ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY: MINING IN MINING SOUTH AFRICA FOR SCHOOLS

CONTENTS

SECTION C1 2 SECTION C5 20

What is coal? 3 Why matters 21

What makes coal special? 4 Factors that favour and hinder coal 22 Coal is the mining in South Africa Types and classifi cation of coal 5 cornerstone of Safety and health 23 Uses of coal 6 South Africa’s Environment 26 SECTION C2 8 energy supply Coal mining technology 28 The geology of coal 9 and will continue Quotes about coal 29 Where coal is mined in South Africa 10 to play a key role Fun facts about coal 29 South African coal mining today 11 in the country’s SECTION C6 30 SECTION C3 12 economy for Terms and defi nitions 31 many years The coal mining life cycle 13 to come SECTION C4 16 People of coal 17

Employment in the coal mining industry 18 Note: The Minerals Council South Africa was formerly Brief history of coal mining in South Africa 19 known as the Chamber of Mines of South Africa

PAGE 1 MINING FOR SCHOOLS

SECTION C1 Formed during the Period millions of years ago, coal is used as fuel to generate through combustion and in numerous other industries

Glencore Tweefontein Colliery

PAGEPAGE 2 2 WHAT IS COAL? SECTION C1 The word coal comes from the Old English col, meaning glowing ember.

Coal is a hard black or brownish-black rock formed in rock strata called coal seams. It consists mainly of carbon but also contains hydrogen, sulphur, oxygen and nitrogen.

Coal is formed when dead plant matter decays into and over millions of years the heat and pressure of deep burial converts the peat into coal. The harder forms of coal, such as , are metamorphic rocks, Peat which means they were changed by very high temperature and pressure. Buried Coal Coal is a fossil fuel and can be burned for energy or heat. peat The earliest recognised use of coal by man is from the Shenyang area of China where by 4000 BC Neolithic inhabitants had begun carving ornaments from black . Coal from the Fushun mine in north-eastern China was used to smelt copper as early as 1000 BC.

PAGE 3 WHAT MAKES COAL SPECIAL? SECTION C1

Coal was formed in ecosystems during the Carboniferous Period millions of About two-thirds of the coal mined today is burned in power stations to 1 years ago 6 make electricity

2 Coal seams exist on every continent 7 Some and making and other industrial processes burn coal

Coal has been used in South Africa since the Iron Age when was Coal can be roasted (heated very hot in a place where there is no oxygen) to 3 used to melt iron and copper 8 produce – a fuel used in to reduce metals from their ores

Since the 19th century, coal has been the largest source of energy for the Coal is a reliable and affordable source of energy and is the source of some 4 generation of electricity worldwide 9 of the most valuable chemicals known to man

Coal supplies about a quarter of the world’s (a primary Coal is the cornerstone of South Africa’s energy supply and will continue to 5 energy is an energy form found in nature that has not been subjected to any 10 play a key role in the country’s economy for many years to come – some 81% human engineered conversion process) of the energy produced by Eskom is generated using coal

HCI Coal – Palesa Colliery

PAGE 4 TYPES AND CLASSIFICATION OF COAL SECTION C1

As geological processes apply Thermal v metallurgical coal: the most pressure to dead plant material, over time it is transformed into important coal classifi cation the following: Coal classifi cation Use of coal Peat • Peat – this is not yet coal Thermal coal Burnt to generate electricity Other name: steam coal via steam • Lignite, or brown coal, the lowest rank of coal, used almost Metallurgical coal Burnt at a high temperature exclusively as fuel for electric Other name: coking coal to make steel power generation. is a Lignite compact form of lignite that is sometimes polished and has long been used as an ornamental stone

• Sub- is used as fuel for steam-electric power Sub-bituminous coal generation

• Bituminous coal is a dense sedimentary rock, usually black, but sometimes dark brown. It is used primarily as fuel in steam- Bituminous coal electric power generation, or heat and power applications in manufacturing and to make coke

• Steam coal was once widely used as a fuel for steam locomotives, where it is Steam coal sometimes known as ‘sea coal’

• Anthracite is the highest rank of coal. It is a harder, glossy black coal used primarily for residential and commercial space heating Anthracite

• is no longer coal. It is diffi cult to ignite and not commonly used as fuel; it is most used in pencils, or powdered for MC Mining lubrication Graphite

PAGE 5 USES OF COAL SECTION C1

Electricity Steel production Cement Paper and Chemical and and Plant fertiliser production The steel industry is the Coal is used as an aluminium pharmaceutical coal liquid as Coal can be turned Coal is mainly used second largest user of energy source in the industries industries transportation into ammonia coal. Coal and iron are cement industry given fertiliser by breaking as fuel to generate Both of these industries Many chemical products fuel essential raw materials that the production of it into carbon electricity through are energy-intensive. are manufactured from Coal can be converted used in the production cement is extremely monoxide and combustion. Thermal Given that coal is the by-products of into gas and liquid of steel, which is one energy-intensive. By- hydrogen gas. The coal is used in power currently the most coal. Refined is which can be used to the most useful metals products generated hydrogen mixes with stations to generate cost-effective source of used to make chemicals fuel cars, motorcycles products known to man. from burning coal are nitrogen to make electricity. energy, it is an essential such as creosote oil, and ships. also used in concrete ammonia. input. naphthalene, phenol Coking coal is used as production. a fuel to melt iron in and benzene. furnaces to produce cast iron which in turn is further refined to produce steel. Coking coal is a solid carbonaceous residue derived from low-ash, low-sulphur bituminous coal.

PAGE 6 SECTION C1

Glencore – Impunzi Colliery

PAGE 7 MINING FOR SCHOOLS

2018 QUICK FACTS SECTION C2 Production Total sales South Africa’s coal 252.6 R139.4 is mined in the MILLION TONNES BILLION provinces of Limpopo, Mpumalanga, Gauteng and Free State and 72% is consumed domestically

MC Mining - Uitkomst Colliery PAGE 8 THE GEOLOGY OF COAL SECTION C2

At various times in the geologic from Precambrian strata, which past, the Earth had dense predate land plants – this coal is Under high pressure and high temperature, dead forests in low-lying wetland presumed to have originated areas. Due to natural processes from algae. vegetation was slowly converted to coal such as fl ooding, these forests South Africa’s coal resources are were buried underneath soil. contained in the Ecca deposits, a stratum of the Karoo Supergroup, As more and more soil deposited and date from the Permian period over them, they were compressed. between 280 and 250 million The temperature also rose as years ago. In general terms, they they sank deeper and deeper. are largely located in the north- As this process continued, the eastern quarter of the country. plant matter was protected from The coal measures are generally breakdown, usually by mud or shallow, largely unfaulted and acidic water. This trapped the lightly inclined, making their carbon in immense peat bogs exploitation suitable for opencast that were eventually covered and and mechanised mining. deeply buried by sediments. The largest reserves of coal are Under high pressure and high found in (30%), North temperature, dead vegetation America (28%), East Asia (13%), was slowly converted to coal. This South East Asia (12%) and coalifi cation starts with dead plant South and Central Asia (11%). By matter decaying into peat. Then, comparison, Africa’s resources, over millions of years, the heat almost exclusively in South Africa, and pressure of deep burial causes are estimated at a mere 3.5%. the loss of water, and carbon dioxide and an increase in the proportion of carbon. In this way, fi rst lignite (also called ‘brown coal’), then sub-bituminous coal, bituminous coal, and lastly anthracite (also called ‘hard’ or ‘black’ coal) may be formed.

The wide, shallow seas of the Carboniferous Period provided ideal conditions for coal formation, although coal was formed in most geological periods. Coal is known

PAGE 9 WHERE COAL IS MINED IN SOUTH AFRICA SECTION C2

Legend 23 22 Anglo American South32 Universal Coal Limpopo Glencore 21 Sasol Exxaro MCMining Seriti Canyon Coal Wescoal Mpumalanga 5 33 1 31 29 2 30 17 7 3 4 Gauteng 14 1015 28 12 8 16 13 9 25 2420 11 3218 19 6 26 27

Free State

1 Landau 5 Mafube 9 Wolvekrans 13 Izimbiwa 17 Twistdraai 21 Grootgeluk 25 New Largo 28 Hakhano 31 Elandspruit

2 Greenside 6 Isibonelo 10 Kangala 14 Impunzi 18 Leeuwpan 22 Makhado 26 New Vaal Colliery 29 Phalanndwa 32 Khanyisa

3 Kleinkopie 7 Khutala 11 North Block Complex 15 Tweefontein 19 Matla 23 Vele 27 New Denmark 30 Singani 33 Vanggatfontein

4 Goedehoop 8 Klipspruit 12 Umcebo 16 Goedgevonden 20 Exxaro Coal Central 24 Kriel

PAGE 10 SOUTH AFRICAN COAL MINING TODAY SECTION C2

In 2018, South Africa produced MAJOR SOUTH AFRICAN COAL MINING COMPANIES 252.6 million tonnes (Mt) of coal. Sales of coal were valued at R139.4 billion.

The country’s coal mining industry employs over 86,900 people, who COAL earn some R24.7 billion. Some 70% of the coal mined in South Africa is consumed domestically, with some 81% of electricity being generated from coal.

At current rates of production, South Africa has reserves suffi cient to satisfy its needs for more than a century. With shallow and high-quality resources in the Witbank (or Emalahleni) coal fi eld being depleted, mining companies are required to fi nd alternative and more cost-eff ective methods to extract the deeper, low quality coal seams of the basin. In addition, emphasis is being placed Coal production and employment: 2008 - 2018 on exploring and developing the 264,000 90,000

Waterberg coal fi eld as well as 262,000 others in Limpopo province. 260,000 80,000 South African coal has a 258,000 comparatively medium ash content, which can be reduced 256,000 70,000 by washing before sale. Higher 254,000 grades of coal are delivered to Number of employees Coal produced (000 tonnes) export markets with the lower- 252,000 grade product burned by Eskom’s 250,000 60,000 specially-designed power station 2008 2010 2012 2014 20162018 boiler hearths. Coal produced Employees Source: DMR, Minerals Council South Africa

PAGE 11 MINING FOR SCHOOLS

2018 QUICK FACTS SECTION C3 The life cycle of coal Percentage Royalties mining begins with exported paid (by value) exploration and ends with the fossil fuel 49% R1.6 being transported BILLION locally and overseas

Universal Coal – Kangala Colliery PAGE 12 THE COAL MINING LIFE CYCLE SECTION C3 Coal can be extracted from the earth by EXPLORATION MINE DEVELOPMENT OPEN-PIT MINING Coal exploration includes Coal can be extracted from the Some 53% of South Africa’s coal is or underground gathering data, which allows earth either by surface mining or produced from surface mining, via for decisions to be made on the underground mining. open-cast or open-pit mines. This desirability of further exploration, is because the coal is less than 60 mining the technical feasibility of mining, In open-pit coal mining, a pit metres below the surface. and economic feasibility – is dug in an area and this pit including the size of the mine and becomes the open-pit mine, Open-pit mines use draglines, the quality of the coal. sometimes called a quarry. Open- as well as truck and shovel pit mines can expand to huge operations to extract coal. A Geologic mapping, aerial dimensions, until the coal deposit dragline excavator uses a dragline photography and photogrammetry has been mined or the cost of to pull a bucket by a wire cable. are all used in exploration. Drilling transporting becomes too great. The operator lowers the bucket is the most reliable and cost- down to the coal deposit to be eff ective method of gathering In underground coal mining, excavated. Next, the operator information about a coal deposit access to the coal seam is gained draws the cable so that the bucket and the mining conditions. It by suitable openings from gets dragged along the ground provides physical samples of the surface, and a network of and digs into the deposit. The the coal and overlying strata for roadways driven in the seam then bucket is then lifted and places the chemical and physical analysis. makes possible the installation of coal it has scooped up where it is Geophysical exploration measures facilities for human and material needed. the seismic, electric, magnetic, transport, ventilation, water radiometric and gravitational handling and drainage, and power. properties of materials in order to detect the structural features that defi ne the coal deposits. Universal Coal – Kangala Colliery

PAGE 13 THE COAL MINING LIFE CYCLE CONTINUED SECTION C3

UNDERGROUND Stoping is practised when the VENTILATION MONITORING AND HAULAGE surrounding rock is strong enough Underground-mine ventilation Coal haulage, the transport of MINING to permit the drilling, blasting, and CONTROL provides oxygen to the miners mined coal from working faces Some 47% of South Africa’s coal removal of the coal without caving. Advancements in sensor and dilutes, renders harmless, to the surface, is a major factor is produced from bord-and-pillar In most cases artificial support is technology and in computer and carries away dangerous in underground-mine efficiency. mining, stoping and longwall also provided. hardware and software capabilities mining, types of underground accumulations of gases and dust. are finding increasing application It can be considered in three extraction which access coal up to In bord-and-pillar mining, miners In some of the gassiest mines, in underground coal mines, stages: face haulage, which 300 metres under the ground. carve a ‘gallery’ out of coal. more than six tonnes of air are especially in the monitoring and transfers the coal from working Columns (pillars) of coal support circulated through the mine for control of ventilation, haulage, faces; intermediate haulage, which Miners travel by lifts down a mine the ceiling and overburden. The every tonne of coal mined. Air and machine condition. Machinery transfers the coal onto the main shaft to reach the depths of the galleries are about nine metres circulation is achieved by creating can be remotely operated, and haulage; and the main haulage mine or enter by means of decline wide, and the support pillars can a pressure difference between the continuous miners have also been system, which removes the coal shafts or adits for shallower mines. be 30 metres wide. mine workings and the surface equipped with automatic controls. from the mine. Various methods They operate heavy machinery through the use of fans. Fresh air is The atmospheric environment is of haulage are used in different that extracts the coal and moves it A sophisticated machine called a also brought near the production remotely monitored for air velocity, situations and stages and may above ground. continuous miner extracts the coal faces, the locations of which may concentrations of various gases, include electric-powered, rubber- or more conventionally, coal can change several times in a shift. and airborne dust; fans and pumps tyred vehicles; chain haulage; In longwall mining, continuous be blasted from the working face. are also monitored continuously armoured face conveyors, mine longwall miners slice off enormous for their operational status and cars driven by electric- or diesel- panels of coal that are about one Underground mining operations characteristics. powered locomotives. metre thick, three to four kilometres leave tailings. Tailings are the long, and 250-400 metres wide. residue left over from the Workers and materials may be The coal is moved by conveyor belt process of separating coal from carried to and from the working back to the surface. The roof of the economically unimportant minerals face by scoops, battery- or diesel- mine is maintained by hydraulic during the coal processing step powered trucks, tractors, buses or supports. As the mine advances, at plants. light duty vehicles. these supports also advance. The area behind the supports collapses.

PAGE 14 THE COAL MINING LIFE CYCLE CONTINUED SECTION C3

COAL PREPARATION TRANSPORTING Positioned at one of the world’s REHABILITATION deep sea ports, RBCT is able to The coal that comes directly from Once coal has been prepared, Reclamation operations include handle large ships and subsequent a mine has impurities in it. Buyers higher grades are delivered to backfilling, regrading the final large volumes. It has gained a may demand certain specifications export markets while the lower- surface, and revegetating and reputation for operating efficiently depending on the intended use grade product is purchased by restoring the land for future use. and reliably. The 276 hectare of the coal: utility combustion, Eskom and burned in specially- These actions are carried out site currently boasts a quay 2.22 carbonisation, liquefaction, or designed power station boiler at the same time as the mining kilometres long with six berths and gasification. hearths. operation in order to reduce four ship loaders, with stockyard erosion and sediment discharge, capacity of 8.2 million tonnes. A coal preparation or beneficiation Richards Bay Coal Terminal (RBCT) slope instability, and water-quality plant is a facility that washes coal serves as the primary export port problems. of impurities such as ash, soil and for South African coal, and is one rock, crushes it into graded and of the world’s leading coal export A primary goal of reclamation sized chunks (sorting), stockpiles terminals. South Africa’s national is to restore or enhance the grades, and prepares and loads it utility, Transnet, provides the land-use capability of disturbed for transport to market. railway services linking the coal land. Various reclamation mines to the port, and the shipping programmes aim to restore the The more of this waste that can be coordination of more than 900 ground for farming and livestock, removed from coal, the lower its ships per annum. reforestation, recreation, and total ash content, the greater its housing and industrial sites. market value (because its heating Opened in 1976 with an original value has increased) and the lower capacity of 12 million tonnes per its transportation costs. annum, RBCT has grown into an advanced 24-hour operation with a design capacity of 91 million tonnes per annum.

PAGE 15 MINING FOR SCHOOLS

2018 QUICK FACTS SECTION C4 Increasingly employees Employee 86,919 and their families live earnings and work closer to R24.7 coal mining regions BILLION Direct employees

Seriti - New Denmark Colliery PAGE 16 PEOPLE OF COAL SECTION C4

South Africa’s coal mining target of 10% for women in core industry is an important mining jobs and by 2014 overall employer in its areas of representation had reached 10.5%. operation, largely around Coal industry members meet, and in some instances, exceed Mining the Emalahleni coalfields in Charter requirements. The coal Mpumalanga province and mining industry strives to ensure increasingly on the Waterberg that women are attracted to the coalfields in Limpopo. The sector coal mining industry and that employs over 86,900 people, they are retained. Coal mining who earn some R24.7 billion. companies have also implemented career development programmes Employment is created through to develop and fast track women direct employment by mining who show promise. companies and indirectly through contractors, and suppliers of Some coal mining companies have goods and services. It is estimated created ownership opportunities that for every direct job created in to ensure a more equitable the mining industry, a further two distribution of profits. Ownership to three jobs are created. is implemented through share schemes, employee/community The employee profile of the trusts and employee stock coal mining industry is changing ownership plans. to reflect the people of South Africa. The 2004 Mining Charter Historically, the coal mining provided a framework for the industry drew large numbers of entry, at all levels, of historically employees from neighbouring disadvantaged South Africans into countries and rural areas in South the industry, including women. Africa but this pattern of migration has changed significantly in recent The Department of Mineral years. Companies in this sector Resources (DMR) and coal mining still draw employees from all over companies encourage women southern Africa, but increasingly to be active at all levels in the employees and their families live Glencore – Impunzi Colliery industry. The Mining Charter set a and work closer to mining regions.

PAGE 17 EMPLOYMENT IN THE COAL MINING INDUSTRY SECTION C4

Coal sector employees tend to be more highly skilled than in other mining sectors, and consequently earn more. This is because mechanisation is far-advanced in the coal sector, both in the large-scale surface and underground coal mines, which tend to be less labour- intensive than deep-level gold and platinum operations.

Employment in the coal sector means more than just a job, but Employment fields within the coal rather a career with opportunities industry are many and include for development. In addition engineering; geology; finance, to basic wages, employees are auditing and accountancy; eligible for benefits, such as company secretarial; human healthcare, accommodation, resources; medical; environmental training and development. science; and safety, among others.

On-the-job training is an important There are several routes available component of companies’ skills to people wishing to take up a development initiatives. Career career in coal mining. The Mining development and educational Qualifications Authority (MQA) is support programmes are also a Sector Education and Training offered to employees who are Authority (SETA) responsible able to further their careers for the administration of skills- at no cost, and increase their development programmes for earnings and quality of life in the the mining and minerals sector future. Bursaries, learnerships in South Africa. Mining-related and apprenticeships are offered qualifications are offered at the to address skills shortages and universities of the Witwatersrand, empower suitable candidates Johannesburg, Pretoria and Exxaro within the company. Free State.

PAGE 18 BRIEF HISTORY OF COAL MINING IN SOUTH AFRICA SECTION C4

300 TO 1880 1939 ONWARDS which goes on to revolutionise 1990 for cooking, lighting and heating. safety in mining Since then, electricity supply has Coal used in South Africa during Demand for coal grows COMRO and its research been expanded to lower-income Iron Age when charcoal was used exponentially as country enters programmes are taken over by the households and those in rural to melt iron and copper period of industrialisation during 1970s Council for Scientific and Industrial areas and following 2 During oil crises, foreign oil Research (CSIR) when it sets up its companies vie for coal resources mining innovation division 1864 Coal sector is in local private and establish new collieries to 1999 Commercial coal mining hands – largely those of the old serve export markets 1993 Coaltech 2020 Research commences in the eastern Cape mining houses Programme established near Molteno 1976 An explosion at Sasol’s Middelbult colliery results in the death of 1950 Richards Bay Coal Terminal (RBCT) 2001 53 workers. An inquest into the Early 1870s South African Synthetic Oil established as a partnership Iscor is unbundled, spinning off explosion finds that was The discovery of diamonds in Limited (Sasol) established between the then leading coal its mining interests as Kumba the primary fuel for the explosion the Kimberley area leads to the companies with an initial annual Resources expansion of the coal mines in capacity of 12Mt 1952 Leon Commission of Inquiry into order to meet growing demand South Africa’s first power station Safety and Health in the Mining 2002 for power built in Pretoria West. Major Early 1980s Industry leads way to new Mine New Mineral and programme of building power Sasol’s major coal-based synfuels Health and Safety Act (MHSA) Resources Development Act Late 1880s stations begins, particularly on and organic chemicals complex at implemented Commercial coal mining in coal fields of Witbank and Delmas Secunda is constructed. The Sasol 1994 KwaZulu-Natal and on the II unit was constructed in 1980 and Now Witwatersrand commences, First democratic election in South 1955 the Sasol III unit in 1984 Eskom is building two modern following the discovery of gold on Africa Sasol produces its first oil from thermal power stations, Medupi the Witwatersrand in 1886 coal 1986 Coal company ownership and Kusile, based on coal reserves 1927 Mining industry introduces transferred increasingly into in Mpumalanga and Limpopo 1960 mandatory life-sustaining refuge the hands of historically provinces The government creates the Iron A total of 435 men die in the chambers and self-contained disadvantaged South Africans and Steel Corporation (Iscor), Coalbrook colliery disaster self-rescuers 2030 which becomes the dominant Fossil Fuel Foundation established South Africa’s National steel producer in the country. Iscor 1989 Development Plan (NDP) begins construction of the Pretoria 1963 Iscor is privatised and listed on the 1995 envisages that the proportion steel mill The then Chamber of Mines establishes the Chamber of Mines Johannesburg Stock Exchange Around one million lower-income of people with access to the Exxaro Research Organisation (COMRO), households dependent on coal electricity grid should have risen to as their primary energy source at least 90%, with non-grid options available for the remainder

PAGE 19 SECTION C5 The South African coal mining industry believes coal can and should remain part of the energy mix

Seriti – New Vaal Colliery PAGE 20 WHY COAL MINING MATTERS SECTION C5

Coal remains one of South Africa’s most abundant and valuable resources. Coal has been instrumental in South Africa’s development, not only for the mining sector, but also for the broader industrialisation of the country. The coal mining industry benefi ts the South African economy and its Glencore - Goedgevonden Colliery people in many ways:

Over 81% of South Africa’s electricity requirements and over 30% of liquid The industry paid some R1.6 billion in royalties in 2018 1 fuel demand (coal-to-liquids technology) are derived from coal 8

South Africa ranks amongst the world’s top 10 global coal producers, In 2018 the industry produced 252.5 million tonnes of coal and contributed 2 producing around 250 million tonnes annually since 2010. In 2015, coal 9 R139.4 billion in sales production represented 3.7% of global output

The industry is a major contributor to transformation through the Mining 3 The coal mining industry employed nearly 87,000 people in 2018 10 Charter and to community development through SLPs

Coal mining has a role to play in the development of human resources The industry currently pays its employees some R24.7 billion in salaries and 4 11 (training) and infrastructure, such as schools, colleges, clinics, roads and wages per annum housing

Employment is provided for workers from rural communities, which in turn Coal export earnings have a positive impact on the balance of payments, 5 results in the transfer of funds back to these areas 12 foreign reserves, monetary policy and on the level of business activity in the country

It is estimated that for every direct job created in the industry, a further two 6 to three jobs are created down and up-stream, in such sectors as electricity, 13 Nearly R14 billion of dividends were paid to shareholders in 2018 manufacturing, construction and fi nance

Coal mining attracts foreign capital to the country, via the JSE or direct The industry spent R56 billion procuring goods and services in 2018 7 14 investment

PAGE 21 FACTORS THAT HINDER AND FAVOUR COAL SECTION C5 MINING IN SOUTH AFRICA

FACTORS HINDERING • ACCESS TO CAPITAL The • INADEQUATE FACTORS FAVOURING (UCG); and carbon capture enacting of environmental laws INFRASTRUCTURE The lack storage (CCS). The coal industry COAL MINING IN around the world has seen less of rail and water infrastructure COAL MINING IN believes that this can be done in SOUTH AFRICA and less credit being extended are the main challenges in the SOUTH AFRICA a way and within a timeframe • REDUCED DEMAND to the construction of coal development of new coal mines • Coal is currently the cheapest that can enhance the Negative views on coal and power plants. The World Bank in the Greater Waterberg area baseload technology in South competitiveness of the South its environmental impact have and the International Monetary and this is currently limiting Africa (ie the cheapest way African economy. resulted in a major decline in Fund do not want to lend funds investment in coal mining in the to meet the minimum level its use by the major economies to utilities and governments that area. South Africa’s water of demand on an electrical grid • South Africa’s coal regions are of the world. Because of coal’s want to build coal power plants. scarcity means there is a lack of over a span of time). South well known and well explored – contribution to greenhouse Eskom is one example. Since water infrastructure such as Africa currently has limited knowledge of the area is gas (GHG) emissions, many 2009, net investment in the coal dams and canals. alternative solutions for extensive. countries have put in place industry has declined at a rate of reasonably-priced power other • South Africa has large coal strict environmental laws which 10% per year – from R7.3 billion • LAND ACCESS Mining competes than coal. The industry believes reserves and resources. have affected demand for coal. to R3.8 billion in 2017. with other sectors such as coal can and should remain part Companies invest heavily in sources agriculture and manufacturing of the energy mix. innovation and skills training (wind, solar, hydroelectric, • ELECTRICITY SUPPLY for land use. to build an even greater hydrogen and fuel cells) are Developments at Eskom, the • Clean coal technologies have understanding of the resource beginning to take the place of South African national electricity been developed which will base and how to mine it. fossil-based energy sources. supplier, have affected the enable South Africa’s move sustainability and reliability towards a greener future. These • Coal mining in South Africa is • POLICY AND REGULATORY of supply. technologies include HELE a well-established industry with FACTORS The proposed carbon (high efficiency, low emission); technical skills. tax will affect all coal users and beneficiation of discarded coal reduce the competitiveness of resources for power generation; South Africa’s producers. underground coal gasification

PAGE 22 SAFETY AND HEALTH SECTION C5

The most significant safety levels of coal dust particulates in the air. In extreme situations, methane issues are: inhalation may result in asphyxiation. Underground methane levels are monitored continuously using methanometers which detect tiny parts Falls of ground per million of methane, and immediately transmit methane concentration Mining activities impose abnormal readings, providing warnings to mineworkers and management to take stress on the surrounding rock. the necessary action. The term ‘fall of ground’ describes accidents that relate to unexpected Safety performance movement of the rock mass and South African coal mines continue to be among the safest mines in the uncontrolled release of debris the world. The number of fatalities in the South African coal industry Glencore - Teenfontein Colliery and rock, as a result of gravity and/ decreased by 89% from 1933 to 2016, while the number of serious or pressure and strain burst. injuries decreased by 31% over the same time period. Regrettably, in 2017, the industry saw a regression in terms of safety performance, with Improvements in rock engineering 10 fatalities reported. Since 2017, the mining industry as a whole has techniques, seismic monitoring SAFETY redoubled its efforts to achieve its goal of zero harm. and improved roof support

Background using bolting and netting have Number of fatalities in South African coal industry (1993 - 2018) minimised risk and significantly South Africa’s coal deposits are relatively shallow with thick seams reduced the incidence of falls of 100 compared to coal deposits in other countries, making it suitable for 90 ground in working areas. fairly shallow underground and opencast mining operations. 80

The South African coal mining industry is technologically advanced Explosions as a 60 54 and less labour intensive than other sectors of the mining industry. 45 Central to the coal mining industry’s approach to improving safety result of methane or 40 42 40 31 31 is the removal of miners from working-face dangers and potential particulates 28 20 23 health hazards. 19 20 20 20 18 Methane gas is inherently 20 16 15 12 12 11 10 7 9 9 The industry is guided by extensive health and safety legislation present in the coal seam and 5 4 surrounding rock, and presents a 0 and regulations. Government monitors and enforces compliance to ‘93 ‘94 ‘95 ‘96 ‘97 ‘98 ‘99 ‘00 ‘01 ‘02 ‘03 ‘04 ‘05 ‘06 ‘07 ‘08 ‘09 ‘10 ‘11 ‘12 ‘13 ‘14 ‘15 ‘16 ‘17 ‘18 health and safety measures at mines and audits and inspections are risk of uncontrolled ignition. The conducted to ensure compliance. presence of dust particulates add to the risk of explosion. Techniques Rigorous safety procedures, health and safety standards and have been developed to monitor employee education and training programmes have resulted in and manage the presence of significant improvements in safety performance in both underground methane. For example, large fans and opencast coal mining. ensure dilution of methane, while dust prevention measures limit the

PAGE 23 SAFETY AND HEALTH CONTINUED SECTION C5

Safety and technology HEALTH mining in South Africa are dust- South Africa. Equipment such as induced occupational lung continuous miners are remotely- Following the Kinross gold mine disaster in 1986, the mining industry The South African coal mining diseases and noise-induced controlled and contain dust- introduced mandatory life sustaining refuge chambers and self- industry is concerned about the hearing loss (NIHL). suppression technology, such as contained self-rescuers. overall health and well-being high-pressure water-spray systems of employees, in and outside and scrubbers. Through technological advancements such as these, coal mining has the workplace. The industry Dust-induced seen an increase in safety standards for employees. Improved pillar and provides access to health care and occupational lung Coal mining employees are roof support infrastructure has mitigated against falls of ground fatalities promotes healthy living. equipped with personal protection and injuries. Mine planners are able to effi ciently map mines, monitor diseases equipment (PPE). coal seams, and locate potential problems before they pose a danger to Occupational health programmes Dust exposure in coal mines is a mine workers. help prevent and mitigate risk factor for occupational lung Operations are continuously occupational health risks. diseases such as coal workers’ ventilated, which contributes to a There have been vast improvements in communication devices that Exposure to health risks is pneumoconiosis, also known as are able to stay active during power outages, fan stoppages or gas healthier working environment as analysed, monitored and managed, black lung; chronic obstructive accumulations. It is vital that workers are able to communicate with each large quantities of clean air enter and preventative measures are airways disease; and lung function other at all times especially during life-threatening situations. the mine areas underground and taken. Employee communication defi ciency. dilute the dust concentration. about risk and prevention is vital. Rehabilitation and return-to-work Employee exposure varies At an occupational health and programmes are also provided. considerably as some employees safety summit in November 2016, are continuously exposed while mining industry stakeholders The industry promotes a healthy others are exposed for short agreed that, by December 2024, workforce through health and periods of time. Measuring is key 95% of all exposure measurement wellness programmes. Wellness to understanding exposure and to results of coal dust respirable programmes aim to reduce health designing eff ective dust control. particulate must be below the level risks, provide access to health care, Dust sampling in the South African of 1.5mg/m3 (<5% silica). and educate, inform and empower coal industry has been a legal employees to take responsibility requirement for several decades. Noise induced for their own wellbeing. Daily dust-suppression inspections Focus is on reducing lifestyle take place at operations and hearing loss diseases (such as hypertension, reports are made to the DMR on NIHL has been recognised as a diabetes and cholesterol levels), dust levels. major occupational health risk managing the risks of human in the South African coal mining immunodefi ciency virus (HIV) Dust suppression systems are industry. Prolonged exposure to infection, and eff ectively managing critical to preventing the exposure hazardous noise more than 85dBA mental health conditions. of employees to unacceptable causes loss of hearing, which levels of dust. Coal mining occurs gradually. Occupational health companies have been using dust-suppression since the 1960s Throughout the industry, emphasis issues and have been at the forefront of is placed on noise suppression Universal Coal The primary occupational health developing new dust-suppression (that is silencing at the source) concerns associated with coal equipment and techniques in and hearing conservation.

PAGE 24 SAFETY AND HEALTH CONTINUED SECTION C5

Glencore - Teenfontein Colliery

An important part of hearing for people living with HIV. Fatigue and substance conservation is noise monitoring to prevent exposure, provision of The coal mining industry’s wellness abuse management PPE, and regular hearing tests. programmes educate employees Employee fatigue is a critical about TB and provide support for safety issue affecting many mines Occupational health and safety the management of the disease. in South Africa. Many accidents targets were set by the Mine point to fatigue as the cause or Health and Safety Council in 2014 HIV/AIDS a contributing factor. Fatigue with the aim of eliminating NIHL. develops for many reasons The prevention, management including physically demanding and treatment of HIV/AIDS plays Public health issues work activities and an unhealthy a critical role in the well-being of lifestyle, which may include the Public health issues affect employees and communities – and abuse of alcohol and drugs. The the health and wellbeing of is also key to sound economic and industry has a zero tolerance our employees outside of the social development. The South approach to drug abuse in the workplace but also have the African coal mining industry works interests of all employees’ safety. potential to impact safety and together with government to health in the workplace. address this issue. The industry incorporates fatigue and substance abuse management Pulmonary Industry initiatives include HIV into its mine safety management wellness programmes which educate systems. Wellness programmes tuberculosis (TB) employees about HIV/AIDS and its address the subjects of work TB has a high social and economic prevention; testing and counselling; fatigue and alcohol and drug cost, both for the individuals and treatment programmes. The abuse and emphasise the need for concerned and for the whole coal mining industry was in the a healthy lifestyle. industry. It is a serious infection forefront of rolling out antiretroviral and is the leading cause of death therapy (ART) to employees.

PAGE 25 ENVIRONMENT SECTION C5

conditions is conducted by environment and that, wherever independent specialists and possible, water is recycled. Clean submitted to the DWS. runoff can be discharged into surrounding water courses, while WATER other water is treated and can be reused in processes such as Coal mining can affect dust suppression, irrigation of groundwater and water table rehabilitated areas and in coal levels and acidity. Spills can preparation plants. contaminate land and waterways. Power stations that burn coal consume large quantities of water, POLLUTION with the potential to affect river Acid rain is rainfall made acidic flow and impact other land uses. by atmospheric pollution to the extent that it causes environmental The coal industry understands harm, chiefly to forests and lakes. that South Africa is a water The main cause is the industrial scarce country and that water burning of coal and other fossil is a precious resource. The fuels, the waste gases from which industry’s most important contain sulphur and nitrogen Seriti - Kriel Colliery water management principle is oxides (SOX and NOX) which to responsibly source and use combine with atmospheric water water, in a way that has minimum to form acids. negative impact on stakeholders (such as permits and licences) auditors and their reports are and allows host communities to The coal-burning power stations The coal as the minimum requirement. submitted to the DMR and meet their socio economic needs. and large metal working The industry engages with all the Department of Water and mining industry industries of South Africa are stakeholders about environmental Sanitation (DWS) for review. The coal mining industry has a concentrated in Mpumalanga matters, including government, duty to ensure that water is fairly acknowledges environmental protection agencies Full-time environmental officers and appropriately distributed province. This area produces and NGOs. monitor compliance with among stakeholders and mining most of the country’s pollution, that its operations environmental management operations. Mining companies producing millions of tonnes of sulphuric and nitric acid a year. ENVIRONMENTAL programmes, authorisations and tend to use potable water only for directly and water use licences. non-mining activities, such as staff Acid rain occurs in this region. MONITORING accommodation and offices. Non- Satellite data produced by a indirectly impact Environmental monitoring and Coal mining companies require potable water, otherwise known as compliance audits are conducted integrated water use licences industrial water, is used in mining European Space Agency satellite the environment. annually, as part of coal mining (IWUL) which regulate the use of and processing operations as far and analysed by Greenpeace companies’ environmental water according to the National as possible. between 1 June and 31 August Mine management implements management systems. These Water Act. An IWUL is granted or 2018 showed Mpumalanga’s environmental management audits are conducted by can be suspended at any time It is also crucial that coal mines nitrogen dioxide (NOX) emissions plans and strategies. These plans independent environmental by the regulator. Annual ensure waste water is not to be the highest in the world. generally use legal compliance monitoring of water use licence discharged into the natural According to the World Health

PAGE 26 ENVIRONMENT CONTINUED SECTION C5

Organisation, the gases aggravate asthma and bronchitis symptoms COAL MINING AND The South African government ratified the Agreement on Climate and are linked to cardiovascular and respiratory disease. Change which came into effect on 4 November 2016, demonstrating government’s commitment to address the challenges associated with A range of interventions, known as clean coal technologies, are being Coal currently forms the backbone climate change. developed to address atmospheric problems resulting from burning of South Africa’s economy as coal. SO2 can be removed by flue-gas desulfurisation and NOX by the primary source of energy We currently derive over 81% of our electricity requirements from selective catalytic reduction. for , and coal in this country. Coal remains the cheapest baseload technology. as an essential raw material for The industry believes that if the South African economy is to remain Coal particulates cause visible air pollution, illness and premature steel production. It is also true competitive, and able to meet energy demands, it is critical that the deaths. Particulates can be removed with electrostatic precipitators. that the use of coal contributes ‘least cost option’ for electricity generation forms part of the energy mix. Although perhaps less efficient, wet scrubbers can remove both gases significantly to carbon emissions Since coal will continue to play an important role in the South African and particulates. Mercury emissions can be reduced up to 95%. which have an impact on climate economy, the industry is committed to investing in and using clean change. coal technologies (see page 28) in order to actively participate in the REHABILITATION country’s transition to a low carbon economy. The most serious and long-term The protection and restoration of the land surrounding a mine, including effect of coal use is the release of The coal mining industry itself adopts a strategy of energy efficiency at natural habitat, is ongoing throughout the mine’s operation, not just at carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas its operations in order to reduce electricity consumption, and therefore closure. Mines plan for habitat rehabilitation according to their closure that causes climate change and reduce impact on climate change. plans and in accordance with their environmental management plans global warming. Coal is the largest and rehabilitation plans. contributor to the human-made

Indigenous flora and fauna and cultural heritage sites are preserved increase of CO2 in the atmosphere, by mines. Stakeholders’ ancestral heritage and ongoing traditions are some 40% of the total. believed to be sacred and are managed accordingly. Independent In 2016, world carbon dioxide specialists assess and monitor biodiversity performance continuously. emissions from coal usage stood at 14.5 giga tonnes. In 2013, the head of the UN climate agency advised that most of the world’s coal reserves should be left in the ground to avoid catastrophic global warming.

The South African coal mining industry recognises and accepts the science of climate change and that human activities have a negative impact on the earth’s climate. The industry also recognises the need to act to ensure that South Africa remains competitive in a carbon- Exxaro Anglo American - Greenside Colliery constrained world.

PAGE 27 COAL MINING TECHNOLOGY SECTION C5

high-quality reserves in recent of coal combustion. South Carbon capture years, there has been an increased Africa’s remaining coal reserves push by the industry to upgrade are generally of a lower quality, and storage technologies and, ultimately, with higher ash content, than Clean-coal technologies, such extend the life of major coal the coal that has been mined as post-combustion pollutant deposits. over the past three decades. capture and carbon capture Clean-coal technologies have and storage (CCS), are being Some companies have identified the potential to optimise this developed and employed to the opportunity to use binderless coal and the large quantities mitigate the environmental coal briquetting technology. This of discard coal for economic impact of greenhouse gases technology allows coal mines and energy purposes through and other air pollutants emitted to upgrade discarded thermal beneficiation. during coal combustion. These coal fines into compacted, technologies include electrostatic transportable and useable Pulverised coal precipitators and low NOx burners briquettes of higher value. for the removal of NOx, and flue combustion gas desulphurisation for the Increasing power station Clean-coal elimination of SOx. Further, CCS efficiency will also result in involves preventing CO produced technologies 2 reduced greenhouse gas through combustion from entering Coal is currently South Africa’s emissions. The efficiency of the atmosphere and then storing it primary energy source and, as a coal-fired power stations can be underground in deep-seated porous Exxaro result, the country is one of the increased through a technology rock strata on land or similar strata world’s most emissions intensive known as pulverised coal under the seabed. economies, emitting about 400 combustion. This involves the million tonnes of carbon dioxide combustion of a cloud of finely- The South African National Energy TECHNOLOGICAL IMPROVEMENTS (CO2) a year. This represents ground coal particles. Greater Research Institute has established about 1% of global emissions. The South African coal mining industry is extensively mechanised. Mine efficiency and lower emissions the Centre for Carbon Capture The country’s synthetic fuels and Storage, which is working mechanisation helps tackle safety, cost and productivity issues. Machines have also been achieved and petrochemicals industry, through increasing operating towards having a CCS such as remote-controlled continuous miners are used. A continuous dominated by Sasol, is also a temperatures and pressures of demonstration plant operational miner is a mining machine that produces a constant flow of ore from significant CO2 emitter. existing steam cycles. in the country by 2020. the working face of the mine. The machine continuously extracts as it is loading coal with a cutting steel drum and conveyor system. According to the World Coal Institute, over 90% of greenhouse Modern technology in coal mining increases the safety of workers and gas emissions from coal occur enables mine planners to map mines efficiently, monitor orebodies, during combustion. A range of and track output volumes and productivity more accurately. Dragline interventions, known as clean operators, for instance, use an in-cab display which provides extensive coal technologies, are being technological information. developed. In certain instances, these have already been South Africa’s coal deposits are relatively shallow with thick seams. employed in the effort to mitigate Exxaro This makes it easier and less expensive to mine. Owing to a decline in the environmental consequences

PAGE 28 QUOTES ABOUT COAL SECTION C5

Holding on to anger is like grasping a hot coal with the intent of throwing it at someone else; you are the FUN FACTS one who gets burned. ABOUT COAL • The amount of energy produced by the sun in Buddha a two-week period equals the combined stored energy of all the coal, iron, and reserves known to man Perhaps time’s definition of coal is the diamond. • The ash that is a by-product of coal combustion Khalil Gibran is used as fillers for things such as tennis rackets, golf balls and linoleum

Affection is a coal that must be cooled; else, • The energy we get from coal today comes from suffered, it will set the heart on fire. the energy that plants absorbed from the sun millions of years ago William Shakespeare • Tinnunculite is a naturally occurring material that only forms when falcon’s poop directly into Eating of fire has always been one of the burning coal mines as they fly sensational feats of the Fire Kings, as it is quite • The Romans used to wear coal as jet jewellery, generally known that charcoal burns with an use it in blacksmiths’ forges, for heating their extremely intense heat. soldiers’ forts and maintaining a perpetual fire at Minerva’s shrine in the city of Bath

Harry Houdini • The Titanic’s coal stores had been burning for weeks before she set sail, damaging the Coal is a portable climate. starboard side of the ship where the iceberg hit. The fire damaged the hull enough to be a large Ralph Waldo Emerson contributing factor in why the iceberg caused such damage

• In some cultures, there is a tradition that children A diamond is a chunk of coal that did well under who misbehave will receive only a lump of coal pressure. from Santa Claus in their Christmas stockings instead of presents Henry Kissinger • It is customary and considered lucky in and the north of England to give coal as a gift To shipbrokers, coal was black gold. when welcoming in the New Year, representing warmth for the year to come Exxaro Roald Dahl

PAGE 29 MINING FOR SCHOOLS

SECTION C6 Fossil fuels are coal, gas or oil – natural fuels formed in the geological past from the remains of living organisms

HCI Coal PAGE 30 TERMS AND DEFINITIONS SECTION C6

Term Description Term Description

Anthracite Anthracite coal is a form of coal that is almost made entirely of Haulage The commercial transport of goods by road or rail. It is also the carbon. Anthracite coal is much harder than other forms of coal, and term used for the transport of mined coal from working faces to the is usually found in areas surrounding mountains or deep valleys. surface. Carboniferous The Carboniferous Period is famous for its vast swamp forests. These Iron Age The African Iron Age is traditionally considered that period in Africa swamps produced the coal from which the term Carboniferous, or Period between the second century AD and up to about 1000 AD when iron “carbon-bearing,” is derived. The Carboniferous Period lasted from smelting was practised. about 359.2 to 299 million years ago. Coal-to-oil technology dates back to the 1920s, when two German Climate change This term describes changes in the state of the atmosphere over time Oil from coal scales ranging from decades to millions of years. These changes can chemists, Franz Fischer and Hans Tropsch, developed a process to be caused by processes inside the Earth, forces from outside (e.g. convert coal into a gas and then use it to make synthetic fuels. To variations in sunlight intensity) or, more recently, human activities. produce oil, the coal is superheated to more than 1,000°C; steam and oxygen are added; pressure is increased; and the coal is pushed Coal seam A coal seam is a dark brown or black banded deposit of coal that is through a series of chemical reactions. visible within layers of rock, usually thick enough to be profitably mined. Open pit mining Open-pit or open-cast mining is a surface mining technique of Coking or Coking coal is used to create coke, one of the key inputs for the extracting rock or minerals from the earth by their removal from an metallurgical production of steel. open pit. coal Continuous A continuous miner is a mining machine that produces a constant flow Peat Peat is a brown deposit resembling soil, formed by the partial miner of ore from the working face of the mine. The machine continuously decomposition of vegetable matter in the wet, acidic conditions of extracts as it is loading coal with a cutting steel drum and conveyor bogs and fens, and often cut out and dried for use as fuel and in system. Continuous miners are typically used in gardening. operations. Power station A power station, also referred to as a power plant or generating plant, Dragline A dragline excavator is a piece of heavy equipment used in civil is an industrial facility for the generation of electric power. exacavator engineering and surface mining. Draglines fall into two broad categories: those that are based on standard, lifting cranes, and the Tailings Tailings, also called mine dumps or slimes, are the materials left heavy units which have to be built on-site. over after the process of separating the valuable fraction from the uneconomic fraction of an ore. Fossil fuel Fossil fuels are coal, gas or oil – natural fuels formed in the geological past from the remains of living organisms. Thermal or Thermal coal is ground to a powder and fired into a boiler to produce steam coal heat, which in turn converts water into steam to drive turbines to Greenhouse Greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide and chlorofluorocarbons produce electricity. gases and global are gases that can trap heat. Overall, greenhouse gases are a good warming thing, but human activities are adding too much of these gases to the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases act like a blanket, absorbing infrared radiation and preventing it from escaping into outer space. The net effect is the gradual heating of Earth’s atmosphere and surface, a process known as global warming.

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