead and ornament studies beyond man- plications ethnographically related to the characterisation ufacturing sequences, we should look at them within the of social complexity and a specific location (summarised wider contexts of stone usage. It seems not unreasonable by Stein 1998, 18-23; Costin 1991; but see also Belcher and to consider whether beads, pendants, seals and links could Croucher in prep.). However, no such ‘workshops’ have been have been created in the same workshop networks as other identified with any certainty at Domuztepe. It may be that stone objects since they required similar skills including an this definition of ‘workshop’ doesn’t fit into the practical understanding of raw materials, knowledge of the capability realities of prehistoric village life. Perhaps the relationships of tools to shape, notch, cut, incise, grind, polish and pierce between craft production, raw materials and finished objects the stones. Further work is needed on the few ornaments were more amorphous than is reflected in the scholarly lit- found made of unusual exotic materials, such as shell and erature, and adaptive according to several factors. Perhaps silver (Yener et al. forthcoming) to determine how the tech- there were certain seasons or years when one type of object niques and tools of their manufacture fits with those known or stone was worked instead of another because of availabil- at Domuztepe and other sites. ity, need or fashion. Perhaps particular stones, or ornament It seems obvious that that some advanced and inte- type or phase of production mandated different skill sets and grated system of production must have existed for object tool kits, and were restricted to particular communities and manufacture at Domuztepe. It is entirely possible that net- therefore had a different social and physical location within works of individuals with skill sets and decentralised loci for the settlement. specific activities rather than a single physical location or a The level of knowledge of materials as well as the group of individuals. It may be that, at least for Domuztepe, sophisticated skill sets required to make the beads, pendants, a loose network of small workshops that were skilled at a seals, etc., found at Domuztepe suggests that an advanced range of actions on a variety of objects might replace the and integrated system of production must have existed for traditional version of a central nucleus of structured craft object manufacture there. For want of a better term and production which could be physically or socially identified for the purposes of this discussion, such a system is called a archaeologically. workshop, meaning a network of individuals and groups with particular skill sets and decentralised loci for specific activities Acknowledgments rather than a single physical location or group of craftspeo- Thank you to Stuart Campbell director of the Domuztepe ple. It may be that, at least at Domuztepe, a loose network Excavation Project for allowing me to study the beads, pen- of craftspersons who were skilled at a range of actions on a dants and stamp seals from Domuztepe. Thank you also to variety of objects might replace the traditional version of a Elizabeth Healey and Philipp Rassmann for many animated central nucleus of structured craft production that could be conversations about lithic technology as well as stone iden- physically or socially identified archaeologically. Perhaps the tification and sourcing, which is a venture we are only just answer is to reject the term workshop in favour of craft-system beginning. Thank you also to those mentioned above as well or production-network. These craftspeople probably interacted as the reviewers and editors of this chapter for their helpful closely with each other to share materials, specialised tools, comments and suggestions. All photographs in this article

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